Vol. 78 Wednesday, No. 132 July 10, 2013

Part II

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Status for the Northern Mexican Gartersnake and Narrow-headed Gartersnake; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: science and application of that science Steve Spangle, Field Supervisor, U.S. and to provide any additional scientific Fish and Wildlife Service Fish and Wildlife Service, information to improve this proposed Ecological Services Field Office, 2321 rule. Because we will consider all 50 CFR Part 17 West Royal Palm Road, Suite 103, comments and information received [Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071; Phoenix, AZ 85021; telephone: 602– during the comment period, our final 4500030113] 242–0210; facsimile: 602–242–2513. If determinations may differ from this you use a telecommunications device proposal. RIN 1018–AY23 for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Requested Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Information Relay Service (FIRS) at We intend that any final action and Plants; Threatened Status for the 800–877–8339. resulting from this proposed rule will be Northern Mexican Gartersnake and SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: based on the best scientific and Narrow-headed Gartersnake Executive Summary commercial data available and be as AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Why we need to publish a rule. Under accurate and as effective as possible. Interior. the Endangered Species Act (Act), if a Therefore, we request comments or ACTION: Proposed rule. species is determined to be an information from other concerned endangered or threatened species governmental agencies, Native SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and throughout all or a significant portion of American tribes, the scientific Wildlife Service (Service), propose to its range, we are required to promptly community, industry, or any other list the northern Mexican gartersnake publish a proposal in the Federal interested parties concerning this (Thamnophis eques megalops) and Register and make a determination on proposed rule. We particularly seek narrow-headed gartersnake our proposal within one year. Listing a comments concerning: (Thamnophis rufipunctatus) as species as an endangered or threatened (1) The species’ biology, range, and threatened species under the species can only be completed by population trends, including: Endangered Species Act of 1973, as issuing a rule. Elsewhere in today’s (a) Habitat requirements for feeding, amended (Act). If we finalize this rule Federal Register, we propose to breeding, and sheltering; as proposed, it would extend the Act’s designate critical habitat for the (b) Genetics and taxonomy; protections to these species. The effect northern Mexican and narrow-headed (c) Historical and current range, of this regulation is to conserve northern gartersnakes under the Act. including distribution patterns; Mexican and narrow-headed This document consists of: (d) Historical and current population gartersnakes under the Act. • A proposed rule to list the northern levels, and current and projected trends; DATES: We will accept comments Mexican and narrow-headed and received or postmarked on or before gartersnakes as threatened species (e) Past and ongoing conservation September 9, 2013. Comments throughout their ranges, and measures for these species, their habitat submitted electronically using the • A proposed special rule under or both. Federal eRulemaking Portal (see section 4(d) under the Act that outlines (2) The factors that are the basis for ADDRESSES section, below) must be the prohibitions necessary and making a listing determination for these received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on advisable for the conservation of the species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 the closing date. We must receive northern Mexican gartersnake. U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), which are: requests for public hearings, in writing, The basis for our action. Under the (a) The present or threatened at the address shown in the FOR FURTHER Act, we can determine that a species is destruction, modification, or INFORMATION CONTACT section by August an endangered or threatened species curtailment of its habitat or range; 26, 2013. based on any of five factors: (A) The (b) Overutilization for commercial, ADDRESSES: You may submit comments present or threatened destruction, recreational, scientific, or educational by one of the following methods: modification, or curtailment of its purposes; (1) Electronically: Go to the Federal habitat or range; (B) overutilization for (c) Disease or predation; eRulemaking Portal: http:// commercial, recreational, scientific, or (d) The inadequacy of existing www.regulations.gov. Search for Docket educational purposes; (C) disease or regulatory mechanisms; or No. FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071, which is predation; (D) the inadequacy of (e) Other natural or manmade factors the docket number for this rulemaking. existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) affecting its continued existence. When you locate this document, you other natural or manmade factors (3) Biological, commercial trade, or may submit a comment by clicking on affecting its continued existence. In the other relevant data concerning any ‘‘Comment Now!’’ case of the northern Mexican and threats (or lack thereof) to these species (2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail narrow-headed gartersnakes, we have and existing regulations that may be or hand-delivery to: Public Comments determined that harmful nonnative addressing those threats. Processing, Attn: FWS–R2–ES–2013– species (spiny-rayed fish, bullfrogs, and (4) Additional information concerning 0071; Division of Policy and Directives crayfish), wildfires, and land uses that the historical and current status, range, Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife divert, dry up, or significantly pollute distribution, and population size of Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS aquatic habitat have solely or these species, including the locations of 2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203. collectively affected these gartersnakes, any additional populations of these We request that you send comments and several of their native prey species, species. only by the methods described above. such that their resiliency, redundancy, (5) Any information on the biological We will post all comments on http:// and representation across their ranges or ecological requirements of these www.regulations.gov. This generally have been significantly compromised. species, and ongoing conservation means that we will post any personal We will seek peer review. We are measures for the species and their information you provide us (see the seeking comments from knowledgeable habitats. Information Requested section below for individuals with scientific expertise to (6) Any information on the projected more information). review our analysis of the best available and reasonably likely impacts of climate

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change on the northern Mexican gartersnakes were no longer recognized of Its Range’’ (U.S. DOI 2007), which gartersnake and narrow-headed as candidates. provides further guidance on how to gartersnake. On December 19, 2003, we received a conduct a detailed analysis of whether Please include sufficient information petition from the Center for Biological a species is in danger of extinction with your submission (such as scientific Diversity (‘‘petitioner’’) dated December throughout a significant portion of its journal articles or other publications) to 15, 2003, requesting that we list the range. In December 2007, the Service allow us to verify any scientific or northern Mexican gartersnake as withdrew the September 26, 2006, 12- commercial information you include. threatened or endangered, and that we month finding in order to consider the Please note that submissions merely designate critical habitat concurrently new ‘‘Significant Portion of the Range’’ stating support for or opposition to the with the listing. The petition was clearly policy. In a stipulated settlement action under consideration without identified as a petition for a listing rule agreement with the petitioner, we providing supporting information, and contained the names, signatures, agreed to submit a new 12-month although noted, will not be considered and addresses of the requesting parties. finding to the Federal Register by in making a determination, as section Included in the petition was supporting November 17, 2008 (Center for 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that information regarding the species’ Biological Diversity v. Kempthorne, CV– determinations as to whether any taxonomy and ecology, historical and 07–596–TUC–RCCJ (D. Az)). The species is a threatened or endangered current distribution, present status, and settlement agreement was signed and species must be made ‘‘solely on the actual and potential causes of decline. adopted by the District Court of Arizona basis of the best scientific and We acknowledged the receipt of the on June 18, 2008. commercial data available.’’ petition in a letter to the petitioner, On May 28, 2008, we published You may submit your comments and dated March 1, 2004. In that letter, we notice (73 FR 30596) of our intent to materials concerning this proposed rule also advised that, due to funding initiate a status review for the northern by one of the methods listed in the constraints in fiscal year (FY) 2004, we Mexican gartersnake and solicited the ADDRESSES section. We request that you would not be able to begin processing public for information on the status of, send comments only by the methods the petition at that time. and potential threats to, this species. described in the ADDRESSES section. On May 17, 2005, the petitioner filed On November 25, 2008, we published If you submit information via http:// a complaint for declaratory and a second 12-month finding that listing www.regulations.gov, your entire injunctive relief, challenging our failure of the northern Mexican gartersnake was submission—including any personal to issue a 90-day finding for the warranted but precluded by other listing identifying information—will be posted northern Mexican gartersnake in priorities at that time (73 FR 71788). on the Web site. If your submission is response to the petition as required by The petitioner described three made via a hardcopy that includes 16 U.S.C. 1533(b)(3)(A) and (B). In a potentially listable entities of northern personal identifying information, you stipulated settlement agreement, we Mexican gartersnake for consideration may request at the top of your document agreed to submit a 90-day finding to the by the Service: (1) Listing the U.S. that we withhold this information from Federal Register by December 16, 2005, population as a distinct population public review. However, we cannot and if substantial, submit a 12-month segment (DPS); (2) listing the subspecies guarantee that we will be able to do so. finding to the Federal Register by throughout its range in the United States We will post all hardcopy submissions September 15, 2006 (Center for and Mexico based on its rangewide on http://www.regulations.gov. Please Biological Diversity v. Norton, CV–05– status; or (3) listing the subspecies 341–TUC–CKJ (D. Az)). The settlement include sufficient information with your throughout its range in the United States agreement was signed and adopted by comments to allow us to verify any and Mexico based on its status in the the District Court of Arizona on August scientific or commercial information United States. Because we found that 2, 2005. you include. listing the northern Mexican gartersnake Comments and materials we receive, On December 13, 2005, we made our rangewide was warranted, there was no as well as supporting documentation we 90-day finding that the petition need to conduct any further analysis of used in preparing this proposed rule, presented substantial scientific the remaining two options, which are will be available for public inspection information indicating that listing the smaller geographic entities and are on http://www.regulations.gov, or by northern Mexican gartersnake may be subsumed by the rangewide listing. appointment, during normal business warranted; the finding and our initiation hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife of a status review was published in the Status Assessments for Northern Service, Arizona Ecological Services Federal Register on January 4, 2006 (71 Mexican and Narrow-headed Field Office (see FOR FURTHER FR 315). Gartersnakes INFORMATION CONTACT). On September 26, 2006, we published a 12-month finding that listing of the Background Previous Federal Actions northern Mexican gartersnake was not Northern Mexican Gartersnake The northern Mexican and narrow- warranted because we determined that headed gartersnakes were placed on the not enough information on the Subspecies Description list of candidate species as Category 2 subspecies’ status and threats in Mexico The northern Mexican gartersnake species on September 18, 1985 (50 FR was known at that time (71 FR 56227). ranges in color from olive to olive- 37958). Category 2 species were those On November 17, 2007, the petitioner brown or olive-gray with three lighter- for which existing information indicated filed a complaint for declaratory and colored stripes that run the length of the that listing was possibly appropriate, injunctive relief pursuant to section 11 body, the middle of which darkens but for which substantial supporting of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1540), seeking to towards the tail. It may occur with other biological data to prepare a proposed set aside the 12-month finding. native gartersnake species and can be rule were lacking. In the 1996 Candidate Additionally, a formal opinion was difficult for people without specific Notice of Review (February 28, 1996; 61 issued by the Solicitor of the expertise to identify. The snake may FR 7596), the use of Category 2 Department of the Interior, ‘‘The reach a maximum known length of 44 candidates was discontinued, and the Meaning of In Danger of Extinction inches (in) (112 centimeters (cm)). The northern Mexican and narrow-headed Throughout All or a Significant Portion pale yellow to light-tan lateral (side of

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body) stripes distinguish the northern 26, 2006 (71 FR 56227) and November ground, and 9 percent of their time Mexican gartersnake from other 25, 2008 (73 FR 71788) 12-month under surface cover; body temperatures sympatric (co-occurring) gartersnake findings for this subspecies. Additional ranged from 75 to 91 °F (24 to 33 °C) species because a portion of the lateral information regarding this subspecies’ and averaged 82 °F (28 °C), which is stripe is found on the fourth scale row, taxonomy can be found in de Queiroz et lower than other, similar species with while it is confined to lower scale rows al. (2002, p. 323), de Queiroz and comparable habitat and prey for other species. Paired black spots Lawson (1994, p. 217), Rossman et al. preferences. Rosen (1991, p. 310) extend along the olive dorsolateral (1996, pp. xvii–xviii, 171–175), Rosen suggested that lower preferred body fields (region adjacent to the top of the and Schwalbe (1988, pp. 2–3), Liner temperatures exhibited by northern snake’s back) and the olive-gray (1994, p. 107), and Crother et al. (2012, Mexican gartersnakes may be due to: (1) ventrolateral fields (region adjacent to p. 70). Their tendency to occupy cienega-like the area of the snake’s body in contact Habitat and Natural History habitat, where warm air temperatures with the ground). The scales are keeled are relatively unavailable; and (2) their (possessing a ridge down the center of Throughout its rangewide tendency to remain in dense cover. In each scale). A more detailed subspecies distribution, the northern Mexican the northern-most part of its range, the description can be found in our gartersnake occurs at elevations from northern Mexican gartersnake appears September 26, 2006 (71 FR 56227), or 130 to 8,497 feet (ft) (40 to 2,590 meters to be most active during July and November 25, 2008 (73 FR 71788) 12- (m)) (Rossman et al. 1996, p. 172) and August, followed by June and month findings for this subspecies, or is considered a ‘‘terrestrial-aquatic September. by reviewing Rosen and Schwalbe generalist’’ by Drummond and Marcı´as- Garcı´a (1983, pp. 24–26). The northern The northern Mexican gartersnake is (1988, p. 4), Rossman et al. (1996, pp. an active predator and is believed to 171–172), Ernst and Ernst (2003, pp. Mexican gartersnake is a riparian obligate (restricted to riparian areas heavily depend upon a native prey base 391–392), or Manjarrez and Garcia (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 18, 20). (1993, pp. 1–5). when not engaged in dispersal behavior) and occurs chiefly in the following Northern Mexican gartersnakes forage Taxonomy general habitat types: (1) Source-area along vegetated banklines, searching for The northern Mexican gartersnake is wetlands (e.g., cienegas (mid-elevation prey in water and on land, using a member of the family Colubridae and wetlands with highly organic, reducing different strategies (Alfaro 2002, p. 209). subfamily Natricinae (harmless live- (basic or alkaline) soils), or stock tanks Generally, its diet consists of bearing snakes) (Lawson et al. 2005, p. (small earthen impoundment)); (2) large- amphibians and fishes, such as adult 596). The taxonomy of the genus river riparian woodlands and forests; and larval (tadpoles) native leopard Thamnophis has a complex history, and (3) streamside gallery forests (as frogs (e.g., lowland leopard frog partly because many of the species are defined by well-developed broadleaf (Lithobates yavapaiensis) and similar in appearance and arrangement deciduous riparian forests with limited, Chiricahua leopard frog (Lithobates of scales, but also because many of the if any, herbaceous ground cover or chiricahuensis)), as well as juvenile and early museum specimens were in such dense grass) (Hendrickson and Minckley adult native fish species (e.g., Gila poor and faded condition that it was 1984, p. 131; Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, topminnow (Poeciliopsis occidentalis difficult to study them (Conant 2003, p. pp. 14–16). Emmons and Nowak (2013, occidentalis), desert pupfish 6). p. 14) found this subspecies most (Cyprinodon macularius), Gila chub Prior to 2003, Thamnophis eques was commonly in protected backwaters, (Gila intermedia), and roundtail chub considered to have three subspecies, T. braided side channels and beaver (Gila robusta)) (Rosen and Schwalbe e. eques, T. e. megalops, and T. e. ponds, isolated pools near the river 1988, p. 18). Drummond and Marcı´as- virgatenuis (Rossman et al. 1996, p. mainstem, and edges of dense emergent Garcı´a (1983, pp. 25, 30) found that as 175). In 2003, an additional seven new vegetation that offered cover and a subspecies, Mexican gartersnakes fed subspecies were identified under T. foraging opportunities when surveying primarily on frogs. Auxiliary prey items eques: (1) T. e. cuitzeoensis; (2) T. e. in the upper region. may also include young Woodhouse’s patzcuaroensis; (3) T. e. insperatus; (4) Additional information on the habitat toads (Anaxyrus woodhousei), treefrogs T. e. obscurus; (5) T. e. diluvialis; (6) T. requirements of the northern Mexican (Family Hylidae), earthworms, deermice e. carmenensis; and (7) T. e. scotti gartersnake within the United States (Peromyscus spp.), lizards of the genera (Conant 2003, p. 3). Common names and Mexico can be found in our 2006 Aspidoscelis and Sceloporus, larval tiger were not provided, so in this proposed (71 FR 56227) and 2008 (73 FR 71788) salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum), and rule, we use the scientific name for all 12-month findings for this subspecies leeches (Gregory et al. 1980, pp. 87, 90– subspecies of Mexican gartersnake other and in Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, pp. 92; Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 20; than the northern Mexican gartersnake. 14–16), Rossman et al. (1996, p. 176), Holm and Lowe 1995, pp. 30–31; These seven new subspecies were McCranie and Wilson (1987, pp. 11–17), Degenhardt et al. 1996, p. 318; Rossman described based on morphological Ernst and Ernst (2003, p. 392), and et al. 1996, p. 176; Manjarrez 1998, p. differences in coloration and pattern; Cirett-Galan (1996, p. 156). 465). In situations where native prey have highly restricted distributions; and The northern Mexican gartersnake is species are rare or absent, this snake’s occur in isolated wetland habitats surface active at ambient (air) diet may include nonnative species, within the mountainous Transvolcanic temperatures ranging from 71 degrees including larval and juvenile bullfrogs Belt region of southern Mexico, which Fahrenheit (°F) to 91 °F (22 degrees (Lithobates catesbeianus), mosquitofish contains the highest elevations in the Celsius (°C) to 33 °C) and forages along (Gambusia affinis) (Holycross et al. country (Conant 2003, pp. 7–8). The the banks of waterbodies (Rosen 1991, 2006, p. 23; Emmons and Nowak 2013, validity of the current taxonomy of the p. 305, Table 2). Rosen (1991, pp. 308– p. 5), or other soft-rayed fish species. 10 subspecies of T. eques is accepted 309) found that northern Mexican Chinese mystery snails within the scientific community. A gartersnakes spent approximately 60 (Cipangopaludina chinensis) have been more detailed description of the percent of their time moving, 13 percent reported as a prey item for northern taxonomy of the northern Mexican of their time basking on vegetation, 18 Mexican gartersnakes at the Page gartersnake is found in our September percent of their time basking on the Springs and Bubbling Ponds State Fish

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Hatcheries in Arizona, but some al. 2009, p. 123). Historically, large, Historical Distribution predation attempts on snails have highly predatory native fish species proven fatal for gartersnakes because of such as Colorado pikeminnow may have Within the United States, the northern their lower jaw becoming permanently preyed upon northern Mexican Mexican gartersnake historically lodged in the snails’ shell (Young and gartersnake where the subspecies co- occurred predominantly in Arizona at Boyarski 2012, p. 498). Venegas-Barrera occurred. Native chubs (Gila sp.) may elevations ranging from 130 to 6,150 ft and Manjarrez (2001, p. 187) reported also prey on neonatal gartersnakes. (40 to 1,875 m). It was generally found where water was relatively permanent the first observation of a snake in the Parasites have been observed in natural diet of any species of and supported suitable habitat. The northern Mexican gartersnakes. Thamnophis after documenting the northern Mexican gartersnake Boyarski (2008b, pp. 5–6) recorded consumption by a Mexican gartersnake historically occurred in every county several snakes within the population at (subspecies not provided) of a Mexican and nearly every subbasin within the Page Springs and Bubbling Ponds alpine blotched gartersnake Arizona, from several perennial or (Thamnophis scalaris). fish hatcheries with interior bumps or intermittent creeks, streams, and rivers Marcı´as-Garcı´a and Drummond (1988, bulges along the anterior one-third of as well as lentic (still, non-flowing pp. 129–134) sampled the stomach the body. The cause of these bumps was water) wetlands such as cienegas, contents of Mexican gartersnakes and not identified or speculated upon, nor ponds, or stock tanks. Northern Mexican the prey populations at (ephemeral) were there any signs of trauma to the gartersnake records exist within the Lake Tecocomulco, Hidalgo, Mexico. body of these snakes in the affected following subbasins in Arizona: Field observations indicated, with high areas. Dr. Jim Jarchow, a veterinarian , , statistical significance, that larger with herpetological expertise, reviewed , , Tonto Mexican gartersnakes fed primarily photographs of affected specimens and Creek, Verde River, Santa Cruz River, upon aquatic vertebrates (fishes, frogs, suggested the bumps may likely contain Cienega Creek, San Pedro River, and larval salamanders) and leeches, plerocercoid larvae of a , and the Rio San whereas smaller Mexican gartersnakes pseudophyllidean tapeworm (possibly Bernardino (Black Draw) (Woodin 1950, fed primarily upon earthworms and Spirometra spp.), which are common in p. 40; Nickerson and Mays 1970, p. 503; leeches (Marcı´as-Garcı´a and Drummond fish- and frog-eating gartersnakes. This Bradley 1986, p. 67; Rosen and 1988, p. 131). Marcı´as-Garcı´a and may not be detrimental to their health, Schwalbe 1988, Appendix I; 1995, p. Drummond (1988, p. 130) also found provided the bumps do not grow large 452; 1997, pp. 16–17; Holm and Lowe that the birth of newborn T. eques enough to impair movement or other 1995, pp. 27–35; Sredl et al. 1995b, p. tended to coincide with the annual peak bodily functions (Boyarski 2008b, p. 8). 2; 2000, p. 9; Rosen et al. 2001, density of annelids (earthworms and However, Gu´ zman (2008, p. 102) Appendix I; Holycross et al. 2006, pp. leeches). There is also preliminary documented the first observation of 1–2, 15–51; Brennan and Holycross evidence that birth may coincide with a mortality of a Mexican gartersnake from 2006, p. 123; Radke 2006, pers. comm.; pronounced influx of available prey in a larval Eustrongylides sp. Rosen 2006, pers. comm.; Holycross a given area, especially with that of (endoparasitic nematode) which ‘‘raises 2006, pers. comm.; Cotton et al. 2013, p. explosive breeders, such as toads, but the possibility that infection of Mexican 111). Numerous records for the northern more research is needed to confirm such gartersnakes by Eustrongylides sp. Mexican gartersnake (through 1996) in a relationship (Boyarski 2012, pers. larvae might cause mortality in some Arizona are maintained in the Arizona comm.). Positive correlations were also wild populations,’’ especially if those Game and Fish Department’s (AGFD) made with respect to capture rates populations are under stress as a result Heritage Database (1996a). (which are correlated with population of the presence of other threats. Historically, the northern Mexican size) of T. eques to lake levels and to Sexual maturity in northern Mexican gartersnake had a limited distribution in prey scarcity; that is, when lake levels gartersnakes occurs at 2 years of age in New Mexico that consisted of scattered were low and prey species scarce, males and at 2 to 3 years of age in locations throughout the Upper Gila Mexican gartersnake capture rates River watershed in Grant and western declined (Marcı´as-Garcı´a and females (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. Hidalgo Counties, including the Upper Drummond 1988, p. 132). This indicates 16–17). Northern Mexican gartersnakes , Mule Creek in the San the importance of available water and are viviparous (bringing forth living Francisco River subbasin, and the an adequate prey base to maintaining young rather than eggs). Mating has Mimbres River (Price 1980, p. 39; viable populations of Mexican been documented in April and May Fitzgerald 1986, Table 2; Degenhardt et gartersnakes. Marcı´as-Garcı´a and followed by the live birth of between 7 al. 1996, p. 317; Holycross et al. 2006, Drummond (1988, p. 133) found that and 38 newborns (average is 13.6) in pp. 1–2). while certain prey items were positively July and August (Rosen and Schwalbe associated with size classes of snakes, 1988, p. 16; Nowak and Boyarski 2012, One record for the northern Mexican the largest of specimens consume any pp. 351–352). However, field gartersnake exists for the State of prey available. observations in Arizona provide Nevada, opposite Fort Mohave, in Clark Native predators of the northern preliminary evidence that mating may County along the shore of the Colorado Mexican gartersnake include birds of also occur during the fall, but further River that was dated 1911 (De Queiroz prey, other snakes (kingsnakes research is required to confirm this and Smith 1996, p. 155). The subspecies (Lampropeltis sp.), whipsnakes (Coluber hypothesis (Boyarski 2012, pers. may have occurred historically in the sp.), regal ring-necked snakes comm.). Unlike other gartersnake lower Colorado River region of (Diadophis punctatus regalis), etc.), species, which typically breed annually, California, although we were unable to wading birds, mergansers (Mergus one study suggests that only half of the verify any museum records for merganser), belted kingfishers sexually mature females within a California. Any populations of northern (Megaceryle alcyon), raccoons (Procyon population of northern Mexican Mexican gartersnakes that may have lotor), skunks (Mephitis sp.), and gartersnake might reproduce in any one historically occurred in either Nevada or coyotes (Canis latrans) (Rosen and season (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. California were likely associated Schwalbe 1988, pp. 18, 39; Brennan et 17). directly with the Colorado River, and

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we believe them to be currently because the 1980s marked the first into the wild, harmful nonnative species extirpated. systematic survey efforts for northern are now virtually ubiquitous throughout Within Mexico, northern Mexican Mexican gartersnakes across their range the range of the northern Mexican gartersnakes historically occurred (see Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, entire) gartersnake. Land uses that result in the within the Sierra Madre Occidental and and Fitzgerald (1986, entire)) and the dewatering of habitat, combined with the Mexican Plateau in the Mexican last, previous records were often dated increasing drought, have destroyed states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, several decades prior and may not significant amounts of habitat Coahuila, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, accurately represent the likelihood for throughout the northern Mexican Nayarit, Hidalgo, Jalisco, San Luis current occupation. Several areas where gartersnake’s range and have also Potosı´, Aguascalientes, Tlaxacala, northern Mexican gartersnakes were contributed to population declines. Puebla, Me´xico, Veracruz, and known to occur have received no, or Holycross et al. (2006, p. 66) detected Quere´taro, comprising approximately 85 very little, survey effort in the past the northern Mexican gartersnake at percent of the total rangewide several decades. Variability in survey only 2 of 11 historical localities along distribution of the subspecies (Conant design and effort makes it difficult to the northern-most part of its range from 1963, p. 473; 1974, pp. 469–470; Van compare population sizes or trends which the subspecies was previously Devender and Lowe 1977, p. 47; among sites and between sampling known. The only viable northern McCranie and Wilson 1987, p. 15; periods. For each of the sites discussed Mexican gartersnake populations in the Rossman et al. 1996, p. 173; Lemos- in Appendix A (available at http:// United States where the subspecies Espinal et al. 2004, p. 83). We are not www.regulations.gov under Docket No. remains reliably detected are all located aware of any systematic, rangewide FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071), we have in Arizona: (1) The Page Springs and survey effort for the northern Mexican attempted to translate and quantify Bubbling Ponds State Fish Hatcheries gartersnake in Mexico and have not search and capture efforts into along Oak Creek, (2) lower , found survey data for the subspecies in comparable units (i.e., person-search (3) the upper Santa Cruz River in the Mexico to be published in the scientific hours and trap-hours) and have San Rafael Valley, (4) the Bill Williams literature or otherwise readily available, conservatively interpreted those results. River, and (5) the upper Verde River. In outside of the information already Because the presence of suitable prey New Mexico, the northern Mexican obtained. Therefore, we use other, species in an area may provide evidence gartersnake may occur in extremely low tightly correlated ecological surrogates that the northern Mexican gartersnake population densities within its (such as native freshwater fish) to may still persist in low density where historical distribution; limited survey inform discussion on the status of survey data are sparse, a record of a effort is inconclusive to determine aquatic communities and aquatic habitat native prey species was considered in extirpation. The status of the northern in Mexico, and therefore on the likely our determination of occupancy of this Mexican gartersnake on tribal lands, status of northern Mexican gartersnake subspecies. such as those owned by the White populations. This discussion is found Data on population status of northern Mountain or San Carlos Apache Tribes, below in the subheadings pertinent to Mexican gartersnakes in the United is poorly known due to historically Mexico. States are largely summarized in gray literature provided through agency limited survey access. As stated Current Distribution and Population reports and related documents. In our previously, less is known specifically Status literature review efforts that resulted in about the current distribution of the Where northern Mexican gartersnakes our 2006 and 2008 12-month findings northern Mexican gartersnake in Mexico are locally abundant, they are usually (71 FR 56227 and 73 FR 71788, due to limited access to information on reliably detected with significantly less respectively), we found that the status of survey efforts and field data from effort than populations characterized as the northern Mexican gartersnake has Mexico. having low densities. Northern Mexican declined significantly in the last 30 In Table 1 below, we summarize the gartersnakes are well-camouflaged, years. We found that, in as much as 90 population status of northern Mexican secretive, and very difficult to detect in percent of the northern Mexican gartersnakes at all known localities structurally complex, dense habitat gartersnakes’ historical distribution in throughout their United States where they could occur at very low the United States, the subspecies occurs distribution, as supported by museum population densities, which at low to very low population densities records or reliable observations. For a characterizes most occupied sites. Water or may even be extirpated. The decline detailed discussion that explains the clarity can also affect survey accuracy. of the northern Mexican gartersnake is rationale for site-by-site conclusions on We considered factors such as the date primarily the result of predation by and occupancy, please see Appendix A of the last known records for northern competition with harmful nonnative (available at http://www.regulations.gov Mexican gartersnakes in an area, as well species, such as spiny-rayed fish, under Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013– as records of one or more native prey bullfrogs, and crayfish, that have been 0071). General rationale is provided in species in making a conclusion on intentionally released, accidentally the introductory paragraph to this occupancy of the subspecies. We used released, or dispersed through natural section, ‘‘Current Distribution and the year 1980 to qualify occupancy mechanisms. Regardless of how they got Population Status.’’

TABLE 1—CURRENT POPULATION STATUS OF THE NORTHERN MEXICAN GARTERSNAKE IN THE UNITED STATES. REFERENCES CITED ARE PROVIDED IN APPENDIX A

Native prey Harmful non- Location Last record Suitable physical species native species Population status habitat present present present

Gila River (NM, AZ) ...... 2002 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Spring Canyon (NM) ...... 1937 ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Likely ...... Likely extirpated. Mule Creek (NM) ...... 1983 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable.

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TABLE 1—CURRENT POPULATION STATUS OF THE NORTHERN MEXICAN GARTERSNAKE IN THE UNITED STATES. REFERENCES CITED ARE PROVIDED IN APPENDIX A—Continued

Native prey Harmful non- Location Last record Suitable physical species native species Population status habitat present present present

Mimbres River (NM) ...... Likely early Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. 1900s. Lower Colorado River (AZ) ...... 1904 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Bill Williams River (AZ) ...... 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. Agua Fria River (AZ) ...... 1986 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Little (AZ) ...... 1984 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Lower Salt River (AZ) ...... 1964 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. (AZ) ...... 1982 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Big Bonito Creek (AZ) ...... 1986 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Tonto Creek (AZ) ...... 2005 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. Upper Verde River (AZ) ...... 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. Oak Creek (AZ) (Page Springs and Bub- 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. bling Ponds State Fish Hatcheries). Spring Creek (AZ) ...... 1986 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Sycamore Creek (AZ) ...... 1954 ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Upper Santa Cruz River/San Rafael Valley 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. (AZ). Redrock Canyon (AZ) ...... 2008 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. (AZ) ...... 1974 ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Scotia Canyon (AZ) ...... 2009 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... No ...... Likely not viable. Parker Canyon (AZ) ...... 1986 ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Las Cienegas National Conservation Area 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Likely not viable. and Cienega Creek Natural Preserve (AZ). Lower Santa Cruz River (AZ) ...... 1956 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (AZ) 2000 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Bear Creek (AZ) ...... 1987 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. San Pedro River (AZ) ...... 1996 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Babocomari River and Cienega (AZ) ...... 1986 ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Canelo Hills-Sonoita Grasslands Area (AZ) 2012 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. San Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge 1997 ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. (AZ). Notes: ‘‘Possible’’ means there were no conclusive data found. ‘‘Likely extirpated’’ means the last record for an area pre-dated 1980 and exist- ing threats suggest the species is likely extirpated. ‘‘Likely not viable’’ means the last record for an area pre-dated 1980 and existing threats sug- gest the species is likely extirpated. ‘‘Likely viable’’ means that the species is reliably found with minimal to moderate survey effort and the popu- lation is generally considered viable.

Table 1 lists the 29 known localities viable where the species remains or are difficult to obtain. However, we for the northern Mexican gartersnake in reliably detected. When considering the have assembled and reviewed an the United States. Appendix A total number of stream miles in the extensive body of scientific information (available at http://www.regulations.gov United States that historically supported on known, regional threats to northern under Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013– the northern Mexican gartersnake that Mexican gartersnakes and to their 0071) discusses such considerations as are now permanently dewatered (except primary prey species. This information the physical condition of habitat, the in the case of temporary flows in is presented in greater detail below in composition of the aquatic biological response to heavy precipitation), we our specific discussion of threats to the community, the existence of significant concluded that as much as 90 percent of species in Mexico. historical populations in the United threats, and the length of time since the Narrow-Headed Gartersnake last known observation of the States either occur at low densities or subspecies in presenting rationale for are extirpated. As displayed in Table 1, Species Description determining occupancy status at each harmful nonnative species are a concern The narrow-headed gartersnake is a locality. We have concluded that in as in almost every northern Mexican small to medium-sized gartersnake with many as 24 of 29 known localities in the gartersnake locality in the United States a maximum total length of 44 in (112 cm United States (83 percent), the northern and the most significant reason for their mm) (Painter and Hibbitts 1996, p. 147). Mexican gartersnake population is decline, as discussed in depth in our Its eyes are set high on its unusually likely not viable and may exist at low threats analysis below. elongated head, which narrows to the population densities that could be Listed as threatened throughout its snout, and it lacks striping on the threatened with extirpation or may range in Mexico by the Mexican dorsum (top) and sides, which already be extirpated. In most localities Government, our understanding of the distinguishes its appearance from other where the species may occur at low northern Mexican gartersnake’s specific gartersnake species with which it could population densities, existing survey population status throughout its range co-occur (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. data are insufficient to prove in Mexico is less precise than that 7). The base color is usually tan or grey- extirpation. Only five populations of known for its United States distribution brown (but may darken) with northern Mexican gartersnakes in the because survey efforts are less, and conspicuous brown, black, or reddish United States are considered likely sufficient, available records do not exist spots that become indistinct towards the

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tail (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 7; rufipunctatus nigronuchalis and T. r. communities (Rosen and Schwalbe Boundy 1994, p. 126). The scales are unilabialis were recognized as 1988, p. 33; Brennan and Holycross keeled. Degenhardt et al. (1996, p. 327), subspecies under T. rufipunctatus and 2006, p. 122). An extensive evaluation Rossman et al. (1996, pp. 242–244), and comprised what was considered the T. of habitat use of narrow-headed Ernst and Ernst (2003, p. 416) further rufipunctatus complex. However, gartersnakes along Oak Creek in Arizona describe the species. Rossman et al. (1996, pp. 244–246) is provided in Nowak and Santana- elevated T. r. nigronuchalis to full Bendix (2002, pp. 26–37). Rosen and Taxonomy species designation and argued Schwalbe (1988, p. 35) found narrow- The narrow-headed gartersnake is a recognition of T. r. unilabialis be headed gartersnake densities may be member of the family Colubridae and discontinued due to the diagnostic highest at the conjunction of cascading subfamily Natricinae (harmless live- differences being too difficult to discern. riffles with pools, where waters were bearing snakes) (Lawson et al. 2005, p. Wood et al. (2011, p. 14) used genetic deeper than 20 in (0.5 m) in the riffle 596). The taxonomy of the genus analysis of the T. rufipunctatus complex and deeper than 40 in (1 m) in the Thamnophis has a complex history to propose the elevation of these three immediately adjoining area of the pool, partly because many of the species are formerly recognized subspecies as three but more than twice the number of similar in appearance and scutelation distinct species, as a result of a snakes were found in pools rather than (arrangement of scales), but also because combination of interglacial warming, riffles. many of the early museum specimens ecological and life-history constraints, Where narrow-headed gartersnakes were in such poor and faded condition and genetic drift, which promoted are typically found in the water, little that it was difficult to study them differentiation of these three species aquatic vegetation exists (Rosen and (Conant 2003, p. 6). The narrow-headed throughout the warming and cooling Schwalbe 1988, p. 34). However, bank- gartersnake has a particularly complex periods of the Pleistocene epoch (Wood line vegetation is an important taxonomic history due to its et al. 2011, p. 15). We use these most component to suitable habitat for this morphology and feeding habits. There recent and complete data in species. Narrow-headed gartersnakes are approximately 30 species described acknowledging these three entities as will usually bask in situations where a in the gartersnake genus Thamnophis unique species: T. rufipunctatus (along quick escape can be made, whether that (Rossman et al. 1996, pp. xvii–xviii). the Mogollon Rim of Arizona and New is into the water or under substrate such Two large overlapping clades (related Mexico), T. unilabialis (Chihuahua, as rocks (Fleharty 1967, p. 16). Common taxonomic groups) of gartersnakes have eastern Sonora, and northern Durango, plant species associations include been identified called the ‘‘Mexican’’ Mexico), and T. nigronuchalis (southern Arizona alder (Alnus oblongifolia) and ‘‘widespread’’ clades, supported by Durango, Mexico). (highest correlation with occurrence of allozyme and mitochondrial DNA Several common names have been the narrow-headed gartersnake), velvet genetic analyses (de Queiroz et al. 2002, used for this species including the red- ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), willows p. 321). Thamnophis rufipunctatus is a spotted gartersnake, the brown-spotted (Salix ssp.), canyon grape (Vitis member of the ‘‘Mexican’’ clade and is gartersnake, and the currently used, arizonica), blackberry (Rubus ssp.), most closely related taxonomically to narrow-headed gartersnake (Rosen and Arizona sycamore (Platanus wrightii), the southern Durango spotted Schwalbe 1988, p. 5). Further Arizona black walnut (Juglans major), gartersnake (Thamnophis nigronuchalis) discussion of the taxonomic history of Freemont cottonwood (Populus (de Queiroz and Lawson 1994, p. 217; the narrow-headed gartersnake is fremontii), Gambel oak (Quercus de Queiroz et al. 2002; p. 321). available in Crother (2012, p. 71), gambelii), and ponderosa pine (Pinus Due to the narrow-headed Degenhardt et al. (1996, p. 326); ponderosa) (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, gartersnake’s morphology and feeding Rossman et al. (1996, p. 244), De pp. 34–35). Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, habits, there has been considerable Queiroz and Lawson (1994, pp. 213– p. 35) noted that the composition of deliberation among taxonomists about 229); Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, pp. 5– bank-side plant species and canopy the correct association of this species 7); and De Queiroz et al. (2002, p. 321). structure were less important to the within seven various genera over time species’ needs than was the size class of Habitat and Natural History (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 5–6); the plant species present; narrow- chiefly, between the genera The narrow-headed gartersnake is headed gartersnakes prefer to use shrub- Thamnophis (the ‘‘gartersnakes’’) and widely considered to be one of the most and sapling-sized plants for Nerodia (the ‘‘watersnakes’’) (Pierce aquatic of the gartersnakes (Drummond thermoregulating (basking) at the 2007, p. 5). Chaisson and Lowe (1989, and Marcias Garcia 1983, pp. 24, 27; waters’ edge (Degenhardt et al. 1996, p. pp. 110–118) argued that the pattern of Rossman et al. 1996, p. 246). This 327). ultrastructural (as revealed by an species is strongly associated with clear, Narrow-headed gartersnakes may electron microscope) pores in the scales rocky streams, using predominantly opportunistically forage within dammed of narrow-headed gartersnakes provided pool and riffle habitat that includes reservoirs formed by streams that are evidence that the species is more cobbles and boulders (Rosen and occupied habitat, such as at Wall Lake appropriately placed within the genus Schwalbe 1988, pp. 33–34; Degenhardt (located at the confluence of Taylor Nerodia. However, De Queiroz and et al. 1996, p. 327; Rossman et al. 1996, Creek, Hoyt Creek, and the East Fork Lawson (1994, p. 217) rejected this p. 246; Ernst and Ernst 2003, p. 417). Gila River) (Fleharty 1967, p. 207) and premise using mitochondrial DNA Rossman et al. (1996, p. 246) also note most recently at Snow Lake in 2012 (mtDNA) genetic analyses to refute the the species has been observed using lake (located near the confluence of Snow inclusion of the narrow-headed shoreline habitat in New Mexico. Creek and the Middle Fork Gila River) gartersnake in the genus Nerodia and Narrow-headed gartersnakes occur at (Hellekson 2012b, pers. comm.) in New maintain the species within the genus elevations from approximately 2,300 to Mexico, but records from Thamnophis. 8,200 ft (700 to 2,500 m), inhabiting impoundments are rare in the literature. The narrow-headed gartersnake was Petran Montane Conifer Forest, Great The species evolved in the absence of first described as Chilopoma Basin Conifer Woodland, Interior such habitat, and impoundments are rufipunctatum by E. D. Cope (in Yarrow, Chaparral, and the Arizona Upland generally managed as sport fisheries 1875). Recently, Thamnophis subdivision of Sonoran Desertscrub (Wall Lake and Snow Lake are) and

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often maintain populations of harmful headed gartersnake include Sonora (Deganhardt et al. 1996, p. 328). nonnative species that are incompatible sucker (Catostomus insignis), desert Narrow-headed gartersnakes are with narrow-headed gartersnakes. sucker (C. clarki), speckled dace viviparous. The reproductive cycle for The narrow-headed gartersnake is (Rhinichthys osculus), roundtail chub narrow-headed gartersnakes appears to surface-active generally between March (Gila robusta), Gila chub (Gila be longer than other gartersnake species; and November (Nowak 2006, p. 16). intermedia), and headwater chub (Gila females begin the development of Little information on suitable nigra) (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 39; follicles in early March, and gestation temperatures for surface activity of the Degenhardt et al. 1996, p. 328). takes longer (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, narrow-headed gartersnake exists; Nonnative species used as prey by pp. 36–37). Female narrow-headed however, it is presumed to be rather narrow-headed gartersnakes are most gartersnakes breed annually and give cold-tolerant based on its natural history often salmonid species (trout); most birth to 4 to 17 offspring from late July and foraging behavior that often commonly brown (Salmo trutta) and into early August, perhaps earlier at involves clear, cold streams at higher rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), lower elevations (Rosen and Schwalbe elevations. Along Oak Creek in Arizona, as these species are commonly stocked 1988, pp. 35–37). Sex ratios in narrow- Nowak (2006, Appendix 1) found the in, or near, occupied narrow-headed headed gartersnake populations can be species to be active in air temperatures gartersnake habitat (Rosen and skewed in favor of females (Fleharty ranging from 52 to 89 °F (11 to 32 °C) Schwalbe 1988, p. 39; Nowak 2006, pp. 1967, p. 212). and water temperatures ranging from 54 22–23). Fleharty (1967, p. 223) reported Historical Distribution to 72 °F (12 to 22 °C). Jennings and narrow-headed gartersnakes eating Christman (2011, pp. 12–14) found body green sunfish, but green sunfish is not The historical distribution of the temperatures of narrow-headed considered a suitable prey item. narrow-headed gartersnake ranged gartersnakes along the Tularosa River Several reviews (Stebbins 1985, p. across the Mogollon Rim and along its averaged approximately 68 °F (20 °C) 199; Deganhardt et al. 1996, p. 328; associated perennial drainages from during the mid-morning hours and 81 °F Ernst and Ernst 2003, p. 418) state that central and eastern Arizona, southeast (27 °C) in the late afternoon during the the narrow-headed gartersnake will also to southwestern New Mexico at period from late July and August. prey upon frogs, tadpoles, and elevations ranging from 2,300 to 8,000 ft Variables that affect their body salamanders. Fitzgerald (1986, p. 6) (700 to 2,430 m) (Rosen and Schwalbe temperature include the temperature of referenced the Stebbins (1985) account 1988, p. 34; Rossman et al. 1996, p. 242; the microhabitat used and water as the only substantiated account of the Holycross et al. 2006, p. 3). The species temperature (most predictive), but slope species accepting something other than was historically distributed in aspect and the surface area of cover fish as prey, apparently as the result of headwater streams of the Gila River used also influenced body temperatures finding a small salamander larvae in the subbasin that drain the Mogollon Rim (Jennings and Christman 2011, p. 13). stomach of an individual in Durango, and White Mountains in Arizona, and Narrow-headed gartersnakes have a Mexico. Formerly recognized as a the Gila Wilderness in New Mexico; lower preferred temperature for activity subspecies of Thamnophis major subbasins in its historical as compared to other species of rufipunctatus, that individual is now distribution included the Salt and Verde gartersnakes (Fleharty 1967, p. 228), recognized as T. unilabialis (Wood et al. River subbasins in Arizona, and the San which may facilitate their highly aquatic 2011, p. 3). We found an account of Francisco and Gila River subbasins in nature in cold streams. narrow-headed gartersnakes consuming New Mexico (Holycross et al. 2006, p. Narrow-headed gartersnakes red-spotted toads in captivity (Woodin 3). Holycross et al. (2006, p. 3) suspect specialize on fish as their primary prey 1950, p. 40). Despite several studies the species was likely not historically item (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 38; focusing on the ecology of narrow- present in the lowest reaches of the Salt, Degenhardt et al. 1996, p. 328; Rossman headed gartersnakes in recent times, Verde, and Gila rivers, even where et al. 1996, p. 247; Nowak and Santana- there are no other records of narrow- perennial flow persists. Numerous Bendix 2002, pp. 24–25; Nowak 2006, p. headed gartersnakes, under current records for the narrow-headed 22) and are believed to be mainly visual taxonomic recognition, feeding on prey gartersnake (through 1996) in Arizona hunters (Hibbitts and Fitzgerald 2005, p. items other than fish. We, along with are maintained in the AGFD’s Heritage 364), heavily dependent on visual cues species experts, do not consider Database (1996b). The narrow-headed when foraging based on comparative amphibians as ecologically important gartersnake as currently recognized does analyses among other species of prey for this species based on our not occur in Mexico. gartersnakes (de Queiroz 2003, p. 381). review of the literature. Current Distribution and Population Unlike many other species of Native predators of the narrow- Status gartersnakes that are active predators headed gartersnake include birds of (actively crawl about in search of prey), prey, other snakes such as kingsnakes, Where narrow-headed gartersnakes narrow-headed gartersnakes are whipsnakes, or regal ring-necked are locally abundant, they can usually considered to be ambush predators (sit- snakes, wading birds, mergansers, be detected reliably and with and-wait method) (Brennan and belted kingfishers, raccoons, skunks, significantly less effort than populations Holycross 2006, p. 122; Pierce et al. and coyotes (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, characterized as having low densities. 2007, p. 8). The specific gravity (ratio of pp. 18, 39; Brennan et al. 2009, p. 123). Narrow-headed gartersnakes are well- the mass of a solid object to the mass of Historically, large, highly predatory camouflaged, secretive, and very the same volume of water) of the native fish species such as Colorado difficult to detect in structurally narrow-headed gartersnake was found to pikeminnow may have preyed upon complex, dense habitat where they be nearly 1, which means that the snake narrow-headed gartersnakes where the could occur at very low population can maintain its desired position in the species co-occurred. Native chubs (Gila densities, which characterizes most water column with ease, an adaptation sp.) may also prey on neonatal occupied sites. Water clarity can also to facilitate foraging on the bottom of gartersnakes. affect survey accuracy. We considered streams (Fleharty 1967, pp. 218–219). Sexual maturity in narrow-headed factors such as the date of the last Native fish species most often gartersnakes occurs at 2.5 years of age in known records for narrow-headed associated as prey items for the narrow- males and at 2 years of age in females gartersnakes in an area, as well as

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records of one or more native prey may occur likely rely on emigration of likely significantly affected by New species in making a conclusion on individuals from occupied habitat into Mexico’s largest wildfire in State species occupancy. We used all records those areas to maintain the species, history, the Whitewater-Baldy Complex that were dated 1980 or later because provided there are no barriers to Fire, which occurred in June 2012. In the 1980s marked the first systematic movement. Holycross et al. (2006) addition, salvage efforts were initiated survey efforts for narrow-headed represents the most recent, for these two populations, which gartersnakes species across their range comprehensive survey effort for narrow- included the removal of 25 individuals (see Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, entire) headed gartersnakes in Arizona. Our from Whitewater Creek and 14 and Fitzgerald (1986, entire)), and the most current information on the species’ individuals from the Middle Fork Gila last, previous records were often dated status in New Mexico comes from a River before the onset of summer rains several decades prior and may not species expert who is completing a in 2012. The status of those populations accurately represent the likelihood for graduate degree focused on the has likely deteriorated as a result of current occupation. Several areas where relationship between narrow-headed subsequent declines in resident fish narrow-headed gartersnakes were gartersnake populations and fish communities due to heavy ash and known to occur have received no, or communities in the upper Gila and San sediment flows, resulting fish kills, and very little, survey effort in the past Francisco river drainages (Helleckson the removal of snakes, but subsequent several decades. Variability in survey 2012a, pers. comm.). Narrow-headed survey data have not been collected. If design and effort makes it difficult to gartersnakes were detected in only 5 of the Whitewater Creek and Middle Fork compare population sizes or trends 16 historical localities in Arizona and Gila River populations did decline as a among sites and between sampling New Mexico surveyed by Holycross et result of these factors, only three periods. Thus, for each of the sites al. (2006) in 2004 and 2005. Population remaining populations of this species discussed in Appendix A (available at densities have noticeably declined in remain viable today across their entire http://www.regulations.gov under many populations, as compared to distribution. Such unnaturally large Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071), previous survey efforts (Holycross et al. wildfires have become increasingly 2006, p. 66). Holycross et al. (2006, pp. we have attempted to translate and common across the Mogollon Rim of quantify search and capture efforts into 66–67) compared narrow-headed Arizona and New Mexico where the comparable units (i.e., person-search gartersnake detections based on results narrow-headed gartersnake historically hours and trap-hours) and have from their effort and that of previous occurred. The status of the narrow- conservatively interpreted those results. efforts in the same locations and found headed gartersnake on tribal land is Because the presence of suitable prey that significantly more effort is required poorly known, due to limited survey species in an area may provide evidence to detect this species in areas where it access. that northern Mexican gartersnake may was formerly robust, such as along Eagle still persist in low density where survey Creek (AZ), the (AZ), In Table 2 below, we summarize the data are sparse, a record of a native prey the San Francisco River (NM), the Black population status of the narrow-headed species was considered in our River (AZ), and the (AZ). gartersnake at all known localities determination of occupancy of this As of 2011, the only remaining throughout its distribution, as supported species. narrow-headed gartersnake populations by museum records or reliable Population status information, based where the species could reliably be observations. For a detailed discussion on our review of the best scientific and found were located at: (1) Whitewater that explains the rationale for site-by- commercial data available, suggests that Creek (New Mexico), (2) Tularosa River site conclusions on occupancy, please the narrow-headed gartersnake has (New Mexico), (3) (New see Appendix A (available at http:// experienced significant declines in Mexico), (4) Middle Fork Gila River www.regulations.gov under Docket No. population density and distribution (New Mexico), and (5) Oak Creek FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071). General along streams and rivers where it was Canyon (Arizona). However, rationale is provided in the introductory formerly well-documented and reliably populations found in Whitewater Creek paragraph to this section, ‘‘Current detected. Many areas where the species and the Middle Fork Gila River were Distribution and Population Status.’’

TABLE 2—CURRENT POPULATION STATUS OF THE NARROW-HEADED GARTERSNAKE. REFERENCES CITED ARE PROVIDED IN APPENDIX A

Suitable phys- Native prey Harmful non- Location Last record ical habitat species native species Population status present present present

West Fork Gila River (NM) ...... 2011 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Middle Fork Gila River (NM) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. East Fork Gila River (NM) ...... 2006 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Gila River (AZ, NM) ...... 2009 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Snow Creek/Snow Lake (NM) ...... 2012 Yes ...... No ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Gilita Creek (NM) ...... 2009 Yes ...... Yes ...... No ...... Likely not viable. Iron Creek (NM) ...... 2009 Yes ...... Yes ...... No ...... Likely not viable. Little Creek (NM) ...... 2010 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Turkey Creek (NM) ...... 1985 Yes ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Likely not viable. Beaver Creek (NM) ...... 1949 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Black Canyon (NM) ...... 2010 Yes ...... Yes ...... No ...... Likely not viable. Taylor Creek (NM) ...... 1960 Yes ...... No ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. Diamond Creek (NM) ...... 2011 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. Tularosa River (NM) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. Whitewater Creek (NM) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. San Francisco River (NM) ...... 2011 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. South Fork Negrito Creek (NM) ...... 2011 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable.

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TABLE 2—CURRENT POPULATION STATUS OF THE NARROW-HEADED GARTERSNAKE. REFERENCES CITED ARE PROVIDED IN APPENDIX A—Continued

Suitable phys- Native prey Harmful non- Location Last record ical habitat species native species Population status present present present

Blue River (AZ) ...... 2007 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Dry Blue Creek (AZ, NM) ...... 2010 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Campbell Blue Creek (AZ, NM) ...... 2010 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Saliz Creek (NM) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Possible ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. (AZ) ...... 1991 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Black River (AZ) ...... 2009 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. (AZ) ...... 1986 Yes ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Likely not viable. Diamond Creek (AZ) ...... 1986 Yes ...... Possible ...... Possible ...... Likely not viable. Tonto Creek (tributary to Big Bonita 1915 Yes ...... Possible ...... Possible ...... Likely extirpated. Creek, AZ). (AZ) ...... 1991 Yes ...... Yes ...... No ...... Likely not viable. Upper Salt River (AZ) ...... 1985 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Cibeque Creek (AZ) ...... 1991 Yes ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Likely not viable. Carrizo Creek (AZ) ...... 1997 Yes ...... Yes ...... Possible ...... Unreliably detected. Big Bonito Creek (AZ) ...... 1957 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely extirpated. (AZ) ...... Early 1990s Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Houston Creek (AZ) ...... 2005 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Tonto Creek (tributary to Salt River, AZ) 2005 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Deer Creek (AZ) ...... 1995 No ...... No ...... No ...... Likely extirpated. Upper Verde River (AZ) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. Oak Creek (AZ) ...... 2012 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely viable. East Verde River (AZ) ...... 1992 Yes ...... Yes ...... Yes ...... Likely not viable. ‘‘Possible’’ means there were no conclusive data found.

‘‘Likely extirpated’’ means the last densities, existing survey data are affecting its continued existence. Listing record for an area pre-dated 1980 and insufficient to conclude extirpation. As actions may be warranted based on any existing threats suggest the species is of 2012, narrow-headed gartersnake of the above threat factors, singly or in likely extirpated. ‘‘Likely not viable’’ populations are considered likely viable combination. means there is a post-1980 record for the in 3 localities (8 percent) where In the following threats analysis, we species, it is not reliably found with individuals are reliable detected. As treat both gartersnake species in a minimal to moderate survey effort, and displayed in Table 2, harmful nonnative combined discussion because of threats exist which suggest the species are a concern for almost every partially overlapping ranges, similar population may be low density or could narrow-headed gartersnake population natural histories, similar responses to be extirpated, but there is insufficient throughout their range. The threats, and the fact that many threats evidence to confirm extirpation. ‘‘Likely ramifications of this are significant are shared in common throughout their viable’’ means that the species is because of the effect these harmful ranges. reliably found with minimal to nonnative species have on the resident The Weakened Status of Native Aquatic moderate survey effort and the native fish communities and the fact population is generally considered that this species is a specialized, fish- Communities viable. only predator. We discuss this and other Riparian and aquatic communities in Table 2 lists the 38 known localities important factors that have contributed both the United States and Mexico have for narrow-headed gartersnakes to the decline of narrow-headed been significantly impacted by a shift in throughout their range. Appendix A gartersnakes throughout their range in species’ composition, from one of (available at http://www.regulations.gov our threats analysis below. primarily native fauna, to one being under Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013– increasingly dominated by an 0071) discusses such considerations as Summary of Factors Affecting the expanding assemblage of nonnative the physical condition of habitat, the Species animal species. Many of these nonnative composition of the aquatic biological Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), species have been intentionally or community, the existence of significant and its implementing regulations at 50 accidentally introduced, including threats, and the length of time since the CFR part 424, set forth the procedures crayfish, bullfrogs, and nonnative, last known observation of the species in for adding species to the Federal Lists spiny-rayed fish. Harmful nonnative presenting rationale for determining of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife species have been introduced or have occupancy status at each locality. We and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the spread into new areas through a variety have concluded that in as many as 29 Act, we may list a species based on any of mechanisms, including intentional of 38 known localities (76 percent), the of the following five factors: (A) The and accidental releases, sport stocking, narrow-headed gartersnake population present or threatened destruction, aquaculture, aquarium releases, and is likely not viable and may exist at low modification, or curtailment of its bait-bucket release. population densities that could be habitat or range; (B) overutilization for The occurrence of harmful nonnative threatened with extirpation or may commercial, recreational, scientific, or species, such as the bullfrog, the already be extirpated but survey data are educational purposes; (C) disease or northern (virile) crayfish (Orconectes lacking in areas where access is predation; (D) the inadequacy of virilis), red swamp crayfish restricted. In most localities where the existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) (Procambarus clarkii), and numerous species may occur at low population other natural or manmade factors species of nonnative, spiny-rayed fish,

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has contributed to rangewide declines The Decline of the Gartersnake Prey rayed fish in the vicinity of Midgely in both species of gartersnake, and Base Bridge, where nonnative, spiny-rayed continues to be the most significant The documented decline of the fish increased in abundance in the threat to the northern Mexican and northern Mexican and narrow-headed downstream direction and soft-rayed narrow-headed gartersnakes, and to gartersnakes was typically subsequent to fish increased in abundance in the their prey base, as a result of direct the declines in their prey base (native upstream direction. These fish predation, competition, and amphibian and fish populations). These community distributions closely modification of habitat as evidenced in declines in prey base result from parallel that of narrow-headed a broad body of literature, the most predation following the establishment of gartersnakes along Oak Creek, where gartersnake populations increase in recent of which extends from 1985 to nonnative bullfrogs, crayfish, and density in the upstream direction and the present (Meffe 1985, pp. 179–185; numerous species of nonnative, spiny- rayed fish as supported by an extensive decrease notably in the downstream Propst et al. 1986, pp. 14–31, 82; 1988, direction (Nowak and Santana-Bendix body of literature referenced p. 64; 2009, pp. 5–17; Minckley 1987, 2002, p. 23). Numerous historical pp. 2, 16; 1993, pp. 7–13; Rosen and immediately above. Northern Mexican and narrow-headed records for narrow-headed gartersnakes Schwalbe 1988, pp. 28, 32; 1997, p. 1; document the species in the lower reach Bestgen and Propst 1989, pp. 409–410; gartersnakes appear to be particularly vulnerable to the loss of native prey of Oak Creek, but the species is Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989, pp. 531, currently rarely detected in this reach of 535; Papoulias et al. 1989, pp. 77–80; species (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 20, 44–45). Rosen et al. (2001, pp. 10, Oak Creek (Nowak and Santana-Bendix Marsh and Minckley 1990, p. 265; Jakle 2002, pp. 13–14), providing evidence of 13, 19) examined this issue in detail 1992, pp. 3–5; 1995, pp. 5–7; ASU 1994, the decline of narrow-headed with respect to the northern Mexican gartersnakes in the presence of multiple reports; 1995, multiple reports; gartersnake, and proposed two reasons 2008, multiple reports; Stefferud and nonnative, spiny-rayed fish. for its decline following a loss of, or Fish—Northern Mexican and narrow- Stefferud 1994, p. 364; Douglas et al. decline in, the native prey base: (1) The 1994, pp. 9–19; Rosen et al. 1995, pp. headed gartersnakes can successfully species is unlikely to increase foraging use nonnative, soft-rayed fish species as 257–258; 1996b, pp. 2, 11–13; 2001, p. efforts at the risk of increased predation; 2; Springer 1995, pp. 6–10; Degenhardt prey, including mosquitofish, red and (2) the species needs adequate food shiner, and introduced trout (Salmo sp.) et al. 1996, p. 319; Fernandez and Rosen on a regular basis to maintain its weight 1996, pp. 8, 23–27, 71, 96; Richter et al. (Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, pp. and health. If forced to forage more 24–25; Holycross et al. 2006, p. 23). 1997, pp. 1089, 1092; Weedman and often for smaller prey items, a reduction However, all other nonnative species, Young 1997, pp. 1, Appendices B, C; in growth and reproductive rates can most notably the spiny-rayed fish, are Inman et al. 1998, p. 17; Rinne et al. result (Rosen et al. 2001, pp. 10, 13). not considered prey species for northern 1998, pp. 4–6; 2004, pp. 1–2; Jahrke and Rosen et al. (2001, p. 22) concluded that Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnakes Clark 1999, pp. 2–7; Minckley et al. the presence and expansion of and, in addition, are known to prey on 2002, pp. 696; Nowak and Santana- nonnative predators (mainly bullfrogs, neonatal and juvenile gartersnakes. Bendix 2002, Table 3; Propst 2002, pp. crayfish, and green sunfish (Lepomis Nowak and Santana-Bendix (2002, p. 21–25; DFT 2003, pp. 1–3, 5–6, 19; cyanellus)) is the primary cause of 24) propose two hypotheses regarding 2004, pp. 1–2, 4–5, 10, Table 1; 2006, decline in northern Mexican the reluctance of narrow-headed pp. iii, 25; Marsh et al. 2003, p. 667; gartersnakes and their prey in gartersnakes to prey on nonnative, Bonar et al. 2004, pp. 13, 16–21; Rinne southeastern Arizona. In another spiny-rayed fish: (1) The laterally- 2004, pp. 1–2; Clarkson et al. 2005, p. example, Drummond and Marcias compressed shape and presence of 20; 2008, pp. 3–4; Fagan et al. 2005, pp. Garcia (1983, pp. 25, 30) found that sharp, spiny dorsal spines present a 34, 34–41; Knapp 2005, pp. 273–275; Mexican gartersnakes fed primarily on choking hazard to gartersnakes that has Olden and Poff 2005, pp. 82–87; AGFD frogs, and functioned as a local been observed to be fatal; and (2) 2006, p. 83; Turner 2007, p. 41; specialist in that regard. When frogs nonnative, spiny-rayed fish tend to Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 13–15; became unavailable, the species simply occupy the middle and upper zones in Brennan and Holycross 2006, p. 123; ceased major foraging activities. This the water column, while narrow-headed Brennan 2007, pp. 5, 7; Turner and List led the author to conclude that frog gartersnakes typically hunt along the 2007, p. 13; USFWS 2007, pp. 22–23; abundance is probably the most bottom (where native fish tend to Burger 2008, p. 4; Caldwell 2008a, important correlate, and main occur). As a result, nonnative, spiny- determinant, of foraging behavior in this 2008b; Duifhuis Rivera et al. 2008, p. rayed fish may be largely ecologically species. Alternatively, terrestrial prey 479, Jones 2008b; d’Orgeix 2008; Haney unavailable as prey. It is likely the species were consumed, but the et al. 2008, p. 59; Luja and Rodrı´guez- shape and presence of sharp, spiny gartersnakes were never documented as Estrella 2008, pp. 17–22; Probst et al. dorsal spines on these nonnative fish having these prey items as a major species also present a choking hazard to 2008, pp. 1242–1243; Rorabaugh 2008a, dietary component, even when the both northern Mexican and narrow- p. 25; USFS 2008; Wallace et al. 2008, gartersnakes were in dire need headed gartersnakes. pp. 243–244; Witte et al. 2008, p. 1; (Drummond and Marcias Garcia 1983, p. Nonnative, spiny-rayed fish invasions Bahm and Robinson 2009a, pp. 2–6; 37). can indirectly affect the health, 2009b, pp. 1–4; Brennan and Rosen With respect to narrow-headed maintenance, and reproduction of 2009, pp. 8–9; Karam et al. 2009; pp. 2– gartersnakes, the relationship between northern Mexican and narrow-headed 3; Minckley and Marsh 2009, pp. 50–51; harmful nonnative species, a declining gartersnakes by altering their foraging Paroz et al. 2009, pp. 12, 18; Robinson prey base, and gartersnake populations strategy and compromising foraging and Crowder 2009, pp. 3–5; Pilger et al. is clearly depicted in one population success. Rosen et al. (2001, p. 19), in 2010, pp. 311–312; Stefferud et al. 2011, along Oak Creek. Nowak and Santana- addressing the northern Mexican pp. 11–12; C. Akins 2012, pers. comm.; Bendix (2002, Table 3) found a clear gartersnake, proposed that an increase Young and Boyarski 2013, pp. 159–160; partition in the distribution of in energy expended in foraging, coupled Emmons and Nowak 2013, p. 5). nonnative, spiny-rayed fish and soft- by the reduced number of small to

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medium-sized prey fish available, gartersnakes (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, of northern Mexican gartersnakes in that results in deficiencies in nutrition, pp. 18, 39). Aquatic habitat destruction area. affecting growth and reproduction. This and modification is often considered a Stocked for sport, forage, or biological occurs because energy is allocated to leading cause for the decline in native control, nonnative fishes have been maintenance and the increased energy fish in the southwestern United States. shown to become invasive where costs of intense foraging activity, rather However, Marsh and Pacey (2005, p. 60) released, do not require natural flow than to growth and reproduction. In predict that despite the significant regimes, and tend to be more contrast, a northern Mexican physical alteration of aquatic habitat in phylogenetically advanced than native gartersnake diet that includes both fish the southwest, native fish species could species (Kolar et al. 2003, p. 9) which and amphibians, such as leopard frogs, not only complete all of their life contributed to their expansion in the reduces the necessity to forage at a functions but could flourish in these Gila River basin. Harmful nonnative fish higher frequency, allowing metabolic altered environments, but for the species tend to be nest-builders and energy gained from larger prey items to presence of (harmful) nonnative fish actively guard their young which may be allocated instead to growth and species, as supported by a ‘‘substantial provide them another ecological reproductive development. Myer and and growing body of evidence derived advantage over native species which are Kowell (1973, p. 225) experimented from case studies.’’ Northern Mexican broadcast spawners and provide no with food deprivation in common and narrow-headed gartersnakes depend parental care to their offspring (Marsh gartersnakes, and found significant on native fish as a principle part of their and Pacey 2005, p. 60). It is therefore reductions in lengths and weights of prey base, although nonnative, soft- likely that recruitment and survivorship juvenile snakes that were deprived of rayed fish are also common prey items is greater in nonnative species than regular feedings versus the control where they overlap in distribution with native species where they overlap, group that were fed regularly at natural these gartersnakes (Nowak and Santana- providing them with an ecological frequencies. Reduced foraging success Bendix 2002, pp. 24–25; Holycross et al. advantage. Table 2–1 in Kolar et al. of both northern Mexican and narrow- 2006, p. 23). Nonnative, spiny-rayed (2003, p. 10) provides a map depicting headed gartersnakes means that fish compete with northern Mexican the high degree of overlap in the individuals are likely to become and narrow-headed gartersnakes for distribution of native and nonnative vulnerable to effects from starvation, prey. In their extensive surveys, Rosen fishes within the Gila River basin of which may increase mortality rates of and Schwalbe (1988, p. 44) only found Arizona and New Mexico as well as juveniles and, consequently, affect narrow-headed gartersnakes in watersheds thought to be dominated by recruitment. abundance where native fish species nonnative fish species. The widespread Northern Mexican gartersnakes have a predominated, but did not find them more varied diet than narrow-headed decline of native fish species from the abundant in the presence of robust arid southwestern United States and gartersnakes. We are not aware of any nonnative, spiny-rayed fish populations. studies that have addressed the direct Mexico has resulted largely from Minckley and Marsh (2009, pp. 50–51) interactions with nonnative species and relationship between prey base diversity found nonnative fishes to be the single- and northern Mexican gartersnake has been captured in the listing rules of most significant factor in the decline of 13 native species listed under the Act, recruitment and survivorship. However, native fish species and also their Krause and Burghardt (2001, pp. 100– and whose historical ranges overlap primary obstacle to recovery. Of the 48 with the historical distribution of 123) discuss the benefits and costs that conterminous States in the United may be associated with diet variability northern Mexican and narrow-headed States, Arizona has the highest in the common gartersnake gartersnakes. Native fish species that proportion of nonnative fish species (66 (Thamnophis sirtalis), an ecologically were likely prey species for these percent) represented by approximately similar species to the northern Mexican gartersnakes and are now listed under 68 species of nonnative fish (Turner and gartersnake. Foraging for mixed-prey the Act, include the bonytail chub (Gila List 2007, p. 13). species may impede predator learning, elegans, 45 FR 27710, April 23, 1980), as compared to specialization, on a Collier et al. (1996, p. 16) note that Yaqui catfish (Ictalurus pricei, 49 FR certain prey species, but may also interactions between native and 34490, August 31, 1984), Yaqui chub provide long-term benefits (Krause and nonnative fish have significantly (Gila purpurea, 49 FR 34490, August 31, Burghardt 2001, p. 101). Krause and contributed to the decline of many 1984), Yaqui topminnow (Poeciliopsis Burghardt (2001, p. 112) stated that native fish species from direct predation occidentalis sonoriensis, 32 FR 4001, varied predatory experience played an and, indirectly, from competition March 11, 1967), beautiful shiner important role in the feeding abilities of (which has adversely affected the prey (Cyprinella formosa, 49 FR 34490, gartersnakes through the first 8 months base for northern Mexican and narrow- August 31, 1984), humpback chub (Gila of age. These data suggest that a varied headed gartersnakes). The AGFD cypha, 32 FR 4001, March 11, 1967), prey base might also be important for considers native fish in Arizona as the Gila chub (Gila intermedia, 70 FR neonatal and juvenile northern Mexican most threatened taxa among the State’s 66663, November 2, 2005), Colorado gartersnakes (also a species with a native species, largely as a result of pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius, 32 varied diet) and that decreases in the predation and competition with FR 4001, March 11, 1967), spikedace diversity of the prey base during the nonnative species (AGFD 2006, p. 83). (Meda fulgida, 77 FR 10810, February young age classes might adversely affect Holycross et al. (2006, pp. 52–61) 23, 2012), loach minnow (Tiaroga the ability of individuals to capture prey documented significantly depressed or cobitis, 77 FR 10810, February 23, throughout their lifespan, in addition to extirpated native fish prey bases for 2012), razorback sucker (Xyrauchen the more obvious effects of reduced prey northern Mexican and narrow-headed texanus, 56 FR 54957, October 23, availability. gartersnakes along the Mogollon Rim in 1991), desert pupfish (Cyprinodon A wide variety of native fish species, Arizona and New Mexico. Rosen et al. macularius, 51 FR 10842, March 31, now listed as endangered, threatened, or (2001, Appendix I) documented the 1986), and Gila topminnow candidates for listing, were historically decline of several native fish species in (Poeciliopsis occidentalis, 32 FR 4001, primary prey species for northern several locations visited in southeastern March 11, 1967). In total, within Mexican and narrow-headed Arizona, further affecting the prey base Arizona, 19 of 31 (61 percent) native

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fish species are listed under the Act. Appendices B, C; Rinne et al. 1998, pp. Haney et al. (2008, p. 61) declared the Arizona ranks the highest of all 50 3–6; Voeltz 2002, p. 88; Bonar et al. northern Mexican gartersnake as nearly States in the percentage of native fish 2004, pp. 1–108; Fagan et al. 2005, pp. lost from the Verde River but also species with declining trends (85.7 34, 38–39, 41; Probst et al. 2008, pp. suggested that diminished river flow percent) and New Mexico ranks sixth 1242–1243). Nonnative, spiny-rayed fish may be an important factor. Similar (48.1 percent) (Stein 2002, p. 21; Warren species, such as flathead catfish, may be changes in the dominance of nonnative and Burr 1994, p. 14). Recovery of especially dangerous to narrow-headed fishes have occurred on the Middle Fork native fishes in the Southwest has been gartersnake populations through Gila River, with a 65 percent decline of fraught with complicating factors, both competition and direct predation, native fishes between 1988 and 2001 natural and sociopolitical, which have because they are primarily piscivorous (Propst 2002, pp. 21–25). Abarca and presented significant challenges to the (fish-eating) (Pilger et al. 2010, pp. 311– Weedman (1993, pp. 6–12) found that recovery of many imperiled native fish 312), have large mouths, and have a the number of nonnative fish species species (Minckley and Marsh 2009, pp. tendency to occur along the stream was twice the number of native fish 52–53), including many that are bottom, where narrow-headed species in Tonto Creek in the early important prey species for the northern gartersnakes principally forage. 1990s, with a stronger nonnative species Mexican and narrow-headed Rosen et al. (2001, Appendix I) and influence in the lower reaches, where gartersnakes. Holycross et al. (2006, pp. 15–51) the northern Mexican gartersnake is In an evolutionary context, many conducted large-scale surveys for considered to still occur, and Burger native fishes co-evolved with very few northern Mexican gartersnakes in (2008, p. 8) confirmed their continued predatory fish species, whereas most of southeastern and central Arizona and existence there. Surveys in the Salt the nonnative species co-evolved with narrow-headed gartersnakes in central River above Lake Roosevelt indicate a many predatory species (Clarkson et al. and east-central Arizona, and decline of roundtail chub and other 2005, p. 21). A contributing factor to the documented the presence of nonnative natives with an increase in flathead and decline of native fish species cited by fish at many locations. Holycross et al. channel catfish numbers (Voeltz 2002, Clarkson et al. (2005, p. 21) is that most (2006, pp. 14–15) found nonnative fish p. 49). of the nonnative species evolved species in 64 percent of the sample sites In New Mexico, nonnative fish have behaviors, such as nest guarding, to in the Agua Fria subbasin, 85 percent of been identified as the main cause for protect their offspring from these many the sample sites in the Verde River declines observed in native fish predators, while native species are subbasin, 75 percent of the sample sites generally broadcast spawners that in the Salt River subbasin, and 56 populations (Voeltz 2002, p. 40; Probst provide no parental care. In the percent of the sample sites in the Gila et al. 2008, pp. 1242–1243). Fish experts presence of nonnative species, the River subbasin. In total, nonnative fish from the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. reproductive behaviors of native fish fail were observed at 41 of the 57 sites Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Bureau of to allow them to compete effectively surveyed (72 percent) across the Land Management (BLM), University of with the nonnative species, and, as a Mogollon Rim (Holycross et al. 2006, p. Arizona, Arizona State University, the result, the viability of native fish 14). Entirely native fish communities Nature Conservancy, and others populations is reduced. were detected in only 8 of 57 sites declared the native fish fauna of the Gila Olden and Poff (2005, p. 75) stated surveyed (14 percent) (Holycross et al. River basin to be critically imperiled, that environmental degradation and the 2006, p. 14). It is well documented that and they cite habitat destruction and proliferation of nonnative fish species nonnative fish have now infiltrated the nonnative species as the primary factors threaten the highly localized and unique majority of aquatic communities in the for the declines. They call for the fish faunas of the American Southwest. southwestern United States as depicted control and removal of nonnative fish as The fastest expanding nonnative species in Tables 1 and 2, above, as well as in an overriding need to prevent the are red shiner (Cyprinella lutrensis), Appendix A (available at http:// decline, and ultimate extinction, of fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), www.regulations.gov under Docket No. native fish species within the basin green sunfish, largemouth bass FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071). (DFT 2003, p. 1). In some areas, (Micropterus salmoides), western Several authors have identified both nonnative fishes may not dominate the mosquitofish, and channel catfish the presence of nonnative fish as well as system, but their abundance has (Ictalurus punctatus). These species are their deleterious effects on native increased. This is the case for the Cliff- considered to be the most invasive in species within Arizona. Many areas Gila Valley area of the Gila River, where terms of their negative impacts on have seen a shift from a predominance nonnative fishes increased from 1.1 native fish communities (Olden and Poff of native fishes to a predominance of percent to 8.5 percent, while native 2005, p. 75). Many nonnative fishes, in nonnative fishes. On the upper Verde fishes declined steadily over a 40-year addition to those listed immediately River, native species dominated the period (Propst et al. 1986, pp. 27–32). At above, including yellow and black total fish community at greater than 80 the Redrock and Virden valleys on the bullheads (Ameiurus sp.), flathead percent from 1994 to 1996, before Gila River, the relative abundance in catfish (Pylodictis olivaris), and dropping to approximately 20 percent in nonnative fishes in the same time smallmouth bass (Micropterus 1997 and 19 percent in 2001. At the period increased from 2.4 percent to dolomieu), have been introduced into same time, three nonnative species 17.9 percent (Propst et al. 1986, pp. 32– formerly and currently occupied increased in abundance between 1994 34). Four years later, the relative northern Mexican or narrow-headed and 2000 (Rinne et al. 2004, pp. 1–2). abundance of nonnative fishes increased gartersnake habitat and are predators on In an assessment of the Verde River, to 54.7 percent at these sites (Propst et these species and their prey (Bestgen Bonar et al. (2004, p. 57) found that in al. 1986, pp. 32–36). The percentage of and Propst 1989, pp. 409–410; Marsh the Verde River mainstem, nonnative nonnative fishes increased by almost 12 and Minckley 1990, p. 265; Sublette et fishes were approximately 2.6 times percent on the Tularosa River between al. 1990, pp. 112, 243, 246, 304, 313, more dense per unit volume of river 1988 and 2003, while on the East Fork 318; Abarca and Weedman 1993, pp. 6– than native fishes, and their populations Gila River, nonnative fishes increased to 12; Stefferud and Stefferud 1994, p. 364; were approximately 2.8 times that of 80.5 percent relative abundance in 2003 Weedman and Young 1997, pp. 1, native fishes per unit volume of river. (Propst 2005, pp. 6–7, 23–24).

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Nonnative fishes are also considered a wide range of fishes and amphibians. (Alvarez-Torres et al. 2003, p. 323), management issue in other areas Infection by this parasite has been almost a 17-fold increase in slightly over including Eagle Creek, the San Pedro known to kill large numbers of fish due four decades; 25 species are believed to River, West Fork Gila River, and to a to tissue damage and secondary have gone extinct (Contreras-Balderas et lesser extent, the Blue River. infection of the attachment site al. 2003, p. 241). In the lower elevations In addition to harmful nonnative (Hoffnagle and Cole 1999, p. 24). of Mexico, within the distribution of the species, various parasites may affect Presence of this parasite in the Gila northern Mexican gartersnake, there are native fish species that are prey for River basin is a threat to native fishes. approximately 200 species of native northern Mexican and narrow-headed In July 1992, the BLM found anchor freshwater fish documented, with 120 gartersnakes. Asian tapeworm was worms in Bonita Creek. They have also native species under some form of threat introduced into the United States with been documented in the Verde River and an additional 15 that have gone imported grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon (Robinson et al. 1998, pp. 599, 603– extinct (Contreras-Balderas and Lozano idella) in the early 1970s. It has since 605). 1994, pp. 383–384). The Fisheries Law become well established in areas The yellow grub (Clinostomum in Mexico empowered the country’s throughout the southwestern United marginatum) is a parasitic, larval National Fisheries Institute to compile States. The definitive host in the life flatworm that appears as yellow spots and publish the National Fisheries Chart cycle of Asian tapeworm is a cyprinid on the body and fins of a fish. Because in 2000, which found that Mexico’s fish fish (carp or minnow), and therefore it the intermediate host is a bird and fauna has seriously deteriorated as a is a potential threat to native cyprinids therefore highly mobile, yellow grubs result of environmental impacts in Arizona and New Mexico. The Asian are easily spread. When yellow grubs (pollution), water basin degradation tapeworm adversely affects fish health infect a fish, they penetrate the skin and (dewatering, siltation), and the by impeding the digestion of food as it migrate into its tissues, causing damage introduction of nonnative species passes through the digestive track. and potentially hemorrhaging. Damage (Alvarez-Torres et al. 2003, pp. 320, Emaciation and starvation of the host from one yellow grub may be minimal, 323). The National Fisheries Chart is can occur when large enough numbers but in greater numbers, yellow grubs regarded as the first time the Mexican of worms feed off the fish directly. An can kill fish (Maine Department of government has openly revealed the indirect effect is that weakened fish are Inland Fisheries and Wildlife 2002a, p. status of its freshwater fisheries and more susceptible to infection by other 1). Yellow grubs occur in many areas in described their management policies pathogens. Asian tapeworm invaded the Arizona and New Mexico, including (Alvarez-Torres et al. 2003, pp. 323– Gila River basin and was found during Oak Creek (Mpoame and Rinne 1983, 324). the Central Arizona Project’s fall 1998 pp. 400–401), the Salt River (Amin monitoring in the Gila River at Ashurst- 1969, p. 436; Bryan and Robinson 2000, Industrial, municipal, and agricultural Hayden Dam. It has also been confirmed p. 19), the Verde River (Bryan and water pollution, dewatering of aquatic from Bonita Creek in 2010 (USFWS Robinson 2000, p. 19), and Bonita Creek habitat, and the proliferation nonnative National Wild Fish Health Survey (Robinson 2011, pers. comm.). species are widely considered to be the 2010). This parasite can infect many The black grub (Neascus spp.), also greatest threats to freshwater ecosystems species of fish and is carried into new called black spot, is a parasitic larval in Mexico (Branson et al. 1960, p. 218; areas along with nonnative fishes or fluke that appears as black spots on the Conant 1974, pp. 471, 487–489; Miller native fishes from contaminated areas. skin, tail base, fins, and musculature of et al. 1989, pp. 25–26, 28–33; 2005, pp. Another parasite (Ichthyophthirius a fish. When an intermediate life stage 60–61; DeGregorio 1992, p. 60; multifiliis) (Ich) usually occurs in deep of black grubs migrates into the tissues Contreras Balderas and Lozano 1994, waters with low flow and is a potential of a fish they are called ‘‘cercaria.’’ The pp. 379–381; Lyons et al. 1995, p. 572; threat to native fish. Ich has occurred in damage caused by one cercaria is 1998, pp. 10–12; va Landa et al. 1997, some Arizona streams, probably negligible, but in greater numbers they p. 316; Mercado-Silva et al. 2002, p. encouraged by high temperatures and may kill a fish (Lane and Morris 2000, 180; Contreras-Balderas et al. 2003, p. crowding as a result of drought. This pp. 2–3; Maine Department of Inland 241; Domı´nguez-Domı´nguez et al. 2007, parasite was observed being transmitted Fisheries and Wildlife 2002b, p. 1). Table 3). A shift in land use policies in on the Sonora sucker (Catostomus Black grubs are present in the Verde Mexico to encourage free market insignis), although it does not appear to River (Robinson et al. 1998, p. 603; principles in rural, small-scale be host-specific and could be Bryan and Robinson 2000, p. 21), and agriculture has been found to promote transmitted by other species (Mpoame are prevalent in the San Francisco River land use practices that threaten local 1982, p. 46). It has been found on desert in New Mexico (Paroz 2011, pers. biodiversity (Ortega-Huerta and Kral and Sonoran suckers, as well as comm.). 2007, p. 2; Randall 1996, pp. 218–220; roundtail chub (Robinson et al. 1998, p. To date, we have no information on Kiernan 2000, pp. 13–23). These threats 603), which are important prey species the effect of parasite infestation in have been documented throughout the for the northern Mexican and narrow- native fish on both gartersnake distribution of the northern Mexican headed gartersnakes. This parasite populations. gartersnake in Mexico and are best becomes embedded under the skin and The Decline of Native Fish represented in the scientific literature in within the gill tissues of infected fish. Communities in Mexico—The first the context of fisheries studies. When Ich matures, it leaves the fish, tabulations of freshwater fish species at Contreras-Balderas et al. (2003, pp. 241, causing fluid loss, physiological stress, risk in Mexico occurred in 1961, when 243) named Chihuahua (46 species), and sites that are susceptible to 11 species were identified as being at Coahuila (35 species), Sonora (19 infection by other pathogens. If Ich is risk (Contreras-Balderas et al. 2003, p. species), and Durango (18 species) as present in large enough numbers, it can 241). As of 2003, of the 506 species of Mexican states that had some of the also impact respiration because of freshwater fish recorded in Mexico, 185 most reports of freshwater fish species damaged gill tissue. (37 percent) have been listed by the at risk. These states are all within the Anchor worm (Lernaea cyprinacea), Mexican Federal Government as either distribution of the northern Mexican an external parasite, is unusual in that endangered, facing extinction, under gartersnake, indicating an overlapping it has little host specificity, infecting a special protection, or likely extinct trend of declining prey bases and

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threatened ecosystems within the range by reservoirs or other water extraction stocked with 1,000,000 largemouth bass. of the northern Mexican gartersnake in and storage structures.’’ On the Laja The common carp, the subject of Mexico. Contreras-Balderas et al. (2003, River alone, there are two major significant aquaculture investment since Appendix 1) found various threats to be reservoirs and a water diversion dam; 12 the 1960s in Mexico, is known for adversely affecting the status of more reservoirs are located on its altering aquatic habitat and consuming freshwater fish and their habitat in tributaries (Mercado-Silva et al. 2006, p. the eggs and fry of native fish species, several states in Mexico: (1) Habitat 534). As a consequence of dam and is now established in 95 percent of reduction or alteration (Sonora, operations, the main channel of the Laja Mexico’s freshwater systems (Tapia and Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, San remains dry for extensive periods of Zambrano 2003, p. 252). Luis Potosı´, Jalisco, Guanajuato); (2) time (Mercado-Silva et al. 2006, p. 541). Basins in northern Mexico, such as water depletion (Chihuahua, Durango, The damming and modification of the the Rio Yaqui, have been found to be Coahuila, Sonora, Guanajuato, Jalisco, lower Colorado River in Mexico, where significantly compromised by harmful San Luis Potosı´); (3) harmful nonnative the northern Mexican gartersnake nonnative fish species. Unmack and species (Durango, Chihuahua, Coahuila, occurred, has facilitated the Fagan (2004, p. 233) compared San Luis Potosı´, Sonora, Veracruz); and replacement of the entire native fishery historical museum collections of (4) pollution (Me´xico, Jalisco, with nonnative species (Miller et al. nonnative fish species from the Gila Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango). Within 2005, p. 61). Each reservoir created by River basin in Arizona and the Yaqui the states of Chihuahua, Durango, a dam is either managed as a nonnative River basin in Sonora, Mexico, to gain Coahuila, Sonora, Jalisco, and commercial fishery or has become a insight into the trends in distribution, Guanajuato, water depletion is likely source population of nonnative diversity, and abundance of nonnative considered serious, with entire basins species, which have naturally or fishes in each basin over time. They having been dewatered, or conditions artificially colonized the reservoir, found that nonnative species are slowly, have been characterized as ‘‘highly dispersed into connected riverine but steadily, increasing in all three altered’’ (Contreras-Balderas et al. 2003, systems, and damaged native aquatic parameters in the Yaqui Basin (Unmack Appendix 1). All of the Mexican states communities. and Fagan 2004, p. 233). Unmack and Fagan (2004, p. 233) predicted that, in with the highest numbers of fish species Mexico, as with other developing the absence of aggressive management at risk are considered arid, a condition countries, depends in large part on intervention, significant extirpations or hastened by increasing desertification freshwater commercial fisheries as a (Contreras-Balderas et al. 2003, p. 244). range reductions of native fish species source of protein for both urbanized and are expected to occur in the Yaqui Basin Aquaculture and Nonnative Fish rural human populated areas. of Sonora, Mexico, which may have Proliferation in Mexico—Nonnative fish Commercial and subsistence fisheries extant populations of the northern compete with and prey upon northern rely heavily on introduced, nonnative Mexican gartersnake, as did much of the Mexican gartersnakes and their native species in the largest freshwater lakes Gila Basin before the introduction of prey species. The proliferation of (Soto-Galera et al. 1999, p. 133) down to nonnative species. Loss of native fishes nonnative fish species throughout rural, small ponds (Tapia and Zambrano will impact prey availability for the Mexico happened mainly by natural 2003, p. 252). At least 87 percent of the northern Mexican gartersnake and dispersal, intentional stockings, and species captured or cultivated in inland threaten its persistence in these areas. accidental breaches of artificial or fisheries of Mexico from 1989–1999 Black bullheads (Ameiurus melas) were constructed barriers by nonnative fish. included tilapia, common carp, channel reported as abundant, and common carp Lentic water bodies such as lakes, catfish, trout, and black bass were detected from the Rio Yaqui in reservoirs, and ponds are often used for (Micropterus sp.), all of which are southern Sonora, Mexico (Branson et al. flood control, agricultural purposes, and nonnative (Alvarez-Torres et al. 2003, 1960, p. 219). Bluegill (Lepomis most commonly to support commercial pp. 318, 322). In fact, the northern and macrochirus) were also reported at this fisheries. The most recent estimates central plateau region of Mexico (which location, representing a significant range indicate that Mexico has 13,936 of such comprises most of the distribution of the expansion that the authors expected was water bodies, where approximately 96 northern Mexican gartersnake’s the result of escaping nearby farm ponds percent are between 2.47–247 acres (1– distribution in Mexico) is considered or irrigation ditches (Branson et al. 100 hectares) and approximately half ideal for the production of harmful, 1960, p. 220). Largemouth bass, green are artificial (Sugunan 1997, Table 8.3; predatory species such as bass and sunfish, and an undetermined crappie Alvarez-Torres et al. 2003, pp. 318, catfish (Sugunan 1997, Section 8.3). species have also been reported from 322). Areas where these landscape Largemouth bass are now produced and this area (Branson et al. 1960, p. 220). features are most prevalent occur within stocked in reservoirs and lakes Hendrickson and Varela-Romero (1989, the distribution of the northern Mexican throughout the distribution of the p. 479) conducted fish sampling along gartersnake. For example, Jalisco and northern Mexican gartersnake (Sugunan the Rı´o Sonoyta of northern Sonora, Zacatecas are listed as two of four states 1997, Section 8.8.1). The Secretariat for Mexico, and found over half of the fish with the highest number of reservoirs, Environment, Natural Resources and collected were nonnative, both and Chihuahua is one of two states Fisheries, formed in 1995 and known as predatory species and prey species for known for a high concentration of lakes SEMARNAP, is the Mexican federal the northern Mexican gartersnake. (Sugunan 1997, Section 8.4.2). Based on agency responsible for management of Domı´nguez-Domı´nguez et al. (2007, p. the data presented in Sugunan (1997, the country’s environment and natural 171) sampled 52 localities for a rare Table 8.5), a total of 422 dammed resources. SEMARNAP dictates the freshwater fish, the Picotee goodeid reservoirs are located within the 16 stocking rates of nonnative species into (Zoogoneticus quitzeoensis), along the Mexican states where the northern the country’s lakes and reservoirs. For southern portion of the Mesa Central Mexican gartersnake is thought to occur. example, the permitted stocking rate for (Mexican Plateau) of Mexico and found Mercado-Silva et al. (2006, p. 534) largemouth bass in Mexico is one fish 21 localities had significant signs of found that within the state of per square meter in large reservoirs pollution. Of the 29 localities where the Guanajuato, ‘‘Practically all streams and (Sugunan 1997, Table 8.8); therefore, a target species was detected, 28 of them rivers in the [Laja] basin are truncated 247-acre (100-ha) reservoir could be also had harmful nonnative species

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present, such as largemouth bass, population declines, and nonnative fish gartersnake populations have been cichlids (Oreochromis sp.), bluegill, introductions in high-elevation aquatic documented through repeated survey Pa´tzcuaro chub (Algansea lacustris) ecosystems in California. Matthews et efforts over time (Holm and Lowe 1995, (Domı´nguez-Domı´nguez et al. 2007, pp. al. (2002, p. 16) specifically examined p. 33). Surveys of Scotia Canyon 171, Table 3). Other nonnative fish the effect of nonnative trout occurred during the early 1980s, and species reported are soft-rayed and introductions on populations of again during the early 1990s. Leopard small bodied, and may be prey items for amphibians and mountain gartersnakes frogs in Scotia Canyon were younger age classes of northern Mexican (Thamnophis elegans elegans). Their infrequently observed during the early gartersnakes. Several examples of results indicated the probability of 1980s, and were apparently extirpated significant aquatic habitat degradation observing gartersnakes was 30 times by the early 1990s (Holm and Lowe or destruction were also observed by greater in lakes containing amphibians 1995, pp. 45–46). Northern Mexican Domı´nguez-Domı´nguez et al. (2007, than in lakes where amphibians have gartersnakes were observed in decline Table 3) in this region of Mexico, been extirpated by nonnative fish. These during the early 1980s, with low capture including the draining of natural lakes results supported a prediction by rates continuing through the early 1990s and cienegas for conversion to Jennings et al. (1992, p. 503) that native (Holm and Lowe 1995, pp. 27–35). agricultural purposes, modification of amphibian declines will lead directly to Surveys documented further decline of springs for recreational swimming, gartersnake declines. Matthews et al. leopard frogs and northern Mexican diversions, and dam construction. As of (2002, p. 20) noted that, in addition to gartersnakes in 2000 (Rosen et al. 2001, 2006, native fish species comprised the nonnative fish species adversely pp. 15–16). most prevalent in species composition impacting amphibian populations that A former large, local population of and abundance in the Laja Basin; are part of the gartersnake’s prey base, northern Mexican gartersnakes at the however the basin is trending towards a direct predation on gartersnakes by San Bernardino National Wildlife nonnative fishery based on historical nonnative fish also occurs. However, Refuge (SBNWR) in southeastern data whereas nonnative species were Shah et al. (2010, pp. 188–190) found Arizona has also experienced a most recently collected from 16 of 17 that native tadpoles may exhibit anti- correlative decline of leopard frogs, and sample sites, largemouth bass have predator learning behavior that may northern Mexican gartersnakes are now significantly expanded their distribution assist their persistence in habitat thought to occur at very low-population within the headwaters of the basin, and affected by nonnative, spiny-rayed fish. densities or may be extirpated there bluegill are now widespread in the Laja Declines in the native leopard frog (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 28; 1995, River (Mercado-Silva et al. 2006, pp. populations in Arizona have p. 452; 1996, pp. 1–3; 1997, p. 1; 2002b, 537, 542, Table 4). contributed to declines in the northern pp. 223–227; 2002c, pp. 31, 70; Rosen The ecological risk of nonnative, Mexican gartersnake, one of the frog’s et al. 1996b, pp. 8–9; 2001, pp. 6–10). freshwater aquaculture production has primary native predators. Native ranid Survey data indicate that declines of only recently been acknowledged by the frog species, such as lowland leopard leopard frog populations, often Mexican government as compared to frogs, northern leopard frogs, and correlated with nonnative species decades of aquaculture production, federally threatened Chiricahua leopard introductions, the spread of a chytrid mainly because conservation of frogs, have all experienced declines in fungus (Batrachochytrium biodiversity was not valued as highly as various degrees throughout their dendrobatidis, Bd), and habitat the benefits garnered by nonnative fish distribution in the Southwest, partially modification and destruction, have production, most notably in the due to predation and competition with occurred throughout much of the country’s rural, poorest regions (Tapia nonnative species (Clarkson and northern Mexican gartersnake’s U.S. and Zambrano 2003, p. 252). In fact, Rorabaugh 1989, pp. 531, 535; Hayes distribution (Nickerson and Mays 1970, recent amendments to Mexico’s fishing and Jennings 1986, p. 490). Rosen et al. p. 495; Vitt and Ohmart 1978, p. 44; regulations allow for relaxation of (1995, pp. 257–258) found that Ohmart et al. 1988, p. 150; Rosen and existing regulations imposed by other Chiricahua leopard frog distribution in Schwalbe 1988, Appendix I; 1995, p. government regulations and expansion the Chiricahua Mountain region of 452; 1996, pp. 1–3; 1997, p. 1; 2002b, of opportunities for investment in Arizona was inversely related to pp. 232–238; 2002c, pp. 1, 31; Clarkson commercial fishing to promote growth nonnative species distribution and, and Rorabaugh 1989, pp. 531–538; Sredl in Mexico’s aquaculture sector without corrective action, predicted that et al. 1995a, pp. 7–8; 1995b, pp. 8–9, (Sugunan 1997, Section 8.7.1). Between the Chiricahua leopard frog may be 1995c, pp. 7–8; 2000, p. 10; Holm and the broad geographic extent of difficult to conserve in this region. Lowe 1995, pp. 45–46; Rosen et al. commercial or sustenance fisheries, the Along the Mogollon Rim, Holycross et 1996b, p. 2; 2001, pp. 2, 22; Degenhardt important source of protein they al. (2006, p. 13) found that only 8 sites et al. 1996, p. 319; Fernandez and Rosen represent, and the many mechanisms of 57 surveyed (15 percent) consisted of 1996, pp. 6–20; Drost and Nowak 1997, introduced nonnative fish have to an entirely native anuran community, p. 11; Turner et al. 1999, p. 11; Nowak naturally or artificially expand their and that native frog populations in and Spille 2001, p. 32; Holycross et al. distribution, few areas within the range another 19 sites (33 percent) had been 2006, pp. 13–14, 52–61). Specifically, of the northern Mexican gartersnake in completely displaced by invading Holycross et al. (2006, pp. 53–57, 59) Mexico have avoided adverse impacts bullfrogs. However, such declines in documented potential extirpations of associated with nonnative species. native frog populations are not the northern Mexican gartersnake’s Harmful nonnative fish species necessarily irreversible. Ranid frog native leopard frog prey base at several therefore pose a significant threat to the populations have been shown to currently, historically, or potentially prey base of northern Mexican rebound strongly when nonnative fish occupied locations, including the Agua gartersnakes and to the gartersnakes are removed (Knapp et al. 2007, pp. 15– Fria River in the vicinity of Table Mesa themselves throughout most of their 18). Road and Little Grand Canyon Ranch, range in Mexico. Scotia Canyon, in the Huachuca and at Rock Springs, Dry Creek from Amphibian decline—Matthews et al. Mountains of southeastern Arizona, is a Dugas Road to Little Ash Creek, Little (2002, p. 16) examined the relationship location where corresponding declines Ash Creek from Brown Spring to Dry of gartersnake distributions, amphibian of leopard frog and northern Mexican Creek, Sycamore Creek (Agua Fria

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subbasin) in the vicinity of the Forest of the native prey species of the source (Tellman 2002, p. 43). We are not Service Cabin, the Page Springs and northern Mexican gartersnake within certain when bullfrogs were first Bubbling Ponds fish hatchery along Oak the distribution of the snake (Morell reported from New Mexico but presume Creek, Sycamore Creek (Verde River 1999, pp. 731–732; Sredl and Caldwell it was many decades ago. Bullfrogs are subbasin) in the vicinity of the 2000, p. 1; Hale 2001, pp. 32–37; extremely prolific, are strong colonizers, confluence with the Verde River north Bradley et al. 2002, p. 207; USFWS and may disperse distances of up to 10 of Clarkdale, along several reaches of 2002, pp. 40802–40804; USFWS 2007, mi (16 km) across uplands, and likely the Verde River mainstem, pp. 26, 29–32). Declines of native prey further within drainages (Bautista 2002, on the east side of the Sierra Ancha species of the northern Mexican p. 131; Rosen and Schwalbe 2002a, p. 7; Mountains, and Tonto Creek from Gisela gartersnake from Bd infections have Casper and Hendricks 2005, p. 582; to ‘‘the Box,’’ near its confluence with contributed to the decline of this species Suhre 2008, pers. comm.). Rye Creek. in the United States (Morell 1999, pp. Bullfrogs are large-bodied, voracious, Rosen et al. (2001, p. 22) identified 731–732; Sredl and Caldwell 2000, p. 1; opportunistic, even cannibalistic the expansion of bullfrogs into the Hale 2001, pp. 32–37; Bradley et al. predators that readily attempt to Sonoita grasslands, which contain 2002, p. 207; USFWS 2002, pp. 40802– consume any living thing smaller than occupied northern Mexican gartersnake 40804; USFWS 2007, pp. 26, 29–32). them. Bullfrogs have a highly varied habitat, and the introduction of crayfish Evidence of Bd-related amphibian diet, which has been documented to into Lewis Springs, as being of declines has been confirmed in portions include vegetation, invertebrates, fish, particular concern in terms of future of southern Mexico (just outside the birds, mammals, amphibians, and recovery efforts for the northern range of northern Mexican reptiles, including numerous species of Mexican gartersnake. Rosen et al. (1995, gartersnakes), and data suggest declines snakes (eight genera, including six pp. 252–253) sampled aquatic are more prevalent at higher elevations different species of gartersnakes, two herpetofauna at 103 sites in the (Lips et al. 2004, pp. 560–562). species of rattlesnakes, and Sonoran Chiricahua Mountains region, which However, much less is known about the gophersnakes (Pituophis catenifer included the Chiricahua, Dragoon, and role of Bd in amphibian declines across affinis)) (Bury and Whelan 1984, p. 5; Peloncillo mountains, and the Sulphur much of Mexico, in particular the Clarkson and DeVos 1986, p. 45; Holm Springs, San Bernardino, and San mountainous regions of Mexico and Lowe 1995, pp. 37–38; Carpenter et Simon valleys. They found that 43 (including much of the range of al. 2002, p. 130; King et al. 2002; Hovey percent of all cold-blooded aquatic and northern Mexican gartersnakes in and Bergen 2003, pp. 360–361; Casper semi-aquatic vertebrate species detected Mexico) as the region is significantly and Hendricks 2005, pp. 543–544; were nonnative. The most commonly understudied (Young et al. 2000, p. Combs et al. 2005, p. 439; Wilcox 2005, encountered nonnative species was the 1218). Because narrow-headed p. 306; DaSilva et al. 2007, p. 443; Neils bullfrog (Rosen et al. 1995, p. 254). gartersnakes feed on fish, Bd has not and Bugbee 2007, p. 443; Rowe and Witte et al. (2008, p. 1) found that the affected their prey base. Also, research Garcia 2012, pp. 633–634). In one study, disappearance of ranid frog populations shows that the fungus Batrachochytrium three different species of gartersnakes in Arizona were 2.6 times more likely in can grow on boiled snakeskin (keratin) the presence of crayfish. Witte et al. in the laboratory (Longcore et al. 1999, (Thamnophis sirtalis, T. elegans, and T. (2008, p. 7) emphasized the significant p. 227), indicating the potential for ordinoides) totaling 11 snakes were influence of nonnative species on the disease outbreaks in wild snake found inside the stomachs of resident disappearance of ranid frogs in Arizona. populations if conditions are favorable; bullfrogs from a single region In addition to harmful nonnative however no observations have been (Jancowski and Orchard 2013, p. 26). species, disease and nonnative parasites made in the field, and we found no Bullfrogs can significantly reduce or have been implicated in the decline of other data that propose a direct linkage eliminate the native amphibian the prey base of the northern Mexican between Bd and snake mortality. populations (Moyle 1973, pp. 18–22; gartersnake. In particular, the outbreak Conant 1974, pp. 471, 487–489; Hayes of chytridiomycosis or ‘‘Bd,’’ a skin The Effects of Bullfrogs on Native and Jennings 1986, pp. 491–492; Rosen fungus, has been identified as a chief Aquatic Communities and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 28–30; 2002b, causative agent in the significant Bullfrogs are generally considered one pp. 232–238; Rosen et al. 1995, pp. 257– declines of many of the native ranid of the most serious threats to northern 258; 2001, pp. 2, Appendix I; Wu et al. frogs and other amphibian species. In Mexican gartersnakes throughout their 2005, p. 668; Pearl et al. 2004, p. 18; addition, regional concerns exist for the range (Conant 1974, pp. 471, 487–489; Kupferberg 1994, p. 95; Kupferburg native fish community due to nonnative Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 28–30; 1997, pp. 1736–1751; Lawler et al. 1999; parasites, such as the Asian tapeworm Rosen et al. 2001, pp. 21–22). Bullfrogs Bury and Whelan 1986, pp. 9–10; Hayes (Bothriocephalus acheilognathi) in have and do threaten some populations and Jennings 1986, pp. 500–501; Jones southeastern Arizona (Rosen and of narrow-headed gartersnakes, but and Timmons 2010, pp. 473–474), Schwalbe 1997, pp. 14–15; 2002c, pp. differing habitat preferences between which are vital for northern Mexican 1–19; Morell 1999, pp. 728–732; Sredl the two temper their effect on narrow- gartersnakes. Different age classes of and Caldwell 2000, p. 1; Hale 2001, pp. headed gartersnakes. Bullfrogs adversely bullfrogs within a community can affect 32–37; Bradley et al. 2002, p. 206). As affect northern Mexican and narrow- native ranid populations via different indicated, Bd has been implicated in headed gartersnakes through direct mechanisms. Juvenile bullfrogs affect both large-scale declines and local predation of juveniles and sub-adults. native ranids through competition, male extirpations of many amphibians, Bullfrogs also compete with northern bullfrogs affect native ranids through chiefly anuran species, around the Mexican gartersnakes. Bullfrogs are not predation, and female bullfrogs affect world (Johnson 2006, p. 3011). Lips et native to the southwestern United States native ranids through both mechanisms al. (2006, pp. 3166–3169) suggest that or Mexico, and first appeared in Arizona depending on body size and the high virulence and large number of in 1926, as a result of a systematic microhabitat (Wu et al. 2005, p. 668). potential hosts make Bd a serious threat introduction effort by the State Game Pearl et al. (2004, p. 18) also suggested to amphibian diversity. In Arizona, Bd Department (now, the AGFD) for the that the effect of bullfrog introductions infections have been reported in several purposes of sport hunting and as a food on native ranids may be different based

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on specific habitat conditions, but also where removal efforts were the most snakes, which ultimately leads to low suggested that an individual ranid frog intensive (Rosen and Schwalbe 1997, p. reproductive rates and survival of young species’ physical ability to escape 6). Contradictory to the goals of bullfrog (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 18; Holm influences the effect of bullfrogs on each eradication, evidence from dissection and Lowe 1995, p. 34). In lotic (flowing native ranid community. samples from young adult and sub-adult water) systems, bullfrogs prefer sites Bullfrogs have been documented bullfrogs indicated these age-classes with low or limited flow, such as throughout the State of Arizona. readily prey upon juvenile bullfrogs (up backwaters, side channels, and pool Holycross et al. (2006, pp. 13–14, 52– to the average adult leopard frog size) as habitat. These areas are also used 61) found bullfrogs at 55 percent of well as juvenile gartersnakes, which frequently by northern Mexican and sample sites in the Agua Fria subbasin, suggests that the selective removal of narrow-headed gartersnakes, which 62 percent of sites in the Verde River only the large adult bullfrogs (presumed likely results in increased predation subbasin, 25 percent of sites in the Salt to be the most dangerous size class to rates and likely depressed recruitment River subbasin, and 22 percent of sites leopard frogs and gartersnakes), favoring of gartersnakes. Potential recruitment in the Gila River subbasin. In total, the young adult and sub-adult age problems for northern Mexican bullfrogs were observed at 22 of the 57 classes, could indirectly lead to gartersnakes due to effects from sites surveyed (39 percent) across the increased predation of leopard frogs and nonnative species are suspected at Mogollon Rim (Holycross et al. 2006, p. juvenile gartersnakes (Rosen and Tonto Creek (Wallace et al. 2008, pp. 13). A number of authors have also Schwalbe 1997, p. 6). These findings 243–244). Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, p. documented the presence of bullfrogs illustrate that in addition to large adults, 18) stated that the low recruitment at through their survey efforts throughout subadult bullfrogs also negatively the SBNWR, a typical characteristic of many subbasins in Arizona and New impact northern Mexican gartersnakes gartersnake populations affected by Mexico adjacent to the historical and their prey species. It also indicates harmful nonnative species, is the likely distribution of the northern Mexican or the importance of including egg mass cause of that populations’ decline and narrow-headed gartersnake, including and tadpole removal during efforts to possibly for declines in populations northern Arizona (Sredl et al. 1995a, p. control bullfrogs and timing removal throughout their range in Arizona. 7; 1995c, p. 7), central Arizona and projects to ensure reproductive bullfrogs Specific localities within the along the Mogollon Rim of Arizona and are removed prior to breeding. Some distribution of northern Mexican and New Mexico (Nickerson and Mays 1970, success in regional bullfrog eradication narrow-headed gartersnakes where p. 495; Hulse 1973, p. 278; Sredl et al. has been had in a few cases described bullfrogs have been detected are 1995b, p. 9; Drost and Nowak 1997, p. below in the section entitled ‘‘Current presented in Appendix A (available at 11; Nowak and Spille 2001, p. 11; Conservation of Northern Mexican and http://www.regulations.gov under Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 15–51; Narrow-headed Gartersnakes.’’ Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071). Wallace et al. 2008; pp. 243–244; Bullfrogs not only compete with the Helleckson 2012a, pers. comm.), northern Mexican gartersnake for prey The Effects of Crayfish on Native southern Arizona (Rosen and Schwalbe items but directly prey upon juvenile Aquatic Communities 1988, Appendix I; 1995, p. 452; 1996, and occasionally sub-adult northern Crayfish are a nonnative species in pp. 1–3; 1997, p. 1; 2002b, pp. 223–227; Mexican and narrow-headed Arizona and New Mexico and are a 2002c, pp. 31, 70; Holm and Lowe 1995, gartersnakes (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, primary threat to many prey species of pp. 27–35; Rosen et al. 1995, p. 254; pp. 28–31; 1995, p. 452; 2002b, pp. 223– northern Mexican and narrow-headed 1996a, pp. 16–17; 1996b, pp. 8–9; 2001, 227; Holm and Lowe 1995, pp. 29–29; gartersnakes, and may also prey upon Appendix I; Turner et al. 1999, p. 11; Rossman et al. 1996, p. 177; AGFD In juvenile gartersnakes themselves Sredl et al. 2000, p. 10; Turner 2007; p. Prep., p. 12; 2001, p. 3; Rosen et al. (Fernandez and Rosen 1996, p. 25; 41), and along the Colorado River (Vitt 2001, pp. 10, 21–22; Carpenter et al. Voeltz 2002, pp. 87–88; USFWS 2007, p. and Ohmart 1978, p. 44; Clarkson and 2002, p. 130; Wallace 2002, p. 116). A 22). Fernandez and Rosen (1996, p. 3) DeVos 1986, pp. 42–49; Ohmart et al. well-circulated photograph of an adult studied the effects of crayfish 1988, p. 143). In one of the more bullfrog in the process of consuming a introductions on two stream conspicuous examples, bullfrogs were northern Mexican gartersnake at Parker communities in Arizona, a low- identified as the primary cause for Canyon Lake, Cochise County, Arizona, elevation semi-desert stream and a high collapse of both the northern Mexican taken by John Carr of the Arizona Game mountain stream, and concluded that gartersnake and its prey base on the and Fish Department in 1964, provides crayfish can noticeably reduce species SBNWR (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. photographic documentation of bullfrog diversity and destabilize food chains in 28; 1995, p. 452; 1996, pp. 1–3; 1997, p. predation (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. riparian and aquatic ecosystems through 1; 2002b, pp. 223–227; 2002c, pp. 31, 29; 1995, p. 452). The most recent, their effect on vegetative structure, 70; Rosen et al. 1996b, pp. 8–9). physical evidence of bullfrog predation stream substrate (stream bottom; i.e., Perhaps one of the most serious of northern Mexican gartersnakes is silt, sand, cobble, boulder) composition, consequences of bullfrog introductions provided in photographs of a dissected and predation on eggs, larval, and adult is their persistence in an area once they bullfrog at Pasture 9 Tank in the San forms of native invertebrate and have become established, and the Rafael Valley of Arizona that had a vertebrate species. Crayfish fed on subsequent difficulty in eliminating freshly-eaten neonatal northern Mexican embryos, tadpoles, newly bullfrog populations. Rosen and gartersnake in its stomach (Akins 2012, metamorphosed frogs, and adult leopard Schwalbe (1995, p. 452) experimented pers. comm.). frogs, but they did not feed on egg with bullfrog removal at various sites on A common observation in northern masses (Fernandez and Rosen 1996, p. the SBNWR, in addition to a control site Mexican gartersnake populations that 25). However, Gamradt and Kats (1996, with no bullfrog removal in similar co-occur with bullfrogs is a p. 1155) found that crayfish readily habitat on the Buenos Aires National preponderance of large, mature adult consumed the egg masses of California Wildlife Refuge (BANWR). Removal of snakes with conspicuously low numbers newts (Taricha torosa). Crayfish are adult bullfrogs, without removal of eggs of individuals in the newborn and known to also eat fish eggs and larva and tadpoles, resulted in a substantial juvenile age size classes due to bullfrogs (Inman et al. 1998, p. 17), especially increase in younger age-class bullfrogs more effectively preying on young small those bound to the substrate (Dorn and

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Mittlebach 2004, p. 2135). Fernandez sample sites in the Agua Fria subbasin; appropriate control agent in the future and Rosen (1996, pp. 6–19, 52–56) and in 85 percent of the sites in the Verde (Davidson et al. 2010, pp. 307–308). In Rosen (1987, p. 5) discussed River subbasin; in 46 percent of the sites addition, recent experimentation with observations of inverse relationships in the Salt River subbasin; and in 67 ammonia as a piscicide indirectly found between crayfish abundance and native percent of the sites in the Gila River that crayfish were also effectively reptile and amphibian populations, subbasin. In total, crayfish were eradicated in field trials; the first including narrow-headed gartersnakes, observed at 35 (61 percent) of the 57 successful and most promising control northern leopard frogs, and Chiricahua sites surveyed across the Mogollon Rim method for this harmful nonnative leopard frogs. Crayfish may also affect (Holycross et al. 2006, p. 14), most of species in recent times (Ward et al. native fish populations. Carpenter which were sites historically or 2013, pp. 402–404). However, it could (2005, pp. 338–340) documented that currently occupied by northern Mexican be potentially several years before crayfish may reduce the growth rates of or narrow-headed gartersnakes, or sites ammonia is licensed for such use, if native fish through competition for food the investigators believed possessed ever. and noted that the significance of this suitable habitat and may be occupied by The Effects of Predation-Related Injuries impact may vary between species. these gartersnakes based upon the their to Gartersnakes Crayfish alter the abundance and known historical distributions. structure of aquatic vegetation by A number of authors have The tails of gartersnakes are often grazing on aquatic and semiaquatic documented the presence of crayfish broken off during predation attempts by vegetation, which reduces the cover through their survey efforts throughout bullfrogs or crayfish and do not needed by frogs and gartersnakes, as Arizona and New Mexico in specific regenerate. The incidence of tail breaks well as the food supply for prey species regional areas, drainages, and lentic in gartersnakes can often be used to such as tadpoles (Fernandez and Rosen wetlands within or adjacent to the assess predation pressure within 1996, pp. 10–12). Fernandez and Rosen historical distribution of the northern gartersnake populations. Attempted (1996, pp. 10–12) found that crayfish Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake, predation occurs on both sexes and all frequently burrow into stream banks, including northern Arizona (Sredl et al. ages of gartersnakes within a leading to increased bank erosion, 1995a, p. 7; 1995c, p. 7), central Arizona population, although some general stream turbidity, and siltation of stream and along the Mogollon Rim of Arizona trends have been detected. For example, bottoms. Creed (1994, p. 2098) found and New Mexico (Sredl et al. 1995b, p. female gartersnakes may be more that filamentous alga (Cladophora 9; Fernandez and Rosen 1996, pp. 54– susceptible to predation as evidenced by glomerata) was at least 10-fold greater in 55, 71; Inman et al. 1998, Appendix B; the incidence of tail damage (Willis et aquatic habitats that lacked crayfish. Nowak and Spille 2001, p. 33; Holycross al. 1982, pp. 100–101; Rosen and Filamentous alga is an important et al. 2006, pp. 15–51; Brennan 2007, p. Schwalbe1988, p. 22; Mushinsky and component of aquatic vegetation that 7; Burger 2008, p. 4; Wallace et al. 2008; Miller 1993, pp. 662–664; Fitch 2003, p. provides cover for foraging gartersnakes, pp. 243–244; Brennan and Rosen 2009, 212). This can be explained by higher as well as microhabitat for prey species. p. 9; Karam et al. 2009; pp. 2–3; basking rates associated with pregnant Crayfish have recently been found to Helleckson 2012a, pers. comm.), females that increase their visibility to also act as a host for the amphibian southern Arizona (Rosen and Schwalbe predators. Fitch (2003, p. 212) found disease-causing fungus, Bd (McMahon 1988, Appendix I; Inman et al. 1998, that tail injuries in the common et al. (2013, pp. 210–213). This could Appendix B; Sredl et al. 2000, p. 10; gartersnake occurred more frequently in have serious implications for northern Rosen et al. 2001, Appendix I), and adults than in juveniles. Predation on Mexican gartersnakes because crayfish along the Colorado River (Ohmart et al. juvenile snakes likely results in can now be considered a source of 1988, p. 150; Inman et al. 1998, complete consumption of the animal, disease in habitat that is devoid of Appendix B). Specific localities within which would limit observations of tail amphibians but otherwise potentially the distribution of northern Mexican injury in their age class. suitable habitat for immigrating and narrow-headed gartersnakes where Tail injuries can have negative effects amphibians, such as leopard frogs, crayfish have been detected are on the health, longevity, and overall which could serve as a prey base. presented in Appendix A (available at success of individual gartersnakes from Because crayfish are so widespread http://www.regulations.gov under infection, slower swimming and throughout Arizona, New Mexico, and Docket No. FWS–R2–ES–2013–0071). crawling speeds, or impeding portions of Mexico, this could have Like bullfrogs, crayfish can be very reproduction. Mushinsky and Miller broad, negative implications for the difficult, if not impossible, to eradicate (1993, pp. 662–664) commented that, recovery of native leopard frogs, and once they have become established in while tail breakage in gartersnakes can therefore the recovery of northern an area, depending on the complexity of save the life of an individual snake, it Mexican gartersnakes. the habitat (Rosen and Schwalbe 1996a, also leads to permanent handicapping of Inman et al. (1998, p. 3) documented pp. 5–8; 2002a, p. 7; Hyatt undated, the snake, resulting in slower swimming crayfish as widely distributed and pp. 63–71). The use of biological control and crawling speeds, which could leave locally abundant in a broad array of agents such as bacteria, nematodes, and the snake more vulnerable to predation natural and artificial free-flowing and viruses were explored in addressing the or affect its foraging ability. Willis et al. still-water habitats throughout Arizona, invasion and persistence of crayfish in (1982, p. 98) discussed the incidence of many of which overlap the historical the southwestern United States, using tail injury in three species in the genus and current distribution of northern the organisms’ cannibalistic nature as a Thamnophis (common gartersnake, Mexican and narrow-headed vector (Davidson et al. 2010, pp. 297– Butler’s gartersnake (T. butleri), and the gartersnakes. Hyatt (undated, p. 71) 310). The use of biological control eastern ribbon snake (T. sauritus)) and concluded that the majority of waters in agents tested found them to be concluded that individuals that suffered Arizona contained at least one species ineffective or infeasible in controlling nonfatal injuries prior to reaching a of crayfish. In surveying for northern crayfish, but a number of other length of 12 in (30 cm) are not likely to Mexican and narrow-headed biological pathogens have been survive and that physiological stress gartersnakes, Holycross et al. (2006, p. described in freshwater crayfish that during post-injury hibernation may play 14) found crayfish in 64 percent of the may lend promise to finding an an important role in subsequent

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mortality. While northern Mexican or River region, Emmons and Nowak (Duifhuis Rivera et al. 2008, p. 479). As narrow-headed gartersnakes may (2013, p. 5) reported that 18 of 49 (37 of 2008, Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella survive an individual predation attempt percent) northern Mexican gartersnakes (2008, p. 20) have recorded bullfrogs in from a bullfrog or crayfish with tail captured had scars (n = 17) and/or 20 of the 31 Mexican States (65 percent damage, secondary effects from missing tails tips (n = 7). of the states in Mexico) and suspect that infection of the wound may Vegetation or other forms of they have invaded other States, but were significantly contribute to mortality of protective cover may be particularly unable to find documentation. individuals. Perry-Richardson et al. important for gartersnakes to reduce the Sponsored by the then Mexican (1990, p. 77) described the importance effects of harmful nonnative species on Secretary of Aquaculture Support, of tail-tip alignment in the successful populations. For example, the bullfrogs have been commercially courtship and mating in Thamnophiine population of northern Mexican produced for food in Mexico in snakes and found that missing or gartersnakes at the Page Springs and Yucatan, Nayarit, Morelos, Estado de shortened tails adversely affected these Bubbling Ponds State Fish Hatcheries Mexico, Michoaca´n, Guadalajara, San activities and, therefore, mating success. occurs with harmful nonnative species Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, and Sonora In researching the role of tail length in (Boyarski 2008b, pp. 3–4, 8). Yet, only (Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella 2008, p. mating success in the red-sided 11 percent of northern Mexican 20). However, frog legs ultimately never gartersnake (Thamnophis sirtalis gartersnakes captured in 2007 were gained popularity in Mexican culinary parietalis), Shine et al. (1999, p. 2150) observed as having some level of tail culture (Conant 1974, pp. 487–489), and found that males that experienced damage (Boyarski 2008b, pp. 5, 8). The Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella (2008, p. injuries or the partial or whole loss of relatively low occurrence of tail damage, 22) point out that only 10 percent of the tail experienced a three-fold as compared to 78 percent of snakes these farms remain in production. Luja decrease in mating success. with tail damage found by Rosen and and Rodrı´guez-Estrella (2008, pp. 20, Schwalbe (1988, pp. 28–31), may 22) document instances where bullfrogs The frequency of tail injuries can be indicate: (1) Adequate vegetation have escaped production farms and quite high in a given gartersnake density was used by gartersnakes to suspect the majority of the frogs that population; for example at the SBNWR avoid harmful nonnative species were produced commercially in farms (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. 28–31), predation attempts; (2) a relatively small that have since ceased operation have 78 percent of northern Mexican population of harmful nonnative species assimilated into surrounding habitat. gartersnakes had broken tails with a may be at a comparatively lower density Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella (2008, p. ‘‘soft and club-like’’ terminus, which than sites sampled by previous studies 20) also state that Mexican people suggests repeated injury from multiple (harmful nonnative species population deliberately introduce bullfrogs for predation attempts by bullfrogs. While density data were not collected by ornamental purposes, or ‘‘for the simple medically examining pregnant female Boyarski (2008b)); (3) gartersnakes may pleasure of having them in ponds.’’ The northern Mexican gartersnakes, Rosen not have needed to move significant act of deliberately releasing bullfrogs and Schwalbe (1988, p. 28) noted distances at this locality to achieve into the wild in Mexico was cited by bleeding from the posterior region, foraging success, which might reduce Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella (2008, p. which suggested to the investigators the the potential for encounters with 21) as being ‘‘more common than we snakes suffered from ‘‘squeeze-type’’ harmful nonnative species; or (4) can imagine.’’ Bullfrogs are available for injuries inflicted by adult bullfrogs. In gartersnakes infrequently escaped purchase at some Mexican pet stores another example, Holm and Lowe (1995, predation attempts by harmful (Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella 2008, p. pp. 33–34) observed tail injuries in 89 nonnative species, were removed from 22). Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella (2008, percent of northern Mexican the population, and were consequently p. 21) state that bullfrog eradication gartersnakes during the early 1990s in not detected by surveys. efforts in Mexico are often thwarted by Scotia Canyon in the Huachuca their popularity in rural communities Mountains, as well as a skewed age The Expansion of the American Bullfrog (presumably as a food source). class ration that favored adults over and Crayfish in Mexico Currently, no regulation exists in subadults, which is consistent with data Bullfrogs have recently been Mexico to address the threat of bullfrog collected by Willis et al. (1982, pp. 100– documented as a significant threat to invasions or prevent their release into 101) on other gartersnake species. native aquatic and riparian species the wild (Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella Bullfrogs are largely thought to be throughout Mexico. Luja and Rodrı´guez- 2008, p. 22). responsible for the significant decline of Estrella (2008, pp. 17–22) examined the Rosen and Melendez (2006, p. 54) northern Mexican gartersnake and its invasion of the bullfrog in Mexico. The report bullfrog invasions to be prevalent prey base at this locality, although the earliest records of bullfrogs in Mexico in northwestern Chihuahua and latter has improved through recovery were Nuevo Leon (1853), Tamaulipas northwestern Sonora, where the actions. In the Black River, crayfish are (1898), Morelos (1968), and Sinaloa northern Mexican gartersnake is thought very abundant and have been identified (1969) (Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella to occur. In many areas, native leopard as the likely cause for a high-frequency 2008, p. 20). By 1976, the bullfrog was frogs were completely displaced where of tail injuries to narrow-headed documented in seven more states: bullfrogs were observed. Rosen and gartersnakes (Brennan 2007, p. 7; Aguacalientes, Baja California Sur, Melendez (2006, p. 54) also Brennan and Rosen 2009, p. 9). Brennan Chihuahua, Distrito Federal, Puebla, demonstrated the relationship between (2007, p. 5) found that in the Black San Luis Potosi, and Sonora (Luja and fish and amphibian communities in River, 14 of 15 narrow-headed Rodrı´guez-Estrella 2008, p. 20). The Sonora and western Chihuahua. Native gartersnakes captured showed evidence bullfrog was recently verified from the leopard frogs, a primary prey item for of damaged or missing tails (Brennan state of Hidalgo, Mexico, at an elevation the northern Mexican gartersnake, only 2007, p. 5). In 2009, 16 of 19 narrow- of 8,970 feet (2,734 m), which indicates occurred in the absence of nonnative headed gartersnakes captured in the the species continues to spread in that fish, and were absent from waters Black River showed evidence of country and can exist even at the containing nonnative species, which damaged or missing tails (Brennan and uppermost elevations inhabited by included several major waters. In Rosen 2009, p. 8). In the upper Verde northern Mexican gartersnakes Sonora, Rorabaugh (2008a, p. 25) also

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considers the bullfrog to be a significant (Carpenter and Terrell 2005; Table 6). consideration may vary from weeks, to threat to the northern Mexican However, this practice has been the months, to a year or longer, depending gartersnake and its prey base, source of recent controversy due to a on the level of certainty required by substantiated by field observations perceived link between rotenone and project proponents. Carpenter and made during surveys conducted in Parkinson’s disease in humans, as well Terrell (2005, p. 14) reported that Chihuahua and Sonora in 2006 as potential effects to livestock. standard protocols, used by the Arizona (Rorabaugh 2008b, p. 1). Speculation of the potential role of Game and Fish Department for Apache Few data were found on the presence rotenone in Parkinson’s disease was trout renovations, required two or distribution of nonnative crayfish fueled by Tanner et al. (2011, entire) applications of piscicide before species in Mexico. However, in a 2- which correlated the incidence of the repatriating native fish to a stream, week gartersnake survey effort in 2006 disease with lifetime exposure to certain waiting a season to see if the renovation in northern Mexico, crayfish were pesticides, including rotenone. As a was successful, and then continuing to observed as ‘‘widely distributed’’ in the result, in 2012, the Arizona State renovate if necessary. Another valleys of western Chihuahua Legislature proposed two bills that recommendation of past protocols (Rorabaugh 2008b, p. 1). Based on the called for the development of an included a goal for the renovated water invasive nature of crayfish ecology and environmental impact statement prior to body to remain fishless an entire year their distribution in the United States the application of rotenone or antimycin before restocking (Carpenter and Terrell along the Border region, it is reasonable A (S.B. 1453, see State of Arizona 2005, p. 14). At a minimum and to assume that, at a minimum, crayfish Senate (2012b)) and urged the U.S. according to our files, reaches of Big are likely distributed along the entire Environmental Protection Agency to Bonito Creek, the West Fork Black Border region of northern Mexico, deregister rotenone from use in the River, West Fork Gila River, Iron Creek, adjacent to where they occur in the United States (S.B. 1009, see State of Little Creek, Black Canyon, and United States. Arizona Senate (2012b)). Public safety O’Donnell Creek have all been subject to Risks to Gartersnakes From Fisheries considerations were fully evaluated by a fish renovations using these or similarly Management Activities multi-disciplined technical team of accepted protocols (Carpenter and specialists that found no correlation Terrell 2005; Table 6; Paroz and Probst The decline in native fish between rotenone applications 2009, p. 4; Hellekson 2012a, pers. communities from the effects of harmful performed, according to product label comm.). Therefore, northern Mexican or nonnative fish species has spurred instructions, and Parkinson’s disease narrow-headed gartersnake populations resource managers to take action to help (Rotenone Review Advisory Committee in these streams have likely been recover native fish species. While we 2012, pp. 24–25). Nonetheless, adversely affected, due to the fully support activities designed to help continued anxiety regarding the use of eradication of a portion of, or their recover native fish, recovery actions for entire, prey base in these systems for native fish, in the absence of thorough piscicides for conservation and management of fish communities leaves varying periods of time. Big Bonito planning, can have significant adverse Creek was restocked with salvaged effects on resident gartersnake an uncertain future for this invaluable management tool. Should circumstances native fish shortly after renovation populations. occurred. However, we are uncertain Piscicides—Piscicide is a term that result in the discontinued practice of using piscicides for fish recovery and how long other stream reaches remained refers to a ‘‘fish poison.’’ The use of fishless post-treatment, but presume a piscicides, such as rotenone or management, the likelihood of recovery for listed or sensitive aquatic vertebrates minimum of weeks in each instance, antimycin A, for the removal of harmful and possibly a year or longer in some nonnative fish species has widely been in Arizona, such as northern Mexican and narrow-headed gartersnakes, would instances. considered invaluable for the Future planning in fisheries be substantially reduced, if not conservation and recovery of imperiled management has identified several eliminated outright. native fish species throughout the streams within the distribution of United States, and in particular the Gila We are supportive of the use of narrow-headed gartersnakes in New River basin of Arizona and New Mexico piscicides and consider the practice a Mexico for potential fish barrier (Dawson and Kolar 2003, entire). vital and scientifically sound tool, the construction, for which piscicide Antimycin A is rarely used anymore, only tool in most circumstances, for applications are likely necessary. These and has been largely replaced by reestablishing native fish communities streams include Little Creek, West Fork rotenone in field applications. and removing threats related to Gila River, Middle Fork Gila River, Experimentation with ammonia as a nonnative aquatic species in occupied Turkey Creek, Saliz Creek, Dry Blue piscicide has shown promising results northern Mexican and narrow-headed Creek, and the San Francisco River and may ultimately replace rotenone in gartersnake habitat. However, it is (Riley and Clarkson 2005, pp. 4–5, 7, 9, the future as a desired control method equally important that effects of such 12; Clarkson and Marsh 2012, p. 8; if legally registered for such use (Ward treatments to these gartersnakes be 2013, pp. 1, 4, 6). Of these, the Middle et al. 2013, pp. 402–404). Currently, evaluated during the project planning Fork Gila River and Turkey Creek rotenone is the most commonly used phase, specifically the amount of time a appear to the most likely-chosen for piscicide. The active ingredient in treated water body remains fishless renovation (Clarkson and Marsh 2013, rotenone is a natural chemical post-treatment. The time period p. 8). Mule Creek and Cienega Creek, compound extracted from the stems and between rotenone applications and the both occupied by northern Mexican roots of tropical plants in the family subsequent restocking of native fish is gartersnakes, as well as Whitewater Leguminosae that interrupts oxygen contingent on two basic variables, the Creek (occupied by narrow-headed absorption in gill-breathing animals time it takes for piscicide levels to reach gartersnakes) are under consideration (Fontenot et al. 1994, pp. 150–151). In nontoxic levels and the level of but ultimately may not be chosen for the greater Gila River subbasin alone, 57 certainty required to ensure that renovation for undisclosed reasons streams or water bodies have been renovation goals and objectives have (Clarkson and Marsh 2013, pp. 8–9). treated with piscicide, some on several been met prior to restocking. In addition to fish, rotenone is toxic occasions spanning many years Implementation of the latter to amphibians in their gill-breathing,

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larval life stages; adult forms tend to be identified (AGFD 2012, p. 13), such pers. comm.) reported narrow-headed avoid treated water (Fontenot et al. as northern Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnakes being detected via 1994, pp. 151–152). Rotenone has not gartersnakes. In addition, the Arizona electroshocking in the mainstem Gila been found to be directly toxic to Game and Fish Department, through River from Cliff Dwellings to Little aquatic snakes, but Fontenot et al. their Conservation and Mitigation Creek, the East Fork Gila River, Little (1994, p. 152) suggested that effects Program developed as part of their sport Creek, Black Canyon, the Tularosa from ingesting affected fish, frogs, or fish stocking program through 2021, has River, and Dry Blue Creek. Pettinger and tadpoles may occur, but have not been committed to quickly restocking Yori (2011, p. 11) reported detecting two adequately researched. The current renovated streams that are occupied by narrow-headed gartersnakes as a result standard operating procedures for either northern Mexican or narrow- of electroshocking in the West Fork Gila piscicide application, as adopted headed gartersnakes (USFWS 2011, River. Thus, electroshock surveys may nationally and provided in Finlayson et Appendix C). be a source of additional data related to al. (2010, p. 23), provide guidance for Although significant efforts are the occurrence and distribution of both assuring that non-target, baseline generally made to salvage as many northern Mexican and narrow-headed environmental conditions (the biotic native fish as possible prior to gartersnakes. community) are accounted for in treatment, logistics of holding fish for Trapping methods are also used in assessing whether mitigation measures several weeks prior to restocking limit fisheries surveys, for other applications are necessary. This procedural protocol the number of individuals that can be in aquatic species management, and for states, ‘‘Survival and recovery of the held safely. Therefore, not every the collection of live baitfish in individual fish is salvaged, and native aquatic community may be recreational fishing. One such common fish remaining in the stream are demonstrated by sampling plankton, method to study aquatic or semi-aquatic subsequently lost during the treatment. macroinvertebrates (aquatic insects, wildlife (including populations of The number of fish subsequently crustacea, leeches, and mollusks), and aquatic snakes such as gartersnakes) is restocked is, therefore, smaller than the amphibians (frogs, tadpoles, and larval through the use of self-baiting wire number of fish that were present prior and adult salamanders)’’ (Finlayson et minnow traps. When used to monitor to the treatment. The full restoration of al. 2010, p. 23). This protocol, adopted gartersnake populations, wire minnow native fish populations to pre-treatment by the Arizona Game and Fish traps are anchored to vegetation, logs, levels may take several years, depending Department (see AGFD 2012), does not etc., along the shoreline (in most on the size of the treated area and the consider the effects of leaving a treated applications) and positioned so that half water body without a prey base for a size and maturity of the founding populations. Restocking salvaged fish in to one-third of the trap, along its lateral sensitive species, such as the narrow- line, is above water surface to allow headed gartersnake, for extended the fall may allow natural spawning and recruitment to begin in the spring, snakes to surface for air. These traps are periods of time. In fact, considerations then checked according to a for non-target aquatic reptiles, in which would provide a more immediate benefit to resident gartersnake predetermined schedule. Because the general, are not mentioned anywhere in wire, twine, etc., used to anchor these this broadly applied piscicide populations. With regard to New Mexico and Mexico, we are uncertain traps is fixed in length, these traps may application protocol. Consequently, we become fully submerged if there is a have no reason to assume that effects to what measures have been considered in the past, or implemented currently, to sudden, unanticipated rise in water either northern Mexican or narrow- prevent significant adverse impacts to levels (e.g., storm event). During the headed gartersnake populations from northern Mexican or narrow-headed monsoon in Arizona and New Mexico, the partial or whole-scale removal of gartersnakes from piscicide these types of storm events are common their prey base have been historically applications. and river hydrographs respond considered in piscicide applications, at Mechanical Methods—In addition to accordingly with rapid and dynamic least through 2006. chemical renovation techniques, increases in flow. We are aware of The potentially significant effects to mechanical methods using examples where northern Mexican northern Mexican or narrow-headed electroshocking equipment are often gartersnakes, intentionally captured in gartersnakes described above pertaining used in fisheries management, both for minnow traps, have drowned as a direct to piscicide application are largely nonnative aquatic species removal and result of a rapid, unexpected rise in historical in nature in Arizona, and new fisheries survey and monitoring water levels. Some examples include an methodologies have been developed in activities that often occur in conjunction adult female northern Mexican Arizona to prevent adverse effects to with piscicide treatments. Northern gartersnake along lower Tonto Creek in gartersnake populations. As of 2012, a Mexican and narrow-headed 2004, and an adult and two neonates at new policy was finalized by the Arizona gartersnakes often flee into the water as the Bubbling Springs Hatchery in 2009 Game and Fish Department that a first line of defense when startled. In and 2010, respectively (Holycross et al. includes an early and widespread occupied habitat, gartersnakes present 2006, p. 41, Boyarski 2011, pp. 2–3). In public notification and planning process within the water are often temporarily another example, involving an that involves the approval of several paralyzed from electrical impulses underwater funnel trap used to survey decision-makers within four major intended for fish, and are, therefore, for lowland leopard frogs, a large adult stages: (1) Piscicide project internal readily detected by surveyors female northern Mexican gartersnake review and approval; (2) preliminary (Hellekson 2012a, pers. comm.). We are was discovered deceased in the trap (T. planning and public involvement; (3) not aware of any research that has Jones 2012a, pers. comm.). Death of that intermediate planning and public investigated potential short- or long- individual was likely due to drowning involvement; and (4) project term consequences of such or predation by numerous crayfish that implementation and evaluation (AGFD electrocutions to gartersnakes. In were also confined in the funnel trap 2012, p. 3). Within the Internal Review addition to the occupied streams noted with the gartersnake (T. Jones 2012a, and Approval stage of the process, above that have received piscicide pers. comm.). There are likely sensitive, endemic, and listed species applications (and therefore received additional cases where northern potentially impacted by the project must electroshock surveys), Hellekson (2012, Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake

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mortality from trapping have not been comparatively low. We also note that percent of the historical distribution of reported, where trapping has occurred the aquatic community data generated the northern Mexican gartersnake and in occupied habitat prone to flash from field research using these traps are 53 percent of the historical distribution flooding. critical to our understanding of northern of the narrow-headed gartersnake in the Minnow traps are often deployed for Mexican and narrow-headed gartersnake United States. Crayfish are known to monitoring fully aquatic species, such ecology, population trends, and occur in 77 percent of the historical as fish, and are, therefore, intentionally responses to threats on the landscape, distribution of the northern Mexican positioned in the water column where and we believe that better gartersnake and 75 percent of the they are fully under water. Traps used communication and coordination historical distribution of the narrow- for this purpose may be checked less among programs with regard to headed gartersnake in the United States. frequently, because risks to fully aquatic gartersnake concerns can help. Nonnative, spiny-rayed fish, bullfrogs, species are less if held in the trap for Intentional Dewatering—Lastly, and crayfish are known to occur longer periods of time. As fish dewatering or water fluctuation simultaneously in 65 percent of the collectively become trapped, the trap techniques are sometimes considered historical distribution of the northern becomes incidentally self-baited for for eliminating undesirable fish species Mexican gartersnake and 44 percent of gartersnakes and, if deployed in habitat from water bodies (Finlayson et al. the historical distribution of the narrow- occupied by either northern Mexican or 2010, p. 4). Dewatering of occupied headed gartersnake in the United States. narrow-headed gartersnakes, these traps northern Mexican or narrow-headed Native fish are important prey for may accidentally attract, capture, and gartersnake habitat would have obvious northern Mexican gartersnakes but drown gartersnakes that are actively deleterious effects to affected much more so for narrow-headed foraging under water and are lured to populations by removing a primary gartersnakes. Predation by and the traps because of captured prey habitat feature and eliminating the prey competition with primarily nonnative, species. Neonatal northern Mexican and base. Depending on the availability of spiny-rayed fish species, and narrow-headed gartersnakes can also suitable habitat regionally and the secondarily with crayfish, are widely wriggle through the mesh of some wire length of time water is absent, these considered to be the primary reason for minnow traps and become lodged activities may ultimately cause local major declines in native fish halfway through, depending on the pore extirpations of gartersnake populations. communities throughout the range of size of the wire mesh (Jaeger 2012, pers. Because northern Mexican gartersnakes both gartersnakes. This fundamental comm.). If not found in time, this often occupy lentic water bodies or premise is captured by the fact that in situation would likely result in their intermittently watered canyon bottoms, Arizona, 19 of 31 (61 percent) of all death from drowning, predation, or where this practice is most feasible, native fish species are listed under the exposure. effects of dewatering activities may Act. Consequently, Arizona ranks the The use of minnow traps is also disproportionately affect that species. highest of all 50 States in the percentage allowed in recreational fishing in This technique is being considered by of native fish species with declining Arizona and New Mexico (AGFD 2013, the AGFD for pools within Redrock trends (85.7 percent). Similar trends in p. 57; NMDGF 2013, p. 17). In Arizona Canyon where northern Mexican the loss of native fish biodiversity have and New Mexico, it is lawful to set gartersnakes could be adversely been described in New Mexico and minnow traps for the collection of live affected; however it is expected that Mexico. Native amphibians such as the baitfish (AGFD 2013, pp. 56–57; northern Mexican gartersnakes are being Chiricahua leopard frog, an important NMDGF 2013, p. 17). In Arizona, considered by the AGFD in their component of the northern Mexican minnow traps used for collecting live implementation planning process. gartersnake prey base, have declined baitfish must be checked once daily significantly and may face future Summary (AGFD 2013, pp. 56–57); in New declines as a result of Bd and harmful Mexico, there is no stipulation on time In our review of the scientific and nonnative species. We cite numerous intervals in the regulations to check commercial literature, we have found examples where historical native frog minnow traps (NMDGF 2013, p. 17). In that over time, native aquatic populations have been wholly replaced either scenario in either state, these communities, specifically the native by harmful nonnative species, both on minnow traps are likely to be fully prey bases for northern Mexican and local and regional scales. These declines submerged when in use and pose a narrow-headed gartersnakes, have been have directly contributed to subsequent drowning hazard to resident significantly weakened to the point of northern Mexican gartersnake gartersnakes while foraging underwater, near collapse as a result of the population declines or extirpations in as they can be lured into the traps by cumulative effects of disease and these areas. Collectively, the literature fish already caught. harmful nonnative species such as confirms that an adequate native prey The extent to which trapping-related bullfrogs, crayfish, and spiny-rayed fish. base is essential to the conservation and mortality can affect northern Mexican or Harmful nonnative species have been recovery of northern Mexican narrow-headed gartersnake populations intentionally introduced or have gartersnakes, and that this native ranid is uncertain, but there is reason for naturally moved into virtually every frog prey base may face an uncertain concern if adult females are lost from subbasin throughout the distribution of future if harmful nonnative species populations where recruitment appears northern Mexican and narrow-headed continue to persist and expand their low or nonexistent, especially in low- gartersnakes in the United States and distributions in occupied habitat. density populations. While we are less Mexico. According to Geographic We have found that the best available certain about northern Mexican or Information System GIS analyses, commercial and scientific information narrow-headed gartersnake mortality nonnative, spiny-rayed fish are known supports the fact that harmful nonnative from trapping efforts intended for other to occur in 90 percent of the historical species are the single most important species, we assume such events have distribution of the northern Mexican threat to northern Mexican and narrow- historically been unreported, but also gartersnake and 85 percent of the headed gartersnakes and their prey acknowledge that the percentage of historical distribution of the narrow- bases, and therefore have had a snakes intentionally caught in minnow headed gartersnake in the United States. profound role in their decline. A large traps that actually drown is likely to be Bullfrogs are known to occur in 85 body of literature documents that

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northern Mexican and narrow-headed ubiquitous presence of harmful required by northern Mexican and gartersnakes are uniquely susceptible to nonnative species across the landscape narrow-headed gartersnakes. These the influence of harmful nonnative has appreciably reduced the quantity of activities result in the loss of stream species in their biotic communities. suitable gartersnake habitat and changed flow, and include examples such as This sensitivity is largely the result of its spatial orientation on the landscape. dams, water diversions, groundwater complex ecological interactions that Most northern Mexican and narrow- pumping, and development. result in direct predation on headed gartersnake populations, even Researchers agree that the period from gartersnakes; shifts in biotic community some considered viable today, live in 1850 to 1940 marked the greatest loss structure from largely native to largely the presence of harmful nonnative and degradation of riparian and aquatic nonnative; and competition for a species. While they continue to persist, communities in Arizona, many of which diminished prey base that can they do so under constant stress from were caused by anthropogenic (human- ultimately result in the injury, unnatural levels of predation and caused) land uses and the primary and starvation, or death of northern Mexican competition associated with harmful secondary effects of those uses or narrow-headed gartersnakes followed nonnative species. This weakens their (Stromberg et al. 1996, p. 114; Webb and by reduced recruitment, population resistance to other threats, including Leake 2005, pp. 305–310). An estimated declines, and extirpations. those that affect the physical suitability one-third of Arizona’s pre-settlement Lastly, we found that fisheries of their habitat (discussed below). This wetlands has dried or been rendered management activities can have ultimately renders populations much ecologically dysfunctional (Yuhas 1996, significant negative effects on resident less resilient to stochastic, natural, or entire). However, not all aquatic and gartersnake populations when anthropogenic stressors that could riparian habitats in the United States gartersnakes are not considered in otherwise be withstood. Over time and that support northern Mexican or project planning and implementation. space, subsequent population declines narrow-headed gartersnakes have been We fully support the continued use of have threatened the genetic significantly degraded or lost. Despite rotenone and other fisheries representation of each species because the loss or modification of aquatic and management techniques in the many populations have become riparian habitat we describe below, large conservation and recovery of native fish. disconnected and isolated from reaches of the Verde, Salt, San Pedro, However, we also acknowledge the neighboring populations. Expanding and Gila Rivers, as well as several of potential and significant threat rotenone distances between extant populations their tributaries, remain functionally use may pose to these gartersnakes if coupled with increasing populations of suitable as physical habitat for either their habitat is left with a fish harmful nonnative species prevents gartersnake species. When we use the community that is dangerously depleted normal colonizing mechanisms that term ‘‘physical habitat,’’ we refer to the or entirely removed for extended would otherwise reestablish structural integrity of aquatic and periods of time. New policies and populations where they have become terrestrial components to habitat, such mitigation measures have been extirpated. This subsequently leads to a as plant species richness, density, developed in Arizona that will reduce reduction in species redundancy when available water, and any feature of the likelihood of these activities having isolated, small populations are at habitat that does not pertain to the significant effects on either northern increased vulnerability to the effects of animal community. The animal Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake stochastic events, without a means for community (the prey and predator populations. However, some level of natural recolonization. Ultimately, the species that co-occur within habitat) is effect should still be expected, based on effect of scattered, small, and disjunct not considered in our usage of ‘‘physical logistical complications and populations, without the means to habitat,’’ for reasons described complexities of restoring fish naturally recolonize, is weakened immediately below. populations to pre-treatment levels. We species resiliency as a whole, which expect to coordinate with resource Our treatment of how various threats ultimately enhances the risk of either or may affect the northern Mexican or managers in New Mexico as we do in both species becoming endangered. Arizona, to ensure gartersnake narrow-headed gartersnake is based, in Therefore, based on the best available part, on recent observations made in populations are not significantly scientific and commercial information, affected by these activities. Other Mexico that illustrate the relationship of we conclude that harmful nonnative mechanisms or activities used in gartersnakes’ physical habitat suitability species are the most significant threat to fisheries management, such as to the presence of native prey species both the northern Mexican and narrow- electroshocking, trapping, or and the lack of harmful nonnative headed gartersnake, rangewide, now dewatering, can result in the injury or species (predators on or competitors and in the foreseeable future. death of northern Mexican or narrow- with the northern Mexican gartersnake headed gartersnakes, where these Main Factors That Destroy or Modify the and narrow-headed gartersnake), and activities coincide with extant Physical Habitat of Northern Mexican the presence, or lack thereof, of populations, and if they have not been and Narrow-Headed Gartersnakes attributes associated with these considered in the planning or gartersnakes’ physical habitat. In 2007, The Relationship Between Harmful implementation processes. The two groups consisting of agency Nonnative Species and Adverse Effects significance of these losses depends on biologists (including U.S. Fish and to Physical Habitat the status of the gartersnake population Wildlife Service staff), species experts, affected. We found no evidence to As discussed at length above, we and field technicians conducted conclude that fisheries management found harmful nonnative species to be numerous gartersnake surveys in techniques threaten the northern a significant and widespread factor that Durango and Chihuahua, Mexico Mexican gartersnake in Mexico. continues to drive further declines in (Burger 2007, p. 1). In the state of On the most basic level, the presence and extirpations of gartersnake Durango, 19 survey sites provided of harmful nonnative species ultimately populations. Also in our review of the observation records for 144 affects where northern Mexican and literature, we found various threats have gartersnakes, representing five different narrow-headed gartersnakes can live as affected, and continue to affect, primary species, including the northern Mexican viable populations. Collectively, the components of the physical habitat gartersnake (Burger et al. 2010, p. 13). In

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the state of Chihuahua, 12 survey sites largely free of nonnatives. Burger (2007, northern Mexican or narrow-headed provided observation records for 50 pp. 18, 26, 32, 61, 64, 66, 67, 69, 72) also gartersnakes are believed to be gartersnakes, representing two species, detected either low densities or no comparatively more significant than including the northern Mexican gartersnakes at nine sites where the those that do not. As previously gartersnake (Burger et al. 2010, p. 13). A physical habitat was in moderate to discussed, harmful nonnative species main reason for this survey trip was to good condition, but where nonnative are largely ubiquitous throughout the collect genetic samples from the species were detected. Eight streams range of northern Mexican and narrow- subspecies described, at that time, surveyed by Burger (2007, pp. 15, 22, headed gartersnakes and therefore under Thamnophis rufipunctatus, 46, 49, 51–52, 54, 62) were largely exacerbate the effects from threats to chiefly T. r. unilabialis and T. r. dewatered and without fish, and had their physical habitat. nigronuchalis. The genetic samples few to no gartersnake observations. One Altering or Dewatering Aquatic Habitat collected ultimately provided the site presented an anomaly, 19 northern evidence for the current taxonomic Mexican gartersnakes and two T. Dams and Diversions—The presence status of the narrow-headed gartersnake unilabialis were observed at Rio of water is critical for northern Mexican proposed by Wood et al. (2011, entire). Papigochic at Temosachic, where and narrow-headed gartersnakes, as well While considerable gartersnake crayfish were noted as abundant, but no as their prey base. Of all the activities habitat in Mexico is affected by the other nonnatives were detected (Burger that may threaten their physical habitat, presence of harmful nonnative species 2007, p. 67). The disproportionate none are more serious than those that (Conant 1974, pp. 471, 487–489; number of northern Mexican reduce flows or dewater habitat, such as Contreras Balderas and Lozano 1994, gartersnakes detected, as compared to dams, diversions, flood-control projects, pp. 383–384; Unmack and Fagan 2004, the more aquatic T. unilabialis, may be and groundwater pumping. Such p. 233; Miller et al. 2005, pp. 60–61; due to differences in habitat preference, activities are widespread in Arizona. Rosen and Melendez 2006, p. 54; Luja or the potential disproportionate effect For example, municipal water use in and Rodrı´guez-Estrella 2008, pp. 17–22), of crayfish on T. unilabialis because of central Arizona increased by 39 percent Burger (2007, pp. 1–72) surveyed their more aquatic behavior. Similar from 1998 to 2006 (American Rivers several sites in remote areas that data were not collected from the 2006), and at least 35 percent of appeared to be free of nonnative species. remaining seven sites, which prevents Arizona’s perennial rivers have been In some sites, the physical habitat for further evaluation of these sites in these dewatered, assisted by approximately 95 northern Mexican gartersnakes and contexts. dams that are in operation in Arizona similar species of gartersnakes appeared Our observations of gartersnake today (Turner and List 2007, pp. 3, 9). to be in largely good condition, but few populations in Mexico provide evidence Larger dams may prevent movement of or no gartersnakes were detected. At for the relative importance of native fish between populations (which affects other sites, the physical habitat was prey species and the lack of nonnative prey availability for northern Mexican drastically affected by overgrazing, rural species in comparison to the physical and narrow-headed gartersnakes) and development, or road crossings; attributes of gartersnake habitat. As a dramatically alter the flow regime of however, gartersnakes were relatively result, we have formulated three general streams through the impoundment of easily detected, which indicated that hypotheses: (1) Northern Mexican and water (Ligon et al. 1995, pp. 184–189). population densities were adequate. It narrow-headed gartersnakes may be These diversions also require periodic should be noted that we do not have the more resilient to adverse effects to maintenance and reconstruction, necessary data to calculate population physical habitat in the absence of resulting in potential habitat damages trends at sampled localities. Riparian harmful nonnative species, and and inputs of sediment into the active and aquatic habitats in Arizona and therefore, more sensitive to adverse stream. New Mexico are in relatively better effects to physical habitat in the Flow regimes within stream systems physical condition compared to presence of harmful nonnative species; are a primary factor that shape fish observations of these habitats made in (2) the presence of an adequate prey community assemblages. The timing, Durango and Chihuahua, Mexico. base is important for persistence of duration, intensity, and frequency of However, nonnative species are also gartersnake populations regardless of flood events has been altered to varying ubiquitous in these same habitats across whether or not harmful nonnative degrees by the presence of dams, which the landscape in the southwestern species are present; and (3) detections has an effect on fish communities. United States, based on our literature and effects from harmful nonnative Specifically, Haney et al. (2008, p. 61) review and GIS modeling. Several sites species appear to decrease from north to suggested that flood pulses may help to visited by Burger (2007, pp. 1–72) in south in the Mexican states of reduce populations of nonnative species Durango and Chihuahua, Mexico, had Chihuahua and Durango (from the and efforts to increase the baseflows physical habitat in poor to very poor United States–Mexico International may assist in sustaining native prey condition, but were largely free of Border), as discussed in Unmack and species for northern Mexican and nonnative species. These situations are Fagan (2004, pp. 233–243). narrow-headed gartersnakes. However, rarely encountered in Arizona and New Based on field data collected by the investigators in this study also Mexico and, therefore, provided Burger Burger (2007, entire) and on the above suggest that, because the northern (2007, pp. 1–72) a unique opportunity to hypotheses, we evaluated the Mexican gartersnake preys on both fish examine differences in gartersnake significance of effects to physical habitat and frogs, it may be less affected by population densities based on condition in the context of the presence or absence reductions in baseflow of streams of the physical habitat, without the of nonnative species. Effects to the (Haney et al. 2008, pp. 82, 93). Collier confounding effect of nonnative species physical habitat of gartersnakes can et al. (1996, p. 16) mentions that water on resident gartersnake populations. have varying effects on the gartersnakes development projects are one of two Burger (2007, pp. 6, 12, 36, 41, 58, 63) themselves depending on the main causes of the decline of native fish detected moderate to high densities of composition of their biotic community. in the Salt and Gila rivers of Arizona. gartersnakes at six sites where their In the presence of harmful nonnative Unregulated flows with elevated physical habitat was moderately to species, effects to physical habitat that discharge events favor native species, highly impacted by land uses, but were negatively affect the prey base for and regulated flows, absent significant

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discharge events, favor nonnative activities to aquatic and riparian habitat, pp. 63–64; Tellman et al. 1997, pp. 101– species (Probst et al. 2008, p. 1246). and to the northern Mexican gartersnake 104). Interactions among native fish, or its prey species, will result from the The San Francisco River in New nonnative fish, and flow regimes were physical alteration or destruction of Mexico has undergone sedimentation, observed in the upper reaches of the habitat, significant increases to flow riparian habitat degradation, and East Fork of the Gila River. Prior to the velocity, and removal of key foraging extensive water diversion, and at 1983 and 1984 floods in the Gila River habitat and areas to hibernate, such as present has an undependable water system, native fish occurrence was debris jams. Specifically, flood control supply throughout portions of its length. limited, while nonnative fish were projects permanently alter stream flow The San Francisco River is seasonally moderately common. Following the characteristics and have the potential to dry in the Alma Valley, and two 1983 flood event, adult nonnative make the stream unsuitable as habitat diversion structures fragment habitat in predators were generally absent, and for the northern Mexican gartersnake by the upper Alma Valley and at native fish were subsequently collected reducing or eliminating stream sinuosity Pleasanton (NMDGF 2006, p. 302). An in moderate numbers in 1985 (Propst et and associated pool and backwater approximate 2-stream-mi (3.2-km) reach al. 1986, p. 83). These relationships are habitats that are critical to northern of the lower San Francisco River most readily observed in canyon-bound Mexican gartersnakes and their prey between the Glenwood Diversion and streams, where shelter sought by species. Threats presented by these Alma Bridge, which would otherwise be nonnative species during large-scale flood control planning efforts are good narrow-headed gartersnake habitat, floods is minimal (Probst et al. 2008, p. considered imminent. has been completely dewatered by upstream diversions (Hellekson 2012a, 1249). Probst et al. (2008, p. 1246) also Many streams in New Mexico, pers. comm.). suggested the effect of nonnative fish currently or formerly occupied by species on native fish communities may Additional withdrawals of water from northern Mexican or narrow-headed the Gila and San Francisco Rivers may be most significant during periods of gartersnakes, have been or could be natural drought (simulated by artificial occur in the future (McKinnon 2006d). affected by water withdrawals. Implementation of Title II of the dewatering). Approximately 9.5 river mi (15.3 km) of Effects from flood control projects Arizona Water Settlements Act (AWSA) the Gila River mainstem in New Mexico, threaten riparian and aquatic habitat, as (Pub. L. 108–451) would facilitate the from Little Creek to the Gila Bird Area, well as threaten the northern Mexican exchange of Central Arizona Project are in private ownership and have been gartersnake directly in lower Tonto water within and between southwestern Creek. Kimmell (2008, pers. comm.), channelized, and the water is largely river basins in Arizona and New Gila County Board of Supervisors (2008, used for agricultural purposes Mexico, and may result in the pers. comm.), Trammell (2008, pers. (Hellekson 2012a, pers. comm.). In construction of new water development comm.), and Sanchez (2008, pers. addition, the Hooker Dam has been projects. Section 212 of the AWSA comm.) all discuss a growing concern of proposed in the reach above Mogollon pertains to the New Mexico Unit of the residents that live within or adjacent to Creek and below Turkey Creek as part Central Arizona Project. The AWSA the floodplain of Tonto Creek in Gila of the Central Arizona Project, but provides for New Mexico water users to County, Arizona, both upstream and remains in deferment status (Hellekson deplete 140,000 acre-feet of additional downstream of the town of Gisela, 2012a, pers. comm.). If constructed, water from the Gila Basin in any 10-year Arizona. Specifically, there is growing Hooker Dam would significantly alter or period. The settlement also provides the concern to address threats to private reduce stream flow; favor nonnative, ability to divert that water without property and associated infrastructure spiny-rayed fish species; and likely complaint from downstream pre-1968 posed by flooding of Tonto Creek render the affected reach unsuitable for water rights in Arizona. New Mexico (Sanchez 2008, pers. comm.). An narrow-headed gartersnakes. Below the will receive $66 million to $128 million important remaining population of Gila Bird Area, but above the Middle in non-reimbursable federal funding. northern Mexican gartersnakes within Box of the mainstem Gila River, several The Interstate Stream Commission (ISC) the large Salt River subbasin occurs on water diversions have reduced stream funds may be used to cover costs of an Tonto Creek. In Resolution No. 08–06– flow (Hellekson 2012a, pers. comm.). actual water supply project, planning, 02, the Gila County Board of Channelization has also affected a environmental mitigation, or restoration Supervisors proactively declared a state privately owned reach of Whitewater activities associated with or necessary of emergency within Gila County as a Creek from the Catwalk downstream to for the project, and may be used on one result of the expectation for heavy rain Glenwood, New Mexico (Hellekson or more of 21 alternative projects and snowfall causing repetitive flooding 2012a, pers. comm.). The Gila River ranging from Gila National Forest San conditions (Gila County Board of downstream of the town of Cliff, New Francisco River Diversion/Ditch Supervisors 2008, pers. comm.). In Mexico, flows through a broad valley improvements to a regional water response, the Arizona Division of where irrigated agriculture and livestock supply project (the Deming Diversion Emergency Management called meetings grazing are the predominant uses. Project). At this time, it is not known and initiated discussions among Human settlement has increased since how the funds will be spent, or which stakeholders in an attempt to mitigate 1988 (Propst et al. 2008, pp. 1237– potential alternative(s) may be chosen. these flooding concerns (Kimmell 2008, 1238). Agricultural practices have led to While multiple potential project pers. comm., Trammell 2008, pers. dewatering of the river in the Cliff-Gila proposals have been accepted by the comm.). valley at times during the dry season New Mexico Office of the State Engineer Mitigation measures that have been (Soles 2003, p. 71). For those portions (NMOSE) (NMOSE 2011a, p. 1), discussed include removal of riparian of the Gila River downstream of the implementation of the AWSA is still in vegetation, removal of debris piles, Arizona-New Mexico border, the planning stages on these streams, potential channelization of Tonto Creek, agricultural diversions and groundwater and final notice is expected by the end improvements to existing flood control pumping have caused declines in the of 2014. Should water be diverted from structures or addition of new structures, water table, and surface flows in the the Gila or San Francisco Rivers, flows and the construction of new bridges. central portion of the river basin are would be diminished and direct and Adverse effects from these types of diverted for agriculture (Leopold 1997, indirect losses and degradation of

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habitat for the narrow-headed Service biological and conference gartersnakes, through June 2012, to be in gartersnake and its prey species would opinion provided in USFWS (2008, pp. ‘‘severe drought.’’ Ongoing drought result. 112–131). conditions have depleted recharge of In addition to affecting the natural The Effect of Population Growth and aquifers and decreased base flows in the behavior of streams and rivers through Development on Water Demands and region. While drought periods have changes in timing, intensity, and Gartersnake Habitat—Arizona’s been relatively numerous in the arid duration of flood events, dams create population is expected to double from 5 Southwest from the mid-1800s to the reservoirs that alter resident fish million to 10 million people by the year present, the effects of human-caused communities. Water level fluctuation 2030, which will put increasing impacts on riparian and aquatic can affect the degree of benefit to pressure on water demands (Overpeck communities have compromised the harmful nonnative fish species. 2008). Arizona increased its population ability of these communities to function Reservoirs that experience limited or by 474 percent from 1960 to 2006 under the additional stress of prolonged slow fluctuations in water levels are (Gammage 2008, p. 15), and is second drought conditions. We further discuss especially beneficial to harmful only to Nevada as the fastest growing the effect of climate change-induced nonnative species whereas reservoirs State in terms of human population drought below. that experience greater fluctuations in (Social Science Data Analysis Network The Arizona Department of Water water levels provide less benefit for (SSDAR) 2000, p.1). Over approximately Resources (ADWR) manages water harmful nonnative species. The timing the same time period, population supplies in Arizona and has established of fluctuating water levels contributes to growth rates in Arizona counties where five Active Management Areas (AMAs) their effect; a precipitous drop in water northern Mexican or narrow-headed across the State (ADWR 2006, entire). levels during harmful nonnative fish gartersnake habitat exists have varied by An AMA is established by ADWR when reproduction is most deleterious to their county but are no less remarkable, and an area’s water demand has exceeded recruitment. A drop in water levels all are increasing: Maricopa (463 the groundwater supply and an outside of the reproductive season of percent); Pima (318 percent); Santa Cruz overdraft has occurred. In these areas, harmful nonnative species has less (355 percent); Cochise (214 percent); groundwater use has exceeded the rate effect on overall population dynamics. Yavapai (579 percent); Gila (199 where precipitation can recharge the The cross-sectional profile of any percent); Graham (238 percent); Apache aquifer. Geographically, these five given reservoir also contributes to its (228 percent); Navajo (257 percent); AMAs overlap the historical benefit for harmful nonnative fish Yuma (346 percent); LaPaz (142 distribution of the northern Mexican or species. Shallow reservoir profiles percent); and Mohave (2,004 percent) narrow-headed gartersnake, or both, in generally provide maximum space and (SSDAR 2000). From 1960 to 2006, the Arizona. The establishment of these elevated water temperatures favorable to Phoenix metropolitan area alone grew AMAs further illustrates the condition reproduction of harmful nonnative by 608 percent, and the Tucson of and future threats to riparian habitat species, and deep reservoir profiles with metropolitan area grew by 356 percent in these areas and are a cause of concern limited shallow areas provide (Gammage 2008, p. 15). Population for the long-term maintenance of commensurately less benefit. Examples growth in Arizona is expected to be northern Mexican and narrow-headed of reservoirs that benefit harmful focused along wide swaths of land from gartersnake habitat. Such overdrafts nonnative species, and therefore the international border in Nogales, reduce surface water flow of streams adversely affect northern Mexican and through Tucson, Phoenix, and north that are hydrologically connected to the narrow-headed gartersnakes (presently into Yavapai County (called the Sun aquifer, and these overdrafts can be or historically), include Horseshoe and Corridor ‘‘Megapolitan’’), and is further exacerbated by surface water Bartlett Reservoirs on the Verde River, predicted to have 8 million people by diversions, placing further stress on the the San Carlos Reservoir on the Gila 2030, an 82.5 percent increase from aquifer. The presence of water is a River, and Roosevelt, Saguaro, Canyon, 2000 (Gammage et al. 2008, pp. 15, 22– primary habitat component for northern and Apache Lakes on the Salt River. The 23). If build-out occurs as expected, it Mexican and narrow-headed Salt River Project (SRP) operates the could indirectly affect (through gartersnakes. Existing water laws in previously mentioned reservoirs on the increased recreation pressure and Arizona and New Mexico are Verde and Salt Rivers and, in the case demand for water) currently occupied inadequate to protect gartersnake habitat of Horseshoe and Bartlett Reservoirs, habitat for the northern Mexican or from the dewatering effects of received section 10(a)(1)(B) take narrow-headed gartersnake, particularly groundwater withdrawals. New Mexico authorization under the Act for adverse regional populations in Red Rock water law does not include provisions effects to several avian and aquatic Canyon in extreme south-central for instream water rights to protect fish species (including northern Mexican Arizona, lower Cienega Creek near Vail, and wildlife and their habitats. Arizona and narrow-headed gartersnakes) Arizona, and the Verde Valley. water law does recognize such through a comprehensive threat The effect of the increased water provisions; however, because this minimization and mitigation program withdrawals may be exacerbated by the change is relatively recent, instream found in SRP’s habitat conservation current, long-term drought facing the water rights have low priority, and are plan (SRP 2008, entire). There is no arid southwestern United States. Philips often never fulfilled because more such minimization and mitigation and Thomas (2005, pp. 1–4) provided senior diversion rights have priority. program developed for the operation stream flow records that indicate that Gelt (2008, pp. 1–12) highlighted the Lake Roosevelt, where limited the drought Arizona experienced fact that existing water laws are fluctuation in reservoir levels benefit between 1999 and 2004 was the worst outdated and reflect a legislative harmful nonnative species and drought since the early 1940s and interpretation of the resource that is not negatively affect northern Mexican or possibly earlier. The Arizona Drought consistent with current scientific narrow-headed gartersnakes and their Preparedness Plan Monitoring understanding, such as the important prey bases in Tonto Creek and the upper Technical Committee (ADPPMTC) connection between groundwater and Salt River. A detailed analysis of the (2012) determined the drought status surface water. effects of reservoir operations on aquatic within the Arizona distributions of Water for development and communities is provided in our intra- northern Mexican and narrow-headed urbanization is often supplied by

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groundwater pumping and surface water lower Cienega Creek, San Pedro River, wells to supply up to approximately diversions from sources that include upper Verde River, and Agua Fria River 4,933,927 cubic meters (4,000 acre-feet reservoirs and Central Arizona Project’s (Haney et al. 2009 p. 3, Table 2), which (AF)) of groundwater per year. If such allocations from the Colorado River. The historically or currently support drilling occurs, it could have serious hydrologic connection between northern Mexican or narrow-headed adverse effects on the mainstem and groundwater and surface flow of gartersnake populations. The complete tributaries of the Verde River. intermittent and perennial streams is loss of surface flow would result in local Scientific studies have shown a link becoming better understood. or regional extirpations of both species, between the Big Chino aquifer and Groundwater pumping creates a cone of or limit the species’ recovery in these spring flows that form the headwaters of depression within the affected aquifer areas. the Verde River. It is estimated that 80 that slowly radiates outward from the Water depletion is a concern for the to 86 percent of baseflow in the upper well site. When the cone of depression Verde River (American Rivers 2006; Verde River comes from the Big Chino intersects the hyporheic zone of a McKinnon 2006a). Barnett and Hawkins aquifer (Wirt 2005, p. G8). However, stream (the active transition zone (2002, Table 4) reported population while these withdrawals could between two adjacent ecological census data from 1970, as well as potentially dewater the upper 26 mi (42 communities under or beside a stream projections for 2030, for communities km) of the Verde River (Wirt and channel or floodplain between the situation along the middle Verde River Hjalmarson 2000, p. 4; Marder 2009, pp. surface water and groundwater that or within the Verde River subbasin as a 188–189), it is uncertain that this project contributes water to the stream itself), whole, such as Clarkdale, Cottonwood, will occur given the legal and the surface water flow may decrease, Jerome, and Sedona. From 1970–2000, administrative challenges it faces; and the subsequent drying of riparian population growth was recorded as however, an agreement in principle was and wetland vegetative communities Clarkdale (384 percent), Cottonwood signed between various factions can follow. Continued groundwater (352 percent), Jerome (113 percent), and associated with water rights and pumping at such levels draws down the Sedona (504 percent) (Barnett and interests on the Verde River (Citizens aquifer sufficiently to create a water- Hawkins 2002, Table 4). Projected Water Advocacy Group 2010; Verde level gradient away from the stream and growth in these same communities from Independent 2010, p. 1). An indepth floodplain (Webb and Leake 2005, p. 1970–2030 was tabulated at Clarkdale discussion of the effects to Verde River 309). Finally, complete disconnection of (620 percent), Cottonwood (730 from pumping of the Big Chino Aquifer the aquifer and the stream results in percent), Jerome (292 percent), and is available in Marder (2009, pp. 183– strong negative effects to riparian Sedona (818 percent) (Barnett and 189). Within the Verde River subbasin, vegetation (Webb and Leake 2005, p. Hawkins 2002, Table 4). These and particularly within the Verde 309). The hyporheic zone can promote examples of documented and projected Valley, where the northern Mexican and ‘‘hot spots’’ of productivity where population growth within the Verde narrow-headed gartersnakes could groundwater upwelling produces River subbasin indicate ever-increasing occur, several other activities continue nitrates that can enhance the growth of water demands that have impacted base to threaten surface flows (Rinne et al. vegetation, but its significance is flow in the Verde River and are 1998, p. 9; Paradzick et al. 2006, pp. contingent upon its activity and extent expected to continue. The middle and 104–110). Many tributaries of the Verde of connection with the groundwater lower Verde River has limited or no River are permanently or seasonally flow during portions of the year due to dewatered by water diversions for (Boulton et al. 1998, p. 67; Boulton and agricultural diversion and upstream agriculture (Paradzick et al. 2006, pp. Hancock 2006, pp. 135, 138). If impoundments, and has several 104–110). The demands for surface complete disconnection occurs, the impoundments in its middle reaches, water allocations from rapidly growing hyporheic zone could be adversely which could expand the area of communities and agricultural and affected. Such ‘‘hot spots’’ can enhance impacted northern Mexican and narrow- mining interests have altered flows or the quality of northern Mexican and headed gartersnake habitat. Blasch et al. dewatered significant reaches during the narrow-headed gartersnake habitat. (2006, p. 2) suggests that groundwater spring and summer months in some of Conversely, changes to the duration and storage in the Verde River subbasin has the Verde River’s larger, formerly timing of upwelling can potentially lead already declined due to groundwater perennial tributaries such as Wet Beaver to localized extinctions in biota pumping and reductions in natural Creek, West Clear Creek, and the East (Boulton and Hancock 2006, p. 139), channel recharge resulting from stream Verde River (Girmendonk and Young reducing or eliminating gartersnake flow diversions. 1993, pp. 45–47; Sullivan and habitat suitability. Also impacting water in the Verde Richardson 1993, pp. 38–39; Paradzick The arid southwestern United States River, the City of Prescott, Arizona, et al. 2006, pp. 104–110), which may is characterized by limited annual experienced a 22 percent increase in have supported either the northern precipitation, which means limited population between 2000 and 2005 Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake, annual recharge of groundwater (U.S. Census Bureau 2010, p. 1), or both. Groundwater pumping in the aquifers; even modest changes in averaging around 4 percent growth per Tonto Creek drainage regularly groundwater levels from groundwater year (City of Prescott 2010, p. 1). In eliminates surface flows during parts of pumping can affect above-ground addition, the towns of Prescott Valley the year (Abarca and Weedman 1993, p. stream flow as evidenced by depleted and Chino Valley experienced growth 2). flows in the Santa Cruz, Verde, San rates of 66 and 67 percent, respectively Further south in Arizona, portions of Pedro, Blue, and lower Gila rivers as a (Arizona Department of Commerce the San Pedro River are now classified result of regional groundwater demands 2009a, p. 1; 2009b, p. 1). This growth is as formerly perennial (The Nature (Fernandez and Rosen 1996, p. 70; facilitated by groundwater pumping in Conservancy 2006), and water Stromberg et al. 1996, pp. 113, 124–128; the Verde River basin. In 2004, the cities withdrawals are a concern for the San Rinne et al. 1998, p. 9; Voeltz 2002, pp. of Prescott and Prescott Valley Pedro River. The Cananea Mine in 45–47, 69–71; Haney et al. 2009 p. 1). purchased a ranch in the Big Chino Sonora, Mexico, owns the land Demands are expected to exceed flows basin in the headwaters of the Verde surrounding the headwaters of the San in , Babocomari River, River, with the intent of drilling new Pedro. There is disagreement on the

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exact amount of water withdrawn by the large open-pit copper mine at Morenci, and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the mine, Mexicana de Cananea, which is Arizona, dries portions of the stream Intergovernmental Panel on Climate one of the largest open-pit copper mines (Sublette et al. 1990, p. 19; USFWS Change (IPCC). ‘‘Climate’’ refers to the in the world. However, there is 2005; Propst et al. 1986, p. 7) that mean and variability of different types agreement that it is the largest water otherwise supports habitat for narrow- of weather conditions over time, with 30 user in the basin (Harris et al. 2001; headed gartersnakes. Mining is the years being a typical period for such Varady et al. 2000, p. 232). Along the largest industrial water user in measurements, although shorter or upper San Pedro River, Stromberg et al. southeastern Arizona. The Morenci longer periods also may be used (IPCC (1996, pp. 124–127) found that wetland mine on Eagle Creek is North America’s 2007, p. 78). The term ‘‘climate change’’ herbaceous species, important as cover largest producer of copper, covering thus refers to a change in the mean or for northern Mexican gartersnakes, are approximately 24,281 hectares (ha) variability of one or more measures of the most sensitive to the effects of a (60,000 acres (ac)). Water for the mine climate (e.g., temperature or declining groundwater level. Webb and is imported from the Black River, precipitation) that persists for an Leake (2005, pp. 302, 318–320) diverted from Eagle Creek as surface extended period, typically decades or described a correlative trend regarding flows, or withdrawn from the Upper longer, whether the change is due to vegetation along southwestern streams Eagle Creek Well Field (Arizona natural variability, human activity, or from historically being dominated by Department of Water Resources 2009, p. both (IPCC 2007, p. 78). Various types marshy grasslands preferable to 1). of changes in climate can have direct or northern Mexican gartersnakes, to The Rosemont Copper Mine proposed indirect effects on species. These effects currently being dominated by woody to be constructed in the north-eastern may be positive, neutral, or negative and species that are more tolerant of area of the Santa Rita Mountains in they may change over time, depending declining water tables due to their Santa Cruz County, Arizona, will on the species and other relevant deeper rooting depths. include a mine pit that will be considerations, such as the effects of Another primary groundwater user in excavated to a depth greater than that of interactions of climate with other the San Pedro subbasin is Fort the regional aquifer. Water will thus variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) Huachuca. Fort Huachuca is a U.S. drain from storage in the aquifer into the (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14, 18–19). In our Army installation located near Sierra pit. The need to dewater the pit during analyses, we use our expert judgment to Vista, Arizona. Initially established in mining operations will thus result in weigh relevant information, including 1877 as a camp for the military, the ongoing removal of aquifer water uncertainty, in our consideration of water rights of the Fort are predated storage. Upon cessation of mining, a pit various aspects of climate change and only by those of local Indian tribes lake will form, and evaporation from their predicted effects on northern (Varady et al. 2000, p. 230). Fort this water body will continue to remove Mexican and narrow-headed Huachuca has pursued a rigorous water water from storage in the regional gartersnakes. use reduction plan, working over the aquifer. This aquifer also supplies The ecology and natural histories of past decade to reduce groundwater baseflow to Cienega Creek, immediately northern Mexican and narrow-headed consumption in the Sierra Vista east of the proposed project site. Several gartersnakes are strongly linked to subbasin. Their efforts have focused groundwater models have been water. As discussed above, the northern primarily on reductions in groundwater developed to analyze potential effects of Mexican gartersnake is a highly aquatic demand both on-post and off-post and expected groundwater withdrawals. species and relies largely upon other increased artificial and enhanced However, the latest independent models aquatic species, such as ranid frogs and recharge of the groundwater system. did not indicate that significant effects native and nonnative, soft-rayed fish as Annual pumping from Fort Huachuca to baseflows in Cienega Creek are prey. The narrow-headed gartersnake is production wells has decreased from a expected from the Rosemont Copper the most aquatic of the southwestern high of approximately 3,200 acre-feet Mine into the foreseeable future. gartersnakes and is a specialized (AF) in 1989, to a low of approximately The best available scientific and predator on native and nonnative, soft- 1,400 AF in 2005. In addition, Fort commercial information indicates that, rayed fish found primarily in clear, Huachuca and the City of Sierra Vista regardless of the scenario, any reduction rocky, higher elevation streams. Because have increased the amount of water in the presence or availability of water of their aquatic nature, Wood et al. recharged to the regional aquifer is a significant threat to northern (2011, p. 3) predict they may be through construction of effluent Mexican and narrow-headed uniquely susceptible to environmental recharge facilities and detention basins gartersnakes, their prey base, and their change, especially factors associated that not only increase stormwater habitat. This is because water is a with climate change. Together, these recharge, but mitigate the negative fundamental need that supports the factors are likely to make northern effects of increased runoff from necessary aquatic and riparian habitats Mexican and narrow-headed urbanization. The amount of effluent and prey species needed by both species gartersnakes vulnerable to effects of that was recharged by Fort Huachuca of gartersnake. Through GIS analyses, climate change and drought discussed and the City of Sierra Vista in 2005 was we found that approximately 32 percent below. 426 AF and 1,868 AF, respectively. of formerly perennial streams have been Several climate-related trends have During this same year, enhanced dewatered within the historical been detected since the 1970s in the stormwater recharge at detention basins distribution of the northern Mexican southwestern United States including was estimated to be 129 AF. The total gartersnake. Within the historical increases in surface temperatures, net effect of all the combined efforts distribution of the narrow-headed rainfall intensity, drought, heat waves, initiated by Fort Huachuca has been to gartersnake, approximately 13 percent extreme high temperatures, average low reduce the net groundwater of formerly perennial streams have been temperatures (Overpeck 2008, entire). consumption by approximately 2,272 dewatered. Annual precipitation amounts in the AF (71 percent) since 1989 (USFWS Climate Change and Drought—Our southwestern United States may 2007, pp. 41–42). analyses under the Act include decrease by 10 percent by the year 2100 Groundwater withdrawal in Eagle consideration of ongoing and projected (Overpeck 2008, entire). Seager et al. Creek, primarily for water supplying the changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’ (2007, pp. 1181–1184) analyzed 19

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different computer models of differing gartersnake. Amphibians may be among Rahel et al. (2008, p. 551) concluded variables to estimate the future the first vertebrates to exhibit broad- that climate change could foster the climatology of the southwestern United scale changes in response to changes in expansion of nonnative aquatic species States and northern Mexico in response global climatic patters due to their into new areas, magnify the effects of to predictions of changing climatic sensitivity to changes in moisture and existing aquatic nonnative species patterns. All but 1 of the 19 models temperature (Reaser and Blaustein 2005, where they currently occur, increase predicted a drying trend within the p. 61). Changes in temperature and nonnative predation rates, and heighten Southwest; one predicted a trend moisture, combined with the ongoing the virulence of disease outbreaks in toward a wetter climate (Seager et al. threat to amphibians from the North America. 2007, p. 1181). A total of 49 projections persistence of disease causing bacteria Rahel and Olden (2008, p. 526) expect were created using the 19 models, and such as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis that increases in water temperatures in all but 3 predicted a shift to increasing (Bd) may cause prey species to drier climates such as the southwestern aridity (dryness) in the Southwest as experience increased physiological United States will result in periods of early as 2021–2040 (Seager et al. 2007, stress and decreased immune system prolonged low flows and stream drying. p. 1181). Northern Mexican and function, possibly leading to disease These effects from changing climatic particularly narrow-headed outbreaks (Carey and Alexander 2003, conditions may have profound effects gartersnakes, and their prey bases, pp. 111–121; Pounds et al. 2006, pp. on the amount, permanency, and quality depend on permanent or nearly 161–167). Of the 30 different vertebrate of habitat for northern Mexican and permanent water for survival. A large species in the Sky Island region of narrow-headed gartersnakes as well as percentage of habitats within the current southeastern Arizona, the northern their prey base. Changes in amount or distribution of northern Mexican and Mexican gartersnake was found to be type of winter precipitation may affect narrow-headed gartersnakes are the fifth-most vulnerable (total snowpack levels as well as the timing of predicted to be at risk of becoming more combined score) to predicted climate their discharge into high-elevation arid with reductions in snow pack change; one of its primary prey species, streams. Low or no snowpack levels levels (Seager et al. 2007, pp. 1183– the Chiricahua leopard frog, was would jeopardize the amount and 1184). This has severe implications for determined to be the fourth most reliability of stream flow during the arid the integrity of aquatic and riparian vulnerable (Coe et al. 2012, p. 16). Both spring and early summer months, which ecosystems and the water that supports the northern Mexican gartersnake and would increase water temperatures to them. In assessing potential effects of the Chiricahua leopard frog ranked the unsuitable levels or eliminate flow predicted climate change to river highest of all species assessed for altogether. Harmful nonnative species systems in New Mexico, Molles (2007) vulnerability of their habitat to such as largemouth bass are expected to found that: (1) Variation in stream flow predicted climate change, and the benefit from prolonged periods of low will likely be higher than variation in Chiricahua leopard frog was also found flow (Rahel and Olden 2008, p. 527). precipitation; (2) predicted effects such to be the most vulnerable in terms of its These nonnative predatory species as warming and drying are expected to physiology (Coe et al. 2012, p. 18). evolved in river systems with result in higher variability in stream Relative uncertainty for the hydrographs that were largely stable, flows; and (3) high-elevation fish and vulnerability assessment provided by not punctuated by flood pulses in which non-flying invertebrates (which are prey Coe et al. (2012, Table 2.2) ranged from native species evolved and benefit from. Probst et al. (2008, p. 1246) also for gartersnake prey species) are at 0 to 8 (higher score means greater suggested that nonnative fish species greatest risk from effects of predicted uncertainty), and the northern Mexican climate change. Enquist and Gori (2008, may benefit from drought. gartersnake score was 3, meaning that Changes to climatic patterns may p. iii) found that most of New Mexico’s the vulnerability assessment was more mid- to high-elevation forests and warm water temperatures, alter stream certain than not. Coe et al. (2012, entire) flow events, and increase demand for woodlands have experienced either focused their assessment of species consistently warmer and drier water storage and conveyance systems vulnerability to climate change on those (Rahel and Olden 2008, pp. 521–522). conditions or greater variability in occurring on the Coronado National temperature and precipitation from Warmer water temperatures across Forest in southeastern Arizona. 1991 to 2005. However, Enquist et al. temperate regions are predicted to However, it is not unreasonable to (2008, p. v) found the upper Gila and expand the distribution of existing hypothesize that results might be San Francisco subbasins, which support harmful nonnative species, which applicable in a larger, regional context narrow-headed gartersnake populations, evolved in warmer water temperatures, as applied in most climate models. have experienced very little change in by providing 31 percent more suitable moisture stress during the same period. The bullfrog, also assessed by Coe et habitat. This conclusion is based upon Cavazos and Arriaga (2010, entire) al. (2012, pp. 16, 18, Table 2.2), was studies that compared the thermal found that average temperatures along shown to be significantly less tolerances of 57 fish species with the Mexican Plateau in Mexico could vulnerable to predicted climate change predictions made from climate change rise by as much as 1.8 °F (1 °C) in the than either northern Mexican temperature models (Mohseni et al. next 20 years and by as much as 9 °F (5 gartersnakes or Chiricahua leopard frogs 2003, p. 389). Eaton and Scheller (1996, °C) in the next 20 years, according to with an uncertainty score of 1 (very p. 1,111) reported that while several their models. Cavazos and Arriaga certain). We suspect bullfrogs were cold-water fish species (such as trout, a (2010, entire) also found that found to be less vulnerable by Coe et al. prey species for narrow-headed precipitation may decrease up to 12 (2012) to predicted climate change in gartersnakes) in North America are percent over the next 20 years in the southeastern Arizona due to their expected to have reductions in their same region, with pronounced decreases dispersal and colonization capabilities, distribution from effects of climate in winter and spring precipitation. capacity for self-sustaining cannibalistic change, several harmful nonnative Potential drought associated with populations, and ecological dominance species are expected to increase their changing climatic patterns may where they occur. Based upon climate distribution. In the southwestern United adversely affect the amphibian prey change models, nonnative species States, this situation may occur where base for the northern Mexican biology, and ecological observations, the quantity of water is sufficient to

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sustain effects of potential prolonged that paralleled arroyos, occasionally extirpation of the northern Mexican drought conditions but where water crossed them, and often required stream gartersnake from these regions. temperature may warm to a level found bank modification (Hendrickson and Development near riparian areas suitable to harmful nonnative species Minckley 1984, p. 140). Today, only the usually leads to increased recreation. that were previously physiologically artificially maintained San Simon Riparian areas located near urban areas precluded from occupation of these Cienega exists in this valley. Similar are vulnerable to the effects of increased areas. Species that are particularly accounts of past conditions, adverse recreation. An example of such an area harmful to northern Mexican and effects from historical anthropogenic within the existing distribution of both narrow-headed gartersnake populations activities, and subsequent reduction in the northern Mexican and narrow- such as the green sunfish, channel the extent and quality of cienega headed gartersnake is the Verde Valley. catfish, largemouth bass, and bluegill habitats in the remaining valleys are The reach of the Verde River that winds are expected to increase their also provided in Hendrickson and through the Verde Valley receives a high distribution by 7.4 percent, 25.2 Minckley (1984, pp. 138–160). amount of recreational use from people percent, 30.4 percent, and 33.3 percent, Development and Recreation within living in central Arizona (Paradzick et respectively (Eaton and Scheller 1996, Riparian Corridors—Development al. 2006, pp. 107–108). Increased human p. 1,111). within and adjacent to riparian areas use results in the trampling of near- Vanishing Cienegas—Cienegas are has proven to be a significant threat to shore vegetation, which reduces cover particularly important habitat for the riparian biological communities and for gartersnakes, especially newborns. northern Mexican gartersnake and are their suitability for native species Increased human visitation in occupied considered ideal for the species because (Medina 1990, p. 351). Riparian habitat also increases the potential for these areas present ideal habitat communities are sensitive to even low adverse human interactions with characteristics for the species and its levels (less than 10 percent) of urban gartersnakes, which frequently leads to prey base and have been shown to development within a subbasin the capture, injury, or death of the snake support robust populations of both (Wheeler et al. 2005, p. 142). (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 43; Ernst (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 14). Development along or within proximity and Zug 1996, p. 75; Green 1997, pp. Hendrickson and Minckley (1984, p. to riparian zones can alter the nature of 285–286; Nowak and Santana-Bendix 131) defined cienegas as ‘‘mid-elevation stream flow dramatically, changing 2002, pp. 37–39). , which represents (3,281–6,562 ft (1,000–2000 m)) once-perennial streams into ephemeral an important source population for wetlands characterized by permanently streams, which has direct consequences saturated, highly organic, reducing narrow-headed gartersnakes, is also a on the riparian community (Medina [lowering of oxygen level] soils.’’ Many well-known example of an area with 1990, pp. 358–359). Medina (1990, pp. of these unique communities of the very high recreation levels. Recreational 358–359) correlated tree density and age southwestern United States, Arizona in activities in the Southwest are often class representation to stream flow, particular, and Mexico have been lost in heavily tied to water bodies and riparian finding that decreased flow reduced tree the past century to streambed areas, due to the general lack of surface densities and generally resulted in few modification, intensive livestock water on the landscape. Increased to no small-diameter trees. Small- grazing, woodcutting, artificial drainage recreational impacts on the quantity and diameter trees assist northern Mexican structures, stream flow stabilization by quality of water, as well as the adjacent and narrow-headed gartersnakes by upstream dams, channelization, and vegetation, negatively affect northern stream flow reduction from groundwater providing additional habitat complexity, Mexican and narrow-headed pumping and water diversions thermoregulatory opportunities, and gartersnakes. The impacts to riparian (Hendrickson and Minckley 1984, p. cover needed to reduce predation risk habitat from recreation can include 161). Stromberg et al. (1996, p. 114) and enhance the usefulness of areas for movement of people or livestock, such state that cienegas were formerly maintaining optimal body temperature. as horses or mules, along stream banks, extensive along streams of the The presence of small shrubs and trees trampling, loss of vegetation, and Southwest; however, most were may be particularly important for the increased danger of fire starts (Northern destroyed during the late 1800s, when narrow-headed gartersnake (Deganhardt Arizona University 2005, p. 136; Monz groundwater tables declined several et al. 1996, p. 327). Development within et al. 2010, pp. 553–554). In the arid meters and stream channels became occupied riparian habitat also likely Gila River Basin, recreational impacts incised. increases the number of human- are disproportionately distributed along Many sub-basins, where cienegas gartersnake encounters and therefore the streams as a primary focus for recreation have been severely modified or lost frequency of adverse human interaction, (Briggs 1996, p. 36). Within the range of entirely, wholly or partially overlap the described below. the northern Mexican and narrow- historical distribution of the northern Obvious examples of the influence of headed gartersnakes in the United Mexican gartersnake, including the San urbanization and development can be States, the majority of the occupied Simon, Sulphur Springs, San Pedro, and observed within the areas of greater areas occur on Federal lands, which are Santa Cruz valleys of southeastern and Tucson and Phoenix, Arizona, where managed for recreation and other south-central Arizona. The San Simon impacts have modified riparian purposes. On the Gila National Forest, Valley in Arizona possessed several vegetation, structurally altered stream heavy recreation use within occupied natural cienegas with abundant channels, facilitated nonnative species narrow-headed gartersnake habitat is vegetation prior to 1885, and was used introductions, and dewatered large thought to impact populations along the as a watering stop for pioneers, military, reaches of formerly perennial rivers Middle Fork Gila River, the mainstem and surveying expeditions (Hendrickson where the northern Mexican gartersnake Gila River between Cliff Dwellings and and Minckley 1984, pp. 139–140). In the historically occurred (Santa Cruz, lower Little Creek, and Whitewater Creek from subsequent decades, the disappearance Gila, and lower Salt Rivers, the Catwalk to Glenwood (Hellekson of grasses and commencement of severe respectively). Urbanization and 2012a, pers. comm.). erosion were the result of historical development of these areas, along with Urbanization on smaller scales can grazing pressure by large herds of cattle, the introduction of nonnative species, also impact habitat suitability and the as well as the effects from wagon trails are largely responsible for the likely prey base for the northern Mexican or

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narrow-headed gartersnakes, such as livestock grazing, deforestation, (extirpations of freshwater fish species, along Tonto Creek, within the Verde wildfires, and urbanization. In addition, p. 112); the rı´os Casas Grandes, Santa Valley, and the vicinity of Rock Springs nonnative species, such as bullfrogs and Marı´a, del Carmen, and Laguna along the Agua Fria River (Girmendonk nonnative, spiny-rayed fish, have been Bustillos (water diversions, groundwater and Young 1997, pp. 45–52; Voeltz introduced throughout Mexico and pumping, channelization, flood control 2002, pp. 58–59, 69–71; Holycross et continue to disperse naturally, practices, pollution, and introduction of al.2006, pp. 53, 56; Paradzick et al. broadening their distributions (Conant nonnative species, pp. 124, 197); the Rı´o 2006, pp. 89–90). One of the most stable 1974, pp. 487–489; Miller et al. 2005, Santa Cruz (extirpations, p. 140); the Rı´o populations of the northern Mexican pp. 60–61; Luja and Rodrı´guez-Estrella Yaqui (nonnative species, pp. 148, Plate gartersnake in the United States, at the 2008, pp. 17–22). 61); the Rı´o Colorado (nonnative Page Springs and Bubbling Ponds fish Mexico’s water needs for urban and species, p. 153); the rı´os Fuerte and hatcheries along Oak Creek, is agricultural development, as well Culiaca´n (logging, p. 177); canals, threatened by ongoing small-scale impacts to aquatic habitat from these ponds, lakes in the Valle de Me´xico development projects that may uses, are linked to significant human (nonnative species, extirpations, adversely affect the northern Mexican population growth over the past century pollution, pp. 197, 281); the Rı´o Verde gartersnake directly through physical in Mexico. Mexico’s human population Basin (dewatering, nonnative species, harm or injury or indirectly from effects grew 700 percent from 1910 to 2000 extirpations, Plate 88); the Rı´o Mayo to its habitat or prey base (AGFD 1997a, (Miller et al. 2005, p. 60). Mexico’s (dewatering, nonnative species, p. 247); p. 8; AGFD 1997b, p. 4). Current and population increased by 245 percent the Rı´o Papaloapan (pollution, p. 252); future management and maintenance of from 1950 to 2002, and is projected to lagos de Zacapu and Yuriria (habitat Bubbling Ponds include a variety of grow by another 28 percent by 2025 destruction, p. 282); and the Rı´o Pa´nuco activities that would potentially affect (EarthTrends 2005). Growth is Basin (nonnative species, p. 295). snake habitat, such as the maintenance concentrated in Mexico’s northern states Excessive sedimentation also appears of roads, buildings, fences, and (Stoleson et al. 2005, Table 3.1) and is to be a significant problem for aquatic equipment, as well as development now skewed towards urban areas (Miller habitat in Mexico. Recent estimates (residences, storage facilities, asphalt, et al. 2005, p. 60). The human indicate that 80 percent of Mexico is resurfacing, etc.) and both human- and population of Sonora, Mexico, doubled affected by soil erosion caused by habitat-based enhancement projects in size from 1970 (1.1 million) to 2000 vegetation removal related to grazing, (AGFD 1997b, pp. 8–9; Wilson and (2.2 million) (Stoleson et al. 2005, p. fires, agriculture, deforestation, etc. The Company 1991, pp. 1–40; 1992, pp. 1– 54). The population of Sonora is most serious erosion is occurring in the 99). However, we expect adaptive expected to increase by 23 percent, to states of Guanajuato (43 percent of the management in relation to activities at 2.7 million people, in 2020 (Stoleson et state’s land area), Jalisco (25 percent of ´ the hatcheries, as informed by al. 2005, p. 54). Increasing trends in the state’s land area), and Mexico (25 population studies that have occurred Mexico’s human population will percent of the state’s land area) (va there, will help reduce the overall continue to place additional stress on Landa et al. 1997, p. 317), all of which effects to this critical northern Mexican the country’s freshwater resources and occur within the distribution of the gartersnake population and avoid continue to be the catalyst for the northern Mexican gartersnake. Miller et extirpation of this important population. elimination of northern Mexican al. (2005, p. 60) stated that ‘‘During the gartersnake habitat and prey species. time we have collectively studied fishes Diminishing Water Quantity and Much knowledge of the status of in Me´xico and southwestern United Quality in Mexico—While effects to aquatic ecosystems in Mexico has come States, the entire biotas of long reaches riparian and aquatic communities affect from fisheries research, which is of major streams such as the Rı´o Grande both the northern Mexican gartersnake particularly applicable to assessing the de Santiago below Guadalajara (Jalisco) and the narrow-headed gartersnake in status of northern Mexican gartersnakes and Rı´o Colorado (lower Colorado River the United States, Mexico provides because of the gartersnakes’ dependency in Mexico) downstream of Hoover habitat only for the northern Mexican on a functioning prey base. Fisheries (Boulder) Dam (in the United States), gartersnake. Threats to northern research is also particularly applicable have simply been destroyed by Mexican gartersnake habitat in Mexico because of the role fishes serve as pollution and river alteration.’’ These include intensive livestock grazing, indicators of the status of the aquatic streams are within the distribution of urbanization and development, water community as a whole. Miller et al. the northern Mexican gartersnake. The diversions and groundwater pumping, (2005) reported information on threats geographic extent of threats reported by loss of vegetation cover and to freshwater fishes, and riparian and Miller et al. (2005) across the deforestation, and erosion, as well as aquatic communities in specific water distribution of the northern Mexican impoundments and dams that have bodies from several regions throughout gartersnake in Mexico is evidence that modified or destroyed riparian and Mexico within the range of the northern they are widespread through the aquatic communities in areas of Mexico Mexican gartersnake: the Rı´o Grande country, and encompass a large where the species occurred historically. (dam construction, p. 78 and proportion of the distribution of the Rorabaugh (2008, pp. 25–26) noted extirpations of freshwater fish species, northern Mexican gartersnake in threats to northern Mexican pp. 82, 112); headwaters of the Rı´o Mexico. gartersnakes and their native amphibian Lerma (extirpation of freshwater fish In northern Mexico, effects of prey base in Sonora, which included species, nonnative species, pollution, development, such as agriculture and disease, pollution, intensive livestock dewatering, pp. 60, 105, 197); Lago de irrigation practices on streams and grazing, conversion of land for Chapala and its outlet to the Rı´o Grande rivers in Sonora have been documented agriculture, nonnative plant invasions, de Santiago (major declines in at least as far back as the 1960s. Branson and logging. Ramirez Bautista and freshwater fish species, p. 106); et al. (1960, p. 218) found that the Arizmendi (2004, p. 3) stated that the medium-sized streams throughout the perennial rivers that drain the Sierra principal threats to northern Mexican Sierra Madre Occidental (localized Madre are ‘‘silt-laden and extremely gartersnake habitat in Mexico include extirpations, logging, dewatering, pp. turbid, mainly because of irrigation the drying of wetlands, intensive 109, 177, 247); the Rı´o Conchos practices.’’ Smaller mountain streams,

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such as the Rio Nacozari in Sonora were is bulldozed up the slopes in search of (Lyons and Navarro-Perez 1990, p. 37; found to be ‘‘biological deserts’’ from new madera or pasturage. Once the road Lyons et al. 1995, p. 572). the effects of numerous local mining is built, further development follows; Native fish communities of west- practices (Branson et al. 1960, p. 218). pueblos begin to pop up along its central Mexico have been found to be in These perennial rivers and their length. . . .’’ Several drainages that serious decline as a result of habitat mountain tributaries were historically possess suitable habitat for the northern degradation at an ‘‘unprecedented’’ rate occupied by northern Mexican Mexican gartersnake occur in the area due to water withdrawals (diversions for gartersnakes and their prey species referenced above by McCranie and irrigation), as well as untreated whose populations have since been Wilson (1987, p. 2) including the Rio de municipal, industrial, and agricultural adversely affected and may be la Cuidad, Rio Quebrada El Salto, Rio discharges (Lyons et al. 1998, pp. 10– extirpated. Chico, Rio Las Bayas, Rio El Cigarrero, 11). Numerous dams have been built Minckley et al. (2002, pp. 687–705) Rio Galindo, Rio Santa Barbara, and the along the Lerma River and along its provided a summary of threats (p. 696) Rio Chavaria. major tributaries to support one of to three newly described (at the time) In the southern portion of the Mexico’s most densely populated species of pupfish and their habitat in northern Mexican gartersnakes’ range in regions during the annual dry period; Chihuahua, Mexico, within the Mexico, growth and development the water is used for irrigation, industry, distribution of the northern Mexican around Mexico City resulted in and human consumption (Lyons et al. gartersnake. Initial settlement and agricultural practices and groundwater 1998, p. 11). From 1985 to 1993, Lyons et al. (1998, p. 12) found that 29 of 116 agricultural development of the area demands that dewatered aquatic habitat resulted in significant channel cutting (25 percent) fish sampling locations and led to declines, and in some cases, through soil layers protecting the visited within the Lerma River extinctions of local native fish species alluvial plain above them, which watershed were completely dry and (Miller et al. 1989, p. 25). In the region resulted in reductions in the base level another 30 were too polluted to support of southern Coahuila, Mexico, habitat of each basin in succession (Minckley et a fish community. These figures modification and the loss of springs, al. 2002, pp. 696). Related to these indicate that over half of the localities water pollution, and irrigation practices activities, the building of dams and visited by Lyons et al. (1998, p. 12) that has adversely affected native fish diversion structures dried entire reaches maintained fish populations prior to populations and led to the extinction of of some regional streams and altered 1985 no longer support fish, which has several native fish species (Miller et al. flow patterns of others (Minckley et al. likely led to local northern Mexican 2002, pp. 696). This was followed by 1989, pp. 28–33). Considerable research gartersnake population declines or groundwater pumping (enhanced by the has been focused in the central and extirpations. Soto-Galera et al. (1999, p. invention of the electric pump), which west-central regions of Mexico, within 137) reported fish and water quality lowered groundwater levels and dried the southern portion of the northern sampling results from 20 locations up springs and small channels and Mexican gartersnake’s range, where within the Rio Grande de Morelia-Lago reduced the reliability of baseflow in native fish endemism (unique, narrowly de Cuitzeo Basin of Michoaca´n and ‘‘essentially all systems’’ (Minckley et distributed Suite of species) is high, as Guanajuato, Mexico, and found that al. 2002, pp. 696). Subsequently, the are threats to their populations and over the past several decades, introduction and expansion of habitat. Since the 1970s in central diminishing water quantity and nonnative species in the area Mexico, significant human population worsening water quality have resulted successfully displaced or extirpated growth has resulted in the in the elimination of 26 percent of many native species (Minckley et al. overexploitation of local fisheries and native fish species from the basin, the 2002, pp. 696). Conant (1974, pp. 486– water pollution; these factors have extinction of two species of native fish, 489) described significant threats to accelerated the degradation of stream and declining distributions of the northern Mexican gartersnake habitat and riverine habitats and led to fish remaining 14 species. These figures within its distribution in western communities becoming reduced or provide evidence for widespread Chihuahua, Mexico, and within the Rio undergoing significant changes in concern of native aquatic communities Concho system where it occurs. These structure and composition (Mercado- of this region, in particular for habitat threats included impoundments, water Silva et al. 2002, p. 180). These shifts in and prey species of northern Mexican diversions, and purposeful fish community composition, gartersnakes. Some conservation value, introductions of largemouth bass, population density, and shrinking however, is realized when headwaters, common carp, and bullfrogs. distributions have adversely affected the springs, and small streams are protected In the central portions of the northern northern Mexican gartersnake prey base as parks or municipal water supplies Mexican gartersnakes’ range in Mexico, in the southern portion of its range in (Lyons et al. 1998, p. 15), but these such as in Durango, Mexico, population Mexico. The Lerma River basin is the efforts do little to protect larger growth since the 1960s has led to largest in west-central Mexico and is perennial rivers that represent valuable regional effects such as reduced stream within the distribution of the northern habitat for northern Mexican flow, increased water pollution, and Mexican gartersnake in the states of gartersnakes. largemouth bass introductions, which Jalisco, Guanajuato, and Quere´taro in Mercado-Silva et al. (2002, Appendix ‘‘have seriously affected native biota’’ the southern portion of its range. Lyons 2) reported results from fish community (Miller et al. 1989, p. 26). McCranie and et al. (1995, p. 572) reported that many sampling and habitat assessments along Wilson (1987, p. 2) discuss threats to the fish communities in large perennial 63 sites across central Mexico, the pine-oak communities of higher rivers, isolated spring-fed streams, or eastern-most of which include most of elevation habitats within the spring sources themselves of this region the northern Mexican gartersnakes’ distribution of the northern Mexican have been ‘‘radically restructured’’ and southern range. Specifically, sampling gartersnake in the Sierra Madre are now dominated by a few nonnative, locations in the Balsas, Lerma, Morelia, Occidental in Mexico, specifically generalist species. Lowland streams and Pa´nuco Moctezuma, and Pa´nuco noting that ‘‘ . . . the relative pristine rivers in this region are used heavily for Tampao´n basins each occurred within character of the pine-oak woodlands is irrigation and are polluted by industrial, the range of the northern Mexican threatened . . . every time a new road municipal, and agricultural discharges gartersnake in the states of Guanajuato,

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Queretaro, Mexico, and Puebla; Forty percent (17 different species) of predictions of drought and/or higher approximately 30 locations in total. The the native fishes of the basin had winter low temperatures may stress purpose of this sampling effort was to suffered major declines in distribution, ponderosa pine forests in which the score each site in terms of its index of and three species may be extinct. The narrow-headed gartersnake principally biotic integrity (IBI) and environmental extent and magnitude of degradation in occurs, and may increase the frequency quality (EQ), with a score of 100 the Rı´o Lerma basin matches or exceeds and magnitude of wildfire. Ganey and representing the optimum score for each the worst cases reported for comparably Vojta (2010, entire) studied tree category. The IBI scoring method has sized basins elsewhere in the world.’’ mortality in mixed conifer and been verified as a valid means to In the Transvolcanic Belt Region of ponderosa pine forests in Arizona from quantitatively assess ecosystem integrity the states of Jalisco, Mexico, and 1997–2007, a period of extreme drought. at each site (Lyons et al. 1995, pp. 576– Veracruz in southern Mexico, Conant They found the mortality of trees to be 581; Mercado-Silva et al. 2002, p. 184). (2003, p. 4) noted that water diversions, severe; the number of trees dying over The range in IBI scores in these pollution (e.g., discharge of raw a 5-year period increased by over 200 sampling locations was 85 to 35, and the sewage), sedimentation of aquatic percent in mixed-conifer forest and by range in EQ scores was 90 to 50 habitats, and increased dissolved 74 percent in ponderosa pine forest (Mercado-Silva et al. 2002, Appendix 2). nutrients were resulting in decreased during this time frame. Ganey and Vojta The average IBI score was 57, and the dissolved oxygen in suitable northern (2010) attributed drought and average EQ score was 74, across all 30 Mexican gartersnake habitat. Conant subsequent insect (bark beetle) sites and all four basins (Mercado-Silva (2003, p. 4) stated that many of these infestation to the die-offs in trees. et al. 2002, Appendix 2). According to threats were evident during his field Drought stress and a subsequent high the qualitative equivalencies assigned to work in the 1960s, and that they are degree of tree mortality from bark scores (Mercado-Silva et al. 2002, p. ‘‘continuing with increased velocity.’’ beetles make high-elevation forests more 184), these values indicate that the High-Intensity Wildfires and susceptible to high-intensity wildfires. environmental quality score averaged Sedimentation of Aquatic Habitat Climate is a top-down factor that across all 30 sites was ‘‘good’’ and the synchronizes with fuel loads, a bottom- Low-intensity fire has been a natural biotic integrity scores were ‘‘fair.’’ It up factor. Combined with a predicted disturbance factor in forested should be noted that 14 of the 30 sites reduction in snowpack and an earlier landscapes for centuries, and low- sampled had IBI scores equal to or less snowmelt, these factors suggest intensity fires were common in than 50, and five of those ranked as wildfires will be larger, more frequent, southwestern forests prior to European ‘‘poor.’’ Of all the basins throughout and more severe in the southwestern settlement (Rinne and Neary 1996, pp. United States (Fule´ 2010). Wildfires are central Mexico that were scored in this 135–136). Rinne and Neary (1996, p. ´ exercise, the two Panuco basins 143) discuss effects of recent fire expected to reduce vegetative cover and represented 20 of the 30 sites sampled management policies on aquatic result in greater soil erosion, and scored the worst of all basins communities in Madrean Oak subsequently resulting in increased ´ (Mercado-Silva et al. 2002, p. 186). This Woodland biotic communities in the sediment flows in streams (Fule 2010, indicates that threats to the northern southwestern United States. They entire). Increased sedimentation in Mexican gartersnake, its prey base, and concluded that existing wildfire streams reduces the visibility of its habitat pose the greatest risk in this suppression policies intended to protect gartersnakes in the water column, portion of its range in Mexico. the expanding number of human hampering their hunting ability as well Near Torreo´n, Coahuila, where the structures on forested public lands have as resulting in fish kills (which is also northern Mexican gartersnake occurs, altered the fuel loads in these caused by the disruption in the nitrogen groundwater pumping has resulted in ecosystems and increased the cycle post-wildfire), which reduce the flow reversal, which has dried up many probability of high-intensity wildfires. amount of prey available to gartersnake local springs, drawn arsenic-laden water The effects of these high-intensity populations. Additionally, unnaturally to the surface, and resulted in adverse wildfires include the removal of high amounts of sediment fill in pools human health effects in that area (Miller vegetation, the degradation of subbasin in intermittent streams, which reduces et al. 2005, p. 61). Severe water condition, altered stream behavior, and the amount and availability of habitat pollution from untreated domestic increased sedimentation of streams. for fish and amphibian prey. waste is evident downstream of large These effects can harm fish In the last 2 years, both Arizona (2011 Mexican cities, such as Mexico City, communities, as observed in the 1990 Wallow Fire) and New Mexico (2012 and inorganic pollution from nearby Dude Fire, when corresponding ash Whitewater-Baldy Complex Fire) have industrialized areas and agricultural flows resulted in fish kills in Dude experienced the largest wildfires in their irrigation return flow has dramatically Creek and the East Verde River (Voeltz respective State histories; indicative of affected aquatic communities through 2002, p. 77). Fish kills, also discussed the last decade that has been punctuated contamination (Miller et al. 2005, p. 60). below, can drastically affect the by wildfires of massive proportion. The Miller et al. (2005, p. 61) provide an suitability of habitat for northern 2011 Wallow Fire consumed excerpt from Soto Galera et al. (1999) Mexican and narrow-headed approximately 540,000 acres (218,530 addressing the threats to the Rı´o Lerma, gartersnakes due to the removal of a ha) of Apache-Sitgreaves National Mexico’s longest river, which is portion or the entire prey base. The Forest, White Mountain Apache Indian occupied by the northern Mexican Chiricahua leopard frog recovery plan Tribe, and San Carlos Apache Indian gartersnake: ‘‘The basin has experienced cites altered fire regimes as a serious Reservation lands in Apache, Navajo, a staggering amount of degradation threat to Chiricahua leopard frogs, a Graham, and Greenlee counties in during the 20th Century. By 1985–1993, prey species for northern Mexican Arizona as well as Catron County, New over half of our study sites had gartersnakes (USFWS 2007, pp. 38–39). Mexico (InciWeb 2011). The 2011 disappeared or become so polluted that The nature and occurrence of Wallow Fire impacted 97 percent of they could no longer support fishes. wildfires in the Southwest is expected perennial streams in the Black River Only 15 percent of the sites were still to also be affected by climate change subbasin, 70 percent of perennial capable of supporting sensitive species. and ongoing drought. Current streams in the Gila River subbasin, and

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78 percent of the San Francisco River gartersnakes such as the Middle Fork almost exclusively (Hellekson 2012a, subbasin and resulted in confirmed fish Gila River, West Fork Gila River, Iron pers. comm.), and may provide high- kills in each subbasin (Meyer 2011; p. Creek, the San Francisco River, quality habitat for narrow-headed 3, Table 2); each of these streams is Whitewater Creek, and Mineral Creek gartersnakes, once the subbasin has known to support populations of either (Brooks 2012, Table 1). Other extant adequately stabilized. northern Mexican or narrow-headed populations of the narrow-headed Affects to northern Mexican and gartersnakes. gartersnake in Gilita and South Fork narrow-headed gartersnake habitat from Although the Black River drainage Negrito Creeks are also expected to be wildfire should be considered in light of received no moderate or high-severity impacted from the 2012 Whitewater- effects to the structural habitat and burns as a result of the 2011 Wallow Baldy Complex Fire. Narrow-headed effects to the prey base. Post-fire effects Fire, the Fish and Snake Creek gartersnake populations in the Middle vary with burn severity, percent of area subbasins (tributaries to the Black River) Fork Gila River and Whitewater Creek burned within each severity category, were severely burned (Coleman 2011, p. formerly represented two of the four and the intensity and duration of 2). Post-fire fisheries surveys above most robust populations known from precipitation events that follow Wildcat Point in the Black River found New Mexico, and two of the five known (Coleman 2011, p. 4). Low-severity no fish in a reach extending up to the rangewide, and are expected to have burns within riparian habitat can confluence with the West Fork of Black been severely jeopardized by post-fire actually have a rejuvenating effect by River. This was likely due to subsequent effects to their prey base. Thus, we now removing decadent ground cover and ash and sediment flows that had consider them currently as likely not providing nutrients to remaining occurred there (Coleman 2011, p. 2). viable, at least in the short to medium vegetation. As a result, riparian Post-fire fisheries surveys at ‘‘the Box,’’ term. In reference to Gila trout vegetative communities may be more in the Blue River, detected only a single populations, Brooks (2012, p. 3) stated resilient to wildfire, given that water is native fish. This was also likely due to that fish populations are expected to be present (Coleman 2011, p. 4). Willows, ash and sediment flows and the severely impacted in the West Fork Gila an important component to narrow- associated subsequent fish kills that had River and Whitewater Creek. The loss of headed gartersnake habitat, can be occurred there, extending down to the fish communities in affected streams is positively affected by low-severity Gila River Box in Safford, Arizona likely to lead to associated declines, or burns, as long as the root crowns are not (Coleman 2011, pp. 2–3). The East Fork potential extirpations, in affected damaged (Coleman 2011, p. 4). High Black River subbasin experienced narrow-headed gartersnake populations severity burns that occur within the moderate to high-severity burns in 23 as a result of the collapse in their prey floodplain of occupied habitat are percent of its total acreage that resulted base. expected to have some level of shorter- in declines in Apache trout and native term effect on resident gartersnake sucker populations, but speckled dace Since 2000, several wildfires have populations through effects to the and brown trout remained prevalent as affected occupied narrow-headed vegetative structure and abundance, of 2011 (Coleman 2011, p. 3). These fire gartersnake habitat on the Gila National which may include a reduction of data suggest that the persistence of the Forest. The West Fork Gila subbasin was basking sites and a loss of cover, which prey base for northern Mexican and affected by the 2002 Cub Fire, the 2003 could increase the risk of predation. narrow-headed gartersnakes in the Black Dry Lakes Fire, and the 2011 Miller Fire; These potential effects need further River, and narrow-headed gartersnakes each resulted in post-fire ash and study. Post-fire ash flows, flooding, and in the lower Blue River, will be sediment flows, which adversely impacts to native prey populations are precarious into the near- to midterm affected fish populations used by longer term effects and can occur for future, as will likely be the stability of narrow-headed gartersnakes (Hellekson many years after a large wildfire gartersnake populations there. 2012a, pers. comm.). In 2011, the Miller (Coleman 2011, p. 2). Several large wildfires, which have Fire significantly affected the Little Post-fire flooding with significant ash resulted in excessive sedimentation of Creek subbasin and has resulted in and sediment loads can result in streams and affected resident fish substantive declines in abundance of significant declines, or even the populations that serve as prey for the fish community (Hellekson 2012a, collapse, of resident fish communities, narrow-headed gartersnakes, have pers. comm.). Dry Blue and Campbell which poses significant concern for the occurred historically on the Gila Blue creeks were affected by the 2011 persistence of resident gartersnake National Forest. From 1989–2004, Wallow Fire (Hellekson 2012a, pers. populations in affected areas. numerous wildfires cumulatively comm.). Saliz Creek was highly affected Sedimentation can adversely affect fish burned much of the uplands within the by the 2006 Martinez Fire (Hellekson populations used as prey by northern Gila National Forest, which resulted in 2012a, pers. comm.). Turkey Creek was Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnakes most perennial streams in the area heavily impacted by the Dry Lakes Fire by: (1) Interfering with respiration; (2) experiencing ash flows and elevated in 2002, which resulted in a complete reducing the effectiveness of fish’s sedimentation (Paroz et al. 2006, p. 55). fish kill, but the fish community has visually based hunting behaviors; and More recently, the 2012 Whitewater- since rebounded (Hellekson 2012a, pers. (3) filling in interstitial (spaces between Baldy Complex Fire in the Gila National comm.). It is not certain how long the cobbles, etc., on the stream floor) spaces Forest in New Mexico is the largest fish community was sparse or absent of the substrate, which reduces wildfire in that State’s history. This from Turkey Creek, but it is suspected reproduction and foraging success of wildfire was active for more than 5 that the narrow-headed gartersnake fish (Wheeler et al. 2005, p. 145). weeks and consumed approximately population there suffered significant Excessive sediment also fills in 300,000 acres (121,406 ha) of ponderosa, declines from the loss of their prey base, intermittent pools required for mixed conifer, pinyon-juniper, and as evidenced by the current low amphibian prey reproduction and grassland habitat (InciWeb 2012). Over population numbers. Prior to the 2002 foraging. Siltation of the rocky 25 percent of the burn area experienced Dry Lakes Fire, Turkey Creek was interstitial spaces along stream bottoms high-moderate burn severity (InciWeb largely populated by nonnative, spiny- decreases the dissolved oxygen content 2012) and included several subbasins rayed fish species, but has since been where fish lay their eggs, resulting in occupied by narrow-headed recolonized by native fish species depressed recruitment of fish and a

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subsequent reduction in prey turbidity (Hellekson 2012a, pers. of harmful nonnative species, which abundance for northern Mexican and comm.). adversely affect northern Mexican and narrow-headed gartersnakes through the Summary—The presence of water is narrow-headed gartersnakes. loss of prey microhabitat (Nowak and critical to both northern Mexican and Cienegas, a unique and important Santana-Bendix 2002, pp. 37–38). As narrow-headed gartersnakes and their habitat for northern Mexican stated above, sediment can lead to primary prey species because their gartersnakes, have been adversely several effects in resident fish species ecology and natural histories are affected or eliminated by a variety of used by northern Mexican or narrow- strongly linked to water. Several factors, historical and current land uses in the headed gartersnakes as prey, which can both natural and manmade, contribute United States and Mexico, including ultimately cause increased direct to the continued degradation and streambed modification, intensive mortality, reduced reproductive success, dewatering of aquatic habitat livestock grazing, woodcutting, artificial lower overall abundance, and throughout the range of northern drainage structures, stream flow reductions in prey species composition Mexican and narrow-headed stabilization by upstream dams, gartersnakes. Increasing human channelization, and stream flow as documented by Wheeler et al. (2005, population growth is driving higher and reduction from groundwater pumping p. 145). The underwater foraging ability higher demands for water in both the and water diversions. The historical loss of narrow-headed gartersnakes (de United States and Mexico. Water is of the cienega habitat of the northern Queiroz 2003, p. 381) and likely subsequently secured through dams, Mexican gartersnake has resulted in northern Mexican gartersnakes is largely diversions, flood-control projects, and local population declines or based on vision and is also directly groundwater pumping, which affects extirpations, negatively affecting its compromised by excessive turbidity gartersnake habitat through reductions status and contributing to its decline caused by sedimentation of water in flow and complete dewatering of rangewide. bodies. Suspended sediment in the stream reaches. Entire reaches of the Wildfire has historically been a water column may reduce the narrow- Gila, Salt, Santa Cruz, and San natural and important disturbance factor headed gartersnake’s visual hunting Francisco Rivers, as well as numerous within the range of northern Mexican efficiency from effects to water clarity, other rivers throughout the Mexican and narrow-headed gartersnakes. based on research conducted by de Plateau in Mexico which were However, in recent decades, forest Queiroz (2003, p. 381) that concluded historically occupied by either or both management policies in the United the species relied heavily on visual cues northern Mexican or narrow-headed States have favored fire suppression, the during underwater striking behaviors. gartersnakes, are now completely dry result of which has led to wildfires of The presence of adequate interstitial due to diversions, dams, and unusual proportions, particularly along spaces along stream floors may be groundwater pumping. Several the Mogollon Rim of Arizona and New particularly important for narrow- groundwater basins within the range of Mexico. These policies are generally not headed gartersnakes. Hibbitts and northern Mexican and narrow-headed in place in Mexico, and consequently, Fitzgerald (2009, p. 464) reported the gartersnakes in the United States are wildfire is not viewed as a significant precipitous decline of narrow-headed considered active management areas threat to the northern Mexican gartersnakes in a formerly robust where pumping exceeds recharge, gartersnake in Mexico. However, in the population in the San Francisco River at which is a constant threat to surface last 2 years, both Arizona (2011 Wallow San Francisco Hot Springs from 1996 to flow in streams and rivers connected to Fire) and New Mexico (2012 Whitewater-Baldy Complex Fire) have 2004. The exact cause for this these aquifers. Reduced flows experienced the largest wildfires in their significant decline is uncertain, but the concentrate northern Mexican and respective State histories, which is investigators suspected that a reduction narrow-headed gartersnakes and their indicative of the last decade having in interstitial spaces along the stream prey with harmful nonnative species, which accelerate and amplify adverse been punctuated by wildfires of floor from an apparent conglomerate, effects of native-nonnative community significant magnitude. High-intensity cementation process may have affected interactions. Where surface water wildfire has been shown to result in the narrow-headed gartersnake’s ability persists, increasing land development significant ash and sediment flows into to successfully anchor themselves to the and recreation use adjacent to and habitat occupied by northern Mexican stream bottom when seeking refuge or within riparian habitat has led to further or narrow-headed gartersnakes, foraging for fish (Hibbitts and Fitzgerald reductions in stream flow, removal or resulting in significant reductions of 2009, p. 464). These circumstances alteration of vegetation, and increased their fish prey base and, in some would likely result in low predation frequency of adverse human instances, total fish kills. The interstitial success and eventually starvation. Other interactions with gartersnakes. spaces between rocks located along the areas where sedimentation has affected Exacerbating the effects of increasing stream floor are important habitat for either northern Mexican or narrow- human populations and higher water the narrow-headed gartersnake as a headed gartersnake habitat are Cibecue demands, climate change predictions result of its specialized foraging strategy Creek in Arizona, and the San Francisco include increased aridity, lower annual and specialized diet. They area also River and South Fork Negrito Creek in precipitation totals, lower snow pack important for several fish species relied New Mexico (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, levels, higher variability in flows (lower upon as prey. When these spaces fill in p. 46; Arizona Department of Water low-flows and higher high-flows), and with sediment, the narrow-headed Resources 2011, p. 1; Hellekson 2012a, enhanced stress on ponderosa pine gartersnake may be unable to forage pers. comm.). The San Francisco River communities in the southwestern successfully and may succumb to stress in Arizona was classified as impaired United States and northern Mexico. created by a depressed prey base. A due to excessive sediment from its Increased stress to ponderosa pine significant reduction or absence of a headwaters downstream to the Arizona– forests places them at higher risk of prey base results in stress of resident New Mexico border (Arizona high-intensity wildfires, the effects of gartersnake populations and can result Department of Water Resources 2011, p. which are discussed below. Climate in local population extirpations. Also, 1). South Fork Negrito Creek is also change has also been predicted to narrow-headed gartersnakes are listed as impaired due to excessive enhance the abundance and distribution believed to rely heavily on visual cues

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while foraging underwater; increased or dewater northern Mexican and ecosystems in the western United States turbidity from suspended fine sediment narrow-headed gartersnake habitat are (Kauffman and Krueger 1984, pp. 433– in the water column is likely to impede threats rangewide, now and in the 435; Weltz and Wood 1986, pp. 367– their ability to use visual cues at some foreseeable future. 368; Cheney et al. 1990, pp. 5, 10; Waters 1995, pp. 22–24; Pearce et al. level. Factors that result in depressed The Cumulative and Synergistic Effect foraging ability from excessive of Threats on Low-Density Northern 1998, p. 307; Belsky et al. 1999, p. 1). sedimentation are likely to be enhanced Mexican and Narrow-Headed Fleischner (1994, p. 629) found that when effects from harmful nonnative Gartersnake Populations ‘‘Because livestock congregate in species are also acting on resident riparian ecosystems, which are among northern Mexican and narrow-headed In most locations where northern the most biologically rich habitats in gartersnake populations. We consider Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnakes arid and semiarid regions, the ecological the narrow-headed gartersnake to be historically occurred or still occur costs of grazing are magnified at these particularly threatened by the effects of currently, two or more threats are likely sites.’’ Stromberg and Chew (2002, p. wildfires as described because they acting in combination with regard to 198) and Trimble and Mendel (1995, p. occur throughout its range, the species their influence on the suitability of 243) also discussed the propensity for is a fish-eating specialist that is those habitats or on the species cattle to remain within or adjacent to unusually vulnerable to localized fish themselves. Many threats could be riparian communities. Expectedly, this kills, and wildfire has already considered minor in isolation, but when behavior is more pronounced in more significantly affected two of the last they affect gartersnake populations in arid regions (Trimble and Mendel 1995, remaining five populations that were combination with other threats, become p. 243). Effects from historical or formerly considered viable, pre-fire. We more serious. We have concluded that unmanaged grazing include: (1) have demonstrated that high-intensity in as many as 24 of 29 known localities Declines in the structural richness of the wildfires have the potential to eliminate in the United States (83 percent), the vegetative community; (2) losses or gartersnake populations through a northern Mexican gartersnake reductions of the prey base; (3) reduction or loss of their prey base. population is likely not viable and may increased aridity of habitat; (4) loss of Since 1970, wildfires have adversely exist at low population densities that thermal cover and protection from impacted the native fish prey base in 6 could be threatened with extirpation or predators; (5) a rise in water percent of the historical distribution of may already be extirpated. We also temperatures to levels lethal to larval determined that in as many as 29 of 38 northern Mexican gartersnakes in the stages of amphibian and fish known localities (76 percent), the United States and 21 percent of that for development; and (6) desertification narrow-headed gartersnake population narrow-headed gartersnakes rangewide, (Szaro et al. 1985, p. 362; Schulz and is likely not viable and may exist at low according to GIS analysis. Leininger 1990, p. 295; Schlesinger et population densities that could be al. 1990, p. 1043; Belsky et al. 1999, pp. All of these conditions affect the threatened with extirpation or may 8–11; Zwartjes et al. 2008, pp. 21–23). primary drivers of gartersnake habitat already be extirpated but survey data are In one rangeland study, it was suitability (the presence of water and lacking in areas where access is concluded that 81 percent of the prey) and exist in various degrees restricted. We have also discussed how vegetation that was consumed, throughout the range of both gartersnake harmful nonnative species have affected trampled, or otherwise removed was species. Collectively, they reduce the recruitment of gartersnakes across their amount and arrangement of physically range. In viable populations, from a riparian area, which amounted to suitable habitat for northern Mexican gartersnakes are resilient to the loss of only 2 percent of the total grazing space, and narrow-headed gartersnakes over individuals through ongoing and that these actions were 5 to 30 times their regional landscapes. The genetic recruitment into the reproductive age higher in riparian areas than on the representation of each species is class. However, when northern Mexican uplands (Trimble and Mendel 1995, pp. threatened when populations become or narrow-headed gartersnakes occur at 243–244). However, according to one disconnected and isolated from low population densities in the absence study along the Agua Fria River, neighboring populations because the of appropriate recruitment, the loss of herbaceous ground cover can recover length or area of dewatered zones is too even a few adults, or even a single adult quickly from heavy grazing pressure great for dispersing individuals to female, could drive a local population to (Szaro and Pase 1983, p. 384). overcome. Therefore, normal colonizing extirpation. Below, we discuss threats Additional information on the effects of mechanisms that would otherwise that, when considered in combination, historical livestock grazing can be found reestablish populations where they have can appreciably threaten low-density in Sartz and Tolsted (1974, p. 354); become extirpated are no longer viable. populations with extirpation. Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, pp. 32–33, This subsequently leads to a reduction 47); Clary and Webster (1989, p. 1); in species redundancy when isolated, Historical and Unmanaged Livestock Clary and Medin (1990, p. 1); Orodho et small populations are at increased Grazing and Agricultural Land Uses al. (1990, p. 9); and Krueper et al. (2003, vulnerability to the effects of stochastic Currently in the United States, pp. 607, 613–614). events, without a means for natural livestock grazing is a largely managed Szaro et al. (1985, p. 360) assessed the recolonization. Ultimately, the effects of activity, but in Mexico, livestock grazing effects of historical livestock scattered, small, and disjunct is much less managed or unmanaged management on a sister taxon and found populations, without the means to altogether. The effect of livestock that western (terrestrial) gartersnake naturally recolonize, is weakened grazing on resident gartersnake (Thamnophis elegans vagrans) species resiliency as a whole, which populations must be examined as a populations were significantly higher ultimately enhances the risk of either or comparison between historical and (versus controls) in terms of abundance both species becoming endangered or current management, and in the and biomass in areas that were excluded going extinct. Therefore, based on the presence of harmful nonnative species, from grazing, where the streamside best available scientific and commercial or not. Historical livestock grazing has vegetation remained lush, than where information, we conclude that land uses damaged approximately 80 percent of uncontrolled access to grazing was or conditions described above that alter stream, cienega, and riparian permitted. This effect was

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complemented by higher amounts of spread of harmful nonnative species increase in recreational access and the cover from organic debris from ungrazed when they are intentionally or likelihood of subsequent, decentralized shrubs that accumulate as the debris unintentionally stocked by anglers and urbanization; (6) interference with or moves downstream during flood events. private landowners (Rosen et al. 2001, inhibition of reproduction; (7) Specifically, results indicated that snake p. 24). The management of stock tanks contributions of pollutants to riparian abundance and biomass were is an important consideration for and aquatic communities; (8) reduction significantly higher in ungrazed habitat, northern Mexican gartersnakes in of prey communities; (9) effects to with a five-fold difference in number of particular. Stock tanks associated with gartersnake reproduction; and (10) snakes captured, despite the difficulty livestock grazing can be intermediary acting as population sinks (when of making observations in areas of ‘‘stepping stones’’ in the dispersal of population death rates exceed birth increased habitat complexity (Szaro et nonnative species from larger source rates in a given area) (Rosen and Lowe al. 1985, p. 360). Szaro et al. (1985, p. populations to new areas (Rosen et al. 1994, pp. 146–148; Waters 1995, p. 42; 362) also noted the importance of 2001, p. 24). The effects of livestock Foreman and Alexander 1998, p. 220; riparian vegetation for the maintenance grazing at stock tanks on northern Trombulak and Frissell 2000, pp. 19–26; of an adequate prey base and as cover Mexican gartersnakes depend on how Carr and Fahrig 2001, pp. 1074–1076; in thermoregulation and predation they are managed. Dense bank and Hels and Buchwald 2001, p. 331; Smith avoidance behaviors, as well as for aquatic vegetation is an important and Dodd 2003, pp. 134–138; foraging success. Direct mortality of habitat characteristic for the northern Angermeier et al. 2004, pp. 19–24; amphibian species, in all life stages, Mexican gartersnake in the presence of Shine et al. 2004, pp. 9, 17–19; Andrews from being trampled by livestock has harmful nonnative species. This and Gibbons 2005, pp. 777–781; been documented in the literature vegetation can be affected if the Wheeler et al. 2005, pp. 145, 148–149; (Bartelt 1998, p. 96; Ross et al. 1999, p. impoundment is poorly managed. When Roe et al. 2006, p. 161; Sacco 2007, pers. 163). Gartersnakes may, on occasion, be harmful nonnative species are absent, comm.; Ouren et al. 2007, pp. 6–7, 11, trampled by livestock. A black-necked the presence of bank line vegetation is 16, 20–21; Jones et al. 2011, pp. 65–66; gartersnake (Thamnophis cyrtopsis less important. Well-managed stock Hellekson 2012a, pers. comm.). cyrtopsis) had apparently been killed by tanks provide important habitat for Perhaps the most common factor in livestock trampling along the shore of a northern Mexican gartersnakes and their road mortality of snakes is the stock tank in the Apache-Sitgreaves prey base, especially when the tank: (1) propensity for drivers to unintentionally National Forest, within an actively Remains devoid of harmful nonnative and intentionally run them over, both grazed allotment (Chapman 2005). species while supporting native prey because people tend to dislike snakes Subbasins where historical grazing species; (2) provides adequate (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 43; Ernst has been documented as a suspected vegetation cover; and (3) provides and Zug 1996, p. 75; Green 1997, pp. contributing factor for either northern reliable water sources in periods of 285–286; Nowak and Santana-Bendix Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake prolonged drought. Given these benefits 2002, p. 39) and because they make easy declines include the Verde, Salt, Agua of well-managed stock tanks, we believe targets crossing roads at perpendicular Fria, San Pedro, Gila, and Santa Cruz well-managed stock tanks are an angles (Klauber 1956, p. 1026; Langley (Hendrickson and Minckley 1984, pp. important, even vital, component to et al. 1989, p. 47; Shine et al. 2004, p. 140, 152, 160–162; Rosen and Schwalbe northern Mexican gartersnake 11). Mortality data for northern Mexican 1988, pp. 32–33; Girmendonk and conservation and recovery. gartersnakes have been collected at the Young 1997, p. 47; Hale 2001, pp. 32– Bubbling Ponds Hatchery since 2006. Of 34, 50, 56; Voeltz 2002, pp. 45–81; Road Construction, Use, and the 15 dead specimens, eight were Krueper et al. 2003, pp. 607, 613–614; Maintenance struck by vehicles on roads within or Forest Guardians 2004, pp. 8–10; Roads can pose unique threats to adjacent to the hatchery ponds, perhaps Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 52–61; herpetofauna, and specifically to species while crossing between ponds to forage McKinnon 2006d, 2006e; Paradzick et like the northern Mexican gartersnake, (Boyarski 2011, pp. 1–3). Van Devender al. 2006, pp. 90–92; USFS 2008). its prey base, and the habitat where it and Lowe (1977, p. 47), however, Livestock grazing still occurs in these occurs. The narrow-headed gartersnake, observed several northern Mexican subbasins but is a largely managed land alternatively, is probably less affected gartersnakes crossing the road at night use and is not likely to pose significant by roads due to its more aquatic nature. after the commencement of the summer threats to either northern Mexican or Roads fragment occupied habitat and monsoon (rainy season), which narrow-headed gartersnakes where can result in diminished genetic highlights the seasonal variability in closely managed. In cases where poor viability in populations from increased surface activity of this snake. Wallace et livestock management results in fence mortality from vehicle strikes and al. (2008, pp. 243–244) documented a lines in persistent disrepair, providing adverse human encounters as supported vehicle-related mortality of a northern unmanaged livestock access to occupied by current research on eastern indigo Mexican gartersnake on Arizona State habitat, adverse effects from loss of snakes (Breininger et al. 2012, pp. 364– Route 188 near Tonto Creek that vegetative cover may result, most likely 366). Roads often track along streams occurred in 1995. in the presence of harmful nonnative and present a mortality risk to Adverse Human Interactions With species. As we described above, gartersnakes seeking more upland, Gartersnakes however, we strongly suspect that terrestrial habitat for brumation and northern Mexican and narrow-headed gestation. Roads may cumulatively A fear of snakes is generally and gartersnakes are somewhat resilient to impact both species through the universally embedded in modern physical habitat disturbance where following mechanisms: (1) culture, and is prevalent in the United harmful nonnative species are absent. Fragmentation, modification, and States (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 43; The creation and maintenance of destruction of habitat; (2) increase in Ernst and Zug 1996, p. 75; Green 1997, stock tanks is an important component genetic isolation; (3) alteration of pp. 285–286; Nowak and Santana- to livestock grazing in the southwestern movement patterns and behaviors; (4) Bendix 2002, p. 39). We use the phrase United States. Stock tanks associated facilitation of the spread of nonnative ‘‘adverse human interaction’’ to refer to with livestock grazing may facilitate the species via human vectors; (5) an the act of humans directly injuring or

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killing snakes out of a sense of fear or accumulated in the northern watersnake northern Mexican gartersnakes in anxiety (ophidiophobia), or for no (Nerodia sipedon) at levels six times Mexico, but presume, based on the best apparent purpose. One reason the that of their primary prey item, the available scientific and commercial narrow-headed gartersnake is vulnerable central stoneroller (a fish, Campostoma information, that where this land use is to adverse human interactions is anomalum). Metals, in trace amounts, prevalent, contaminants may be a because of its appearance. The narrow- can be sequestered in the skin of snakes contributing threat to resident headed gartersnake is often confused for (Burger 1999, p. 212), interfere with gartersnakes or their prey. a venomous water moccasin metabolic rates of snakes (Hopkins et al. Northern Mexican Gartersnake (cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus), 1999, p. 1261), affect the structure and Competition With Marcy’s Checkered because of its triangular-shaped head function of their liver and kidneys, and Gartersnake and propensity to be found in or near may also act as neurotoxins, affecting water (Nowak and Santana-Bendix nervous system function (Rainwater et Preliminary research suggests that 2002, p. 38). Although the nearest water al. 2005, p. 670). Based on data Marcy’s checkered gartersnake moccasin populations are located over collected in 2002–2010, mercury (Thamnophis marcianus marcianus) 700 miles (1,127 km) to the east in appears to be bioaccumulating in fish may impact the future conservation of central Texas, these misidentifications found in the lower reaches of Tonto the northern Mexican gartersnake in prove fatal for narrow-headed Creek, where northern Mexican southern Arizona, although supporting gartersnakes (Nowak and Santana- gartersnakes also occur (Rector 2010, data are limited. Rosen and Schwalbe Bendix 2002, p. 38). pers. comm.). In fact, the State record (1988, p. 31) hypothesized that bullfrogs Adverse human interaction may be for the highest mercury concentrations are more likely to eliminate northern largely responsible for highly localized in fish tissue was reported in Tonto Mexican gartersnakes when Marcy’s extirpations in narrow-headed Creek from this investigation by Rector checkered gartersnakes are also present. gartersnakes based on the collection (2010, pers. comm.). Mercury levels Marcy’s checkered gartersnake is a semi- history of the species at Slide Rock State were found to be the highest in the terrestrial species that is able to co-exist Park along Oak Creek, where high piscivorous smallmouth bass and, to some degree with harmful nonnative recreation use is strongly suspected to secondly, in desert suckers (a common predators. This might be due to its result in direct mortality of snakes by prey item for northern Mexican and apparent ability to forage in more humans (Nowak and Santana-Bendix narrow-headed gartersnakes). Because terrestrial habitats, specifically during the vulnerable juvenile size classes 2002, pp. 21, 38). Rosen and Schwalbe gartersnakes eat fish, mercury may be (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, p. 31; Rosen (1988, p. 42–43) suggested that bioaccumulating in resident et al. 2001, pp. 9–10). In every age class, approximately 44 percent of the populations, although no testing has the northern Mexican gartersnake estimated annual mortality of narrow- occurred. headed gartersnakes in the larger size forages in aquatic habitats where classes along Oak Creek may be human- Specific land uses such as mining and nonnative spiny-rayed fish, bullfrogs, caused. Declines in narrow-headed smelting, as well as road construction and crayfish are present, which gartersnake populations in the North and use, can be significant sources of increases not only the encounter rate and East Forks of the White River have contaminants in air, water, or soil between predator and prey, but also the also been attributed to humans killing through point-source and non-point juvenile mortality rate of the northern snakes (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, pp. source mechanisms. Copper mining has Mexican gartersnake, which negatively 43–44). Locations in New Mexico where occurred in Arizona (Pima, Pinal, affects recruitment. As northern this unnatural form of mortality is Yavapai, and Gila Counties) and Mexican gartersnake numbers decline believed to have historically affected or adjacent Mexico for centuries, and many within a population, space becomes currently affect narrow-headed of these sites have smelters (now available for occupation by Marcy’s gartersnakes include Wall Lake decommissioned), which are former checkered gartersnakes. One hypothesis (Fleharty 1967, p. 219), Middle Fork of sources of airborne contaminants. The suggests that the Marcy’s checkered the Gila River, the mainstem Gila River mining industry in Mexico is largely gartersnake might affect the maximum from Cliff Dwellings to Little Creek, in concentrated in the northern tier of that number of northern Mexican Whitewater Creek from the Catwalk to country, with the State of Sonora being gartersnakes that an area can maintain Glenwood (L. Hellekson 2012a, pers. the leading producer of copper, gold, based upon available resources, and comm.), and near San Francisco Hot graphite, molybdenum, and could potentially accelerate the decline Springs along the San Francisco River wollastonite, as well as the leader of, or preclude re-occupancy by, the (Hibbitts and Fitzgerald 2009, p. 466). among Mexican States with regard to northern Mexican gartersnake (Rosen the amount of surface area dedicated to and Schwalbe 1988, p. 31). Rosen et al. Environmental Contaminants mining (Stoleson et al. 2005, p. 56). The (2001, pp. 9–10) documented the Environmental contaminants, such as three largest mines in Mexico (all occurrence of Marcy’s checkered heavy metals, may be common at low copper) are found in Sonora (Stoleson et gartersnakes replacing northern background levels in soils and, as a al. 2005, p. 57). The sizes of mines in Mexican gartersnakes at the San result, concentrations are known to Sonora vary considerably, as do the Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge bioaccumulate in food chains. A known environmental effects from and surrounding habitats of the Black bioaccumulative substance increases in mining-related activities (from Draw. Rosen and Schwalbe (1988, p. 31) concentration in an organism or in the exploration to long after closure), which report the same at the mouth of Potrero food chain over time. A mid- to higher- include contamination and drawdown Canyon near its confluence with the order predator, such as a gartersnake, of groundwater aquifers, erosion, acid lower Santa Cruz River. They suspected may, therefore, accumulate these types mine drainage, fugitive dust, pollution that drought, extending from the late of contaminants over time in their fatty from smelter emissions, and landscape 1980s through the late 1990s, played a tissues, which may lead to adverse clearing (Stoleson et al. 2005, p. 57). We role in the degree of competition for health effects (Wylie et al. 2009, p. 583, are aware of no specific research on aquatic resources, provided an Table 5). Campbell et al. (2005, pp. 241– potential effects of mining or advantage to the more versatile Marcy’s 243) found that metal concentrations environmental contaminants acting on checkered gartersnake, and expedited

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the decline of the northern Mexican gartersnakes in the area of Lake Chapala, the attraction of livestock to water, gartersnake. More research is needed to Jalisco, Mexico (Barraga´n-Ramı´rez and forage, and shade. We found current confirm these relationships. Ascencio-Arrayga 2013, p. 159). Netting livestock grazing activities to be more of or seining is not an authorized form of a concern in Mexico. The literature is Mortality From Entanglement Hazards recreational fishing for sport fish in clear that the most profound impacts In addressing the effects of soil Arizona or New Mexico, but the practice from livestock grazing in the erosion associated with road is allowed in either state for the southwestern United States occurred construction projects or post-fire collection of live baitfish (AGFD 2013, nearly 100 years ago, were significant, remedial subbasin management, erosion p. 57; NMDGF 2013, p. 17). We are not and may still be affecting some areas control materials placed on the ground certain of the frequency in which these that have yet to fully recover. surface are often used. Erosion control techniques are used for such purposes Unmanaged or poorly managed is considered a best management in either state, but do not suspect that livestock operations likely have more practice for most soil-disturbing discarded nets or seines are commonly pronounced effects in areas significantly activities, and is broadly required as left on-site where they could ensnarl impacted by harmful nonnative species mitigation across the United States, in resident gartersnakes. However, this through a reduction in cover. However, particular to avoid excess sedimentation practice is used in Mexico as a primary land managers in Arizona and New of streams and rivers. Rolled erosion means of obtaining freshwater fish as a Mexico currently emphasize the control products, such as temporary food source and may be a significant protection of riparian and aquatic erosion control blankets and permanent threat to local northern Mexican habitat in allotment management turf reinforcement mats, are two gartersnake populations where this planning, usually through fencing, methods commonly used for these practice occurs. rotation, monitoring, and range purposes (Barton and Kinkead 2005, p. Disease improvements such as developing 34). These products use stitching or net- remote water sources. Collectively, like mesh products to hold absorbent Our review of the scientific literature these measures have reduced the media together. At a restoration site in did not find evidence that disease is a likelihood of significant adverse impacts South Carolina, 19 snakes (15 dead) current factor contributing to the on northern Mexican or narrow-headed representing five different species were decline in northern Mexican or narrow- gartersnakes, their habitat, and their found entangled in the netting and had headed gartersnakes. However, a recent prey base. We also recognize that while received severe lacerations in the wildlife health bulletin announced the the presence of stock tanks on the process of attempting to escape their emergence of snake fungal disease (SFD) landscape can benefit nonnative entanglement (Barton and Kinkead within the eastern and Midwestern species, well-managed stock tanks are 2005, p. 34). Stuart et al. (2001, pp. 162– portions of the United States (Sleemen an invaluable tool in the conservation 164) also reported the threats of net-like 2013, p. 1). SFD has now been and recovery of northern Mexican debris to snake species. Kapfer and diagnosed in several terrestrial and gartersnakes and their prey. Paloski (2011, p. 4) reported at least 31 aquatic snake genera including Nerodia, instances involving six different species Coluber, Pantherophis, Crotalus, Other activities, factors, or conditions of snake (including the common Sistrurus, and Lampropeltis. Clinical that act in combination, such as road gartersnake) in Wisconsin that had signs of SFD include scabs or crusty construction, use, and management, become entangled in the netting used scales, subcutaneous nodules, abnormal adverse human interactions, for either erosion control or as a wildlife molting, white opaque cloudiness of the environmental contaminants, exclusion product. In their review, eyes, localized thickening or crusting of entanglement hazards, and competitive Kapfer and Paloski (2011, p. 6) noted the skin, skin ulcers, swelling of the pressures from sympatric species, occur that 0.5 in. by 0.5 in. mesh has the face, or nodules in the deeper tissues within the distribution of these greatest likelihood of entangling snakes. (Sleemen 2013, p. 1). While mortality gartersnakes and have the propensity to Similar snake mortalities have not has been documented as a result of SFD, contribute to further population been documented in Arizona or New population-level impacts have not, due declines or extirpations where Mexico, according to our files. However, to the cryptic and solitary nature of gartersnakes occur at low population given the broad usage of these materials snakes and the lack of long-term densities. An emerging skin disease, across the distribution of the northern monitoring data (Sleemen 2013, p. 1). SFD, has not yet been documented in Mexican and narrow-headed So far, no evidence of SFD has been gartersnakes but has affected snakes of gartersnakes, it is not unlikely that found in the genus Thamnophis but the many genera within the United States, mortality occurs but goes unreported. documented occurrence of SFD in including ecologically similar species, The likelihood of either gartersnake ecologically similar, aquatic colubrids and may pose a future threat to northern species becoming entangled depends on such as Nerodia is cause for concern. Mexican and narrow-headed the distance these erosion control We recommend resource managers gartersnakes. Where low density materials are used from water in remain diligent in looking for signs of populations are affected these types of occupied habitat and the density of SFD in wild gartersnake populations. threats described above, even the loss of potentially affected populations. a few reproductive adults, especially Because erosion control products are Summary females, from a population can have usually used to prevent sedimentation We found numerous effects of significant population-level effects, of streams, there is a higher likelihood livestock grazing that have resulted in most notably in the presence of harmful for gartersnakes to become entangled. the historical degradation of riparian nonnative species. Continued This potential threat will require public and aquatic communities that have population declines and extirpations education and additional monitoring likely affected northern Mexican and threaten the genetic representation of and research, with emphasis in regions narrow-headed gartersnakes. The each species because many populations with occupied habitat. literature concluded that mismanaged or have become disconnected and isolated Finally, discarded fishing nets have unmanaged grazing can have from neighboring populations. This also been documented as a source of disproportionate effects to riparian subsequently leads to a reduction in mortality for northern Mexican communities in arid ecosystems due to species redundancy and resiliency

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when isolated, small populations are at gartersnakes or their prey species, and for the benefit of endangered and increased vulnerability to the effects of the concurrent upward trend in threats. threatened species as identified through stochastic events, without a means for Section 404 of the Clean Water Act approved management and recovery natural recolonization. Based on the regulates placement of fill into waters of plans (CBD et al. 2011, p. 18). Neither best available scientific and commercial the United States, including the species is mentioned in any other land information, we conclude these threats majority of northern Mexican and and resource management plan for the have the tendency to act synergistically narrow-headed gartersnake habitat. remaining national forests where they and disproportionately on low-density However, many actions with the occur (CBD et al. 2011, p. 18). gartersnake populations rangewide, now potential to be highly detrimental to The New Mexico Department of Game and in the foreseeable future. both species, their prey base, and their and Fish lists the northern Mexican habitat, such as gravel mining and gartersnake as State-endangered and the The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory irrigation diversion structure narrow-headed gartersnake as State- Mechanisms construction and maintenance, may be threatened (NMDGF 2006, Appendix H). Below, we examine whether existing exempted from the Clean Water Act. A species is State-endangered if it is in regulatory mechanisms are inadequate Other detrimental actions, such as bank jeopardy of extinction or extirpation to address the threats to the northern stabilization and road crossings, are within the State; a species is State- Mexican and narrow-headed covered under nationwide permits that threatened if it is likely to become gartersnakes discussed under other receive limited environmental review. A endangered within the foreseeable factors. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the lack of thorough, site-specific analyses future throughout all or a significant Endangered Species Act requires the for projects can allow substantial portion of its range in New Mexico Service to take into account ‘‘those adverse effects to northern Mexican or (NMDGF 2006, p. 52). ‘‘Take,’’ defined efforts, if any, being made by any State narrow-headed gartersnakes, their prey as ‘‘to harass, hunt, capture or kill any or foreign nation, or any political base, or their habitat. wildlife or attempt to do so’’ by NMSA subdivision of a State or foreign nation, The majority of the extant populations 17–2–38.L., is prohibited without a to protect such species.’’ We interpret of northern Mexican and narrow-headed scientific collecting permit issued by the this language to require us to consider gartersnakes in the United States occur New Mexico Department of Game and on lands managed by the U.S. Bureau of relevant Federal, State, and Tribal laws, Fish as per NMSA 17–2–41.C and New Land Management (BLM) and U.S. regulations, and other such mechanisms Mexico Administrative Code (NMAC) Forest Service. Both agencies have that may minimize any of the threats we 19.33.6. However, while the New riparian protection goals that may describe in the threats analysis under Mexico Department of Game and Fish provide habitat benefits to both species; the other four factors, or otherwise can issue monetary penalties for illegal however, neither agency has specific influence conservation of the species. take of either northern Mexican management plans for northern Mexican We give strongest weight to statutes and gartersnakes or narrow-headed or narrow-headed gartersnakes. As a gartersnakes, the same provisions are their implementing regulations, and result, some of the significant threats to not in place for actions that result in management direction that stems from these gartersnakes, for example, those loss or modification of their habitats those laws and regulations. They are related to nonnative species, are not (NMSA 17–2–41.C and NMAC 19.33.6) nondiscretionary and enforceable, and addressed on these lands. The BLM (Painter 2005). are considered a regulatory mechanism considers the northern Mexican Prior to 2005, the Arizona Game and under this analysis. Having evaluated gartersnake as a ‘‘Special Status Fish Department allowed for take of up the significance of the threat as Species,’’ and agency biologists actively to four northern Mexican or narrow- mitigated by any such conservation attempt to identify gartersnakes headed gartersnakes per person per year efforts, we analyze under Factor D the observed incidentally during fieldwork as specified in Commission Order 43. extent to which existing regulatory for their records (Young 2005). The Arizona Game and Fish Department mechanisms are inadequate to address Otherwise, no specific protection or defines ‘‘take’’ as ‘‘pursuing, shooting, the specific threats to the species. land-management consideration is hunting, fishing, trapping, killing, Regulatory mechanisms, if they exist, afforded to that species on BLM lands. capturing, snaring, or netting wildlife or may reduce or eliminate the impacts The U.S. Forest Service does not the placing or using any net or other from one or more identified threats. In include northern Mexican or narrow- device or trap in a manner that may this section, we review existing State headed gartersnakes on their result in the capturing or killing of and Federal regulatory mechanisms to Management Indicator Species List, but wildlife.’’ The Arizona Game and Fish determine whether they effectively both species are included on the Department subsequently amended reduce or remove threats to the species. Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species Commission Order 43, effective January A number of Federal statutes List (USFS 2007, pp. 38–39). This 2005. Take of northern Mexican and potentially afford protection to northern means they are considered in land narrow-headed gartersnakes is no longer Mexican and narrow-headed management decisions, but no specific permitted in Arizona without issuance gartersnakes or their prey species. These protective measures are conveyed to of a scientific collecting permit (Ariz. include section 404 of the Clean Water these species. Individual U.S. Forest Admin. Code R12–4–401 et seq.), or Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), Federal Service biologists who work within the special authorization. While the Arizona Land Policy and Management Act (43 range of either northern Mexican or Game and Fish Department can seek U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), National Forest narrow-headed gartersnakes may criminal or civil penalties for illegal Management Act (16 U.S.C. 1600 et opportunistically gather data for their take of these species, the same seq.), National Environmental Policy records on gartersnakes observed provisions are not in place for actions Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), and incidentally in the field, although it is that result in destruction or the Act. However, in practice, these not required. The Gila National Forest modification of the gartersnakes’ statutes have not been able to provide mentions the narrow-headed habitat. In addition to making the sufficient protection to prevent the gartersnake in their land and resource necessary regulatory changes to promote currently observed downward trend in management plan, which includes the conservation of northern Mexican northern Mexican and narrow-headed standards relating to forest management and narrow-headed gartersnakes, the

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Arizona Game and Fish Departments’ listing process under INE consisted of a stock) or securing two populations each Nongame Branch continues to be a panel of scientific experts who of northern Mexican and narrow-headed strong partner in research and survey convened as necessary for the purpose gartersnakes to help minimize adverse efforts that further our understanding of of defining and assessing the status and effects to these species from their sport current populations, and assist with threats that affect Mexico’s native fish stocking program through 2021 conservation efforts and the species that are considered to be at risk, (USFWS 2011, Appendix C). However, establishment of long-term conservation and applying those factors to the to achieve these goals, challenges must partnerships. definitions of the various listing be overcome. First, captive propagation Throughout Mexico, the Mexican categories. In 1994, when the Mexican of both gartersnake species remains gartersnake is listed at the species level gartersnake was placed on the NOM– problematic. After approximately 5 of its taxonomy as ‘‘Amenazadas,’’ or 059 (SEDESOL 1994 (NOM–059–ECOL– years of experimentation with captive Threatened, by the Secretaria de Medio 1994), p. 46) as a threatened species, the propagation at five institutions, using Ambiente y Recursos Naturales decision was made by a panel of two colonies of northern Mexican (SEMARNAT) (SEDESOL 2001). scientific experts. gartersnakes and three colonies of Threatened species are ‘‘those species, Although the Mexican gartersnake is narrow-headed gartersnakes, success or populations of the same, likely to be listed as a threatened species in Mexico has been limited (see GCWG 2007, 2008, in danger of disappearing in a short or and based on our experience 2009, 2010). In 2012, approximately 40 medium timeframe, if the factors that collaborating with Mexico on northern Mexican gartersnakes were negatively impact their viability, cause transborder conservation efforts, no produced at one institution, and they the deterioration or modification of their recovery plan or other conservation were subsequently marked and released habitat or directly diminish the size of planning occurs because of this status along Cienega Creek. These were the their populations continue to operate’’ and enforcement of the regulation first gartersnakes of either species to be (SEDESOL 2001 (NOM–059–ECOL– protecting the gartersnake is sporadic, produced under this program, but their 2001), p. 4). This designation prohibits depending on available resources and current status in the wild remains taking of the species, unless specifically location. Based upon the best available unknown. No narrow-headed permitted, as well as prohibits any scientific and commercial information gartersnakes have been produced in activity that intentionally destroys or on the status of the species, and the captivity under this program since its adversely modifies its habitat (SEDESOL historic and continuing threats to its inception. Secondly, in order to be 2000 (LGVS) and 2001 (NOM–059– habitat in Mexico, our analysis successful, the process of ‘‘securing’’ a ECOL–2001)). Additionally, in 1988, the concludes that regulatory mechanisms population of either species will likely Mexican Government passed a enacted by the Mexican government to involve an aggressive nonnative removal regulation that is similar to the National conserve the northern Mexican strategy, and will have to account for Environmental Policy Act of the United gartersnake are not adequate to address habitat connectivity to prevent States. This Mexican regulation requires threats to the species or its habitat. reinvasion of unwanted species. an environmental assessment of private In summary, there are a number of Therefore, securing a population of or government actions that may affect existing regulations that potentially either species may involve removal of wildlife or their habitat (SEDESOL 1988 address issues affecting the northern harmful nonnatives from an entire (LGEEPA)). Mexican and narrow-headed subbasin. The Mexican Federal agency known gartersnakes and their habitats. To improve the status of northern as the Instituto Nacional de Ecologı´a However, existing regulations within Mexican gartersnakes in this subbasin, (INE) is responsible for the analysis of the range of northern Mexican and the AGFD recently purchased the the status and threats that pertain to narrow-headed gartersnakes typically approximate 200-acre (81-ha) Horseshoe species that are proposed for listing in only address the direct take of Ranch along the Agua Fria River located the Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM–059 individuals without a permit, and near the Bloody Basin Road crossing, (the Mexican equivalent to an provide little, if any, protection of east of Interstate 17 and southeast of endangered and threatened species list), gartersnake habitat. Arizona and New Cordes Junction, Arizona. The AGFD and, if appropriate, the nomination of Mexico statutes do not provide plans to introduce northern Mexican species to the list. INE is generally protection of habitat and ecosystems. gartersnakes as well as lowland leopard considered the Mexican counterpart to Legislation in Mexico prohibits frogs and native fish species into a large the United States’ Fish and Wildlife intentional destruction or modification pond, protected by bullfrog exclusion Service. INE developed the Method of of northern Mexican gartersnake habitat, fencing, located adjacent to the Agua Evaluation of the Risk of Extinction of but neither that, nor prohibitions of Fria River. The bullfrog exclusion the Wild Species in Mexico (MER), take, appear to be adequate to address fencing around the pond will permit the which unifies the criteria of decisions ongoing threats. dispersal of northern Mexican on the categories of risk and permits the gartersnakes and lowland leopard frogs Current Conservation of Northern use of specific information fundamental from the pond, allowing the pond to act Mexican and Narrow-Headed to listing decisions. The MER is based as a source population to the Agua Fria Gartersnakes on four independent, quantitative River. The AGFD’s short- to mid-term criteria: (1) Size of the distribution of Several conservation measures conservation planning for Horseshoe the taxon in Mexico; (2) state (quality) implemented by land and resource Ranch will help ensure the northern of the habitat with respect to natural managers, private land owners, and Mexican gartersnake persists in this development of the taxon; (3) intrinsic other stakeholders can directly or historical stronghold. biological vulnerability of the taxon; indirectly benefit populations of In 2007, the New Mexico Department and (4) impacts of human activity on the northern Mexican and narrow-headed of Game and Fish completed a recovery taxon. INE began to use the MER in gartersnakes. For example, the AGFD’s plan for narrow-headed gartersnakes in 2006; therefore, all species previously conservation and mitigation program New Mexico (Pierce 2007, pp. 13–15) listed in the NOM–059 were based (implemented under an existing section that included the following management solely on expert review and opinion in 7 incidental take permit) has committed objectives: (1) Researching the effect of many cases. Specifically, until 2006, the to either stocking (with captive bred known threats to, and natural history of,

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the species; (2) acquiring funding requires immediate conservation actions of bullfrogs from stock tanks where they sources for research, monitoring, and aimed at improving conditions through occur, or at a minimum, ensure they are management; (3) enhancing education intervention at the population or habitat never introduced. and outreach; and (4) managing against level (AGFD 2006a, p. 32). In the 2011 An emphasis on native fish recovery known threats to the species. draft revised State wildlife action plan in fisheries management and enhanced Implementation of the recovery plan (an updated version of the CWCS), nonnative species control to favor native was to occur between the second half of northern Mexican gartersnake is a Tier communities may be the single most 2007 through 2011, and was divided 1a SGCN. Tier 1a species ‘‘comprise a efficient and effective manner to recover into three main categories: (1) Improve large percentage of [AGFD’s] these gartersnakes, in addition to all and maintain knowledge of potential management resource allocation’’ and listed or sensitive native fish and threats to the narrow-headed ‘‘are [their] highest priorities.’’ Neither amphibian species which they prey gartersnake; (2) improve and maintain the WSCA nor the CWCS are regulatory upon. Alternatively, resource knowledge of the biology of the narrow- documents and, consequently, do not management policies that either directly headed gartersnake; and (3) develop and provide and specific protections for benefit or maintain nonnative maintain high levels of cooperation and either the gartersnakes themselves, or community assemblages to the coordination between stakeholders and their habitats. The Arizona Game and exclusion of native species are likely to interested parties (Pierce 2007, pp. 16– Fish Department does not have significantly reduce the potential for the 17). Our review of the plan found that specified or mandated recovery goals for conservation and recovery of northern it lacked specific threat-mitigation either the northern Mexican or narrow- Mexican and narrow-headed commitments on the landscape, as well headed gartersnake, nor has a gartersnakes. as stakeholder accountability for conservation agreement or recovery plan Fisheries managers strive to balance implementing activities prescribed in been developed for either species. the needs of the recreational angling community against those required by the plan. We also found that actions Indirect benefits for both gartersnake calling for targeted nonnative species native aquatic communities. Fisheries species occur through recovery actions management has direct implications for removal or management were absent in designed for their prey species. Since the implementation schedule provided the conservation and recovery of the Chiricahua leopard frog was listed northern Mexican and narrow-headed in Pierce (2007; p. 17). As we have as threatened under the Act, significant discussed at length, harmful nonnative gartersnakes in the United States. strides have been made in its recovery, Clarkson et al. (2005) discuss species are the primary driver of and the mitigation of its known threats. continued declines in both gartersnake management conflicts as a primary The northern Mexican gartersnake, in factor in the decline of native fish species. No recovery plan, conservation particular, has likely benefitted from species in the southwestern United plan, or conservation agreement these actions, at least in some areas, States, and declare the entire native fish currently exists in New Mexico with such as at the Las Cienegas Natural fauna as imperiled. The investigators regard to the northern Mexican Conservation Area and in Scotia Canyon cite nonnative species as the most gartersnake (NMDGF 2006, Table 6–3). of the Huachuca Mountains. However, consequential factor leading to Both northern Mexican and narrow- much of the recovery of the Chiricahua rangewide declines of native fish, and headed gartersnakes are considered leopard frog has occurred in areas that that such declines prevent or negate ‘‘Candidate Species’’ in the Arizona have not directly benefitted the northern species’ recovery efforts from being Game and Fish Department draft Mexican gartersnake, either because implemented or being successful document, Wildlife of Special Concern these activities have occurred outside (Clarkson et al. 2005, p. 20). (WSCA) (AGFD In Prep., p. 12). A the known distribution of the northern Maintaining the status quo of current ‘‘Candidate Species’’ is one ‘‘whose Mexican gartersnake or because they management of fisheries within the threats are known or suspected but for have occurred in isolated lentic systems southwestern United States will have which substantial population declines that are far removed from large serious adverse effects to native fish from historical levels have not been perennial streams that typically provide species (Clarkson et al. 2005, p. 25), documented (though they appear to source populations of northern Mexican which will affect the long-term viability have occurred)’’ (AGFD In Prep., p. 12). gartersnakes. In recent years, significant of northern Mexican and narrow-headed The purpose of the WSCA list is to strides have been made in controlling gartersnakes and their potential for provide guidance in habitat bullfrogs on local landscape levels in recovery. Clarkson et al. (2005, p. 20) management implemented by land- Arizona, such as in the Scotia Canyon also note that over 50 nonnative species management agencies. Additionally, area, in the Las Cienegas National have been introduced into the both northern Mexican and narrow- Conservation Area, on the BANWR, and Southwest as either sportfish or baitfish, headed gartersnakes are considered a in the vicinity of Pena Blanca Lake in and some are still being actively ‘‘Tier 1b Species of Greatest the Pajarito Mountains. Recent efforts to stocked, managed for, and promoted by Conservation Need (SGCN)’’ in the return the Las Cienegas National both Federal and State agencies as Arizona Game and Fish Department Conservation Area to a wholly native nonnative recreational fisheries. document, Arizona’s Comprehensive biological community have involved To help resolve the fundamental Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS) bullfrog eradication efforts, as well as conflict of management between native (AGFD 2006a, pp. 499–501). The efforts to recover the Chiricahua leopard fish and recreational sport fisheries, purpose for the CWCS is to ‘‘provide an frog and native fish species. These Clarkson et al. (2005, pp. 22–25) essential foundation for the future of actions should assist in conserving the propose the designation of entire wildlife conservation and a stimulus to northern Mexican gartersnake subbasins as having either native or engage the States, federal agencies, and population in this area. Bullfrog control nonnative fisheries and manage for other conservation partners to has been shown to be most effective in these goals aggressively. The idea of strategically think about their individual simple, lentic systems such as stock watershed-segregated fisheries and coordinated roles in prioritizing tanks. Therefore, we encourage livestock management is also supported by Marsh conservation efforts’’ (AGFD 2006a, p. managers to work with resource and Pacey (2005, p. 62). As part of the 2). A ‘‘Tier 1b SGCN’’ is one that managers in the systematic eradication Arizona Game and Fish Department’s

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overall wildlife conservation strategy, necessity for physical specimens (unless and groundwater pumping. Due in part the AGFD has planned an integrated discovered postmortem) for locality to the fire management policies of fisheries management approach (AGFD voucher purposes and, therefore, further recent decades, wildfires in the arid 2006a, p. 349), which is apparently reduce impacts to vulnerable southwestern United States have grown designed to manage subbasins populations of northern Mexican or more frequent and severe. Since 2011, specifically for either nonnative or narrow-headed gartersnakes. both Arizona and New Mexico native fish communities. The AGFD has Despite these collective efforts we experienced the largest wildfires in their not yet decided how fisheries will be have described above, northern Mexican respective State histories. High-intensity managed in Arizona’s subbasins. and narrow-headed gartersnakes have wildfires that affect large areas However, angler access, existing fish continued to decline throughout their contribute to significant flooding and communities, and stream flow ranges. sedimentation, resulting in fish kills and considerations are likely to inform such Proposed Determination the filling-in of important pool habitat. broadly based decisions. Several of These conditions remove a portion of, or Arizona’s large perennial rivers present In our review of the best available the entire prey base, for northern an array of existing sport fishing science, we found that aquatic Mexican and narrow-headed opportunities and access points, contain ecosystems which northern Mexican gartersnakes for extended periods of harmful nonnative fish species, and also and narrow-headed gartersnakes rely on time. This scenario places significant serve as important habitat for either and are part of have been significantly stress on resident gartersnake northern Mexican or narrow-headed compromised by harmful nonnative populations through starvation. gartersnakes. These rivers may be species. We found this threat to be the Other activities, factors, or conditions targeted though this planning exercise most significant and pervasive of all that act in combination, such as threats affecting both species. Harmful for nonnative fisheries management, mismanaged or unmanaged livestock nonnative species have been which would likely remove any grazing; road construction, use, and intentionally released or have naturally recovery potential for gartersnakes in management; adverse human moved into virtually every subbasin these areas, and, perhaps, even result in interactions; environmental throughout the range of the northern the local extirpations of populations of contaminants; erosion control Mexican and narrow-headed northern Mexican and narrow-headed techniques; and competitive pressures gartersnakes. This has resulted in gartersnakes. Alternatively, subbasins from sympatric species, occur within widespread declines in native fish and that are targeted for wholly native the distribution of these gartersnakes amphibian communities, which are species assemblages would likely secure and have the tendency to contribute to integral to the continued survival of the further population declines or the persistence of northern Mexican and northern Mexican and narrow-headed narrow-headed gartersnakes that occur extirpations where gartersnakes occur at gartersnakes. In addition to widespread low population densities. In the there, if not result in their complete competitive pressures, harmful recovery in these areas. Specific presence of harmful nonnative species, nonnative species have directly the negative effects of these threats on subbasins where targeted fisheries impacted both gartersnake species management is to occur were not northern Mexican and narrow-headed through predation. In combination, gartersnakes are amplified. Yet, there provided in AGFD (2006a), but these factors have resulted in depending on which areas are chosen are currently no regulatory mechanisms widespread population declines and in place to address the threats to these for each management emphasis, the extirpations in both species, as neither species that specifically target the potential for future conservation and gartersnake nor their prey evolved in conservation of northern Mexican or recovery of northern Mexican and their presence. narrow-headed gartersnakes or their narrow-headed gartersnakes could In addition to the declining status of habitat in the United States or Mexico. either be significantly bolstered, or the biotic communities where the Collectively, the ubiquitous nature of significantly hampered. Close northern Mexican and narrow-headed these threats across the landscape has coordination with the Arizona Game gartersnakes occur, land use activities, appreciably reduced the quality and and Fish Department on the delineation drought, and wildfires threaten vital quantity of suitable gartersnake habitat of fisheries management priorities in elements of their habitat that are and changed its spatial orientation on Arizona’s subbasins will be important for their survival. Dams, the landscape. This ultimately renders instrumental to ensuring that diversions, flood-control projects, and populations much less resilient to conservation and recovery of northern groundwater pumping have dewatered stochastic, natural, or anthropogenic Mexican and narrow-headed entire reaches of historically occupied stressors that could otherwise be gartersnakes can occur. habitat for both species, rangewide. withstood. Over time and space, Conservation of these gartersnakes has Large dams planned in the future subsequent population declines have been implemented in the scientific and threaten to dewater additional reaches. threatened the genetic representation of management communities as well. The Climate change predictions include each species because many populations AGFD recently produced identification increased aridity, lower annual have become disconnected and isolated cards for distribution that provide precipitation totals, lower snow pack from neighboring populations. information to assist field professionals levels, higher variability in flows (lower Expanding distances between extant with the identification of each of low-flows and higher high-flows), and populations coupled with threats that Arizona’s five native gartersnake enhanced stress on ponderosa pine prevent normal recolonizing species, as well as guidance on communities in the southwestern mechanisms leave existing populations submitting photographic vouchers for United States and northern Mexico. vulnerable to extirpation. This university museum collections. Arizona Increasing water demands from a subsequently leads to a reduction in State University and the University of rapidly growing human population in species redundancy when isolated, Arizona now accept photographic the arid southwestern United States, small populations are at increased vouchers in lieu of physical specimens, combined with a drought-limited vulnerability to the effects of stochastic in their respective museum collections. supply of surface water, fuels future events, without a means for natural These measures appreciably reduce the needs for even more dams, diversions, recolonization. Ultimately, the effect of

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scattered, small, and disjunct commonly referred to as ‘‘special rules,’’ prohibitions against certain activities populations, without the means to are found in part 17 of title 50 of the are discussed, in part, below. naturally recolonize, is weakened Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in The primary purpose of the Act is the species resiliency as a whole, which §§ 17.40–17.48. This proposed special conservation of endangered and ultimately enhances the risk of the rule for § 17.42 would exempt take of threatened species and the ecosystems species becoming endangered. northern Mexican gartersnakes as a upon which they depend. The ultimate The Act defines an endangered result of livestock use at or maintenance goal of such conservation efforts is the species as any species that is ‘‘in danger activities of livestock tanks located on recovery of these listed species, so that of extinction throughout all or a private, State, or Tribal lands. they no longer need the protective significant portion of its range’’ and a The proposed special rule would measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of threatened species as any species ‘‘that replace the Act’s general prohibitions the Act requires the Service to develop is likely to become endangered against take of the northern Mexican and implement recovery plans for the throughout all or a significant portion of gartersnake with special measures conservation of endangered and its range within the foreseeable future.’’ tailored to the conservation of the threatened species. The recovery We have carefully assessed the best species on all non-Federal lands. planning process involves the scientific and commercial information Through the maintenance and operation identification of actions that are available regarding the past, present, of the stock tanks for cattle, habitat is necessary to halt or reverse the species’ and future threats to the species, and provided for the northern Mexican decline by addressing the threats to its have determined that the northern gartersnake and numerous prey species; survival and recovery. The goal of this Mexican gartersnake and narrow-headed hence there is a conservation benefit to process is to restore listed species to a gartersnake both meet the definition of the species. Under the proposed special point where they are secure, self- a threatened species under the Act. rule, take of northern Mexican sustaining, and functioning components Significant threats are occurring now gartersnake caused by livestock use of or of their ecosystems. and are likely to continue in the maintenance activities at livestock tanks Recovery planning includes the foreseeable future, at a high intensity, located on private, State, or Tribal lands development of a recovery outline and across these species’ entire ranges; would be exempt from section 9 of the shortly after a species is listed, therefore, we have determined these Act. A livestock tank is defined as an preparation of a draft and final recovery species are likely to become endangered existing or future impoundment in an plan, and revisions to the plan as throughout all or a significant portion of ephemeral drainage or upland site significant new information becomes their ranges within the foreseeable constructed primarily as a watering site available. The recovery outline guides future. Because these threats are likely for livestock. The proposed special rule the immediate implementation of urgent to cause these gartersnakes to become targets tanks on private, State, and recovery actions and describes the endangered throughout all or a Tribal lands to encourage landowners process to be used to develop a recovery significant portion of their ranges within and ranchers to continue to maintain plan. The recovery plan identifies site- the foreseeable future, we find these these tanks as they provide habitat for specific management actions that will species are threatened, not endangered. the northern Mexican gartersnake. achieve recovery of the species, Therefore, on the basis of the best Livestock use and maintenance of tanks measurable criteria that determine when available scientific and commercial on Federal lands would be addressed a species may be downlisted or delisted, information, we propose listing the through the section 7 process. When a and methods for monitoring recovery northern Mexican gartersnake and Federal action, such as permitting progress. Recovery plans also establish narrow-headed gartersnake as livestock grazing on Federal lands, may a framework for agencies to coordinate threatened species in accordance with affect a listed species, consultation their recovery efforts and provide sections 3(20) and 4(a)(1) of the Act. The between us and the action agency is estimates of the cost of implementing current status of the northern Mexican required under section 7 of the Act. The recovery tasks. Recovery teams and narrow-headed gartersnakes meets conclusion of consultation may include (comprised of species experts, Federal the definition of threatened, not mandatory changes in livestock and State agencies, nongovernment endangered, because while we found programs in the form of measures to organizations, and stakeholders) are numerous threats to be significant and minimize take of a listed animal or to often established to develop recovery rangewide, our available survey data avoid jeopardizing the continued plans. When completed, the recovery conclude that the remaining small existence of a listed species. Changes in outline, draft recovery plan, and the number of populations are viable. a proposed action resulting from final recovery plan will be available on Alternatively and based upon the data consultations are almost always minor. our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ available, the northern Mexican and endangered), or from our Arizona Available Conservation Measures narrow-headed gartersnakes appear to Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR remain extant, as low-density Conservation measures provided to FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). populations with the threat of species listed as endangered or Implementation of recovery actions extirpation, in most subbasins where threatened under the Act include generally requires the participation of a they historically occurred. recognition, recovery actions, broad range of partners, including other requirements for Federal protection, and Federal agencies, States, Tribal, Special Rule for Northern Mexican prohibitions against certain practices. nongovernmental organizations, Gartersnake Under Section 4(d) of the Recognition through listing results in businesses, and private landowners. Act public awareness and conservation by Examples of recovery actions include Whenever a species is listed as a Federal, State, Tribal, and local habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of threatened species under the Act, the agencies, private organizations, and native vegetation), research, captive Secretary may specify regulations that individuals. The Act encourages propagation and reintroduction, and she deems necessary and advisable to cooperation with the States and requires outreach and education. The recovery of provide for the conservation of that that recovery actions be carried out for many listed species cannot be species under the authorization of all listed species. The protection accomplished solely on Federal lands section 4(d) of the Act. These rules, required by Federal agencies and the because their range may occur primarily

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or solely on non-Federal lands. To issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act section 9 of the Act; this list is not achieve recovery of these species permits by the U.S. Army Corps of comprehensive: requires cooperative conservation efforts Engineers; construction and (1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, on private, State, and Tribal lands. management of gas pipeline and power possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, If these species are listed, funding for line rights-of-way by the Federal Energy or transporting of the species, including recovery actions will be available from Regulatory Commission; construction import or export across State lines and a variety of sources, including Federal and maintenance of roads or highways international boundaries, except for budgets, State programs, and cost share by the Federal Highway Administration; properly documented antique grants for non-Federal landowners, the and other discretionary actions that specimens of these taxa at least 100 academic community, and effect the species composition of biotic years old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) nongovernmental organizations. In communities where these species or of the Act; addition, under section 6 of the Act, the their habitats occur, such as funding or (2) The unauthorized introduction of States of Arizona and New Mexico permitting programs that result in the harmful nonnative species that compete would be eligible for Federal funds to continued stocking of nonnative, spiny- with or prey upon northern Mexican implement management actions that rayed fish. and narrow-headed gartersnakes, such promote the protection and recovery of The Act and its implementing as the stocking of nonnative, spiny- the northern Mexican and narrow- regulations set forth a series of general rayed fish, or illegal transport, use, or headed gartersnakes. Information on our prohibitions and exceptions that apply release of bullfrogs or crayfish in the grant programs that are available to aid to all endangered wildlife. The States of Arizona and New Mexico; species recovery can be found at: http:// prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, (3) The unauthorized release of www.fws.gov/grants. codified at 50 CFR 17.21 for endangered biological control agents that attack any Although the northern Mexican and wildlife, in part, make it illegal for any age class of northern Mexican and narrow-headed gartersnakes are only person subject to the jurisdiction of the narrow-headed gartersnakes or any life proposed for listing under the Act at United States to take (includes harass, stage of their prey species; this time, please let us know if you are harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, interested in participating in recovery (4) Unauthorized modification of the trap, capture, or collect; or to attempt efforts for this species. Additionally, we channel, reduction or elimination of any of these), import, export, ship in invite you to submit any new water flow of any stream or water body, interstate commerce in the course of information on these species whenever or the complete removal or significant commercial activity, or sell or offer for it becomes available and any destruction of riparian vegetation sale in interstate or foreign commerce information you may have for recovery associated with occupied northern any listed species. Under the Lacey Act planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER Mexican or narrow-headed gartersnake (18 U.S.C. 42–43; 16 U.S.C. 3371–3378), INFORMATION CONTACT). habitat; and Section 7(a) of the Act requires it is also illegal to possess, sell, deliver, (5) Unauthorized discharge of Federal agencies to evaluate their carry, transport, or ship any such chemicals or fill material into any actions with respect to any species that wildlife that has been taken illegally. waters in which northern Mexican and is proposed or listed as endangered or Certain exceptions apply to agents of the narrow-headed gartersnakes are known threatened and with respect to its Service and State conservation agencies. to occur. critical habitat, if any is designated. The prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Questions regarding whether specific Regulations implementing this Act, codified at CFR 17.31 for activities would constitute a violation of interagency cooperation provision of the threatened wildlife, make it such that all section 9 of the Act should be directed Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402. the provisions of 50 CFR 17.21 apply, to the Arizona Ecological Services Field Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires except § 17.21(c)(5). Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Federal agencies to confer with the We may issue permits to carry out CONTACT). Requests for copies of the Service on any action that is likely to otherwise prohibited activities regulations concerning listed animals jeopardize the continued existence of a involving endangered and threatened and general inquiries regarding species proposed for listing or result in wildlife species under certain prohibitions and permits may be destruction or adverse modification of circumstances. Regulations governing addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife proposed critical habitat. If a species is permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for Service, Endangered Species Permits, listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of endangered species, and at 17.32 for P.O. Box 1306, Albuquerque, New the Act requires Federal agencies to threatened species. A permit must be Mexico 87103 (telephone (505) 248– ensure that activities they authorize, issued for the following purposes: for 6920, facsimile (505) 248–6922). fund, or carry out are not likely to scientific purposes, to enhance the Peer Review jeopardize the continued existence of propagation or survival of the species, the species or destroy or adversely and for incidental take in connection In accordance with our joint policy on modify its critical habitat. If a Federal with otherwise lawful activities. peer review published in the Federal action may affect a listed species or its It is our policy, as published in the Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), critical habitat, the responsible Federal Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR we will seek the expert opinions of at agency must enter into formal 34272), to identify to the maximum least three appropriate and independent consultation with the Service. extent practicable at the time a species specialists regarding this proposed rule. Federal agency actions within the is listed, those activities that would or The purpose of peer review is to ensure species’ habitats that may require would not constitute a violation of that our listing determination is based conference or consultation or both as section 9 of the Act. The intent of this on scientifically sound data, described in the preceding paragraph policy is to increase public awareness of assumptions, and analyses. We have include management and any other the effect of a proposed listing on invited these peer reviewers to comment landscape altering activities on Federal proposed and ongoing activities within during this public comment period on lands administered by the Fish and the range of species proposed for listing. our specific assumptions and Wildlife Service, U.S. Bureau of The following activities could conclusions in this proposed listing Reclamation, or U.S. Forest Service; potentially result in a violation of determination.

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We will consider all comments and (4) Be divided into short sections and Authors information received during this sentences; and comment period on this proposed rule (5) Use lists and tables wherever The primary authors of this proposed during our preparation of a final possible. rule are the staff members of the determination. Accordingly, the final If you feel that we have not met these Arizona Ecological Services Field decision may differ from this proposal. requirements, send us comments by one Office. of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 Public Hearings section. To better help us revise the Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for rule, your comments should be as Endangered and threatened species, one or more public hearings on this specific as possible. For example, you Exports, Imports, Reporting and proposal, if requested. Requests must be should tell us the numbers of the recordkeeping requirements, received within 45 days after the date of sections or paragraphs that are unclearly Transportation. written, which sections or sentences are publication of this proposed rule in the Proposed Regulation Promulgation Federal Register. Such requests must be too long, the sections where you feel lists or tables would be useful, etc. sent to the address shown in the FOR Accordingly, we propose to amend FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section. National Environmental Policy Act (42 part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title We will schedule public hearings on U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, this proposal, if any are requested, and We have determined that as set forth below: announce the dates, times, and places of environmental assessments and PART 17—[AMENDED] those hearings, as well as how to obtain environmental impact statements, as reasonable accommodations, in the defined under the authority of the Federal Register and local newspapers National Environmental Policy Act ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 at least 15 days before the hearing. (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not continues to read as follows: Required Determinations be prepared in connection with listing Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– a species as an endangered or 1544; and 4201–4245, unless otherwise Clarity of the Rule threatened species under the noted. We are required by Executive Orders Endangered Species Act. We published ■ 2. In § 17.11(h), add entries for 12866 and 12988 and by the a notice outlining our reasons for this ‘‘Gartersnake, northern Mexican’’ and Presidential Memorandum of June 1, determination in the Federal Register ‘‘Gartersnake, narrow-headed’’ to the 1998, to write all rules in plain on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). List of Endangered and Threatened language. This means that each rule we References Cited Wildlife in alphabetical order under publish must: A complete list of references cited in REPTILES to read as follows: (1) Be logically organized; this rulemaking is available on the (2) Use the active voice to address § 17.11 Endangered and threatened Internet at http://www.regulations.gov wildlife. readers directly; and upon request from the Arizona (3) Use clear language rather than Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR * * * * * jargon; FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate popu- Historic range lation where endan- Status When listed Critical habi- Special Common name Scientific name gered or threatened tat rules

******* REPTILES

******* Gartersnake, north- Thamnophis eques U.S.A. (AZ, NM), Entire ...... T ...... 17.95(d) 17.42(g) ern Mexican. megalops. Mexico.

******* Gartersnake, narrow- Thamnophis U.S.A. (AZ, NM) ..... Entire ...... T ...... 17.95(d) NA headed. rufipunctatus.

*******

■ 3. Amend § 17.42 by adding a new (2) What activities are prohibited? (3) What activities are allowed? paragraph (g) to read as follows: Any activity where northern Mexican Incidental take of northern Mexican gartersnakes are attempted to be, or are gartersnakes is not a violation of section § 17.42 Special rules—reptiles. intended to be, trapped, hunted, shot, or 9 of the Act if it occurs from any other * * * * * collected, in the contiguous United otherwise legal activities involving (g) Northern Mexican gartersnake States, is prohibited. It is also prohibited northern Mexican gartersnakes and their (Thamnophis eques megalops)—(1) Which populations of the northern to incidentally trap, shoot, capture, habitat that are conducted in accordance Mexican gartersnake are covered by this pursue, or collect northern Mexican with applicable State, Federal, tribal, special rule? This rule covers the gartersnakes in the course of otherwise and local laws and regulations. Such distribution of this species in the legal activities. activities occurring in northern Mexican contiguous United States. gartersnake habitat include maintenance

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activities at livestock tanks located on or upland site constructed primarily as Dated: June 24, 2013. private, State, or Tribal lands. A a watering site for livestock. Daniel M. Ashe, livestock tank is an existing or future * * * * * Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. impoundment in an ephemeral drainage [FR Doc. 2013–16521 Filed 7–9–13; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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