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Universe: the Light Speed Redshift Pavle Premovic Distant Galaxies in the Non-Expanding (Euclidean) Universe: the Light Speed Redshift Pavle Premovic To cite this version: Pavle Premovic. Distant Galaxies in the Non-Expanding (Euclidean) Universe: the Light Speed Redshift. The General Science Journal, The General Science Journal, 2021. hal-03216407 HAL Id: hal-03216407 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03216407 Submitted on 4 May 2021 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Distant Galaxies in the Non-Expanding (Euclidean) Universe: the Light Speed Redshift Pavle I. Premović Laboratory for Geochemistry, Cosmochemistry and Astrochemistry e-mail: [email protected] Abstract. The superluminal speed of light coming from distant galaxies in the non-expanding (Euclidean) Universe may explain the redshift of that light. Keywords: universe, cosmology, Big Bang, galaxy, redshift, speed of light Introduction. Redshift and blueshift in cosmology are characterized by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths (or frequencies) of light (or in general electromagnetic radiation) which is sourced by an astronomical object such as a galaxy. The (wavelength-based) redshift is expressed z = (λG – λE)/λE where λG is the wavelength of light emitted by the source of the galaxy and λE is the wavelength of light generated by the same source on the Earth. If z > 0 then the galaxy’s light redshifted; if z < 0 the galaxy then its light blueshifted. Often, a blueshift is referred to as a negative redshift. Blueshift is rarely important, in contrast to the redshift which is of great use. The majority of distant galaxies (outside the Local Group: the total size about 10 Mly across) show a redshift in their spectra and we will mainly deal with them. According to cosmology, they are expanding in all directions away from the Earth and each other. There are at least three types of redshift that occur in the Universe: gravitational redshift, redshift due to motion (Doppler effect) and cosmological redshift. Gravitational redshift is rarely important, the other two are far more important in cosmology, especially cosmological redshift. In general, the Hubble Law shows that a redshift of a galaxy is correlated with its distance from the Earth. This law is only applicable to distant galaxies (or say for relatively long-distance galaxies); for nearby galaxies (in the Local Group), it does not hold. Most cosmologists believe that Hubble’s law indicates a constant cosmic expansion of the Universe. The simplest expression for the Hubble law valid for a redshift z ≤ 0.1 is DG = zc/H0 … (1) 5 -1 5 -1 where DG is the distance of distant galaxy to the Earth, c (= 2.99792×10 km s ~ 3×10 km s ) is the current speed of light and H0 is a constant known as the Hubble constant; at present time it 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -18 -1 is estimated that H0 = 72 km sec (Mpc) or = 22 km sec × (Mly) [= 2.2(1) × 10 sec ]. This expression shows that there is a linear relationship between redshift z and distance of galaxies DG if the redshift z ≤ 0.1. This linearity however breaks down at large distances. Applying eqn. (1) -18 -1 we find that the Hubble distance, c/H0 = 13.6 Gly for H0 = 2.21 ×10 sec . Apparently, the Hubble distance provides the natural distance scale for the expanding Universe. Further details about Hubble’s law the reader may find in many standard astronomical textbooks and related publications. The Big Bang Universe vs. the non-expanding (static2) Universe. The (standard) Big Bang model of the Universe is based on the General theory of relativity. It states that the Universe started as a point singularity of infinite density and temperature that included all matter and energy of the current Universe. It then expanded rapidly over the next about 13.8 Gy to the current version. This is the expansion of space itself (or better of space-time itself) that is still occurring. It appears that the Big Bang hypothesis is supported by numerous evidence, including cosmological redshift.3 However, they can, also, be interpreted without this model. An alternative to the Big Bang model is the (standard) non-expanding model of the Universe. This Universe is unlimited in both space and time with no singular beginning or ending like in the Big Bang model. Many of their galaxies can be much older than about 13.8 Gy allowed by the Big Bang hypothesis. Lerner [2, and references therein] reported that the ultraviolet surface brightness data of galaxies, over a very wide redshift range, are in agreement with the hypotheses of the non-expanding (Euclidean) model of the Universe. A detailed analysis of the gamma-ray burst (GRB) sources performed by Sanejouand [3] suggests that the observable Universe has been Euclidean and static over the last 12 Gy. The non-expanding models of the Universe have serious difficulties in explaining many observations (for instance cosmological redshift). It appears now that the Big Bang theory is dominant in cosmology but it is still subjected to various criticisms and discussions, although most of them are theoretical. In the further text, we adopt the non-expanding (Euclidean) Universe (hereinafter NEEU) although some derivations and considerations may be applicable to other models of the non- expanding Universe. Varying speed of light. In the cosmological literature, the issue of speed of light in the early Universe is more recent. Troitskii [4] suggested that the speed of light continuously decreased over the lifetime of the Universe. He argued that at the origin of the Universe light might have traveled at 1010 times its current speed c. Albrecht and Magueijo [5] suggested that at a very limited time during the formation of the Universe the speed of light was much higher (about 1060 times) than its current speed c. Earlier, a similar idea was proposed by Moffat [6]. In contrast, Barrow [7] proposed that the speed of light has decreased from the value suggested by Albrecht and Magueijo down to its current value over the lifetime of the Universe. Sanejouand 11 megaparsec (Mpc) = 106 parsec = 3.26×106 ly. 2 We are referring to its geometry alone, i. e. static means non-expanding. 3 According to Soberman and Dubin [1], the Big Bang is supported by only two experimental observations, the cosmological redshift and the cosmic microwave background (CMB). 2 [8] hypothesized that the speed of light decreased by about 2 × 10-5 km sec-1 y-1 during the cosmological history of the Universe. All of these authors have shown that a number of intriguing cosmological issues associated with the Big Bang model could be unraveled by such a high initial speed of light. However, there are many problems in their theoretical approaches. This is not the place to deal with these issues. Instead, we recommend the reviews by Magueijo [9] and Farrell and Dunning-Davies [10] to the interested reader. It is important here to note that Alfonso-Faus [11] proposed a non-expanding explanation for cosmological redshift. He argues that this shift is due to a decreasing speed of light in the fractal universe. We hypothesize that the redshift of distant galaxies of NEEU is caused by the superluminal speed of their light, i. e. the speed of light coming from distant galaxies is greater than the current speed of light c. Derivation, results and discussion As we pointed out above, it appears that the cosmological redshift of distant galaxies arises from the uniform expansion of space (or better space-time itself), not from their motion. In this case, the energy EG (= hνG) of photons coming from distant galaxies is lower than the energy of -34 photons EE (= hνE) generated by the same source on the Earth; h (= 6.63 × 10 J sec) is the Planck constant and νE and νG are the appropriate frequencies. Of course, νE > νG. The difference 4 between these two energies is ΔEEG = EE – EG . Let us denote with λG the wavelength of light emitted by distant galaxy G and with λE the wavelength of light generated by the same source on the Earth. Since νE = c/λE and νG = c/λG we have λE < λG. The galaxies interact with each other via gravity, which gives them a component of velocity that is not due to the expansion of the Universe, but related to their real (“peculiar”) motion and it is called “peculiar” velocity. In reality, we deal only with the radial component of each galaxy’s peculiar velocity: vpec. The expansion largely predominates, since the average vpec of galaxies -1 vpec is usually between about 100-300 km sec [12, and references therein] then it is very likely -1 that vpec ≤ 0.001c (≤ 300 km sec ). Assume now that all distant galaxies of NEEU are moving relative to the Earth at a non- relativistic speed vpec ≤ 0.001c. These galaxies continuously emit a stream of monoenergetic photons in all directions. These photons were emitted in the cosmic past, usually millions and billions of years ago. In other words, we could conceive them as the “ancient photons” or “the photon fossils” from the cosmic past. For the sake of simplicity, let us ignore for a moment the effect of the velocity vpec on the redshift of distant galaxy.
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