A4DIssue6webCover 14/7/09 8:27 pm Page 1 Agriculture for Development
Conservation Agriculture Crop Bioengineering Challenges for No. 6 Summer 2009 Tropical Agriculture A4DIssue6webCover 14/7/09 8:27 pm Page 2 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 1
The TAA is a professional association of individuals and corporate bodies concerned with Contents the role of agriculture for 2 Editorial | development throughout the world. TAA brings together Articles individuals and organisations 3 Conservation Agriculture | Theodor Friedrich from both developed and less- developed countries to enable 10 System of Rice Intensification | Norman Uphoff and Amir Kassam them to contribute to 15 The Inga alley cropping technique: a viable alternative for slash and burn international policies and actions farmers? | Charles Barber aimed at reducing poverty and 19 The fundamental challenges for tropical agriculture | Alan Yates improving livelihoods. Its 26 Crop bioengineering: enormous potential for catalyzing international mission is to encourage the efficient and sustainable use of development | Peter Gregory and Stanley P. Kowalski local resources and technologies, to arrest and reverse the 30 Upcoming Events degradation of the natural resources base on which Scotland & North of England agriculture depends and, by 31 A report prepared by John Gowing raising the productivity of both 32 Green Water Credits | David Dent agriculture and related enterprises, to increase family incomes and commercial Newsflash investment in the rural sector. 35 Banana bunchy top disease: rearing its ugly head in East Africa Particular emphasis is given to 35 Kenyan villagers to test out UN carbon benefits project rural areas in the tropics and 36 Coir in Sri Lanka - a fibre for the future? subtropics and to countries with less-developed economies in 36 Climate Change: threat to maize, millet and other staple crops in marginal temperate areas. TAA recognizes African farmland the interrelated roles of farmers and other stakeholders living in Bookstack rural areas, scientists (agriculturists, economists, 37 The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses | R E Litz (ed.) sociologists, etc.), government 38 Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in an Era of Oil Scarity: Lessons and the private sector in from Cuba | Julia Wright achieving a convergent approach 38 African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture “ Charlie M Shakleton, to rural development. This Margaret W Pasquini and Axel W Drescher (eds) includes recognition of the importance of the role of 38 Agriculture in Urban Planning: Generating Livelihoods and Food Security | women, the effect of AIDS and Mark Redwood (ed.) other social and cultural issues on the rural economy and Mailbox livelihoods. 39 Biogas Units | Keith Virgo Publications Committee 40 Dr Peacock’s Ralph Melville Memorial Lecutre: investmeent in African Garry Robertson agriculture | Stephen Carr Jim Waller Amir Kassam Geoff Hawtin Advertisements Declan Walton 18 VSO - I’d love to change the world, but… Caroline Hattam Ed Hamer 41 Press Release: Bees for Development new website www.beesfordevelopment.org contact: [email protected] TAA Forum Tel: 01582 715223 42 TAA-Agriculture for Development Honours 2009 ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) 44 Executive Committee and Group Convenors ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)
Cover Photograph: Eden Project, Cornwall © Tina Bone, AssocSBA 1 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 2
Editorial Climate change and technologies for resource-poor farmers
The major problem blighting the lives up a $20 billion fund over three years improved to help the farming of many small-scale farmers is that to boost the capacity of developing community. they do not have money in the countries to grow and store more At the L’Aquila summit, the G8 household budget to purchase good food. On paper this sounds a better countries and the Major Economic seed, fertilizer and other inputs option than giving $20 billion of food Forum (MEF) of seventeen other needed to produce more food to feed aid, which distracts politicians from countries that includes India and their families or to sell in the local putting in place policies to ensure that China agreed that average global markets. They are caught in a vicious adequate quantities of food are temperatures should not be allowed to circle, a situation from which it is very rise more than two degrees Celsius. difficult to escape. They must have However, there was no consensus better, more productive varieties, and Resource-poor about the baseline for this pledge, good quality seed but they need farmers need new although Britain and some EU improved technologies that will cost countries want it set at 1990. Others, very little or nothing, and will at the production like Japan, want it set at 2005. During same time increase crop production. methodologies that the talks the G8 leaders dropped a plan Farmers following the principle of for developed countries to cut their conservation agriculture, discussed in will improve yields carbon emissions by 50 percent by the article by Friedrich, Kassam and 2050, after opposition from China and Shaxson, can save time and money without costing extra India. Africa has done the least to because there is no need to plough money. contribute to climate change but is and harrow the land before planting. going to suffer the most because the Less cost of production and less work G8 and other developed counties can’t for the farmer. No-till agriculture has produced locally. There will have to be get their act together. The discussions many benefits but two of the more a clearly defined strategy and excellent at L’Aquila were supposed to be part of important spin-offs are the maint- management if this expensive the preparation for the Copenhagen enance of good soil structure and a programme is going to become well- summit meeting on climate change in reduction in carbon dioxide lost to the established and prove successful. The December, when it is expected to set atmosphere, both of which are im- farmers do not need subsidized targets for carbon emissions to portant especially to tropical soils in fertilizers, agro-chemicals or equip- control the global rise in temperature. the ongoing climate change saga. Rice ment, leading them into a situation There is still a lot of work to be done. growers can increase productivity, and where they expect handouts. DFID The small-scale farmers in Africa and therefore profit, from using SRI – the estimates that a quarter of all food around the world will be the eventual system of rice intensification – with harvested in Africa is not eaten losers if the developed country no increase in financial inputs. because of inadequate storage and polluters do not agree to cut the rate transport facilities. These are the kind At the recent G8 summit at L’Aquila in of carbon emissions into the of backup services that need to be Italy, world leaders have agreed to set atmosphere.
2 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 3
CA Characteristics
Theodor Friedrich, Amir Kassam and Conservation Francis Shaxon
Theodor Friedrich, Agriculture Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome. CA is characterized by three principles which Characteristics of (theodor.friedrich are linked to each other in a mutually @fao.org) Conservation reinforcing manner, namely: Amir Kassam, Agriculture (CA) 1. Continuous no- or minimal mechanical soil disturbance (i.e., direct sowing or University of Reading, broadcasting of crop seeds, and direct UK. (kassamamir The objective of this paper is to placing of planting material in the soil) @aol.com) (Figure 1); provide an overview of the Francis Shaxon, Tropical Agriculture characteristics of CA, its devel- Association (TAA), UK. opment, current relevance and (fshaxson global distribution, the restrict- @gotadsl.co.uk) ing framing conditions, its potential for improvements in productivity and sustainability, its relevance to small-scale farmers, the favourable settings for the promotion of CA in the developing regions, and areas of action for the future. Figure 1. Direct seeding into mulch and moist soil by hand with jab planter, animal drawn seeder, and tractor mounted seeder Definition of CA 2. Permanent organic-matter soil cover, especially by crop residues and cover crops CA is a concept for resource-saving agricult- Figure 2. No-till maize with (Figure 2); and permanent mulch, Brazil ural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concur- rently conserving the environment. CA is based on enhancing natural biological processes above and below the ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological processes.
3 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 4
CA Characteristics
3. Diversified crop rotations in the case of K Favours beneficial biological activity in the annual crops or plant associations in case soil in order to (a) maintain and rebuild soil of perennial crops, including legumes. architecture, (b) compete with potential in situ soil pathogens, (c) contribute to soil Translation of CA organic matter and various grades of principles into humus, and (d) contribute to capture, technologies and retention, chelation and slow release of farmer practices plant nutrients (Figure 3). K Avoids physical or chemical damage to CA systems utilize soils for the production of roots that disrupts their effective function- crops with the aim of reducing to a minimum ing or limits their maximum potential for the excessive mixing of the soil that is nutrient uptake. characteristic of tillage-based farming. CA CA can be practiced in all sizes of farms and maintains crop residues on the soil surface to ecologies. Machinery, tools and equipment minimize damage to the environment, and have been developed to cater for three levels of deploys diverse crop rotations and associa- power usage: manual power, animal traction, tions for enhancing soil and crop health. This and motorized equipment. The success of CA produces more biomass of higher quality, depends on the effective management of assists integrated insect pest, disease and operations dealing with: (a) land preparation, weed control, and improves nutrient uptake. (b) cover crops and weeds, (c) direct seeding, As a consequence, CA: and (d) harvest and residues.
K Provides and maintains an optimum environment in the root-zone to a Involved knowledge: maximum possible depth. integrating CA principles
K Ensures that water enters the soil so that into production practices (a) plants seldom suffer water stress that At the production level, CA cannot be reduced will limit the expression of their potential to a simple standard technology package growth; and (b) residual water passes down because of the diversity and variability in to groundwater rather than over the agro-ecological and socio-economic condi- surface as runoff.
Figure 3. Comparing soil in a farmer’s trial – clods of top soil from adjacent plots, Parana, Brazil (credit: Shaxson 2007)
PRO-BIOTIC ANTI-BIOTIC Topsoil after 5 years with retention of crop Topsoil after regularly-repeated residues and no-till seeding disk-tillage, without retention of residues
4 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 5
CA Characteristics
tions of farming. Thus, the interactions K Environmental and social benefits that between the possible recommended protect the soil and make agriculture more technological components and the location- sustainable. specific conditions of farming must be CA concepts and practices have a wide range adequately considered. The standardised “best of compatibility and complementarity with bet” production technologies approach tend other resource conserving approaches and to be of limited relevance and value for many technologies, and applicability in rainfed and farmers because CA practices tend to be irrigated farming systems, including ‘organic’ knowledge intensive; farmers themselves farming. It is suitable for different crop types must become involved in fine-tuning the such as grain crops including rice, roots and transformation and application of the tubers, vegetables, perennials, and agro- principles into site- and farm-specific forestry systems. practices. Current relevance of CA International cooperation and basic data on use International cooperation has become worldwide stronger recently as illustrated by the biennial process of the World Congress on CA, and Global area and regional distribution increasing numbers of regional workshops. An international multi-stakeholder meeting Worldwide, there are now some 100 million organized by the UK Tropical Agriculture ha of arable crops which are grown each year Association (TAA) and hosted by Newcastle without tillage in CA systems (Figure 4). The University in March 2007 was followed by a total area under CA is still very small (about 6- larger meeting hosted by FAO with technical 7%) relative to areas farmed using tillage. support from TAA. The outcome of the latter No-till agriculture in the modern sense meeting has been the emergence of the originated in the USA in the 1950s, and the concept of ‘Community of Practice’ (CoP) USA has always had the biggest area under within development communities to no-till in the world although it accounts for formalize and strengthen the connections only 22.6% of all cropland area. In contrast, in among like-minded persons who work in a the Southern Cone of Latin America no-till variety of circumstances and seek collectively became the majority agricultural system over to improve both knowledge and practice of 60% of the surface. Canada shows the fourth CA. biggest area under no-till with 12.5 million Potential advantages ha. CA exists in Europe but it is not really widely spread. In Australia CA has been widely from CA and quickly embraced by farmers.
The potential for CA systems in 21st century Asian and African countries have begun to agriculture development is based on the large take up CA practices only in the last 10-15 amount of field-based evidence from all years, but have already acquired many useful continents regarding the benefits of CA lessons with respect to adapting the principles systems. of CA to a vast diversity of conditions and constraints. Among the most encouraging These can be grouped as: experiences has been the CA work developed K Economic benefits that improve produc- in dry environments such as Tunisia and tion efficiency. Kazakhstan.
K Agronomic benefits that improve soil CA is practiced in all climate zones of the productivity. world where annual and perennial crops can
5 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 6
CA Characteristics
be grown and its concept and principles are Technical potential for applicable to any size farm subject to availability of equipment. improvement Restricting farming Conventional tillage-based ways of treating soils has resulted in damage to their inherent conditions productive capacity and their biologically based sustainability as favourable rooting The initial and primary restriction to adoption environments. CA is aimed at self-sustaining of CA is the assumption that tillage is improvements of the overall health of the essential for agricultural production. Subse- soil/plant ecosystem, and provides a more quent hindrances to its adoption include, benign and beneficial alternative. variously, those of intellectual, social, technical, environmental and political By avoiding tillage, the loss-rate of CO2 from characteristics. Key restrictions with main- soil to atmosphere is greatly reduced. streaming CA systems relate to problems with Permanent cover of mulch materials both up-scaling which is largely based on the lack sustains the soil biota, raises the soils’ of knowledge, lack of expertise, lack of inputs retention/release capacity for water and plant (especially equipment), inadequate financial nutrients, and protects the surface from resources and infrastructure, and poor policy extremes of rainfall and temperature. support. Rotations limit pest build-up, favour nutrient- cycling in the soil, and increase levels of soil
Figure 4. Conservation Agriculture worldwide, 106 Million ha
6 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 7
CA Characteristics
organic matter at different depths. In these the spectrum of government responsibilities ways CA improves and sustains soil health on and sufficiently flexible to accommodate land already in good condition, can regen- variability in local characteristics. Facilitation erate land in poor condition, and favours the should include tapered financial and logistical self-repeating sustainability of soil processes. support for the number of years needed for As such it furthers the aims of a number of farmers to make the changeover and become international conventions on, for example, familiar with the functioning of CA. Formal combating desertification, loss of bio- recognition should be given to the public diversity, and climate-change effects. goods value of environmental benefits generated by adoption of CA. The education Relevance, availability and system should be permeated with effects for small-scale understanding of well-managed CA as an farmers optimum expression of sustainable productive agriculture. Chances, risks, failures and discouragements Settings for the promotion and sustainability of CA Land degradation is due primarily to a failure or inability to apply what is already known systems in developing about the functioning of such systems. Even regions those rural poor who cannot fully meet their basic needs can benefit from application of Regional experiences with the CA’s principles. Benefits cited are reduction in promotion and sustainability of CA labour to produce greater crop yields per unit area, improvement in family members’ health A variety of CA cases are available from the due to the inclusion of vegetables in the diet, three developing regions. Ample evidence greater food security throughout the year and now exists of the successes of CA under many chances to make off-farm sales of surplus diverse agro-ecological conditions to justify a produce. These benefits were initiated with major investment of human and financial near-nil investment through altered usage of resources in catalysing a shift, whenever and already available materials and energy, and wherever conditions permit it, from tillage- provided extra cash for re-investment in the based production systems to those based on enterprise next season. minimal soil disturbance, organic residue retention, and crop rotations and combina- There are growing risks to continuing with tions. This will lead to large and demonstrable tillage agriculture, but entrenched insistence benefits that have been detailed earlier in this on its continuation (as by powerful voices of article. some input- and equipment-makers) could jeopardise firm encouragement and support In Latin America CA was initially designed by by governments of CA’s spread. Interested farmers and by farmer organizations in the farmers risk becoming disillusioned if southern state of Paraná in Brazil. The very adequate practical advice, equipment or good environmental and economic perform- inputs are not available. ances of CA systems eventually led to the implementation of supporting policies and to Desirable or necessary changes in a fast and wide adoption of this system. farming conditions Subsequently, public research and extension A government needs to make firm and system and even some private companies sustained commitment to encourage and have been involved in CA expansion. This support CA, expressed in policies which are multi-stakeholder strategy has been really consistent and mutually reinforcing across efficient and successful, as CA is now reaching
7 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 8
CA Characteristics
60% of the total agricultural surface at long term productivity. They include various national level. combinations of:
In Asia, where most national economies are K minimal or zero tillage; transition and there is growing effective K continuous soil cover often including demand for food and agricultural products, green manure and cover crops; much of the promotion work is being done through the normal extension services with K crop rotations, sequences and combina- backing from the public sector research tions; organizations. There is also collaboration with K non-inversion weed control, including the international research. use of allelopathy and smother crops;
In Africa, efforts such as Farmer Field School K crop-livestock integration in farming syst- (FFS) that reply on participatory approaches ems; to learning and adaptation at the grassroots K increase in biomass inputs to soil systems; level, and farmer-discovery processes at on- farm benchmark sites enable farmers K optimization between organic and in- themselves to decide how to put concepts and organic nutrient amendments;
principles. In several cases the international K ecosystem-based and integrated manage- assistance arriving for recovery after natural ment methods to control weeds, pests and disasters and emergencies could in Africa diseases; and successfully be harnessed to introduce CA. K erosion control infrastructure where Areas and options for needed. action Organizational strategies include: K participatory farmer-centred research and Focus on CA technology development; development, adaptation and introduction K greater assumption of responsibilities for agricultural innovation by farmer organ- Technologies that can help put CA principles izations; into practice are mostly available but require K capacity building within such organiza- their local adaptation to specific cropping tions; systems and cultures across diverse agro- K ecological and socio-economic situations. In engaging scientific expertise for under- many places, the introduction of CA standing of below-ground processes; technologies and practices will be from K incentives and certification of sustainable scratch, calling for mechanisms such as FFS agriculture practices to recognize societal that would enable empowering farmers benefits; and
through phased learning and discovery K establishment of a network of Communi- processes. ties of Practice (CoPs) bringing together Collective knowledge and experience must be diverse stakeholders around the world to shared in introducing CA approaches to new give concerted support. countries and in supporting the accelerated Summaries of critical issues, goals for what adaptation and uptake of CA practices in might be done about them, and proposed countries in which they have already been actions that could be considered in the three introduced. broad stakeholder areas are set out in the full Agronomic strategies for CA aim at report of the FAO workshop. The participants harnessing the abundant and diverse life in the workshop in July 2008 proposed forms that exist within soils to enhance their establishing a number of interconnected CoPs
8 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 9
CA Characteristics
that can further the objectives of CA as Framework Directive includes permissible discussed above. Participants also decided to levels for pollutants in water such as nitrates, establish and sustain a multi-stakeholder phosphates or pesticides, and only under knowledge management system that will be permanent no-till systems (CA) can the suited to the needs of diverse users, and in erosion and leaching of agrochemicals into particular of farmers who can benefit from surface and subsurface water bodies be more appropriate and effective CA practices. reduced to a level compatible with the new directive. Focus on European Within Europe there is an increasing concern Cooperation policy on CA, about the sustainability of farming and and framing conditions organizations promoting CA in Europe, such for CA in the EU as ECAF (European Conservation Agriculture Federation). CA principles, knowledge, skills European agricultural development policy for and practices as well as the associated sustainable production in Europe and in the learning and dissemination processes are developing regions should have a clear of a ‘public goods’ nature and are effective approach to sustainable farming which in in reducing purchased exogenous input tropical conditions is not possible with tillage- requirements while enhancing the natural based agriculture; hence all development endogenous biotic and ecological productivity activities dealing with crop production enhancing processes. European governments intensification should be assessed for their and European Commission will have to take compatibility with CA. Environmental man- responsibility of promoting the transforma- agement custodian schemes in Europe do not tion through the EU’s Common Agricultural promote the principles and practices of CA. Policy (CAP) which has been generally rather This is because CA practices do not attract effective in managing agricultural change special rewards in the single farm payments to over the past several decades. European farmers. On the contrary, com- modity related subsidies or payment for set- aside land work against the adoption of CA. Thus environmental costs arising from the negative impacts from intensive agriculture in Europe continue to be externalised and shifted to the society at large. Consequently, the degradation of soil, biodiversity and environment continue largely unabated.
It is perfectly feasible to meet food security needs in Europe and in the developing regions at lower economic and environmental costs through CA systems but the transforma- tion to such systems will require effective political will and commitment. Currently, these policy provisions are lacking in Europe.
The proposed Soil Framework Directive, resulting from the Soil Thematic Strategy, for example, would have facilitated national policies in support of CA. Unfortunately it was not adopted. However, the new EU Water
9 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 10
Intensifying rice
Norman Uphoff and Amir Kassam System of Rice Intensification
Norman Uphoff, Introduction K Depending on current yield levels, output Cornell International per hectare is increased usually by 50% or more, with increases of at least 20%, and Institute for Food The System of Rice sometimes 200% or more. Agriculture and K Since SRI fields are not kept continuously Development (CIIFAD), Intensification (SRI) is an flooded, water requirements are reduced, Cornell University, innovation in rice production generally by 25-50%. Ithaca, NY 14853, USA systems that is still evolving and K The system does not require purchase of ([email protected]) ramifying, but already it is new varieties of seed, chemical fertilizer, or agrochemical inputs, although commercial raising factor productivity and inputs can be used with SRI methods. incomes for more than 1 million Amir Kassam, K The minimal capital costs make SRI School of Agriculture, small farmers producing rice methods more accessible to poor farmers, who do not need to borrow money or go Policy and around the world on over 1 into debt, unlike many other innovations. Development, million hectares. SRI addresses K Costs of production are usually reduced, University of Reading, the major constraints affecting usually by 10-20%, although this percent- Earley Gate, Reading the livelihoods of small and age varies according to the input-intensity RG6 6AR, UK of farmers’ current production. poor farmers: their limited (kassamamir K With increased output and reduced costs, @aol.com) resources of land, labour, water farmers’ net income is increased by more and cash, as well as losses from than their augmentation of yield. pests and diseases and adverse All this sounds ‘too good to be true,’ but these climatic conditions. SRI does not various effects have been documented in a diverse set of countries, now up to 35 across require rice farmers to purchase Asia, Africa and Latin America. Over the past and use any external inputs, decade, SRI has been spreading rapidly since its benefits derive from beyond its country of origin, Madagascar, changes in the ways that their despite relatively little donor support. Farmer existing resources are used for uptake of SRI in some rice-producing areas, including areas of severe poverty such as rice production. eastern and northern India and northern Myanmar, is proceeding at unprecedented Because SRI is a biologically driven rates. Although SRI was developed for innovation, rather than being based on improving production of irrigated rice, its introducing certain genotypes or increasing concepts and methods are now being purchased external inputs, there can be wide extended to rainfed rice production and also variability in results. Averages are thus not to other crops such as wheat, finger millet very meaningful, but generally speaking, SRI and sugar cane. Thus, the eventual impact on methods are seen to have the following the agricultural sector of SRI ways of thinking impacts compared to their conventional and cultivating could become quite broad. counterparts:
10 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 11
Intensifying rice
SRI as a production Key elements of SRI: In practical terms, SRI involves the transplanting of young system seedlings, one per hill instead of a clump of several seedlings and 8-12 days old instead of SRI is basically a set of modified practices for the usual 3-4 weeks (Figure 1); very carefully managing rice plants and the soil, water and but quickly, taking special care to protect the nutrients that support their growth. These young roots; with wider spacing and in a changes in often age-old cultural practices square pattern (Figure 2) to give both roots were assembled and integrated by Fr. Henri de and canopy more room to grow (Figures 3 Laulanié, S.J., who spent half a lifetime in and 4), for taking up nutrients and capturing Madagascar working with small and poor sunlight; maintaining the soil in mostly farmers there to improve their rice product- aerobic condition, not suffocating the plant ivity and output so as to alleviate their roots or beneficial soil organisms; controlling families’ hunger and poverty. The crop weeds with a simple mechanical hand weeder husbandry methodology that he developed (Figure 5) that also actively aerates the soil; inductively can be justified in terms of princi- and enhancing the soil organic matter as ples that are well-grounded in agronomic much as possible with compost or mulch to science.
Figure 1. Afghan farmers planting 11-day seedlings Figure 2. Elderly Afghan farmer observing his SRI field with 30x30 spacing in Baghlan Province at 1,700 30 days after transplanting (Picture courtesy of Ali metres, May 2008 (Picture courtesy of Ali Mohammed Mohammed Ramzi, Aga Khan Foundation-Afghanistan) Ramzi, Aga Khan Foundation-Afghanistan)
Figure 4. Bourema, first farmer in Burkina Faso to use the new methods effectively, showing root growth on single SRI plant that led to a paddy yield of 7 t/ha in 2006. (Picture courtesy of Figure 3. SRI plant with Timothy Krupnik) 133 tillers in field of Juma Figure 5. Simple SRI Gul, Baghlan province, 72 weeder developed by days after transplanting. Govind Dhakal, Indrapur, AKF project staff calculated Nepal, costing 20 US cents. the yield from Gul’s yield as With this tool, 1 hectare can 11.56 tons/ha. His yield be weeded in 4 person-days with conventional methods compared to 25-30 person- on the same soil was 5.83 days with usual hand tons/ha. (Picture courtesy of weeding methods. (Picture Ali Mohammed Ramzi, Aga courtesy of Rajendra Khan Foundation- Uprety, District Agricultural Afghanistan) Development Office, Biratnagar, Nepal)
11 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 12
Intensifying rice
‘feed the soil’ so that the life within it will help tive plant phenotypes (phenomena) from any feed and protect the growing plants. genotype (initial genetic potential). The result is more profuse growth of tillers (stems), SRI can be fully organic since resulting plants leaves, panicles (ears of grain), and grains are more resistant to pests and diseases; but if themselves. not enough biomass or labour is available to supply the soil with organic matter, mineral SRI is better understood as a matter of degree fertilizers can be used. Also, agrochemicals than of kind, and it is better regarded as a can be used for pest control but are usually ‘menu’ rather than a ‘recipe.’ Rather than try not needed or uneconomic. Generally the best to decide what is or what is not SRI, we yields and highest incomes with SRI methods suggest considering to what extent, and how come from organic crop management. The well, the recommended practices were used, methods are successful with both traditional, and with what results. SRI practices such as local varieties and with new, improved timing and spacing, how much soil disturb- varieties and hybrids, so they can be used ance, water management, and biomass within the full range of subsistence to production within the rice cropping system, ‘modern’ agricultural production systems. are always to be adapted to local conditions and cropping systems. Complementary elements: The SRI recommended practices are modifications of Knowledge involved: SRI is an irrigated rice cropping systems, not the whole innovation based on new knowledge, or system, so there are a number of other rediscovery of old knowledge, rather than on activities involved, having some modifica- purchased material inputs, utilizing available tions to suit the core practices: land land, labour, water, natural resources and preparation including possibly raised beds cash more productively. and/or zero-till; nursery management under Key actors: From its inception, SRI has unflooded conditions; seed selection and been a farmer-centred innovation. Its success priming; soil solarisation where pathogens depends greatly upon farmers’ motivation are a problem; and soil enrichment with and skill for using the insights originating in microorganisms as an innovation still being Fr. Laulanié’s work but that are being evaluated. SRI is still evolving, so innovations continuously expanded and ramified. SRI has and modifications like direct-seeding or been extended by a full range of institutions, mechanical transplanting are being intro- from national to local levels, working with duced by farmers. Also, possibilities exist for farmers in the dissemination and application increasing organic matter from biomass of SRI concepts and practices: government produced from within the rice-based cropping agencies, non-governmental organization system using high-biomass cover crops and (NGOs – initially the most active on behalf of crop rotations as is the case with Conserva- SRI), universities and research institutions, tion Agriculture systems. also private sector organizations (e.g., Defining SRI: Not being a conventional Syngenta in Bangladesh, Nippon Koei in standardized ‘technology’ and being still ‘a Indonesia). In general, SRI can be work in progress,’ no fixed or narrow defini- characterized as a ‘civil society’ innovation. tion is possible or desirable. SRI concepts and International actors: There has been practices are being extended to other crops so some donor agency support in a number of SRI is not even just for rice. Essentially, SRI is countries, but so far most of the initiative has a suite of practices, based on sound scientific occurred at national, intermediate and local principles, for enhancing the growth and levels, with communication and coordination performance of both plant roots and soil support coming particularly from Cornell biota, to produce more healthy and produc-
12 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 13
Intensifying rice
University in the U.S. The international Limitations and community generally has been slow to respond to SRI opportunities, and there has constraints been some controversy surrounding SRI. But The main requirement is improved if not the evidence of SRI’s benefits and wide necessarily perfect water control so farmers applicability is increasing season by season, can apply smaller but reliable amounts of and country by country, so SRI is becoming water; where fields are inundated, the main more and more of an international pheno- benefits of SRI will not be achieved because menon and an opportunity to be harnessed plant roots will die back and only anaerobic for poverty alleviation and strengthening food soil organisms can survive. Labour availability security and sustainability. is essential because initially the methods Potentials for sustainability: Because require more time while these are being SRI reduces the demand for water in mastered; over time, however, SRI can agricultural production and also the use of become labour-saving. Biomass availability to agrochemical inputs, it has benign environ- enrich the soil organic matter content and/or mental impacts. By raising the agronomic make compost is important, although if there and economic productivity of land, labour, are limitations of biomass as a source of water and capital all at the same time, it nutrients or a shortage of labour time to enables farmers to produce more with less, by produce compost, mineral fertilizers can be mobilizing the services and benefits of soil used with the other methods. Crop protection biota. While not exactly a ‘free lunch’, it is sometimes needed, although SRI plants points the way to greater sustainability of have considerable natural resistance against agricultural production in general, and of pests and diseases. Farmer skill and production intensification. Producing more motivation is the most important outputs with fewer inputs is unique and requirement since SRI involves more uniquely appropriate for sustainability. intensive and knowledgeable management, while reducing the intensity of other Current relevance and purchased inputs. Other factors include applications access to simple, reasonably inexpensive implements that enhance labour and soil SRI is now demonstrated and spreading in all productivity; market development where world regions except Europe and North increases in supply may exceed local demand; America, and its methods have proved to be and appropriate land tenure arrangements. productive in a wide variety of agroeco- Potentials for systems: from the tropical coastal regions of West Africa to the interior, arid climate of the improvement and effects Timbuktu region in Mali, on the edge of the for small farmers Sahara Desert; from 100 metres asl in the terai region of Nepal up to 2,700 metres in SRI is being continually improved, particu- that country. Although developed for the larly at farmer initiative, although the benefit of small farmers in Madagascar, SRI as scientific community has growing interest in a biologically based innovation is scale- and involvement with SRI. The benefits neutral. In Sichuan and Zhejiang provinces of obtainable for small farmers as well as for the China, extension services report that SRI environment are driving this continuous methods are being taken up most quickly by innovation. Potential for further improve- larger farmers, because these help them save ment exists in minimizing puddling or doing labour as well as seed, water and money. away with it altogether, introducing direct seeding, increasing biomass production
13 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 14
Intensifying rice
within the cropping system through high- explanations for their acceptance, reducing biomass mulch and cover crops, and reliance on the preceding paradigm and transforming the total rice-based cropping gaining adherence to the newer one, are all system to Conservation Agriculture. There are part of the process for creating ‘favourable opportunities for development-oriented conditions’ for SRI spread, with both short- research to improve equipment and practices term and long-term impact. for direct seeding, for weed management, for residue and soil cover management, for Areas and options for nutrient and water management and for action cropping pattern management. There are areas where research, experiment- In irrigated rice, there are potentials for ation and policy can be supportive of the significant water savings through SRI, and in further exploitation of SRI potentials to case of irrigation expansion for rice enhance factor productivity in agriculture production, SRI-based systems offer higher with a pro-poor orientation and with regard return to investment to the farmers and at the for the quality and preservation of environ- scheme level to governments. Policy support mental resources. Improvements are needed to promote SRI has been slow in coming, but in water control, simple mechanization, and this is beginning to change. Policy and biomass production and processing, also institutional changes can be accelerated if the possibly in crop protection. Creating converg- scientific and donor community can be made ence with Conservation Agriculture practices aware of the full potential of SRI methods for should make both areas of innovation more sustainable production intensification, reduc- beneficial to farmers and to the environment. ing energy and production costs, responding Farmer-to-farmer extension and Farmer Field to climate change, saving water, and reducing Schools offer the most effective means for the consumer price of rice. disseminating knowledge and practice of SRI, Favourable conditions for supplemented with certain incentives. Since SRI is fully compatible with the objectives of promoting and sustaining European development cooperation policy, it SRI should be easy and beneficial to integrate the new knowledge and opportunities which SRI Climate of opinion is very important for is providing into EC programmes and projects promotion and sustainability of any innova- both for rice development in Europe and in tion in agriculture. ‘Modern agriculture’ has the developing regions. proceeded from the paradigm of the Green Revolution, which specifies that productivity improvements will be best achieved by making genetic improvements in crops, and then making appropriate increases in the application of external inputs. SRI operates from a different paradigm, positing that existing genetic potentials can produce more agronomic output and economic returns by modifying growing environments, specifically improving soil health, root growth and performance, and inducing greater abund- ance, diversity and activity of soil biota. Getting these differences in paradigms understood, providing scientific evidence and
14 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 15
slash/burn alternative
Charles Barber The Inga alley Charles Barber has run his own environment- ally friendly gardening business for the last cropping 20 years and so is personally acquainted with the usefulness of mulches. He has a technique: a growing interest in rainforest conserva- tion and tropical agriculture and is cur- viable alternative rently Chairman of the charity The Rainforest Saver Foundation (www.rainforestsaver. for slash and org). See also The Inga Foundation at www.ingafoundation. burn farmers? org It has been estimated becomes virtually unfarmable. This can then that as many as 300 lead to farmers attempting to farm on steeper and steeper slopes, burning more and more of million farmers in the rainforest. Other negative aspects of this tropical countries may form of agriculture are increased erosion rates take part in slash and due to less vegetative cover, exposed and compacted soils, and a livelihood for the burn agriculture. farmer and his family that is usually This is in some ways merely an intensification characterised by both poverty and insecurity. Often, indeed it is too difficult for them to of a more sustainable form of agriculture Hillsides denuded by continuous scrape a livelihood from the land in this practised for many years by indigenous people slash and burn agriculture fashion and they are forced to retreat to the and referred to as shifting cultivation. (Copyright FUPNAPIB, shanty towns of a nearby city. However, slash and burn agriculture differs in Honduras) one crucial aspect. Whereas the shifting cultivators would burn an area of forest, grow crops on it for one to three years and then leave it fallow to allow it to regenerate into secondary forest for perhaps as long as 20 to 40 years before repeating the cycle, the unfortunate slash and burn farmers of today, due to population pressures on the land, are often only able to leave it fallow for as little as five years. This means that the land is incapable of restoring its nutrients and may eventually become so degraded that it
15 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 16
slash/burn alternative
However, recent research and an innovative washed away. After four years Mike Hands new technique have shown that it is possible had firm evidence that Inga edulis used in an to farm more sustainably on such degraded alley cropping system could produce a good tropical hillsides. In the early 1980s Mike harvest. The maize crop was in its second Hands was working for the Honduran year, the mulched Inga leaves were keeping Government as a surveyor for flood control the weeds at bay and the Inga system was and was shocked and saddened by the des- successfully recycling nutrients including truction of the rainforest brought about by phosphorous. By contrast in the slash and poor farmers that were merely struggling to burn plot the soil had become infertile and the feed themselves and their families. He became plants were really struggling. In an experi- convinced that there must be a more benign ment to find out which nutrients the plants way to farm in such tropical regions and needed most, Mike divided the slash and burn dedicated the next few years to finding such a area into smaller plots and added a different solution. He returned to the UK to study nutrient to each plot, and it was only in the slash and burn agriculture at Cambridge plot that received the phosphorous that the University and then armed with greater plants significantly recovered. knowledge travelled to Costa Rica to gather Now that there was proof that the system information from the slash and burn farmers worked the next step was to find a location there. Here he discovered that, as had been where farmers would be willing to try it out. suggested in a couple of papers at Cambridge In Honduras much of the native rainforest University, the slash and burn plots quickly had already been destroyed by both slash and lost vast amounts of phosphorous. He also burn agriculture and illegal forestry and came up with the idea that an alley cropping FUPNAPIB, an NGO responsible for system using plants with large leaves might protecting the Pico Bonito National Park, was be able to mimic the environment of the keen to let the slash and burn farmers on the rainforest floor and so replenish the vital edge of the park try out the new system. One nutrients. of the first that was persuaded to try was In order to be able to try out his theory Victor Coronado. He was doubtful that crops though, it was clearly necessary to obtain would grow well in the shade of the alleys but funding for a proper pilot study. Finally, after was asked to try the system on just a small two years of rejected applications to various plot of land initially so as not to risk his UK and European institutions, in March 1988 livelihood. Ten years later he is now a the European Economic Council offered Mike pioneering advocate of the Inga alley cropping Hands £2 million to carry out a seven-year system. He claims that he can grow four study into the viability of this form of alley times as much maize using the Inga system cropping. By the following year Mike Hands as he did when a slash and burn farmer, and with the help of a botanist friend from Kew, Dr he has also been able to grow such cash crops Terry Pennington, had chosen an Amazonian as pepper and vanilla to sell at the local species of tree named Inga edulis as the most market. He now also works for the NGO that suitable plant to use in their trials. Its fast first talked him into trying the new system growth, large thick leaves and ability to fix and tries to persuade other local farmers to nitrogen were all important attributes but if take it up. As well as improved yields and Mike’s belief in the importance of phos- protection of the rainforest from the need to phorous depletion was correct, the plant had continually burn it, the Inga system also has one other vital characteristic. It was intensely other advantages. After the second crop the mycorrhizal, which meant it would symbio- mulch of Inga leaves has become so effective tically absorb phosphorous into its roots and at suppressing weeds it is estimated that the so prevent this vital nutrient from being farmer is saved 40 days weeding labour a year;
16 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 17
slash/burn alternative
now he no longer needs to walk further and further afield in search of land but can farm nearer his home and so more easily protect his crops and he also benefits from using the pruned Inga branches as a valuable source of firewood. The opportunity for increased yields and the other advantages have so far convinced more than fifty farmers in the Pico Bonito area to take up the new system.
The reason that the system has not disseminated more quickly is partly due to a series of logistical problems and failings. Although a demonstration farm was set up in the area around Pico Bonito and at least 4000 farmers came to visit, most were unable to Inga alley showing ground free of weeds and covered in mulch after pruning the trees take up the new system due to a lack of Inga (Copyright FUPNAPIB, Honduras) seed. This has now been partly been rectified and land has been bought to set up a nursery but unfortunately although the EU were willing to fund the initial trial which showed that the system worked, they have thus far proved unwilling to fund the dissemination of the technique and so Mike Hands has had to seek assistance from philanthropic Honduran Farmer with his bumper crop of maize grown in the organizations and individuals. This has Inga alley system (Copyright Anthony Melville) meant that a consistent funding stream that would have made the dissemination much easier has not been available. Inga seedlings and patience are the main requirements for farmers that wish to take it up. As the trees are planted half a metre apart in alleys of a four metre width, five thousand seedlings are needed for a plot of one hectare. It will also take about two years to grow the trees before pruning for the first mulch so unless some form of credit is available the farmers will have to continue slash and burn agriculture at the same time as setting up, and hopefully gradually expanding their Inga plot. However, if enough support and advice were given to farmers the technique might really multiply quite rapidly. It has been estimated that a 1 hectare seed orchard could provide enough seed for 5000 hectares of Inga alley cropping.
It is not only in Honduras that Inga alley cropping has been trialled. In 2006 trial pots were set up in the Chanchamaya Valley in Peru to find out which species of Inga would
17 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 18
slash/burn alternative/VSO
be most suitable for alley cropping and once new system. A new charity Rainforest Saver again Inga edulis was found to be the most is currently helping to fund this important suitable. Thanks to the continued funding of work. Mike Hands has himself set up a the John Kyle Stone Fund and the dedication charity called The Inga Trust to support of certain staff at Molina University and a local various Inga alley cropping initiatives in NGO, a plan for the second phase of the Honduras, particularly around the Pico project is now being implemented. With the Bonito region. Although the personnel in the support of a local well-respected NGO called two charities may have had their APRODES, thirty local farmers will now be disagreements about how best to disseminate given the opportunity to grow crops using the the Inga alley cropping system, they are both Inga alley cropping technique. This project fully convinced as to how beneficial it is, both though, is also promoting other alternatives for the farmer and the rainforest. If combined to slash and burn agriculture and another with forest protection, it has the potential to thirty farmers will be able to grow coffee improve the livelihoods of numerous farmers under the shade of Inga trees. Other groups in Central and South America and help of thirty will grow cocoa, (again using Inga for protect the remaining areas of pristine shade) and timber for which there is much rainforest. There is an urgent need, though, demand as the source material for making for more funding to enable this to happen. crates for the local fruit industry. Back in If you would like to keep up to date or find out Honduras the CURLA University has also more about this exciting new technique, successfully set up trial Inga plots and has check out the two web sites of the charities been impressed with the yields obtained. They involved in supporting and promoting Inga are now running courses to teach their alley cropping. agriculture students about the benefits of the 1¼LTW^M\WKPIVOM \PM_WZTLJ]\°
Ndj XVc X]Vc\Z ^i Wn WZ^c\ ndj# EVhh dc ndjg [Vgb^c\ h`^aah VcY ndjÉaa ZcVWaZ [VgbZgh ^c 6[g^XV id \ZcZgViZ bdgZ ^cXdbZ [gdb i]Z^g [Vgbh VcY ldg` i]Z^g lVn dji d[ edkZgin#
KHD ^h add`^c\ [dg kdajciZZgh l^i] V kVg^Zin d[ iZX]c^XVa VcY Wjh^cZhh h`^aah id ^cXgZVhZ i]Z egdYjXi^k^in d[ XViiaZ [Vgbh dg YV^g^Zh ^c OVbW^V! GlVcYV VcY BVaVl^# Ndj XdjaY WZ ldg`^c\ l^i] igVYZ VhhdX^Vi^dch! [Vgb XddeZgVi^kZh dg ^cY^k^YjVa [VgbZgh! egdk^Y^c\ igV^c^c\ hjeedgi VcY ^beaZbZci^c\ WZhi egVXi^XZ id YZkZade [Vgb^c\ iZX]c^fjZh VcY bVcV\ZbZci hnhiZbh#
6adc\ l^i] V YZ\gZZ ^c 6\g^XjaijgZ! A^kZhidX` dg gZaViZY Y^hX^ea^cZ! ndjÉaa ]VkZ Vi aZVhi ild nZVghÉ egVXi^XVa ZmeZg^ZcXZ# H^cXZ ndjÉaa WZ igV^c^c\ di]Zgh! ndjÉaa cZZY \ddY Xdbbjc^XVi^dch h`^aah VcY eaZcin d[ eVi^ZcXZ! Vh i]Z eVXZ d[ X]Vc\Z bVn WZ hadlZg i]Vc ndj VgZ jhZY id#
LZ Vh` ndj id Xdbb^i id V b^c^bjb d[ h^m bdci]h! VcY ^c gZijgc egdk^YZ V XdbegZ]Zch^kZ ÒcVcX^Va eVX`V\Z! ^cXajY^c\ adXVa a^k^c\ VaadlVcXZ! gZijgc Ó^\]ih! VXXdbbdYVi^dc VcY ^chjgVcXZ# 1\ XIa[ \W KPIVOM \PM _WZTL
18 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 19 TA challenges The fundamental Alan Yates challenges for tropical agriculture Introduction and the atmosphere combined… Peat bogs inter approximately one-quarter of the There are two global problems of an absolute carbon stored in land plants and soils.” It nature of particular relevance to tropical follows that a relatively modest increase in agriculturalists: SOM (Soil Organic Matter), preferably K Global warming as affected by the emission associated with the regeneration of peat bogs, and sequestration of greenhouse gases; would resolve the CO2 problem – assuming K Feeding the still-burgeoning global human that this could be implemented over the population. totality of the earth’s 1.5 billion tillable Because of worldwide concern, the internet hectares. The population issue is summarised became crowded with calculations of the total in Table 1. amounts of CO2 (carbon dioxide) in the With the exception of Europe, populations of world, the rates of emission, and methods for all regions of the world, especially in Africa, sequestering it. To short-circuit such mind- continue to increase. The population of Kenya numbing figures, a quotation from Wikipedia doubled between 1965 and 1991. Fortunately, puts the possible role of agriculture into agricultural production, at least in the 1980s, context: “Soils represent a short- to long- matched the growth in population (see Table term carbon storage medium, and contain 2). However, the challenge is greater than more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation simply matching food production to 19 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 20 TA challenges population growth: poor people wish to effects of carbon sequestration per unit improve their standard of nutrition, and area, but can be applied over vast tracts and diversify their diet. Increased food production are very important for fertility maint- enance. must be achieved on a truly sustainable basis and needs to include aspects of erosion 3 Peat restoration, sequestering 77t C/ha control, the efficient use of water, the most /year, but of limited applicability in tropical agriculture. effective mix of crops, livestock and trees (crops and forestry), pest control, weed 4. Burying biochar (“terra preta” soils). In control, and genetic engineering. But any one contrast to 2 above, this sequesters large amounts of C per unit area (98t C/ha of these must not be allowed to dominate the /application), but is unlikely to be adopted agenda. on any more than a “garden” scale. Both of the major issues highlighted above are closely linked, primarily because the Tree planting sustainable increase in agricultural produc- Tropical forests provide a potential for CO tion is dependant upon soil biological activity 2 sequestration similar to that in temperate which demands reasonable levels of SOM zones, and planting them can certainly be (Nye, 1955; Sangina et al., 1992; Yates and successful in Africa, as witnessed by the Kiss, 1992). Yet SOM levels in drier thousands of hectares of pine and eucalypts environments are never more than 0.5% C, between Kasungu and Mzuzu in Malawi. even on virgin soils; but reach 2–3% C under Such forests could be replicated in many humid tropical forest conditions. “Desirable” places where land is underutilized. In levels are thought to be double these. All Lampung, Indonesia, aerial biomass of levels reduce rapidly after clearance and remnant secondary forests averaged 175t cultivation (Yates and Kiss, 1992). How can C C/ha. The aerial biomass fixation obtained by sequestration in biomass and SOM be normal cocoa-glyricidia culture reached increased? There are four main mechanisms almost 39t C/ha in year 5 at one site (Smiley (US EPA, 2009: Lovett, 2008): and Kroschel, 2008). In addition, the SOM in 1. Tree-planting sequesters 1–5 t C/ha/year the cocoa-glyricidia work “harboured a vastly over a limited time of 50 to 100 years. In greater amount of system C relative to tree temperate zones (according to the U.S. EPA), the realistic peak accumulation of components”. A value of 3% C in the top pine plantations is about 250t C/ha after 90 50cm of soil, under well-mulched cocoa years. would add 150t C/ha. The potential of coffee 2. Improved farming systems through would be similar and would also provide techniques such as no-till farming, residue significant erosion control if planted correctly. mulching, cover-cropping, and crop An example of erosion control is illustrated in rotation. These have relatively modest Fig.1; this is of normal smallholder 20 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 21 TA challenges cultivation in Burundi, where mixed cropping Improved farming systems is integrated with contour ditches. The much criticised oil-palm plantations are infinitely Minimum tillage systems: The imp- better than the devastation left by slash-and- rovements in SOM resulting from direct burn shifting cultivation. Fig. 2 shows the seeding or minimum tillage are largely first year after clearing thick jungle in South confined to the top soil (0–5 cm); SOM and Sumatra by local indigenous people; the soil C increased by one-third to one-half in clearing and the new houses would be this horizon, even after only two cropping abandoned after about five years. With all cycles (Bot and Benites, 2005). Similar these crops, the challenge for the agricul- beneficial effects result from trash turalist is to improve agronomic techniques: retention/blanketing in sugarcane (Robert- for example, to link them with moisture son, 2003). The potential for application to capturing and erosion control works. smallholder agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa Sugarcane when grown as a perennial crop (SSA) is self evident and, many years ago, IITA has many of the beneficial characteristics of developed simple and robust jab-planters. tree crops. These did not become popular, apparently Fig. 1. Mixed cropping and contour erosion-control ditch. Smallholder farms, Burundi, 1989 Fig. 2. First year of slash- and-burn shifting cultivation. Indigenous people, South Sumatra, 1986 21 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 22 TA challenges because of the problem of weed-control, cropping or interplanting is widely used in a which can be controlled by cover-cropping or wide range of perennial crop cultivation, and herbicides. there is a wide variety of crop rotation between wet and dry seasons in different Residue mulching: There are two aspects agricultural systems. Many ‘dryland’ peasant here. First, the removal of residues normally farmers sow mixed crops because at least one implies burning which both destroys potential of them is likely to succeed whatever the soil C, and adds to atmospheric CO2. The weather. Elsewhere, intercropping or relay reduction in soil C is largely confined to the cropping is practised: for example, the topsoil (top 2.5 cm) and is of the same order traditional maize/bean systems in Africa. of magnitude as the increase resulting from Where more formal systems of arable farming minimum tillage. Burning every second year are practised, significant improvements in over 100 years resulted in a loss of about 7t soil-C sequestration have been reported by C/ha (Bot and Benites, 2005). The amount of cover cropping with Mucuna between maize material that is burnt each year is immense crops, or by including legumes in systems including grasslands in many countries and it concentrating on cereals (Bot and Benites, is astonishing that agronomists seem to view 2005). Because of the diversity, agronomists these practices with equanimity. Controlled have much to contribute. burns, early in the season, are used in West Arnhem Land, Australia, to prevent out-of- Peat Regeneration control wild-fires later in the season. During the 1960s, the author used sodium chlorate It is reported that peat bogs inter about one sprays to allow early burns along railway lines quarter of the carbon stored in land plants and in Queensland to reduce the risk of fires. soils. However, they (nor the other types of The second aspect is the protection of the soil histosols) are not of major importance in from erosion (by water and wind) and the tropical agriculture. The most important encouragement of rainfall penetration, to the examples, in the personal experience of the extent that Roose (in IFAD, 1992) concluded author, are the “marais” soils of the valley that mulching techniques were almost as bottoms in Burundi and Rwanda that are effective in preventing erosion as is intensively cultivated during the long dry undisturbed forest. Sugarcane harvested season mainly for the production of sweet without burning also benefits moisture potatoes (Fig. 3). In consequence, the organic capture and erosion control (for example in layer is depleting rapidly. There seems to be hilly parts of Jamaica, Dominican Republic, little possibility for reversing this trend. Could and Queensland). Similarly, mulched coffee in new peat bogs be initiated? Could the Burundi (if planted in contour strips) is a very Bangwuelu swamps in Zambia be suitable for effective erosion control measure. Mulching peat regeneration? also allows some superficial rooting under the mulch, which provides the opportunity to Burying biochar apply nutrients such as phosphate that would The remarkable properties of terra preta soils otherwise be made unavailable by the soil. have been known for many years, but have There are some negative effects of residue become more widely appreciated only mulching, notably the (temporary) reduction recently. Informative factual articles can be in available N, but this can be simply found on the internet (e.g. Css.cornell.edu; corrected. Wikipedia); more popular articles include Cover Cropping and Crop Rota- Mann (2008) and Lovett (2008). Typically, tions: Tropical agriculture is far too diverse terra preta soils contain more than 10% C as to allow for simple generalisations. Cover compared to 2 to 3% in surrounding soils of 22 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 23 TA challenges similar mineral composition. The organic to around one-half when such ‘normal’ soils layer tends to be deep (from 50 cm to 1 m), so are cultivated. In drier environments levels each hectare of terra preta can sequester up are never more than 0.5% C; would terra to, say, 1,000 tonnes of C. This sequestration preta work here also? Or could the process of is permanent; for reasons not fully forming chernozems be replicated? In addi- understood, the soils regenerate themselves. tion to sequestrating C, terra preta soils are They appeared in the Amazonian basin very much more fertile having a higher native between 450 BC and AD 950 and still exist; nutrient content, resistance to leaching, and some are now “harvested” (rather like peat) higher soil moisture capacity. Even without and used for soil improvement. However, the fertilizer, crops on terra preta outyield crops average size of a pocket of terra preta is on adjacent fertilized soils of similar mineral around 20 ha and the total area has been composition. These properties are linked to – estimated to be only about 0.3% of the and almost certainly caused by – the complex lowland forested area of Amazonia. For microbiological activity in the terra preta. comparison, the chernozems (high SOM This microbiological activity will also explain steppe and prairie soils) cover approximately the self-regeneration of these soils, and their 230 million ha (FAO). ability to increase soil organic matter. Typical Amazonian soils are similar to those There is no doubt that these soils are man- of Africa; they are highly weathered and have made, in the days when Amazonian-Indian low nutrient holding capacity (and to a culture was at its peak, with large cities and variable extent, low soil moisture holding settled agriculture. The distribution and capacity). As Africa is about 35 times larger composition of the pockets of terra preta soils than Brazil, the potential for increasing the fits with the existence of large permanent area of terra preta by developing such soils in settlements. These civilizations were decimat- Africa is very considerable. Levels of 2 to 3% C ed by the diseases introduced by Europeans, in moist virgin soils are similar in both and the people dispersed into a semi-nomadic regions. In contrast to the self-regenerating lifestyle. How did the terra preta accumulate terra preta soils, levels of SOM reduce quickly the high levels of nutrients? Composting in Fig.3. Cultivation of “marais” for dry season sweet potato. Region des Volcanes, Rwanda, 1989 23 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 24 TA challenges situ cannot do this: the native soils and there- in most rural areas) but a low temperature fore the plants growing in them are too hydrothermal carbonisation, or a higher nutrient-poor; and there were no fertilizers. temperature pyrolysis. Certainly, there is no But nutrients can be imported, most easily shortage of biomass to convert: the trees through animal excrements. For example, Fig. burnt for shifting cultivation, the grassland 4 shows a spiral thorn-bush corral surround- burnt for no good reason, and crop residues ing a Tutsi family compound in Burundi. The such as the rice-straw used for brick making stock are brought in every evening for in Indonesia. protection, so concentrate the fertility from a wide area there. Such fertility transfer used to What might be the role of be normal, worldwide. Can we replicate the TAA? terra preta effect? Why not! The technique was developed and implemented by highly To inform, lobby, and assist. TAA has the developed and disciplined societies in pre- facility to inform through “Agriculture for Colombian Amazonia. But peasant farmers Development”, and through special lectures, today can do the same thing. Under suitable meetings and workshops. It can lobby widely conditions, peasant farmers in Africa, in SE through its contacts with national and Asia and in S America, exhibit remarkable international organisations (governmental levels of cooperation and of precision in their and non-governmental). And it can assist work: Fig. 5 shows an example of terracing in directly through providing expertise including Rwanda which is as impressive as similar Award Fund recruits. terracing in Java and Bali. It should be But, first, it needs to identify possibilities and stressed that Figs 1, 3 and 5 do not show potentials. The terra preta technology can demonstration plots or large-scale mechan- only be applied on a small scale, but peasant ised cultivation, but small plots of myriad farming is done on that scale: over much of small farmers using hand tools, farmers who Africa, the “farmer” is the woman, baby integrate their efforts. But much effort is strapped to her back, with her universal tool – required of agronomists and others. In a hoe – in her hand, and a bundle of some- particular, the process is not the traditional thing (sweet-potato slips, firewood, whatever) charcoal-burning (for which expertise exists on her head. They simply cannot handle more Fig.4. Traditional style Tutsi home compound with corral for cattle. Burundi, 1990 24 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 25 TA challenges than about one hectare. She would need help References to set up the plot, but would probably welcome the opportunity to reduce the area Bot, A. and Benites, J. (2005) The importance of soil organic matter. FAO Soils Bulletins. Css.cornell.edu/ to be cultivated, replacing it by a much higher faculty/lehmann yielding patch. Perhaps some of the immense FAO: www.fao.org/ag (and immensely expensive) extension services IFAD. (1992) Soil and water conservation in SSA. Report and participatory research projects (under for IFAD by the Centre for Dev. Studies, Amsterdam whatever name) could be diverted. Each plot Lovett, R. (2008) Burying biomass to fight climate would be small, but there could be millions of change. New Scientist, 2654, May 3, 2008 them. Improved farming systems can and Mann, C.C. (2008) Our good earth. National Geographic, 214, 3 must be applied over large areas: the Nye, P.H. (1955) Soil forming processes in the humid technologies are known. The potential for tropics. J. Soil Sci., 6, 73-83 forestry is obviously great in much of central Robertson, F. (2003) Sugarcane Trash Management: Africa, and presumably elsewhere, but consequences for soil C and N. CRC Sugar (Queens- someone with special knowledge needs to land), Technical Publication identify the possibilities. Special expertise is Sanginga, Mulongoy and Swift (1992) Contribution of also required to evaluate the possibility for soil organisms to the sustainability of productivity in the tropics. Agric. Ecosystems and Environment, 41, 135- peat restoration. 152 Smiley, G.I. and Kroschel, J. (2008) Temporal change in carbon stocks of cocoa-glyricidia agroforests in Central Sulawesi. Agroforest Syst., 73, 219-231 US EPA. (2009) Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Forestry. www.epa.gov Wikipedia Encyclopedia Yates, R.A. and Kiss, A. (1992) Using and sustaining Africa’s soils. Agriculture and Rural Development, Series 6, The World Bank, Washington, DC Fig.5. Intensive cultivation, terracing and integration of farms. Region des Volcanes, Rwanda, 1989 25 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 26 Catalystic bioengineering Peter Gregory and Stanley P. Kowalski Crop Peter Gregory is a Consultant on agricul- tural biotechnology for bioengineering: international develop- ment and an Adjunct Professor in the enormous Department of Plant Breeding and in Inter- national Programs at the College of Agricul- potential for ture and Life Sciences, Cornell University. His primary focus is on addressing strategic catalyzing issues at the interface of conventional agri- cultural research and modern biotechnology. international Contact: [email protected] Stanley P. Kowalski is development at the International Technology Transfer Introduction which projects are demand-driven and Institute (ITTI) at the holistic in approach, integrating all technical Franklin Pierce Law Bioengineering provides unique and dramatic and non-technical factors relevant to the Center, a pioneering opportunities for crop improvement. It can product development and commercialization/ global leader in legal be used to develop crop varieties that would delivery chain. education with spe- otherwise be unavailable and can facilitate cialized curricula in much faster and more precise ways of What are bioengineered intellectual property developing improved varieties. It can help to crops? and international increase yields and reliability and thus reduce programs in China and food costs for the consumer while helping to Crop bioengineering is the precise transfer of Ireland. ITTI’s mission control input costs for farmers through desirable genes into a target crop plant it to advance innova- reduced applications of herbicides, pesticides, without the concomitant introduction of tion in developing and fertilizer. non-desirable genes that conventional plant countries via educa- breeding entails (often necessitating expens- The extent to which this will be achieved tion, outreach and ive and lengthy backcrossing schemes). depends on how effectively the global capacity building. However, crop bioengineering is neither a scientific community – including both the Contact: panacea nor a stand-alone, but rather a public and private sectors – can cooperate in skowalski@piercelaw. biotechnological tool that complements harnessing the power of crop bioengineering edu conventional, organic or other biotechnolo- and the allied scientific fields of genomics and gical approaches as part of an integrated bioinformatics for the poor and hungry of the approach to crop improvement. The techno- world. This, in turn depends on the extent to logy has already had considerable impact 26 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 27 Catalystic bioengineering around the world – in industrialized and include plantain and bananas; root and tuber developing countries. Most commercial- crops such as potato cassava, sweet potato ization to date has focused on internationally and yam; millets such as pearl millet, finger traded commodities such as maize, soybean, millet and foxtail millet; legumes such as cotton and canola. The major traits that have cowpeas, groundnut and Bambara ground- been transferred into these crops include nut; and tree crops. Moreover, indigenous herbicide tolerance (to facilitate improved crops such as tef, quinoa and many types of control of weeds and reduce tillage) and insect vegetables are critical for food security and resistance (to reduce the need for chemical nutrition on a regional or local basis. Whereas pesticide applications while improving pest some of the production constraints associated control) and, to a lesser extent, delayed with these crops are being overcome by ripening, and virus resistance. Although the conventional breeding and agronomic global deployment of bioengineered crops has approaches, for some crop/constraint com- dramatically expanded (from 10 million binations bioengineering is the only answer. hectares in 1997 to 125 million hectares in The long-term technological possibilities for 2008) the dominant countries remain the bioengineered crops are vast due to break- USA, Argentina, Brazil, India, Canada and throughs in genomics and bioinformatics1. China (James, 2008). Ultimately plant genes encoding all agri- culturally important traits will be more easily Bioengineered crops are identified and isolated and, through needed for international bioengineering, transferred to target varieties. development By facilitating access to, and use of, desirable genes in plant germplasm collections and The range of bioengineered crop species naturally occurring genetic resources, the available to developing countries must be combination of genomics, bioinformatics and expanded significantly if agricultural pro- bioengineering will indirectly contribute to duction is to keep pace with growing the improved conservation of biodiversity. populations, diminishing arable land, Plant germplasm collections that are put to relentless urbanization and an ever expanding better practical use are less likely to be global appetite for meat consumption. abandoned due to budgetary cuts, and Whereas multinational life sciences comp- ecosystems whose resources can be valorized anies have led the research, development and are less likely to be destroyed or wasted. commercialization of bioengineered crops, their primary focus has been, and will likely How can the full potential continue to be, on crops with traits having of crop bioengineering be commercial value as global commodities. tapped for international Meanwhile, many crops of extreme im- development? portance to subsistence and resource-poor farmers around the world have been neglec- Safe and effective adoption of bioengineered ted. Such crops – often referred to as ‘orphan’ crops (including orphan crops) for the crops because of the relative lack of research developing world necessitates new project and development applied to them – can be approaches involving partnerships among all vitally important for nutrition and income in relevant stakeholders. Depending on project poor regions. These crops cover 240 million specifics, partners might include universities, hectares in developing countries alone and national and regional research organizations, 1 Genomics is the study of the whole genomes of organisms. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of genomics and other areas of molecular biology. 27 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 28 Catalystic bioengineering the private sector, non-governmental organ- project. Obtaining regulatory approval for izations, government agencies, international new bioengineered crops can be a particularly agricultural research centres and other stake- costly, major bottleneck. holders from developing and industrialized Even though there are no known substanti- countries who are involved in the research- ated harmful effects of bioengineered crops development-commercialization/delivery on human health or the environment, there continuum. are theoretical environmental and health risks Projects must be demand-driven with a associated with bioengineered crop pro- holistic and integrated approach that duction and use. Accordingly, a regulatory considers every technical and non-technical package needs to be compiled to enable the issue from the outset (Gregory et al., 2008). It commercialization of each bioengineered is essential in the planning and implement- product. Compiling such a package can cost ation of the work not to underestimate the more than a million dollars and involve up to resources needed to move a bioengineered a decade of work. Due to these high costs it is crop from the research phase into the hands advisable, to the extent possible, to utilize of the end-user – a point that is often over- information from existing regulatory dossiers looked by public sector organizations such as generated in other countries for the same or universities and national research institutes similar products. Depending on the focus which, historically, have focused almost country involved, this activity can be exclusively on the research phase. governed by national biosafety legislation and Figure 1 outlines the actual stages of product the authorities responsible for its imple- research, development and delivery that mentation. Much of what is needed is typically need to be addressed once market codified; however, some of the work can assessment and feasibility studies on the involve negotiation and perceptions of risk. candidate bioengineered crop have been New data for the regulatory packages should conducted. Of the 14 stages in the research– be generated as much as possible within the development–commercialization/delivery focus country or region. An interactive continuum, only five relate to research. The relationship with regulatory authorities needs cost of the other nine, non-research stages to be established – even at the outset of pro- typically represents two-thirds of the total duct development – and dialogue should be Figure 1. Stages in the research–development– commercialization/ delivery continuum (Gregory et al., 2008) 28 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 29 Catalystic bioengineering maintained throughout the time leading up IPR protection of commodity crops, i.e., to the formal submission of the regulatory layered patent, PVP, trade secret and package. Furthermore, regardless of any trademark protection in maize. demonstrable risk associated with bio- Regarding germplasm, if plant resources engineered crops, the mere presence of become valuable reservoirs of genes for new perceived risk raises the potential for liability bioengineered crops, it will be essential to claims associated with the migration of address issues related to ownership of plant transgenes in local cropping systems. genetic resources accessed from inter- Uncertainty about how this will be resolved national, regional and national germplasm has resulted in reluctance from some collections and also from wild ecosystems. technology owners to donate appropriate Until the establishment of the CBD, free technology for developing country farmers. exchange of genetic resources was the norm Bioengineered crops, under the common heritage principle. However, the CBD now recognizes that germplasm, biodiversity countries have sovereign rights to control and and property rights use their genetic resources, and further encourages these signatory governments to The growing importance of property rights to formally regulate access to biodiversity. This the development and use of bioengineered has thus led to a decrease in global crops relates to ongoing globalization and germplasm flow with regard to bioprospecting harmonization of intellectual property rights involving wild crop relatives growing in their (IPR) regimes pursuant to the World Trade natural habitats. The ITPGRFA, however, Organization’s Trade-Related Aspects of seeks to facilitate access to existing crop Intellectual Property agreement (TRIPS), the germplasm collections via its open-source Convention of the International Union for the type IP provisions, i.e., agreement not to seek Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV) and IPR on any of the germplasm resources in the the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), and also form received, thus facilitating open and the implementation of two international continued access. accords which affect the accessibility of crop Weak IPR regimes in many developing germplasm and genetic resources, i.e., the countries, an inadequate understanding of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the requirements and implications of IPR on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic bioengineering technology and concerns Resources for Food And Agriculture about the cost and potential liability (ITPGRFA) (Kowalski, 2007). associated with IPR, can impede the roll-out This rather complex international web of of bioengineered crops for developing property rights has raised concerns in both countries; however, this can be ameliorated if the private and public sectors. As mentioned national systems are augmented via above, most of the advances in technology international collaborations and partnerships development associated with bioengineered coupled with concerted efforts towards crops have been made in the private sector, capacity building in both the technological which protects its inventions via IPR, that is, and legal frameworks requisite for advancing patent portfolios and plant variety protection crop biotechnology. Indeed, depending on (PVP) certificates. If, as we anticipate, crop how it is managed, IPR can either delay or technology expands to encompass a much accelerate access to biotechnological innova- broader range of traits and crops and new tions. IPR management capability is there- markets emerge, such IPR protection will fore an integral component of the holistic likely increase, as is already evident when approach to delivering bioengineered crops to considering the trend towards overlapping developing countries. 29 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 30 Catalystic bioengineering/Events Conclusions Perhaps most importantly, successful distri- bution of bioengineered crops requires a Bioengineered crops have already had communication strategy that provides regu- substantial impact in developing, as well as lar, accurate information on the bio- industrialized, countries and they have engineered product(s), not only to farmers enormous potential for providing solutions to but also to local scientists, regulators, important and previously intractable journalists, extension workers, retailers, relig- problems facing subsistence and resource- ious groups, consumers, non-governmental poor farmers in the developing world. organizations and others. This will facilitate However, for this to become a reality it is product acceptance, address concerns as they essential to address, from project inception to arise and increase the likelihood of product termination, the complex technical and non- acceptance and continued development of technical issues associated with the new bioengineered crops for the world’s poor research–development–delivery continuum and hungry. for bioengineered crops. This requires a wide range and depth of expertise and facilities that References extend far beyond the present or projected Kowalski, S.P. (2007). Freedom to Operate: The capacities of most individual institutions or Preparations. In: Intellectual Property Management in even nations. Therefore, the full potential of Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices (Eds. A. Krattiger, R.T. Mahoney, L. bioengineered crops as tools for international Nelsen, et al.). MIHR, Oxford, U.K. and PIPRA, Davis, development can be realized only if strong U.S.A. Available online at www.iphandbook.org emphasis is placed on inter-institutional Gregory, P., R.H. Potter, F.A. Shotkoski, D. Hautea, K.V. collaboration – including public and private Raman, V. Vijayaraghavan, W.H. Lesser, G. Norton and sector organizations – at the national, W.R. Coffman (2008). Bioengineered Crops as Tools for International Development: Opportunities and Strategic regional and global levels, coupled with Considerations. Experimental Agriculture, 44, 277-299 focused and sustained capacity building at James, Clive. (2008). Global Status of Commercialized both the human and institutional levels. Biotech/GM Crops: 2008. ISAAA Brief No.39. ISAAA, Ithaca, NY Upcoming Events 2009 17 September Marrying productivity and sustainability to achieve food security. Scottish Crops Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee (TAA Scotland & North of England and SCRI) 20 October Water - our most important resource. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester (SouthWestRuralUpdate). Details available from [email protected] 21 October Ethiopia, with the theme of conservation which will include tree planting. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester (TAA South-West) 9 December TAA AGM and 27th Annual Ralph memorial Lecture given by Chris Garforth. Royal Over-Seas League, Park Place, St James’s Street, London 2010 8 January Cambridge Conservation Forum Annual Symposium. Murray Edwards College (New Hall), Cambridge. Amir Kassam and Francis Shaxson will give a presentation on TAA's work in Conservation Agriculture. CCF website http://www.cambridgeconservationforum.org.uk/ 30 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 31 S&NE Seminar TAA Scotland and North of England Group Workshop on Payments for environmental services: do they offer the prospect of a market mechanism for development? held at Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh 27th April 2009 A report prepared by John Gowing: Over the past year or so, It could be said that we do not pay because nobody is actually responsible for delivering we have become these services; they just appear naturally. A accustomed to much talk brief moment of reflection leads us to about the failure of the recognise that delivery of environmental services depends upon how the ecosystem is market to deliver managed and we can in fact identify who is sustainable economic responsible for this. They may be private landowners and impoverished rural growth. In a meeting of communities, but they receive no payment. TAA Scotland and North It is no surprise therefore that the Millennium of England Group, which Ecosystem Assessment, shows many of these was held in Edinburgh on ecosystem services are being degraded or used unsustainably. The conventional way to 27th April, we explored a protect them has been through regulation different type of market (such as prohibition of forest clearing), but recently we have seen the emergence of failure. market-based mechanisms which aim to incentivise good practice. That is what we mean by ‘payments for environmental ECOSYSTEMS provide multiple benefits to services’. humankind, but there is no market for these services. In other words, we do not pay for The basic principle of payments for them. Benefits can be direct, such as environmental services (PES) is that provisioning services (i.e., food or water) or beneficiaries make direct, contractual and regulating services (i.e., control of floods, conditional payments to local landholders and water purification, waste treatment). Benefits users in return for adopting conservation and can also be indirect through supporting restoration practices which are designed to services such as nutrient cycling and carbon deliver environmental service benefits. These sequestration. may be targeted at biodiversity conservation 31 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 32 S&NE Seminar as in the case of various forest protection It is argued that payments cannot be based on initiatives, water resource management as in service delivery because benefits are difficult the case of watershed protection projects, and to measure at the farm scale. This therefore is, carbon sequestration as in the case of carbon strictly speaking, a subsidy scheme rather credit schemes. than a market mechanism. There is a parallel at EU level where schemes Nevertheless, there is widespread acceptance exist to achieve delivery of environmental that EU farmers should receive payments on services via agri-environment programmes the basis that they deliver environmental (AEP). An important distinction is that the services. So we asked the question, does PES majority of AEP payments are not currently offer us the tantalising prospect of a win-win tied directly to measured environmental scenario in which we protect the environment services but are based on proxies such as the and simultaneously improve the livelihoods of area under a particular management regime. poor people? Summary of a paper presented at the TAA Green Water Scotland & North of England Group meeting, ‘Payments for environmental services: Credits do they offer the prospect of a market mechanism for development?’ Water scarcity threatens food security, health and development. David Dent Dr David Dent is a Senior Research Fellow at the International Soil Reference and Information Centre – World Soil Information Global flows of green and blue water 32 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 33 S&NE Seminar On present trends, 2.8 billion people will be David Dent argued that a policy shift is needed suffering absolute water shortage by 2025 and from coping with water scarcity to creating two thirds of the global population will be opportunities. Management of the whole suffering water stress. Green Water Credits freshwater resource, including demands and provide a mechanism for transfer of cash to uses even before the water reaches streams rural people in return for water management and groundwater, opens a wider stage for activities that determine the supply of water. negotiation, trade-offs between competing They represent an example of ‘payments for claims, and action to optimize water flows. environmental services’ which aim to incenti- Water productivity can be significantly in- vise farmers to adopt land management creased, the hazards of flood and drought can practices that will improve water supply to be mitigated, and rural livelihoods can be downstream users. made more secure The source of all fresh water is rainfall; two A truly integrated approach to water resource thirds of which is held in the soil and used by management starts with fundamental im- plants and only one tenth becomes accessible provements in soil management: increasing stream flow and groundwater. Incoming infiltration of rainfall into the soil, thereby rainfall is naturally partitioned into soil-water cutting storm runoff, and shifting unpro- storage and runoff. The water held in soil and ductive evaporation to productive water use. available to plants is known as ‘green water’. More infiltration means banking water in soils It is the largest fresh water resource but can and aquifers which feed river base flow; less only be used in situ, by plants. The water that storm runoff means less soil and bank by-passes soil storage and becomes either erosion, less flooding, and less siltation of groundwater or stream flow is known as ‘blue streams and reservoirs. water’. It supports aquatic ecosystems and Poverty is the constraint. Farmers are well can be tapped for use elsewhere: for irrigation, aware of their private benefits from green industrial and urban uses. Nearly all water management, but they need immediate investment in water resources goes into as well as long-term returns for their labour management of blue water. Partitioning of rain into green and blue water flows 33 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 34 S&NE Seminar and material inputs. Where farmers are poor, • Cut runoff by 22 per cent with limited access to markets and low prices in dry years and 66 per for their produce, poverty drives a preference cent in wet years; for short-term returns so that the short-term cost of green water management outweighs • Increase inflow to any long-term private benefits. Further reservoirs in dry years; incentives are needed for farmers to adopt and maintain best practice. Quite small, regular • Increase groundwater payments by downstream water users may recharge; enable farmers to adopt sustainable management of land and water; at the same • Reduce unproductive time, they combat rural poverty by evaporation from the soil diversifying income. This is a particular case surface. of the general concept of “payments for environmental services”. The cost of green water How are Green Water Credits different from management will be covered soil and water conservation as it has been by the additional water practised for half a century? Generations of effort in soil and water conservation has made revenues alone. For the Upper no appreciable difference to the degradation Tana, annual water benefits of land and water resources in most parts of may reach US$12-95 millions the world. Soil conservation has been handled compared with costs of $2-20 by agricultural extension services, in isolation from water policy; it was seen as a benefit to millions; for a 20 per cent farmers. Water management has been adoption scenario, annual undertaken in isolation from land water benefits are $6-48 management by engineers and public millions and costs $0.5-4.3 utilities, concentrating on the blue water. Green Water Credits provide a financial millions. mechanism to connect green and blue water in which the downstream users incentivise Further details can be obtained upstream land managers to maintain the from: resource and mitigate floods and droughts. Dent, D.L. and Kaufman, J. (2007). The spark David Dent illustrated the application of has jumped the gap: green water credits Green Water Credits for the case of the Tana proof-of-concept. Green Water Credits Report River basin in Kenya. Three low-cost farm- 7. ISRIC– World Soil Information. scale practices were selected for scenario analysis: grassed contour strips, mulch and tied ridges. For the proof of concept the hydrological performance was estimated for with and without-intervention scenarios at field and river basin levels for a wet year and a dry year. The proof-of-concept study demonstrated that compared with the present, green water management will: 34 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 35 News important, but producing sufficient suckers from a diversity of cultivars will Newsflash be an immense challenge. Large-scale production of a few selected varieties is already serving the banana export industry, but there are currently no Banana bunchy top project with Africa Harvest to identify commercial tissue-culture laboratories viruses affecting East African highland that offer a wider range of banana or disease: rearing its banana, with the ultimate aim of plantain cultivars. Depending on the propagating virus-free planting material virus pressure in a region, the use of ugly head in East of nutrient-rich varieties. On a larger virus-free tissue culture plants for group Africa scale, ten BBTD-threatened countries in sucker production by farmer organisa- Central and Southern Africa are tions may be an alternative. collaborating in a consortium including Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) (Source: New Agriculturalist) Bioversity International, IITA and causes stunted plants that show an CARBAP to develop and implement unkempt shock of erect, narrow spikes disease management strategies. Pilot with yellow edges. Fruit are scarce, plants work is being done in the Rift Valley of die, and plantations are decimated as the Kenyan villagers to Burundi, including an initial survey on disease is spread rapidly by the black disease spread and farmer-coping test out UN carbon banana aphid and the use of infected strategies. Working with farmer groups, a planting material. team will develop and test strategies for benefits project In Malawi, BBTD causes 40 per cent of rehabilitating infected fields based on a annual production losses in banana, with low-cost clean seed approach. Villagers in western Kenya are the latest nearly half a million hectares devastated participants in a project carried out by the Nearly all bananas and plantains in sub- by the disease. The Democratic Republic United Nations Environment Programme Saharan Africa originate from locally of Congo, Angola, Mozambique and (UNEP) and its partners to calculate how produced suckers, often exchanged with Zambia have also recently experienced much carbon can be stored in trees and friends and neighbours. This informal severe outbreaks, and the disease has soils when the land is managed in system is ideal for rapid disease spread. been reported as far north as Cameroon sustainable, climate-friendly ways. The And while farm-level methods are for the first time. The causes for the Carbon Benefits Project was launched available for control of nematodes, recent spread of this virus, first reported recently in communities in and around weevils and bacterial wilts, there is no on- in Africa in Gabon in the mid-1950s, are Lake Victoria by UNEP and the World farm system for disinfecting suckers of not well understood. Increased vector Agroforestry Centre, along with a range BBTD. Some farmers have shifted to pressure, changes in climate, cultivar of other key partners. Funded by the banana types - such as Sabah and Gros choice and crop production practices are Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Michel - which have some tolerance to some of the aspects being studied to try project is already being carried out in the disease. However, the tolerant plants to pinpoint the reason for the recent communities in Niger, Nigeria and China, simply become a reservoir for the virus, spread of the disease. In the last 20 years where scientists are developing a system increasing the threat to more marketable BBTD has become one of the most for measuring, monitoring and manag- but susceptible varieties. Facilities for serious disease problems facing ing carbon in a diverse range of land- virus-screening are scarce in the region, smallholder banana farmers in Africa. scapes. Under the UN Climate Change as are trained virologists. Most tissue Convention and its Kyoto Protocol, Australian experience in dealing with culture laboratories are therefore unable developed countries can offset some of BBTD in Queensland during the 1930s is to test material for viruses before their greenhouse gas emissions by paying now being used in Africa. The spread of multiplying plantlets, and effective developing economies for implementing BBTD was contained by restricted quarantining between regions is almost clean and renewable energy projects such movements on planting materials from impossible. infected zones, eradication of infected as wind, solar and geothermal power. Developing innovative systems to plants, spraying of the black banana FAO has noted that by keeping higher produce and distribute clean banana aphid, and production of clean banana levels of carbon in the soil – a process suckers is a key focus of the partnership’s suckers. The Queensland University of known as “carbon sequestration” – work. Maintaining banana biodiversity is Technology have established a three-year farmers can help reduce carbon dioxide 35 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 36 News levels in the atmosphere, enhance the Lanka the second largest exporter. cottage industries. For example, most soil’s resilience and boost crop yields. However, India typically generates more spinners are paid per kilogram, so However, more research is needed to revenue from less production by export- increasing productivity directly increases evaluate just how much carbon different ing higher value coir products. TCP, a income. Motorized spinning-wheels farming systems actually lock away. This project funded by USAID, has therefore operated by two workers can produce key issue must be resolved if farmers, been working in Sri Lanka since 2001 to greater amounts of better quality yarn, conservationists, communities and land improve the quality and efficiency of coir more than doubling earnings. owners are to be paid per tonne of production, as well as preserving the A research, development and training pollution removed from the atmosphere. many cottage industries involved by centre was established in 2008 to re- Researchers must work to set up carbon unifying the entire value chain, research- search and demonstrate new technolo- and greenhouse gas prediction systems. ing and developing new technologies and gies to improve productivity that can be providing training. In the cottage “Farming carbon alongside farming adopted by the small coir mills. Better industry, locally made hand-turned crops is just one of the tantalizing machine management can make energy spinning wheels are usually operated by prospects emerging as a result of the savings of 20 percent. One of the major three women, each earning about US$1 a world’s urgent need to combat climate bottlenecks in the industry has been day. change,” said UNEP Executive Director drying coir fibre, so research has also Achim Steiner. “Some industrialized The Coir Council International (CCI) has been comparing drying methods so as to countries are considering investing tens been the umbrella association of the coir cut drying times. In addition, 53 coir of billions of dollars in capturing carbon industry since 2003, embracing growers, millers and managers have been given off the smoke stacks of power stations millers, manufacturers and exporters. training on entrepreneurship, marketing, and burying underground. Managing the The Council’s aim is to improve the and production. land and its vegetation in more intelli- competitiveness of the industry by The success of the coir industry in Sri gent and climate-friendly ways may developing coir fibre standards, develop- Lanka depends on improving quality and generate multiple benefits from stabiliz- ing workforce skills, researching and productivity, developing value-added ing soils, securing water supplies, adopting new technologies, and dissem- products, and breaking into new markets. conserving biodiversity and generating inating market information. The global A contract-based system between the much needed income for poor and low- market is well developed and there is large producers and exporters and the income communities.” Dennis Garrity, good demand, but because the fibre is small-scale fibre producers is one ele- Director-General of the World Agro- produced on a small scale, mostly using ment that needs improvement, as is the forestry Centre, emphasized that the low-tech methods, there is little control improvement of standards to ensure high knowledge gained from study sites over the quality and quantity of the raw quality fibre for value-added products. around the world, including Lake fibre. A joint initiative of the CCI and the Victoria, will help enable some of the Coconut Development Authority is the (Source: New Agriculturalist) world’s poorest people – in the most setting of standards for coir fibre, which vulnerable places – to obtain the benefits are currently now in place and awaiting Climate Change: of carbon sequestration. approval by the Sri Lanka Standards Institute. At present there is very little (Source: UN News Centre) threat to maize, price differentiation between the different qualities of fibre, but standards will have millet and other Coir in Sri Lanka - to be improved to maintain a presence in staple crops in the competitive markets, especially in the a fibre for the United States and Europe. marginal African future? farmland Improving quality Coconut palms epitomise the shoreline and income A new study by researchers from the and much of the interior lowlands of Sri Nairobi-based International Livestock Lanka, the nuts providing milk, meat and Research Institute (ILRI) and the UK’s Currently, 500 small fibre mills, 150 coir fibre, the trunks and leaves essential Waen Associates has found that by 2050, weaving loom companies and over 3,000 building and roofing materials. Coir hotter conditions, coupled with shifting families are engaged in spinning coir exports alone were valued at just under rainfall patterns, could make anywhere fibre as part of the value chain. TCP US$100 million in 2008, making Sri from 500,000 to one million square assistance is focused on preserving these 36 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 37 News/Books kilometers of marginal African farmland Philip Thornton and his colleague, Peter 90 for almost one million square no longer able to support even a subsis- Jones of Waen Associates sought to kilometers of marginal growing lands in tence level of food crops. However, the identify farm-dependent areas of Africa Africa. Assuming a “lower emission land, on which some 20 to 35 million that might be most vulnerable to the scenario,” they project about 500,000 people currently live, may still support effects of climate change. They focused square kilometers would fail to reach the livestock. on what are considered “marginal lands,” 90-day mark. arid and semi-arid regions of West, East Boosting livestock production could be The researchers warn that if reliable and southern Africa where scant precipit- an attractive alternative for millions of growing periods drop below 90 days in ation already routinely causes crops to poor farmers across Africa who could find these areas, “maize cultivation, already fail in one out of every six (or fewer) that climate change has rendered their marginal, will basically no longer be growing seasons. The researchers then lands unsuitable for crop cultivation yet possible as a normal agricultural act- considered the impact of climate change still viable for raising animals. “Livestock, ivity.” They continue, saying that in some in these regions; the key measure was particularly animals that are known to be places, rain could become so scarce that whether climate change under two tolerant of heat and drought can survive “even the drought-tolerant crops such as widely used climate models – which offer in conditions that are far more severe millet” will be difficult to grow. They say projections based on high and low than what crops can tolerate,” said Philip that in these conditions, livestock could greenhouse-gas emission scenarios – Thornton, an ILRI scientist. “Livestock provide a significant income boost for would cause the number of “reliable crop can provide poor households with a farmers trying to survive on marginal growing days” to drop below 90 days buffer against the risk of climate change lands. between 2000 and 2050. They concluded and allow them to take advantage of the that under scenarios in which carbon (Source: ILRI website) increasing demand for animal products emissions remain high, the number of in Africa.” reliable growing days would drop below Bookstack The Mango: Botany, Mango is one of the oldest cultivated advances in mango research that have fruit crops, having been grown in India contributed to improved production Production and Uses for at least 4000 years. It is the most and will be highly relevant for research- 2nd Edition Edited by R E Litz, important fruit crop of Asia and its ers and growers alike. This multi- University of Florida, USA. annual production is exceeded world- author book will be of interest to those wide only by Musa, citrus, grapes and working in horticulture, agronomy and CAB International, apples. The last decade has seen a rapid botany with a particular focus on Wallingford. February 2009, 604 pp. hardback growth of mango production, mainly mangos. due to expansion into new growing There are eighteen chapters covering ISBN 978-1-84593-489-7, regions but also to the adoption of £135/US$270/ 205 botanical aspects, cultivar character- modern field practices and cultivars. A istics, physiology breeding and wide range of fresh, mango cultivars genetics, pests and diseases, crop are now consumed worldwide and are productions, post-harvest aspects, available year round. processing and trade. Developing upon the successful first edition, published in 1997, this book incorporates a discussion of significant 37 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 38 Books Sustainable to organic farming nationwide, a myth This book provides a comprehensive founded on the success of Cuba's urban synthesis of current knowledge of the Agriculture and Food organic production systems which potential and challenges associated Security in an Era of visitors to the country are most with the multiple roles, use, manage- Oil Scarcity: Lessons commonly exposed to. In rural regions, ment and livelihood contributions of from Cuba where the author had unique access, indigenous vegetables in urban agricul- industrialized high-input and ture in sub-Saharan Africa. There has Julia Wright integrated agriculture is aspired to for been growing research and policy effort the majority of domestic production, around urban agriculture in the region Earthscan, London. 2008, despite the ongoing fluctuations in over the last two decades, but never has 280 pp. hardback availability of agrochemicals and fuel. it been integrated with work on under- ISBN: 978-1-84407-572-0, £51 researched crops such as indigenous By identifying the challenges faced by vegetables. These species have multiple Cuban institutions and individuals in advantages, including low input de-industrializing their food and farm- requirements, adaptability to African ing systems, this book provides crucial environments, high nutritional value learning material for the current and marked biodiversity, cultural and fledgling attempts at developing energy local food security significance. Yet descent plans and at mainstreaming they are overlooked in the modern more organic food systems in world, where recent emphasis has been industrialized nations. It also informs directed to growing a limited range of international policy on sustainable exotic crops, both for internal markets agriculture and food security for less- and for export to developed country industrialized countries. markets. This book provides evidence African Indigenous that, in spite of this neglect, in many African cities indigenous vegetables are When other nations are forced to Vegetables in Urban still widely used, cultivated and rethink their agricultural and food Agriculture marketed. It goes on to consider their security strategies in light of the post- potential to contribute to income Edited by Charlie M. generation and poverty alleviation of peak oil debate, they only have one Shackleton, Margaret W. living example to draw from: that of Pasquini and Axel W. Drescher the growing numbers of urban dwellers Cuba in the 1990s. Based on the first in sub-Saharan Africa, whilst promot- Earthscan, London. 2009, ing urban greening and sustainability. and – up till now – only systematic and 320 pp. paperback empirical study to come out of Cuba on Based on critical analysis of the debates ISBN 978-1-84407-715-1, this topic, this book examines how the it presents a multidisciplinary analysis £24.95 nation successfully headed off its own of the realities and future opport- food crisis after the dissolution of the unities. Soviet Bloc in the early 1990s. The author identifies the policies and Agriculture in Urban practices required for such an achieve- Planning: Generating ment under conditions of petroleum- Livelihoods and Food scarcity and in doing so, challenges the Security mainstream globalized and privatized food systems and food security Edited by Mark Redwood strategies being driven through in both Earthscan, London, industrialized and more vulnerable published with IDRC. 2008, developing regions. Paradoxically, the 272 pp. hardback book dispels the myth that Cuba turned ISBN: 978-1-84407-668-0, £65 38 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 39 Books/Mailbox examines concrete strategies to inte- complex social-ecological networks of grate city farming into the urban urban agriculture. Other case studies landscape. Drawing on original field look at public health aspects including work in cities across the rapidly the impact of pesticides, micro- urbanizing global south, the book biological risks, pollution and water examines the contribution of urban contamination on food production and agriculture and city farming to liveli- people. Ultimately the book calls on hoods and food security. Case studies city farmers, politicians, environ- cover food production diversification mentalists and regulatory bodies to for robust and secure food provision; work together to improve the long the socio-economic and agronomic term sustainability of urban farming as aspects of urban composting; urban a major, secure source of food and agriculture as a viable livelihood employment for urban populations. This volume, by some of the world's strategy; strategies for integrating city leading experts on urban agriculture, farming into urban landscapes; and the Mailbox Biogas Units I was interested to read John Biscoe’s plea for more consideration of anaerobic biomass digesters in the whole biofuels debate. Small-scale biogas units are widely and successfully used in India, normally powered by cattle dung (minimum 5 animals per 2.0 metre cubed unit). Recently, in the state of Kerala in southern India, I saw a unit powered by vegetable waste from a restaurant. In the Himalaya of northern India, transporting the classic steel drum units can be difficult, so “flexi-gas” units made of tough black plastic have been introduced. Apart from providing a cheap source of renewable energy for small farmers, biogas benefits women: reducing smoke in kitchens (and thus reduces eye and lung diseases of women); it also makes kitchen work easier, with less cleaning of soot from pots and pans. As one lady once told me “It is so easy that my husband can now make his own tea”! I have also visited an enormous biogas plant in northeast Thailand that uses slurry form a pig farm to generate methane for electricity production. In this case they use flexi-bags of up to 5000 metres cubed. Keith Virgo Great Bradley, Newmarket [email protected] 39 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 40 Mailbox Dr Peacock’s Ralph this consistent pattern of failure which provision of extension services to the has undoubtedly been a major factor in majority of poorer farmers but their Melville Memorial the reduction of investment which Dr. constraints have been outlined above. It Peacock decries. Donors have tried to by- is for these reasons that the donor Lecture: investment pass ministries in their attempts to assist community is finding the development of in African farmers but these efforts have inevitably a sound strategy for the provision of an been on a smaller scale than those which effective extension service to large agriculture involve a national system and it seems numbers of poor African farmers so unlikely that there will be a rapid return elusive a goal and why Dr. Peacock’s In her Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture to large investments in support of state questions touch on particularly relevant Dr. Peacock posed two major questions run agricultural services in the near issues. which are both of real importance to future. Assisting small-scale farmers to become those concerned with the welfare of This failure with regard to developing more productive does not depend entirely small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan effective state-managed services to on the provision of good extension. For Africa. There is, at the same time, a farmers provides the link to her second an increasing number of African connection between the two. Her first question regarding the scaling up of smallholders it is the shortage of plant question is “Why has investment in grass-roots projects. Successful NGO nutrients in their soils which is a greater agriculture declined over the past three initiatives with small groups of constraint than the poor quality of state decades?” and her second is “Why is it so disadvantaged farmers have depended services. A good example of this is found hard to get backing to scale up successful heavily on two factors. The first has been in the recent decision by the Malawi work at the grass-roots with poor the leadership and commitment of highly government to provide small-scale farmers?” Dr Peacock cites past failures of motivated individuals. These are farmers with access to fertiliser through a donor investment in projects intended to attributes which the public service has targeted subsidy initiative. In its first year raise smallholder productivity in Africa as found hard to elicit. The second is an of operation this programme resulted in one of the reasons for the decline in intensity of staffing which would be the production of more incremental investment which she deplores. However difficult to emulate at the national level maize than had been obtained from $200 she possibly does not give this factor the both in terms of manpower and cost. To million spent on strengthening the full weight which it deserves. scale up these local initiatives would agricultural services over the previous Between 1970 and 2000 donors invested require African governments to provide twenty years. The government faced stiff billions of dollars in an effort to what Dr. Peacock defines as “performance initial opposition from the donors to the strengthen the capacity of ministries of driven extension workers that really subsidy but this has declined in the face agriculture across the continent. Much of deliver and are accountable for the advice of its continuing success in making the this effort was focussed on the extension they give.” This is exactly what many country self-sufficient for grain and and national research services. The major donors have attempted to achieve greatly reducing household food results have been disappointing in the over the past three decades and their insecurity. There are indications that majority of cases. The IEG report of 2007 efforts have largely failed. Hence the lack increased donor investment in raising on World Bank Assistance to Agriculture of “scaling up” on which Dr. Peacock smallholder productivity may turn to in Sub-Saharan Africa states “Weak comments. providing funding for subsidies on the borrower capacity was an important essential farm inputs which so many Her questions highlight a major issue shortcoming in 77 percent of the cases farmers desire, while they develop fresh facing those who believe that agricultural where Bank supported intervention was approaches to the challenge of designing extension has an important role to play in rated unsatisfactory on outcome” (page effective services necessary to extend helping smallholders to increase their 42). This after decades of investment in sound and sustainable long-term productivity. While state run services in capacity building. There are plenty of methods of soil and crop management. Sub-Saharan Africa have proved detailed reports which reflect these exceptionally difficult to render effective, Reference: Whyte M.A. and Kyanddondo failures. One such is that of Whyte and those provided by the private sector or (2006). Food Security and the Cash Economy in Kyanddondo (2006) who found that in producer marketing co-operatives have Eastern Uganda. Land Degradation and Uganda, despite successive initiatives to inevitably concentrated on the more Development 17:173-182. improve the extension services over a prosperous surplus-producing farmers. couple of decades, neither access to NGOs are being seen in some quarters as Stephen Carr extension services nor technology Zomba, Malawi providing the long-term solution to the adoption have reached 1970 levels. It is 40 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 41 Press release: B4D 41 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 42 Forum TAA forum TAA-AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENT HONOURS - 2009 For services to sustainable agricultural development The mission for TAA – Agriculture for Development is to contribute towards: “Advancing education, research and practice in agriculture for rural livelihoods and sustainable development.” In pursuit of this mission TAA “Agriculture-for-Development” honours will be awarded in recognition of significant contributions to improvement of rural livelihoods in developing countries through sustainable agricultural development. There are three categories of TAA “Agriculture for Development” honours: 1. “Development Agriculturalist of the Year” 2. “Young Development Agriculturalist of the year” 3. “Award(s) of Merit or Honorary Membership” (restricted to TAA members) In addition, nominations for “National Awards” (CBEs, OBEs MBEs etc.) can be made to TAA, who will consider nominations received and submit proposals to the UK Government. Honours will be presented annually at the AGM with certificates. Objectives of TAA Honours: “Development Agriculturalist” of the year Category 1 • To recognize outstanding contributions to agricultural development with a focus on increasing food production, improving food security, reducing poverty and improving environmental sustainability in developing countries. • To inspire those involved in the struggle to reduce poverty through agricultural development. • To increase awareness of socio-economic conditions in developing countries affecting sustainable agricultural development. “Young Development Agriculturalist” of the year Category 2 • To recognise outstanding use of an opportunity (e.g. afforded by TAAF Awards) for gaining a better understanding of constraints to food security, poverty reduction and environmental sustainability in developing countries, and for making an initial contribution to overcoming these constraints. • To inspire other new graduates from UK universities to become better informed about issues of agricultural development, poverty reduction and environmental sustainability, and to play a more active role in their solution. • To increase awareness in the UK of socio-economic conditions affecting sustainable agricultural development in poor countries, and of the measures needed for their improvement. Merit or Honorary Membership Category 3 • To recognize outstanding contributions to meeting the objectives of the Association. • To serve to inspire other members of the Association. • To increase awareness of Association members and its stakeholders of socio-economic conditions in developing countries, including the prevailing dynamics affecting agriculture, poverty and food security. 42 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 43 Forum Eligibility and nomination criteria Honours for “Development Agriculturalist” and “Young Development Agriculturalist. Two categories of honours can be awarded, one to a person of any age and one to a person of less than thirty years of age. Both honours are to individuals, irrespective of nationality or profession, whose work has contributed to the objectives of the honour, and has resulted in a clear impact in developing countries. Young Development Agriculturalists of the Year will normally be selected from people who have been recent recipients of TAAF Standard or MSc awards (see website: www.taafund.org). Honours of Merit and Honorary Membership. Honours can be made to an individual or corporate member of TAA, whose work has had a clear impact in meeting the objectives of the Association. Evaluation criteria The TAA Honours’ Panel, in its assessment of nominations, will emphasize proven recent tangible achievements and impact created from the nominee’s activities that relate to the objectives of the Honours and the nomination criteria. Nomination and selection procedures The TAA Honours Panel will review nominations to screen candidates and recommend honours for confirmation by the TAA Executive Committee. Each nomination will be confidential with both a proposer and seconder. Nominations for the 2009 honours should be submitted by 1st August 2009 to: Professor Chris Garforth, Chair, Tropical Agriculture Association, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 237, Reading, RG6 6AR. Tel: 0118 378 8134. E-mail: [email protected] Nomination format should be as follows: Type of honour: Proposer Seconder Name: Name: Position: Position: Address: Address: Tel: Tel: E-mail: E-mail: Nominee Name: Position: Address: Tel: E-mail: Date and place of birth: Nationality: Education: Past and present positions: Nomination A short summary outlining reasons for the nomination which should include: • Achievements (activities) • Impact (contribution to development, or the objectives of the Association) • Supporting documents (publications, references etc). 43 A4DIssue6webText 14/7/09 9:06 pm Page 44 committees TAA Executive Committee Regional Group Convenors Scotland/Borders OFFICE HOLDERS John Gowing, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1 Park Terrace, President: Andrew Bennett, Flat D, 65 Warwick Square, London Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU. SW1V 2AL. Tel: 020 7834 3093. Tel: 0191 222 8488; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] South-West Chairman: Chris Garforth, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 237, George Taylor-Hunt, 19 Abbotsridge Drive, Ogwell, Newton Reading, RG6 6AR. Tel: 0118 378 8134; Abbott, Devon TQ12 6YS. Tel/Fax: 01626 362 782; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] General Secretary: Elizabeth Warham, TAA, PO Box 3, Penicuik, Bill Reed, 7 Woodlands Mead, Marnhull, Sturminster Newton, Midlothian EH26 0RX. Tel: Mobile 0711 524 641, Dorset DT10 1JW. Tel/Fax: 01258 820245; email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Treasurer/Subscriptions: Jim Ellis-Jones, 4 Silbury Court, Silsoe, London/South-East Beds MK45 4RU. Tel: 01525 861090; Vacant email: [email protected] East Anglia Membership Secretary/Change of Address: John Davis, 3 Sandy Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 Mead Road, Bournemouth, Dorset BH8 9JY. 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413; Tel: 01202 397085, email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Newsletter Editors: Specialist Group Convenors Garry Robertson, 16 Lyndhurst Drive, Harpenden, Hertfordshire Agribusiness AL5 5QN. Tel: 01582 715223, Jim Turnbull, 32 Oakley Road, Chinnor, Oxon OX39 4HB email [email protected] Tel: 01844 352385; Fax: 01844 354991; Jim Waller, 4 Wood End Hill, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 3EZ. email: [email protected] Tel: 01582 763973, email: [email protected] Land Husbandry Directory of members for consultation/employment: Francis Shaxson, Greensbridge, Sackville Street, Winterborne, Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk Kingston, Dorset DT11 9BJ CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413, email: [email protected] Tel: 01929 471193; email: [email protected] Environmental Conservation Award Fund Chairman/Enquiries: Antony Ellman, 15 Vine Road, Barnes, London SW13 0NE. Tel: 0208 878 5882, Fax: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk 02088786588; email: [email protected] CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: [email protected] Committee Members: Overseas Branch Coordinator/Organiser TAA India; Web site: http://www.taaindia.org Hugh Bagnall-Oakeley, Tel: 0208 948 1895, Sanjeev Vasudev email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Judy Mann, Tel: 01582 763133 ext. 2475, Fax: 01582 467490, email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Royal Show Stand Henry Gunston, 6 Clement Close, Wantage, Oxon OX12 7ED. Tel: 01235 223474; email: [email protected] Mike Long, 49 Bewdley Road North, Stourport-on-Severn, Worcs DY13 8PT. Tel: 01299 826016; email: [email protected] PUBLISHED BY THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ASSOCIATION (TAA) ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) • ISSN 1759-0612 (Online) PO Box 3, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0RX • Web site: http://www.taa.org.uk DESIGN, LAYOUT AND PRESS-READY FILES PRINTING TAA is a registered charity, Tina Bone, AssocSBA, Artist Acorn Press No. 800663, that aims to advance Tel: (01223) 262962 Tel: (01223) 834301 education, research and practice in [email protected] [email protected] tropical agriculture. www.tinabonedtp.co.uk www.acornprintsolutions.com 44 A4DIssue6webCover 14/7/09 8:27 pm Page 3 A4DIssue6webCover 14/7/09 8:27 pm Page 4 Are you a new reader? Do you like what you have read? Then join us now: Tropical Agriculture Association visit: www.taa.org.uk and join today