An Exploration of Science Teachers’ Attitudes towards Assessment Ngozi Ekwelem Oguledo A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Greenwich for the Degree of Doctor of Education November 2016 DECLARATION I hereby certify that this work has not been and is not in the process of being accepted for any other degree other than this degree of Doctor of Education currently studied at the University of Greenwich. I also declare that the content of this work except where otherwise specified by the inclusion of references, is as a result of my own investigation and I have not plagiarised the work of others. Student ……………………… (Signature) Date ……………………… Supervisor ……………………(Signature) Date………………………… Supervisor ……………………(Signature) Date………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the teachers and colleagues who made out time to participate in this study; without them this work would not have been possible. My immense gratitude goes out to my supervisors - Dr. Gordon Ade-Ojo and Prof Jill Jameson for their encouragement, guidance and support during this study. My sincere thanks also go out to everyone who contributed in one way or the other to the success of this study. Secondly, I would like to thank my family for their love and support through my entire study. Special thanks to my husband - Edwin for his love, understanding and encouragement during this journey; his support enabled me to complete this study. To my children, words cannot express how grateful I am for their love and understanding. Many thanks to my dad for his support and words of encouragement; this remained a source of motivation for me, and to my siblings for all their best wishes. Finally and most importantly, I will like to thank The Almighty God for His blessings in my life. iii DEDICATION In memory of my mum Lady Christiana Ijeoma Obiodu, an educator. iv ABSTRACT Assessment, as an integral part of teaching and learning, is carried out for various reasons. Like every other educational practice, variations tend to occur in the perception of its purpose and how it is carried out. Science teachers’ attitudes towards assessment were investigated in this study by scrutinising their actions in relation to the three components of attitude: the affective, the behavioural and the cognitive, and their conceptions of teaching and learning. This involved the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data from two groups of science teachers. Data were collected through questionnaires and semi-structured interviews from a convenience sample of science teachers who often take part in a science teachers’ online forum. In- depth semi-structured interviews were carried out with a sample of science teachers working in East London secondary schools. Science teachers’ beliefs in assessment were deduced by looking at their conceptions of assessment. Their expressions of feelings toward assessment were gathered from their views on the value of different assessment practices. Their views on the assessment practices they utilise gave an indication of their assessment behaviour. This study reveals that science teachers have multiple assessment conceptions which include: assessment for improvement, for accountability, for learning, and as an unnecessary and imprecise process. Assessment was discussed as a teacher-centred process for teacher benefit, a teacher-centred process for student benefit and a student-centred process for student benefit. Respondents’ discussions about the different assessment practices demonstrated that assessment for learning is their common assessment practice, assessment as learning is their hidden assessment practice and assessment of learning is their key assessment practice. Science teachers’ attitudes towards assessment were also found to be evolutionary, and factors centred on teachers’ experiences, the assessment practices and the school influenced their attitude towards assessment. The concept of the evolutionary nature of their assessment attitudes in addition to the factors that affect them is the key hypothesis revealed by this study, however this could only be generalised to the sampling frame. v CONTENTS DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii DEDICATION iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF TABLES xii CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1.1 Introductory statement 1 1.2 Background problem 1 1.3 Purpose of study 4 1.4 Research questions 6 1.5 Significance of study 7 1.6 Professional context 8 1.7 Organisational study 10 CHAPTER TWO Literature review 2.1 Introductory statement 11 2.2 Defining assessment 2.2.1 What is assessment? 11 2.2.2 Assessment as a process 12 2.2.3 Purposes of assessment 14 2.3 Assessment literacy 2.3.1 What is assessment literacy? 17 2.3.2 Importance of assessment literacy 19 2.3.3 Assessment knowledge 21 2.3.3.1 Knowledge of what to assess 24 2.3.3.2 Knowledge of how to assess 25 2.4 Assessment practices 2.4.1 Summative assessment 27 2.4.2 Formative assessment 32 2.4.2.1 Assessment for Learning (AfL) 35 vi 2.4.2.2 Assessment as Learning (AaL) 40 2.5 Assessment conception 2.5.1 Belief vs Knowledge 43 2.5.2 Teachers’ assessment conception 47 2.5.3 Models of assessment conceptions 48 2.6 Assessment and teacher attitude 2.6.1 Teacher attitude 51 2.6.2 Characteristics of attitude 53 2.6.3 Factors affecting teachers’ assessment attitudes 56 2.6.3.1 Teachers experiences 57 2.6.3.2 Teacher-assessment relationship 58 2.6.3.3 The school structure 60 2.6.3.4 The school culture 62 2.7 Assessment and learning 2.7.1 The assessment and learning link 64 2.7.2 Learning theories and assessment 67 2.8 Science education 2.8.1 Science as a school subject 70 2.8.2 Teaching, learning and assessment in science 73 2.9 Theoretical framework 2.9.1 Assessment literacy models 77 2.9.2 Development of the assessment attitude model 80 CHAPTER 3 Methodology 3.1 Introduction 85 3.2 Key variables 85 3.3 Research methodology 3.3.1 Mixed method approach 86 3.3.2 Quantitative research method 88 3.3.3 Qualitative research method 90 3.4 Research paradigm 3.4.1 Defining research paradigm 92 3.4.2 Selecting research paradigm 93 vii 3.5 Research tools 97 3.5.1 Survey 97 3.5.2 Interviews 102 3.6 Data analysis 105 3.6.1 Quantitative data analysis 105 3.6.1.1 Descriptive analysis 105 3.6.1.2 Inferential analysis 106 3.6.2 Qualitative data analysis 108 3.6.3 Ethics 109 3.6.4 Summary 110 CHAPTER 4 Data analysis Introduction 112 4.1 Data sources 112 4.2 Teachers’ experiences of assessment – Findings from semi-structured interviews 114 4.2.1 Assessment as a teacher-oriented process for teacher benefit 114 4.2.2 Assessment as a teacher-oriented process for student benefit 117 4.2.3 Assessment as a student-oriented process for student benefit 119 4.3 Description of science teachers’ conceptions of assessment 4.3.1 Findings from the questionnaire 121 4.3.2 Findings from interviews 124 4.4. Characterisation of assessment practices: Science teachers’ ratings of the different assessment practices 4.4.1 Findings from the questionnaire 127 4.4.2 Findings from the interview 130 4.5 Science teachers’ rate of use of the different assessment practices 4.5.1 Findings from the questionnaire 133 4.5.2 Findings from the interview 136 4.5.3 Relationship between teachers’ conceptions of assessment and their rate of use of the different assessment practices 138 4.6 Effect of teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning on their attitudes toward assessment viii 4.6.1 Findings from questionnaire 139 4.6.2 Findings from interview 143 4.7 Effects of Science teachers’ experiences on their attitudes towards assessment 4.7.1 Findings from the questionnaire 145 4.7.2 Findings from the semi-structured interview 151 4.8 Conclusion 154 CHAPTER FOUR Result and discussion Introduction 155 5.1 Science teachers’ conceptions of assessment 155 5.1.1 Assessment as an improvement tool 155 5.1.2 Assessment as an accountability tool 158 5.1.3 Assessment as a learning process 161 5.1.4 Assessment as an unnecessary and/or imprecise tool 163 5.1.5 Science Teachers’ interrelated conception of assessment 164 5.2 Science teachers’ attitudes towards assessment practices 166 5.2.1 AfL as a common practice for science teachers 166 5.2.2 AoL practice as a key practice for science teachers 170 5.2.3 AaL as the hidden assessment practice 172 5.2.4 Teachers interconnected attitudes to assessment practices 174 5.2.4.1 Valuing of assessment practices vs. the rate of use of assessment practice 174 5.2.4.2 Formative assessment vs. Summative assessment 177 5.2.4.3 Assessment for learning vs. Assessment as learning 179 5.2.5 Effect of science teachers’ conceptions of assessment on their assessment choice 180 5.3 The Assessment and teaching and learning link 182 5.3.1 Science teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning 182 5.3.2 The effect of teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning on their conceptions of assessment 184 5.3.3 The effect of teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning on their attitudes towards different assessment practices 185 ix 5.4 The evolutionary nature of science teachers’ attitude towards assessment 186 5.5 Variation in Science teachers’ attitudes towards assessment: The influencing factors 188 5.5.1 Assessment-induced factors 188 5.5.2 Experience-induced factors 189 5.5.2.1 Training experience 190 5.5.2.2 The teaching experience 191 5.5.2.3 The role of teachers’ education 193 5.5.3 School initiated factors 195 5.5.4 The role of the evolutionary nature of science teachers’ attitudes to assessment 197 5.6 Conclusion 199 CHAPTER SIX Conclusion