Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns .J OURNAL OF DEVELOPMENT ISSUES VOLUME l I NUMBER 1 I DECEMBER 2009
Editor Elijah D1ckCJl> \fushcme7.i lli1bop Jla1rf LIUrrrrt!J
(a Bishop Stuart University ~ Our God Re1g11S
Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns Faculty of Business and Development Studies Bishop Stuart Unive"it)• P.O. Box 9 Mbanra, Uganda Tel: 0485 433 ~ Email: [email protected]:.ug Wcbsire:www.bsu.ac.ug
Cl Facultj• of Business and Development Srudies, 2009
All righrs rcscf\'ed. No pan of this public:orioo may be n:produccd, stored in a reaieval syste1n or: uansmitt¢ in any form or by any electronic means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of rhe publisher
ISSN 2077-4354
Editor Elil•h Dickens Mushemcz• /li.t/Jop Sh/art U•imti!f
Edltoru! Aulttanta O:lvid Kiha7..0 B
ln• c rn~ionaJ Editorial Advisory Boa.rd Atlimwe, Godfrey - M.1.kcrerc Unn·mil)• Nuwag:t~ 1\ugustus · ~1akcrcrc Unh-ersity Mb>bui.Piunclt - Mbamo U~rsitr of Science 2nd Technolcgy Gingycra-Pin)-cwa, A.G.G- Kampab lmematio1w Unn·mity Omer, Ha'"'ii Hamed - U11hiersity of Juln-Sud:an PuJaig. LcrucaBul:t - Unn'C<>iiy of Souih Atiiot Murunga, Edwi.n - Keo,-.,,. Uni>'tt1iiy ~iurindu.-a.Rutanga - Makerccc Un.ivcnicy Genuncl>.e, John Bobuin - Unh-.rsity of S.... Boc:i, Camc:toon NewbUr')', MJ.r)' Catharine - Five College. Massachums, USA
Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns JDURNAL DF DEVELOPMENT ISSUES VOLUME 1 I NUMacR 1 I DIECIEM•Sll 2DD9
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Higher education in Africa gcncrall)' and Uganda in particular is going lhrough tough times, especially in the areas of rescan:h and financing other activities, which include, but arc not limited to, paying a living wagt to the staff and worlccn, ~xpanding the infrastructure, and balancing the needs of the institutions and the c:apability of students/ go\'CmlTICtlt 10 pay for such needs. This issue therefore opens the debate on such dilemmas with the hope of finding solutionJ through research by the scholars. Editorial Policy Th<' Journal of Oc\~c Issues. ISSN 20n -4JS4 Is published twice anamlly bf dw Faaiky of Business and Dn-dopmmc Scudlc$. ,,,., tbcmc fot this maiden WllC it 'Scholmbip and Ma~mer11 of JiF Ednarion ill Uganda'. ,,,., Journal of Oc.dopmco1 lss11CS wdcomcs rcscan:h papen on dndop111cn1 itslldl from all social~ disdplioes and &om borsiocss 'cudies. In iv Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns Social Science Research Methods, Higher Education and Development Elijah Dickens MushemC%:11 Bishop Stuart University Abstract This article discusses ihc nexus belv.ttt\ social science rcsem:h methods, higher cduation and development. Ir highlighrs the imporrance of research and defines socilll research and how ir can answer dilemmas facing the African university today in the delivery of higher education in general for devclopmcnr. The article :tlso syslcmatic.ally idcnti_6c$ and cxpl:U.n:. the .,1-c.par.tlion -AnJ c~cc.ucion of social science research. Particular aucntion is given co idcntif)ing • tt$Cllrch problem; lirerorurc !C\>i lnt.roduction The world over research is a core undcrWcing in rhe management and delivery of higher education. Over centuries social science research in p:trticular has enabled !he birth of disciplines and instir:utions and the promotion of socio-economic progress (development). But what is social science re.~earch ? How is it related co d.evelopment? How has scholarship in higher educa.tion contributed to the generation of knowledge and development? These questions are very important for imcrrogating the ncll:uS between social science research, scholarship in h.igher education and developmenc. Scientific research is important for exrending the horizon of knowledge because knowledge is never complece. Knowledge is u:tnsitory because our capacity co comprehend society is not Dr Elijah Dicl Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns 2 Elijah Dick.ens Mushemezo complete. Human beings are ever improving cheir capacities and th1' in turn renders past knowledge obsolete or less useful and cherefort creates the need for revision. Furthermore, knowledge is vulnerablt co multiple interpretations and therefore chere is need to continuous!) prod the meaning of new concept-' and phenomena. There are different methods of acquiring knowledge and this i• why knowledge is cime-boun Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns 4 Elijah Dic~ns Mush~t'MIO Today globalisation has cre:ated new ch:tlkngcs for a university and the delive.ry of higher education in general. Zclcsa and Olukushi (2004:3) raise a number of questions or dilemmas d121 face die African university amidst technological chan~ and a weakened cal"'city of the state in most Afncan countries afrcr nearly rwo decades of unrelenting economic crises and o rthodox structural adjustment. The dilemmas centre on: How ro balance autonomy and '~ability. expansion :and excellence, equity and efficiency, access and quality, authority :and accountability, representation and rcsponsibilicy. diversification and differentiation, intemationalisation and indigenisation, global presence/ ,~si bility and local anchorage, academic freedom and professional ethics. prh'lltisation and the public purpose, te:aching and research, community service/ soaal responsibility and consultancy. diversity and uniformity, the preservation of IOOll knowledge systems and the adoption of global knowledge S)'Stcms. knowledge producoon and knowledge disseminanon, the knowledge cconoml' :tnd the knowledge soc.icty. All these questions ore valid and should :uu·11c1 scholars in the social sciences to apply the research methodologies a1 their disposal and answer them. Lt is through research dlJll answcn to the above questions will be gcnctatL'tl 10 improve the m:uugcmcm and ddivcry of higher eduoation. Schobrship as 11 core university mission must be encouraged among students and academic s12ff rather than the tr:iditional lccnuc method. Scholars arc imdlecnuls u•ho knou• a 101 about • particular subject/ issue bcausc they ha\'e studied ii in demi!. Academic staff and students must therefore engage in deeper scholarship if they are to contriburc me:aningfully lO die development of our societies, beginning with the university where '''c li\'c and work. The concept of development The o rigins of the concept "dC\·dopmcm' can be cract:d in the emergence of capitalism as a socio-formation. Original.I)· the term Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns used to refer to change from one stage to anolher was 'progre$$'. This does not mean that there was no development going on. In fact each society has been engaged in development since human bcingi are known to have been taming nature for their survival for centuries. Development has been going on at the level of die individual, community, and society as a whole (Rodney 2001). The emergence of capitalism, however, brought in new insights of analysing society. Classical economists, for example, analysed the development of society by focusing on the production process. For Adam Smid!, development means the extension of the division of labour and the application of machinery to the productive forces so that an incrcue in the productivity of labour could be achie.ved (Bradley & Howard ·1982; Clarke 1982; Schwnpeier 1954). As far as the objective of economic development is concerned Adam Smith proposes that: 1bc riches, and so far as power depends upon riches, the power of every country, must always be in proportion to the value of its annual produce, the fund &om which all tuea must ultimarcly be pm. But the gn:at object of the political economy of every country is to inc:rcase the riches and power of that country (Smith 1976: 472). Ricardo understood development as a process of self-sustained accumulation of capital and growth which could be arrested only by the limitations of available land (Larrain 1989:21). On the other hand, MJux, believed to have discovered the social laws dut govern the development of society, conceptualised dcvclopment in two ways. In its material content, development is about the expansion of productive forces and the increased production of commodities. In its form, development is about the accumulation of capital, i.e. the drive of capital both to appropriate the surplus-value produced by labour and embodied in the commodities and to realise it by sdl.ing the commodities in the market, thus allowing the process to be repeated on a wider scale (Larrain 1989: 41). Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns lo contemponry IOCictiea, qumioOJ continue to be niaed. h development \llllVel'llal or particular? Ia development a project either for ~ti or NGOs? ls development a goe1 (uuematiooal cooperation, emancipadoo, buic needs)? Is development a seardl for the m•ttti•l prosperity and quality of life or sr:andud of living? Is development against democracy? Ia devclopmcnt an ideology (e.& WealCl:D ideas impoecd on other IOCieties?)? u development an ideology? Is dcwlopmcnt the cause of UDderdevelopmcnt? la development about social change from one kind of society to another? (Hettaie 1990; Bib&ngambah 2001; Omm and W.ignuaja 1991; Siedman & Anang 1992; Soubbodna 2004). In spite of these debates, development has been defined by some scholan ro the satisfaction of many contcmp<>rary students of development studies. Reyes '}>mp·//wpwygn c;a/infolomnad••/4t ~1 htm) clcMes development as a IOcial condition within a narion, in which the authentic neetb of i.ta pop•!trioo att arisficd by tbe mios»I end sua1aimble use of nalUt'lll l.'CIOWCCI and systems. This uliliiation of namn1 resources is baaed on a technology, which respects the cultunl feamres of tbe population of a given cowury.' &yes ldds dm 'this gai.ci:al definition of dm:lopmcnt i.ndudct the speci6ca0on that social groups have llCCCSI to organizationa, basic ICtv¥:ea such u educslioo, housing, bcalth ~and rwtrllioo, and above all cbc, that their cultutcs and ttacli!lons att respected within the social fumewodc of • puUcolar oounay. In ""X)O()!Dic rmm, tbe aforementioned definition indicates diat for tbe pop•!ttion or a countty, there are employment opponunitics, sali$faction - at leut - of basic needs, end the achim:mcnt of a positive n.tc of diambution and redistdbution of national wealth. In • political scnae this definition emphasizes that govemmcncal systems haft legitimacy DO( only in oerm1 of the i.w, but also in tenna of providiog e,ocial beocfits for the majority of the population. Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns Si.milady, scholars under the South Commission (1990:13) sum the discussion of defining development as a p~s of self-reliant growth, achieved through the participation of the people acUng in their own intettsts as they sec them, and under their own control llS lint objcctM< must be 10 end poverty, provide producdvc cmploymenr, and satisfy the basic needs of all the people, any swplus being &idy shared. This implies that basic goods and services such as food and shelter, basic education and health facililies, and clean Wlltcr must be accessible ro all. In Mldition, development p.ttjuppose1 • democntic sttuctwe of govcmmenr, 1ogether with its supporting individual &ttdoms of speech, organizatioo, and publication, as well as a system of justice which protects all the people from actions inconsistent with just lawi that are known and publicly acccp!M. From the foregoing, it can be seen that when social science research scholars provide answers to the dilemmas facing the African university in delivering higher education, th.en such research will have fundamentally contributed to the development of African society. How then should scholars prepare and execute social science research for development? Prepa.ra:tion and execution of social science research An)' scholar who engages in research is involved in a process. Such a process is a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to an end. There are 11l211Y activities which researchers engage in but rhis ' section deals with the most fundamental steps one takes to carry out a successful scientific research. Identifying the research problem Formulating a research problem is the first step in the rescarcb process. In this first step a researcher clea.dy and succinctly identifies the research problem. A research problem identifies the destination of the researcher. It is to decide 'what you want to find out about'. Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns 8 Elijah Olcl Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (1996) define the research problem as 'an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of scientific inquiry'. Such a problem is a set of concepts thac have been identified by the researcher. McNabb (2005:69) argues that the label 'study problem' is not always used to describe this initial activity in the research process. In the social sciences, it is often replaced with che phrase defining tbt sltJtfy qpesfion. Other scholars and aurhors refer tO ic as a process of establishing a rationale for the 1t11tfJ'. The 'question' ha' also been called the re.reorch topk, the ruearrh .rituation, the information need, and other things. The labels all mean the same: establishing a reason for expending the time and effort required to complete a research project before starting the process. Researchers agree chac clear!) identifying the study problem is among che most importam seeps in the entire research process (Berg 1998). If defining che srudy problem is nm done correctl)\ it is likely tliat che remaining activities will be a waste of the time and labour of a researcher (McNabb 2005:69). In short, a research problem is a scaremem of whac makes the research exercise a compelling need. The research process begins when our curiosity is aroused and the reasons can be vl1ried: a phenomenon that we do nor yec understand either at all or adequately; an unresolved social question; the advent of a new, peculiar social problem to be resolved or understood; the existence ()f a prC)blem that eludes solution; and the existence of contradictions in theory. It is important to note that there are characteristics of a good problem smement, i.e. a problem has to be demonstrated beyond doubt. It has to be convincing, persuasive, and complete wich facts/ figures. This is possible because ic is imponant for a problem srntemem tO be preceded by a reconnaissance visit to issues or che field of srudy. Therefore the problem statement presupposes prior knowledge of che field and the issues. Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns Objectives/questions of the research ln the early stages of a research process, a thorough demonstration of the research problem leaves behind one important quesrion in the mind of a scho!M: So what? The question 'so what?' suggests a need to state what is co be done to resolve the stated problem, hence the statement of research objtdiPU aod rtstarrh q11tJ/io1U. The bro2.d objective of the study is a Statement of what the research expects to achieve. Specific objectives arc a breakdown of the broad objective into various, concrete and realisable aspects/activities. The main difference between objectives and research questions is the wa)' they arc written. Questions arc worded in question form and objectives arc statements referring tO the achievement of the task. Significance/justification of the research This is a statement of the scholarly or practical benefits of conducting a research investigation. The justification should show that the study is not superfluous, but advances the fulfilment of social needs of the people either at community, national or international level. The justification should also show that the research is not socially harmful or counterproductive to society's interests. It should also show that research will help to solve a social problem, leading to the rcali.zation of a better social life. This is where one demonstrates the policy implications of the research to a large audience. ln spite of all these points, nothing stands as a better justification of a research than the existence of a research objective. Literature review In the research process, literature review is a comprehensive mit111 of the published literature on the topic. This examination of prio.r research on the topic is important because knowledge is cumulative and we can only contribute to what other investigacon have already done. This undertaking is important for cwo reasons: first, it hdps to define and delimit the study problem; and second, a review of Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns 10 Clijolt - ,...,,,,.,,• .,0 the literature may reveal previous research that clearly answers the problem, therebr making further effort superfluous. Literature re,;cu' involves reading and anal)'sing material in published books, professional and academic journals, and government documents, among other sources (McNabb 2005:70). ScUtiz, \Vrightman, and Cook (1976), have argued that the 'usk of the research is to gather these prl:''iously published ideas, to evaluate their usefulness as they relate specificaUy to your research, and determine whether they suggest new ways of looking at the problem that might have been missed.' Literature review, therefore, is noc an examination of every research publication i:hat is in the libraries of the world, othern;se scholars would never complete the exercise in theit own lifetitne. This is why literature review has to be conducted thematically, not publication-by-publication. During the wrice-up of their reports, literature fC\;ew helps scholars/ researchers to integrate th cit findings with existing knowledge - i.e. to either support or contradict earlier research. The exercise of literature review should be based on certain 'lucstions: What broad issues ha\'e the existing research works raised? What are the points of agreement and disagreement about the issues raised? What seems to have been omitted and which must be brought into the discourse on a particular issue and/or co resolve the controversy? In a nutshell, literature re,'1.ew helps to isolate what olher researchers have already done from what has not yec been done and thereby defines our entry point/contribution. Literature pertinent to a study may deal with two types of information: that which is urm·ersal, and that which is more specific to local trends. ln writing about such information, researchers arc 2dviscd to 5tan "''1th tht- gener:tl inform~tion 2nd gr.adually narrO"W it down to the specific. Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns 12 ENjo/IDldtitMMusMmuo dependent and Z is an intervening variable. Sometimes researchers are confronted by or come across the unmeasured variables affecting the cause-and-effect variables. Several other factors operating in a real-life si!Wltion may affect changes in the dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. A hypothesis guides research through a jungle of uncertainty. Some scllolars have argued that a research without a hypothesis appears blind. Example of a hypothesis • The more the society practices bad governance the more likely it will face violent conflicts and poverty. • When rich countries lock poor people out of their market•, they close the door to an escape route from poverty. • The more a student studies, the better will be the students' academic performance. OR: The more partiea a student attends, the lower will be the snidcnts a.:ademic performance. Methods of data collection and analysis Social science research requires data to test hypotheses and validate claims or answer the questions that have been raised. Two types of data exist a) primary data and b) secondary data. Secondary data can be obtained &om existing publications. Examples include published books, journals, census reports, health and education reports, personal records, mass media (reports/book reviews/ analyses on current issues, published in newspapers, and magazines may be a good source of dara). Primary data could be obtained from documentary sources/ analysis of documentary evidence (reports, correspondence, records in the onwnal form provide primary dara). Primary data could also be obtained from individual respondents through interview; Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns questionnaires and from personal observation and/orpanicipatio n. The particular cbta required depend on the objectives of the srudy in question because 2 researcher nccds Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns Dar.a presentation Part One should be the introduction with the following c:ompoocnts: mremcnt of die problem, objectives, the central argument (thesis) of the prae111ation uwally based on the hypothesis, scope, significance/ justification. Pan Two should be the review of the related literature. The rest of the doc:umcnt should be otg21liscd based on lhc objectives of the study and geared towuds dcmoosttalioa of the central argument (dlesis). Summary and conclusions It is im.ponant for researchers to know wt on!)· conclusions wt can be justifiably drawn from the findings should be made. Bell (l997: 129) advises wt: Before you write this section, tcad through the whole report and malcc a note of key points. Readers who want a quick idea of what your reseatth is all about will look at the abstw:t, possibly the introduction and almost cenainly at the summary and conclusions. nu. final section should be sufficiently succinct and clculy expressed IX> cubic readers to unclentand quite cleatly what iesearc:h has been done and the cooct.aions dat have been drawn &om ev:idencc. In other words, the conclusion should have a succinct restatement of the research problem, and a succinct restatement of the central argument, now as confirmed knowledge. Bibliography/list of refermces 'References' refer only to the sources quoted or cited in your text. 'Bibliognphy', on the other hand, includes~ related to the theme under investigation, which you may have used but may not have cited dircc:tly. This distinction notwithstanding, it is commonplace to use the twO labels 'references' and 'bibliography' interchangeably. In principle, however, bibliographies retain their traditional definition as lists of works on a given subject, the kind of c:omprchenaive Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns but focused guide ro readers prepared by librarians lUld spccialisrs in gi,·cn disciplines lUld fields of study. Until not very long ago. it v.-as considered a mm of good scbol:arship and a conuibulion co know~ for scholars ro dcmonstntc cxpcnisc in a given area bi' p Conclusion This article has analysed the nexus between social science research methods and scholarship in higher education as a contribution io development. It is argued thac a ~rsicy, as the highest institution of teaming, and lhc scholars within ic has a social rcsponsibiliry co carry out scientific ~. and co publish and dissemjnacc lhc 6ndings. This undcnuing is crucial to the generation of knowledge as a foundation of development. Tr is C\'Co more compelling co underrake cesearch, especially at this time when !he Afri«o university and higher education gl'ncrally is under siege from under-funding by the stakeholders and the cffcctS of globalisation generally. Schol:ars in the univcrsiry are therefore called upon ro respond IO this urgent crisis by carrying nu1 rt'.<4'Qrrh nn i«su~ th•r obnruct the dclive-cy or higtlcr education, particularly in A&ic:a. This i.s pou.iblc if scholars are groundc:d in social science rC$C2tCh methods 2nd committc:d to srodying social issues in spite of a ch2llcnging schobrship environmcnL Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns References 821lcy. K. D., 1982. ,\fffbMJ If Sttial RrJr.lfl'J>, NN• Yc.rlc The Free Pru~ Bell.)., 1997, /lu1'* u,,,pitu lw Rrr Bet-, Bruce I.., 1998, 2"" tdioon, Q-11111rt ~ .lld/WJ jw S_,, Jti,,uu, l3<111on. Allyn and B:imn. Bibangambllh. j.. 2001, Afriui Q•llfv ~ Dm"P-•r, Kampib; Founwn Publlshm. Bouma, G., and Atkln$0n, G. B., 1995, 2"' ~Jhlon, A I f1J1JtlW ti{ Stti11I SotMr Rm.wrfJ, Oxford: OJonl Uru,·cnil)• Pttn. BradlC); I. and Hov.iard, M., 1982. 0.Uiral atttl Milr.>iia• P.tuu.I F.--r. t.ondon: MacroiUan. Bums., R. B., 1994, 2"" cdiuon, In? ' - • Rr.--b Mu'-". Melbourne: I .onginan Cheshire. Clarke, M. • 1982. M~ui111fi1H1 6"' Mot!mt S...... ,, London: Macmlll1n. CODESRIA. C.uid<: for Author$. D1br. CODESR!A Franfon-Nachml:u, C. and ll::aclwnus., 0.. 1996. 5• c:dioon, Ruwmlt Mtrbotls •• rl>t SodJ Snttrat, 'cw Yori<: 1 Mutins Pn:ss. Ghosh, B. N., 1999, Stit•rifit M1tJ.I """ S«1al ~ c:w-Ddlu: Sterling Publishen l.unircd. Guiddinc:s for Research Propo Hcncnc, B., 1990, Dtrdtf-al 1~ -' tbt Tbrtt If"""'-<: T--U - I#ltrlfationa l Polititol T5<0no11tJ of Dtr:rkf'l'Wll, H,mow: Longmtn lsbistcr.j.. 1995, ~ J\'At Klfll: Tht 8drrtyJlf S.a..J~1• t1x Tl!ml W.,U, Connecticut: Kum:ariitn Press. Kumar. R., 2005. 2"" edition. Rml11't/J !ifoJ,.,,Jo4>g: ; Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns L~miin, J., 1989, T®ries ef Dtl'tlopmmt: Capitaliil11, C,,loni11/ir111 11nd Dtpt11tk11ty, Cambridge: Poli11• Press. Mc1 2bb, D. E., 2005, Rntarrh Mt/hodsfor Pofitical Sama: Qllllntiltltive and QN11fitati,.t Mrthods, 1 cw Delhi: Prenrice- Hall of lndi:i. cl, P. and McGowan. P, J.. 1999, PoD'tr, 117talth and Global Onlrr: An /111trnnlio11al Rtlatio111 T~>dbook for Africa, Cape Town: University of Gipe Town Press. Oman, P. C and \Vignaraja, G., 1991, Thr Po1ht'l1r C<'Olntion of Dmlop111ml Thi11ki11JJ, P Bishop Stuart University Our God Reigns