Localization Practices in Japanese Video Games and Anime ポケモン

MA-Thesis Max Schleijpen Master Asian Studies: History, Arts & Culture of Asia S2155168 Thesis supervisor: Ivo Smits Words: 16.064

Catching Pokémon Globally: Localization Practices in Japanese Video Games and Anime

ポケモンゲットだぜ！日本のゲームとアニメと海外向けのローカライズの手法

Contents Abstract ...... 3 Introduction ...... 4 Note to the reader ...... 5 Chapter 1: Study on Localization Practices ...... 6 1.1 What is localization? ...... 6 1.2 Forms of localization ...... 7 1.3 The importance of localization ...... 10 1.4 Domestication localization ...... 11 1.5 What is fluent translation? ...... 12 1.6 Localizing the West for Japan ...... 14 1.7 Conclusion ...... 17 Chapter 2: Analyzing Japanese games ...... 18 2.1 Language changes ...... 18 2.2 Symbolic changes ...... 21 2.3 Graphical changes ...... 24 2.4 Gameplay changes ...... 27 2.5 Conclusion ...... 30 Chapter 3: Pokémon ...... 31 3.1 Textual alterations in Pokémon ...... 31 3.2 Revisions of symbols in Pokémon ...... 34 3.3 Graphical adjustments in Pokémon ...... 36 3.4 Changes to gameplay in Pokémon ...... 39 3.5 Conclusion ...... 40 Conclusion ...... 42 Bibliography ...... 44 Glossary ...... 46 Anime and video game list ...... 47 Guideline to Generations ...... 50 Appendix...... 51

Abstract

This paper examines the localization practices in Japanese video games and anime in the last thirty years and the effects thereof, taking the Pokémon franchise as case study. Findings seem to suggest an increase in the importance of localization, as it developed from the translation of text to the restructuring of narrative and alteration of visual content. Multiple video games and anime have seen significant revisions in their adjustment to the Western market, but none of them have received as much modifications as Pokémon. The methods used in localizing Pokémon have transformed over the years, and its ever-expanding global significance shaped the content of future releases in both Japan and the West.

Keywords: localization, Japan, Pokémon, video games, anime, United States.

Introduction

There is probably not a single person in the West that does not know who Pikachu is. Ever since its appearance in 1996, the yellow electric mouse has become the mascot of the Pokémon franchise and a staple of Japanese popular culture. But when Pokémon debuted in America in 1997, many children did not even know it originated from Japan. Not necessarily surprising, though; virtually any traits or elements of Japanese nature were changed, or “localized”. Children in America (or any Western country for that matter) did not grow up with the same culture as did children in Japan, and the norms and values taught in both cultures did not always coincide. These dissimilarities are reflected in the alterations made between Japanese and international versions of both the Pokémon video games and anime. On the surface, it seems that the localization of Pokémon only hides and obscures other cultures, but to make a product accessible, it is important that they are rightly adjusted. When the Pokémon games and anime first released in America, developers and localizers wanted to be completely sure that the game was understandable to the American audience, which is why the games were purposely stripped of its national identity.

When a Japanese game is sold in Japan and performs better than expected, the decision to release the game overseas is a natural and often followed step. In order to make such a feat happen, however, the game has to be adjusted for the target audience. A few decades ago, only text had to be translated due to the game’s limited graphics, but in this day and age when games have evolved at such a tremendous pace, that no longer became a realistic approach. Oftentimes, revisions had to be made to the interface and visuals as well, and localization became increasingly broad and complex. The concept of localization and its growth throughout the years has caught the attention of various scholars, such as Mia Consalvo, Stephen Mandiberg, and Miguel Bernal-Merino among others, highlighted and discussed in this paper. It has come to my attention that there has been divisiveness regarding categorizing specific localization practices, and that multiple factors influence the degree and implementation of localization in digital media products. While this essay will not go into further detail on such factors, it will briefly highlight the aspects that shape localization. The focus, however, remains the actual implementation of the decisions made by Japanese game developers and localization companies.

The aim of this paper is to research the localization practices in Japanese video games and anime, and discuss to what extent they correspond with the localization practices in the

Pokémon franchise, while also attempting to explain the reason behind this. In the first chapter, theories on localization and other relevant practices will be discussed, followed by examples of American-made games being altered in Japan. The subsequent chapter will utilize one of said theories and analyze various Japanese video games and anime via the coverage of four distinct themes. The last chapter will then focus specifically on the Pokémon franchise, to see if similar results are met, and thus, a conclusion can be reached.

Note to the reader

Throughout this thesis, I have followed the Japanese convention in which the Japanese family name precedes the given name. When identifying the Japanese authors of publications in English, this rule is principally changed; however, for the sake of continuity, I have chosen not to do so. Any technical terms or Japanese words (highlighted in bold or italic the first time it appears, starting from chapter 1) that are used in this thesis will be elucidated in the glossary, found at the end of the paper. A brief description of each mentioned video game (with their English title) can also be found in the glossary. All the images referred to can be found in the appendix.

Chapter 1: Study on Localization Practices

1.1 What is localization?

Before I discuss approaches to localization in games and anime, it is important to realize that the term “localization” covers multiple practices and that over time these practices have multiplicated. In the early years of video game localization, such practices would only mean a textual translation of a game. This progressed further towards including or removing cultural elements inside text (e.g., a game talking about Japanese cultural entities, with the translation removing such aspects, replacing it with words or objects a Western audience could more easily understand), but as games got better visual graphics, not only text, but also visual representation became a factor in video game localization. Localization has evolved into a complex process undertaken by a variety of actors with different skill sets, materials, and approaches to carrying out the process (Consalvo 2016, 121). So what then is the definition of localization in video games and anime, other than mere language translation to appeal to wider audiences? In short, localization embodies the process of changing and adapting certain features of a cultural product to appeal to a wider audience and fit the norms and values of a certain society, with changes including but not limited to textual translation, visual redesign and alterations of story elements. When looking at localization from a business standpoint, it comes down to nothing more than changing the product in a way that revenue of such a product in a certain country or region is maximized, without changing the core of the original product (as much as possible). It is believed by some authors, such as Carlson & Corliss, that the success of a certain product (with success meaning it sells more than what was expected in a certain time frame) is heavily dependent on the localization of it (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 69). Thayer and Kolko (2004) divide localization into three different layers, which I will use as my basic model of analysis here and elaborate upon in chapter 1.2.

When gathering secondary literature for my research, it has come to my attention that there is substantially more written on the topic of localization of (Japanese) video games than there is on localization of anime. Games have become increasingly difficult to translate and localize, as not only the games become bigger, but also increasingly complex in nature. With every generation of games, there is room for new implementations in video games, as improved software and hardware capabilities allow for further creative freedom. Video games become more ambitious, larger in size, and reach a continually growing audience, whether that be in the

6 country of production or abroad. Anime does not always follow suit. While its audience may grow, domestically or internationally, anime typically does not “expand” in size. Anime is a product meant for viewership packed into twenty to twenty-five minutes per episode, while video games are an interactive entity. One experiences anime while viewing it, but one has to actively engage with a game to experience its potential. With various games, depending on how a player progresses through the game, the narrative and story ending could change (e.g., Far Cry and Persona) with multiple in-game choices the player has control over. With anime, no matter how someone views or experiences it, story elements (e.g., plot, ending) are always the same. In anime, the story is told to you, but with games, the player has the illusion of potentially creating his or her own story.1 This could explain why there is limited research on localization of anime, which is why this thesis will focus more on video games and less on anime.

1.2 Forms of localization

Let us first review the aspects of localization of video games given by Thayer and Kolko, the first of which is translation of text (Thayer & Kolko 2004, 482). Video games for the home console market only started to rise in the 1980s, and such games were very primitive compared to today’s standards. “Primitive” in this sense means that performance-wise, the first games were text-based and had very limited graphics (think of games such as Pong, Oregon Trail, and Space Invaders). This was a time where simple dots and pixels were representative of certain objects in the game, and one had to have a significant amount of imagination to visualize the object the game was trying to portray. Pixels took up memory, and to preserve as much memory as possible, very few pixels were used to create images in the game. To give an example, in games today, a football in-game actually looks like a football, whereas in the past a few white and black pixels would suffice. The focus of the graphics was not realism but representation. As such, there was no need to visually change the content of a game, because the low-resolution quality and simple imagery made its cultural significance unclear. A major part of these games was the in-game dialogue, throughout which most of the story was told. The most basic form of changing a game is appropriately called “basic localization”. This mostly focuses on the translation of text, while leaving the Graphical User Interface (GUI) and icons the same.

1 I say “illusion” because while in some games you decide how the story will end, all those endings are programmed within the game. The player merely has an option of choosing or working towards one of those preset endings. One cannot create an “original” ending, but throughout its choices in-game, can steer towards an ending appropriate for his or her decisions. In that way, it truly feels as if the player has control over the game, while in fact it is all calculated within the game.

Games often did not have a story (e.g., Tetris or Pinball) and basic localization was therefore the most effective (and cheapest) form of localization.

The second aspect of localization Thayer and Kolko present is called “complex localization”, and focuses more on the GUI and icons used in-game (Thayer & Kolko 2004, 482-483). In this case, interface elements need to be adjusted for certain cultures, as not every icon conveys the same meaning across different cultures. The biggest difficulty lies in the adaptation of players talking to each other via chat in a different language, as the interface has to be capable of handling different types of characters on the keyboard (and such characters can take up quite the memory space). This was only solved with the emergence of Unicode in 1991, a character coding system designed to support the processing of different languages worldwide (Bernal-Merino 2014, 161). Overall, with complex localization the story is not changed, as in such games, the story remains the selling point of the game (think of sports games or Harry Potter). However, the way a player interacts with the game could be very different than what players in other cultures experience. Games such as Harry Potter are popular worldwide due to their narrative and changing it for “foreign” audiences might alienate its fan base.

The third aspect of localization in Thayer and Kolko’s research is called “blending”, and is mostly used for games with a complex culturally-specific narrative planned to be released in a different country (Thayer and Kolko 2004, 483-485). When localizing these games, developers have two methods to work with: retaining narrative and only translate text and the interface (basic & complex), or change narrative to be more familiar to players in another country (blending). When a narrative is universally understood or based on a world-renowned persona, developers often avoid blending. It is when developers are not certain of the degree of understanding of a game’s concept that narratives can be altered. Blending is done in line of two principles: from a financial standpoint, striving for maximized profit, and from a cultural perspective, trying to preserve the game’s core as much as possible. After all, one can never be sure that a certain game will do well in another region. That is why developers often modify the narrative of their game, in hopes of decreasing the chances of being an international market failure. As these measures often result in increased costs, such options are sometimes disregarded in favor of basic localization. Should such a strategy fail, however, then short-term benefits may yield insufficient compensation if the long-term financial performance of the product is unsuccessful.

But surely there must exist other concepts or categories used to describe the process of localization. Stephen Mandiberg separates localization into three types: non-localization, partial localization, and full localization (Mandiberg 2015, 89). While different in name, in practice, these forms of localization closely resemble Thayer & Kolko’s descriptions. Non-localization means that the digital application remains in its original language, but the accompanying manual and box are translated to facilitate the game’s sale on the foreign market. Partial localization refers to when both the paratextual and written text within the digital game are fully translated, but other assets remain unchanged. However, graphical alterations might happen for elements that marketers believe will prevent game sales in the target market. 2 While full localization hints at a “fully” multimodal transition, in practice it only encompasses the translation of paratexts, written text and spoken game elements. However, projects that are dubbed as “full localization” by localization specialists are more likely to include major graphical alterations than games that received partial localization (Mandiberg 2015, 90).

Mandiberg then points to Heather Chandler and Stephanie Deming, who suggest that any localization process can be represented by a triangle of quality (Image 1.01). The side of the triangle is made up of features (scope of the localization), schedule (the time given for localization), and resources (money available to pay localization), where one of the three parts is abundant or lacking (Chandler & Deming 2012, 58). In short, the triangle implies that localization always depends on the interplay between features, resources, and schedules. The triangle of quality and the concept of non-, partial and full localization depend on a service- based understanding of translation. The publisher pays for a certain degree of localization based on what it wants to spend, which in turn is based on what the market research indicates the publisher will obtain as a return on investment (ROI). ROI measures the amount of profit on a certain investment relative to the investment’s cost. Full localization would only be put into progress if the investment would result in a large profit (Mandiberg 2015, 90). The triangle of quality does not focus on the actual processes and effects of localization, but instead on the factors that determine the degree of localization. For these reasons, this thesis will not use this approach in analyzing localization practices.

Furthermore, the triangle of quality tends to focus on the business-to-client aspect of localization, and fails to acknowledge the different structures that exist between localizer,

2 One example is the mandatory removal of Nazi imagery in Germany.

9 developer and publisher. Similarly, it does not take into account the effects that emerge from said structures. While there exist multiple approaches to describing and layering localization, none of the authors seem to disagree on what localization is. Rather, each work emphasizes different aspects of the localization practice. For instance, Consalvo has researched the localization practices of independent (indie) developers and how they differ from multinational companies (Consalvo 2016, 136-137). While there is no consensus on how to layer structures of localization, there is agreement on the concept of there being different kinds of localization. Thayer and Kolko’s approach to categorizing localization practices aligns with the focus of this study as opposed to Mandiberg’s theory on how businesses tackle localization, but to what extent is localization implemented in games and how has that affected game sales and reputation?

1.3 The importance of localization

Localization is not a simple matter of translating text and reworking interfaces. It is a process that requires a lot of risk-taking. Should localization be poorly executed, then the game is at risk of being a failure rather than a success. Inaccurate content translation can steer public attention away from the quality of a game, and turn to the translator’s unusual errors. One example of such lackluster localization is the game Sonic: The Hedgehog 2006, where two takes of an in-game audio message are played right after each other, with the first take being a failed attempt of the voice actor at speaking his voice lines. Along with numerous bugs and glitches, this contributed to the poor financial performance of the game. Another issue that did not go unnoticed but was easily resolved was the word “Allah” being written in Arabic on the floor of a Saudi Arabian-themed stage in the video game Tekken Tag 2 (2011). After players took notice of it, they contacted the game’s producer, and it was removed soon afterwards. This example shows that insufficient localization does not always break a certain game, but has the potential to create infamy, diverting people’s attention from the inherent quality of the game in question.

But what if an American-made game does not sell well in Japan? Is localization to blame? Perhaps the marketing did not generate enough hype? What if the genre of the game was just not appealing to a Japanese audience? In America and Europe, the game Grand Theft Auto III (2001) sold incredibly well and was critically acclaimed. In Japan, however, it did not sell as well. A common explanation is that Japanese players do not prefer violent video games and shooters, as argued by managing director of Namco, Tanaka Keiji, and Konami director

Kojima Hideo (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 68). What Thayer and Kolko fail to explain, however, is the relationship between translation practices and the perception localizers have that can form a factor in determining the choice of localization. Carlson and Corliss argue that localization practices shape our social imaginations, our perceptions of cultural difference, and our imaginations of other regions (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 78). In short, Thayer and Kolko negate the localizer’s preconceived view of culture and difference and how that relates to the localization of their respective games. While Tanaka and Kojima provide a plausible theory, as fantasy, strategy and role-playing games are more popular in Japan, they fail to mention that there are in fact violent and graphic Japanese video games that have had astounding success. It also disregards the fact that localization of the unsuccessful games was poorly executed (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 68). The survival-horror series Biohazard (1996) (known as Resident Evil outside of Japan) is one of the many examples of why the argument “violence does not sell in Japan” can be taken into question, as this title clearly shows that such themes do in fact succeed. However, such perceptions of cultural differences can alter the preconceptions of game publishers when it comes to identifying the taste of international game audiences. As a result, localization is implemented based on preconceived notions of difference.

1.4 Domestication localization

Though many differences are based on preconceived notions, it does not mean that there are no differences between audiences of different countries and/or cultures. Rather, it assumes that market preferences and consumer desires are determined by national or cultural differences (“Japanese people like fantasy, Americans like shooters”) (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 70). This leaves room to expand on the argument that localization is a key factor in the success or failure of a certain game, rather than the perceived preference of audiences of different regions and cultures. What makes the topic of localization highly complex, however, is that many video games that have been localized using the latter strategy turned out to be very successful. As such, the question would not be whether localization based on such notions is correct, but rather, what features are present in a successfully localized game. In other words, what practices in localization enhance the quality of a certain product? Chapter 2 discusses the implementation of localization of Japanese games in further detail.

According to O’Hagan and Mangiron, localization is designed to deliver a gameplay experience that is as close as possible to the enjoyed experience by the players of the original

11 game (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2009, 152). While the games are translated within the framework of a domestication approach, in order to retain Japanese flavor, localizers also have to implement a complex mixture of so-called “foreignization” in translation strategies (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2006, 20). The balance between domestication and preserving originality varies from game to game, and also depends on the genre and the approaches different game publishers take. Given the sheer amount of varying genres, games, game publishers, and (cultural) stories, it is not realistic to draw conclusions or establish a pattern based on a few number of video games, but this paper can provide insight into the difficulties and importance of localization.

1.5 What is fluent translation?

Every so often the title of a localized video game is not a direct translation of its original work. In such cases, a bit of hidden culture is removed in favor of a more recognizable title. For instance, the highly popular Japanese action-adventure videogame Ryuu ga Gotoku (2005), meaning “Like a Dragon”, is translated in the US and Europe as “Yakuza”, a collective term for people involved in Japanese organized crime. In the game, the main protagonist has a tattoo of a dragon on his entire back, and the story revolves around him trying to escape his past with the underground world and organized crime, hence the title surrounding the theme of a dragon. In the narrative, detailed attention is given to the concept of inheriting the characteristics of a dragon and how the tattoo of such a mythical creature reflects the person who is wearing it. From my personal experience playing this game, such information and narrative appears to be inherent to Japanese culture and its stories of myth and legend. It could very well be that the Japanese tattoo culture was deemed too alien for a Western audience and only as something Japanese people could understand, as tattoos in Japan have a different social significance than in the US for example. Hence, the name “Like a Dragon” would make little sense on the surface, whereas the term “Yakuza” is widely known by Western audiences and evokes a sense of familiarity, making the game more approachable.

This raises an interesting question, as it can be argued that “fluent” translation should not be as “faithful” to the original text as possible, but instead should seek the same connotation one would get in a different language. According to Lawrence Venuti, translations should be “natural” (Venuti 2004, 5). In other words, it is not the text that should be translated, but the context in which the story takes place. In this sense, it may actually be for the better that the term “Like a Dragon” was left unused, as such a title may not feel as “natural” as it does in

Japanese. The term “Yakuza” could evoke the same emotion and train of thought for a Western audience as does Ryuu ga Gotoku for a Japanese one. But that also establishes the notion that Western audiences are unaware of cultural differences and unable to understand them. It helps create the idea that elements within certain cultures are “exotic” and alien from the West, that every player’s cultural background is at the same level, and that cultural differences are the reason why such a product would potentially fail; that if a game is deemed “too unknown”, it will not sell well. An example of why “dry” translations (literal adaptations) are not always successful or the best option is the game Pac-Man (Puck-Man in Japanese3) in 1980. The name “Pac-Man” was chosen over “Puck-Man” because it was decided the word was too close to the English four-letter curse word. Such a translation ensures the preservation of respect for the language and the culture of both importing countries (Bernal-Merino 2014, 160). The four ghosts have also had their names and nicknames tweaked, opting for a more humoristic approach and giving it a more American touch. According to Bernal-Merino, the successful localization of Pac-Man has helped establish the practice of viewing products as commodities requiring individual attention in order to reach new consumers in other countries. In layman’s terms, (Japanese) games required alterations in order to boost sales (Bernal-Merino 2014, 161).

It is important to understand that translation is not just limited to the words that are translated, which leads to my argument that faithful translation does not solely imply literal adaptation. Where literal translation would only produce a text expressing the original idea using the same words in a different language, a faithful translation would also factor in imperceptible meanings and ideas it may convey. In other words, the translated text does not always carry the same meaning of a concept in the foreign language. Translation should therefore not be understood as a word-by-word conversion. In a faithful translation, both the original creator’s ideas and methodology are taken into account. As a result, the essence of the foreign text is translated into words the target audience can understand, without losing the core of the original meaning. As Venuti would argue, translators need to write and read translated texts in ways that seek to recognize the linguistic and cultural difference of foreign texts (Venuti 2004, 41). In that way, respect for both the foreign language and culture is maintained, while keeping the target audience from being alienated. Examples of how to and how not to effectively localize will be given in chapter two.

3 Initially the name “Pakku-man” (パックマン) would be translated as ‘Puck-Man’. ‘Pakku’ refers to the Japanese onomatopoeia paku paku taberu, meaning someone eats very greedily, fitting for Pac-Man.

Additionally, Benedict Anderson argues that national identity is constructed as an imagined belonging to other people and places and is produced with the help of nationally- oriented media, in this case video games being the prime example (Anderson 1983). This could mean that localization in turn actually creates a larger division between nations and cultures, instead of bridging the gap through translation. In order to eliminate such notions, translation should embrace the possibility of being “unnatural” provided that it captures the Japanese essence and context, even if that means the Western context feels unusual as a result. While the Japanese title was being reworked for Western audiences, it should be noted that the in-game dialogue is strictly Japanese and the player has no option of selecting voices in English or any other language. As the game is set in Japan and touches on Japanese culture, both in daily life and organized crime, it would seem very costly to rewrite the narrative to fit a Western theme, not to mention many aspects of Japanese culture are present within expressions of dialogue that are impossible to translate in other languages without losing its essence. In other words, “dubbing” (voice-overs in a different language) potentially eliminates the essence of the message of such dialogues. The game does provide subtitles in other languages nonetheless, and the English translation is very much context-based.

1.6 Localizing the West for Japan

This section briefly touches upon Japanese localization of video games originating in the West and how such changes have given rise to the common notion – or perhaps misconception – that “Japanese people do not like violence”. The first game is Crash Bandicoot, a platform video game created by American developer Naughty Dog in 1996. Its title character and protagonist is a mutant bandicoot who was genetically enhanced by the main antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex. Crash is a very emotional character who is quick to laugh or cry. Characterized by a very limited vocabulary and dramatic exclamations, he is often heard speaking in unintelligible gibberish. The name “Crash” was given to him as it is reflective of his quirky and restless personality, while also stemming from his visceral reaction to his own frequent destruction of boxes in the game. When Naughty Dog pitched the game to be released in Japan, Sony had trouble with the character’s design, saying he looked too aggressive and therefore would not sell in Japan. A new, cuter design was created and Sony approved the game to be released in Japan. However, Crash only looks different on the box art and in Japanese commercials (Image 1.02) as his appearance remains unchanged in the game. Nevertheless,

14 some gameplay changes have been made to further boost the notion that Japan does not like violence.

Throughout every level in the game, Crash has the option to smash treasure boxes and at the end of each level, the game tells you if you have missed any. In the original version, every single treasure box that was missed will fall from the air onto Crash’s head. However, in the Japanese version, there will always be one box falling from the air, no matter how many treasure boxes the player missed. This change could have been implemented to make the game seem less “aggressive” and also to keep in line with Japan’s marketing changes. In the stage “Double Header”, the original version includes a two-headed monster enemy. However, in the Japanese version, this enemy only has one head. It is not certain why this change was implemented, but by the logic of Crash’s altered marketing, such monsters could be considered too scary or not cute enough for the Japanese market. In the Japanese version of the second game, Crash Bandicoot 2 (1997), a certain death animation had to be changed. In the original version, when Crash was squashed by a heavy object, he would walk around with only his head and shoes. In Japan, this animation was changed to Crash being completely flat instead. According to Sony Japan, it was too reminiscent of a Japanese serial killer who was at large at the time and was known for beheading his victims, leaving only their head and shoes behind.4

Another franchise by an American game development studio is Call of Duty, a first- person shooter game where the player takes control of an infantry soldier throughout various battles in real or fictional wars. The game Call of Duty: WWII (2017) is rated M for Mature (17+) in the West, while in Japan it received the so-called “CERO Z” rating (18+), the highest rating possible. 5 In Japan, the violence is censored in certain parts of the game. Despite receiving the highest rating and only being targeted towards adults, Japan’s censors would still not allow certain types of content that would be allowed in the West. For instance, sections of dismemberment are censored in Japan so that the character’s limbs are kept intact. While such instances are of a low occurrence, it is peculiar to see such censorship for a game that is rated adults only. Another example is the action-adventure survival horror game The Last of Us (2013), which also received a Z rating in Japan. The player takes control of Joel, a smuggler tasked with escorting a teenage girl, Ellie, through post-apocalyptic America. In international

4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_child_murders. 5 https://www.cero.gr.jp/en/publics/index/17/. If the game would have the same rating in Japan as in the West, it would have gotten a D rating. Accessed 1st of June 2019.

15 versions of the game, excluding the German version6, the player is able to dismember zombies and human opponents, even exposing their intestines in some instances. In the Japanese version, this is cut altogether. Even cutscenes where a Non-Playable Character (NPC) is shown slicing off a zombie’s head are altered. Another cutscene where an NPC was butchering a corpse was completely revised in Japan by changing the camera angle to obscure the action taking place.

The troubling matter is that these games sold very well in Japan, despite high age ratings or heavy censorship.7 It must be noted that while the original Crash Bandicoot series was popular in Japan, the latest entry in the franchise, Crash Bandicoot: N Sane Trilogy (2018), has sold poorly in the Japanese market.8 The Last of Us is one of the best-selling and critically acclaimed video games of all time, with the highly anticipated sequel The Last of Us: Part II being expected to release somewhere in 2020. One could argue that the games sold well because violence was toned down and changes were made to be more in tone with Japanese audiences, and thus further confirming the notion that Japanese people do not like violence. However, one could also argue that the game’s inherent quality was already deemed more than sufficient to overcome the censorship barrier, and that toning down violence was not the reason for its success. Rather, the fact that these games were so popular shows that Japanese people carry an interest in violent video games. Just as audiences in America are increasingly drawn to the “Japanese” aspect of a Japanese video games with the growing popularity of “Cool Japan” (Japanese popular culture such as anime and video games), it could very well be that Japanese audiences are drawn to a more Western style of video games in which violence is more present (Consalvo 2016, 129, Allison 2006, 14). Ian Condry writes in relation to the anime industry that creative industries in localization must confront a “fundamental unpredictability that requires creators to take a leap of faith into projects where they are uncertain of the outcome” (Condry 2013, 14). While Condry is not talking about the game industry, I would argue that this practice can also be applied to game developers and localizers in approaching and understanding their audience, rather than sticking to ideas that stem from more than 20 years ago. Localization of anime may be done differently than video games, but both industries strive

6 Due to Germany’s past with World War II, the law in Germany is very strict regarding violence in video games and portrayal of Nazi imagery. Because of this, developers often create a “German-only” version of the game, while the original game is sold in the rest of Europe. 7 https://www.siliconera.com/2013/06/29/the-last-of-us-did-really-really-well-in-japan/. Accessed 2nd of June 2019. 8 http://www.vgchartz.com/weekly/43394/Japan/. N Sane Trilogy is ranked number 12 in the weekly retail charts, and in the following falling to rank 33. Accessed 2nd of June 2019.

16 to get an understanding of the tastes of their respective audience to create a product befitting of their needs.

1.7 Conclusion

Localization in digital products has started with simply translating texts, but quickly grew to be a complex process undertaken by multiple actors who each have their own approach to the process. Because localization has become a multi-layered process, various scholars (Thayer & Kolko, 2004; Mandiberg, 2015; O’Hagan & Mangiron, 2006) have sought to dissect each layer and investigate the effects of their respective practices. As digital media such as video games and anime have become increasingly popular worldwide, the importance of quality localization has also surged. Various approaches to localization overseas have taken the forefront, for example basing the target audience’s desires on preconceived notions of cultural difference or masking any reference to the culture of the country of origin. In these approaches, the question is also asked what exactly a faithful translation of a digital product entails. Though a consensus has not been reached yet, I argue that sufficient translation is faithful to the meaning of the text, and not the words it portrays.

A successful localization of digital media pushes through culture and language barriers, while also highlighting the rich experience of foreign elements developers hope players to experience. Western games that have been exported to Japan saw major changes to fit what Japanese companies thought their audience would enjoy. Evidence of this is shown in violent video games being toned down and characters’ designs being altered to appear cuter and less threatening. However, people in Japan have expressed interest in violent themes in anime and (Japanese) video games throughout the years. Because the Japanese video game market produces predominantly fantasy, strategy and role-playing games, it is easy to conclude that there is little room for games with alternative themes, but such a conception does not take into account the product marketing and the localization that it received. To what extent are Japanese video games and anime then altered for the Western market? Are Japanese elements or references to Japanese culture removed to accommodate a Western audience? Are there other changes that these products underwent? The next chapter will analyze several themes in Japanese video games and anime, and investigate the practices undertaken by companies specializing in the localization of digital products outside of Japan.

Chapter 2: Analyzing Japanese games

This chapter only examines games that have been localized into English and that can be played on Western systems. Furthermore, this chapter will not answer the question as to what makes a game “Japanese”; rather, it looks at what methods of localization have been implemented into the following games and how and why these have been (un)successful. This could provide explanations on the similarities or commonalities that (successful) Japanese games share when localizing for a Western audience. The following four themes in localization are discussed: language changes, symbolic changes, graphical changes, and gameplay changes.

2.1 Language changes

Textual changes are by far the most occurring feature in localization, as the first step is typically translating the text into the target language. Perfect Japanese-to-English translations, however, were not possible in older systems since Japanese took up far less space than English, and even if they were, they were not always implemented (Kohler 2016, 198). With pixelated and abstract graphics, context was prioritized over accurate translation. Many Japanese games were localized by Nintendo of America (NoA), which, despite being a subsidiary of the Japanese company Nintendo, had the final say in its localization practices (Iwabuchi 2002, 38). Its staff is mostly local (Americans) and NoA makes its own decisions when it comes to marketing and localizing games imported from Japan (Tobin 2004, 66). Although the decisions of NoA could – and they often did – coincide with the Japanese producers, it is important to note that localization practices were not always based on what the Japanese thought would be appropriate for the target region, but rather on what local translators considered appropriate for their audience. This coincides with Consalvo’s argument that the video game industry is a hybrid encompassing a mixture of Japanese and American businesses unseen in other media industries. Since the demands of the local audience shape cultural products as they travel around the world, homogeneity in gaming culture is minimized. Though not all Japanese video games were globally available, those designed for global consumption were carefully localized, to ensure that their international flavor was not too foreign for non-Japanese tastes (Consalvo 2006, 120). While Japanese games gained popularity in the West, game developers increasingly hired independent companies to localize their games in the latter. However, poor communication between the producer and the company oftentimes resulted in flawed translations and revisions that seemed out of touch with the desires of the ever-evolving gaming community.

As textual translation slowly evolved from basic localization to a key part of the blending process, the latter was time-consuming, and companies in the ‘80s and ‘90s were not always convinced that better translations would equal more sales, resulting in many games suffering from embarrassingly poor translations (Kohler 2016, 198). In some cases, time constraints resulted in rushed game releases to maintain relevance in the market (e.g., movie- based games), thereby leaving no room for a spelling check. In the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) title Ghostbusters (1984), upon completing the game, the player is awarded with a screen that infamously states:

Conglaturation! You have completed a great game! And prooved the justice of our culture. Now go and rest our heroes!

Although not an example of localization, as the game was developed and released in America, such errors highlight the importance of diligence in translation. The Japanese game Persona 5 (2016) was localized by an American company, Atlus, and a remarkable number of six translators and eight editors contributed to the development of the game using a tag/team approach. Persona 5 had sufficient budget for a blending procedure, taking considerable effort to localize the game and delaying Western release by seven months. Nevertheless, a cumbersome amount of translations are infested with errors, grammatical mistakes, mischaracterization, and some moments during gameplay offer no subtitles or image explanations (Image 1.03 & Image 1.04). Moreover, editors outnumbered translators which led to increased stylistic inconsistencies. Although there exists a multitude of such inconsistencies in-game, I will only highlight the one I personally find to be the most significant. The first phrase in English appears in the international version of the game, the second sentence is the original Japanese phrase, and the text between brackets is a Romanization of the aforementioned Japanese line.

‘Now then, the HMS Dreadnought is said to be a revolutionary ship built by the British Royal Navy. It was so grand that the Japanese word “dokyuu”, massive, takes its “do” from the word “dreadnought”.’ ‘イギリス海軍が建造した「戦艦ドレッドノート」はとても革新的な戦艦と言われているわ。どれぐらい革新的かというと、「ド級」という言葉ができたぐらい。’ (Igirisu kaigun ga kenzoushita “senkan doreddonooto” wa totemo kakushintekina senkan to iwareteiru wa. Doregurai kakushinteki ka to iu to “dokyuu” to iu kotoba ga dekitagurai.)

A sharp reader will immediately observe that there is no “do” in “dreadnought”. The player needs to have a grasp of the Japanese language system in order to understand that the Japanese word for “dreadnought” is an English loanword and is written as “ドレッドノート”, which Romanizes to doreddonōto, and that is where the “do” comes from. Western or non-Japanese readers may not understand this, meaning the localization has failed to communicate foreign concepts to the player. The problem could have easily been prevented, however, by simply explaining the Japanese term for “dreadnought” or including the Romanization of said term. This will more effectively present Japanese culture and communicate foreign concepts to the player.

In Japanese language and culture, wordplay is an indispensable aspect that appears on a frequent level in media products. Video games are no exception, as Consalvo highlights in Phoenix Wright and Recettear (Consalvo 2016, 126, 143). Localizing Japanese wordplays may prove challenging, as it is impossible to literally translate the text without either losing the original meaning or the essence of the joke. In order to make the translation work, the idea of the joke has to be conveyed successfully. An excellent example of such a feat is shown in Yakuza: 0 (2015), which was localized by Atlus, the same company that localized Persona 5. The scene in question involves two characters, one who owns a gambling business, and a foreigner who lives in Japan. The business involves the man challenging others to knock him down in a fight, and if they win, he will double their money. When the main character ask him what he exactly does, he receives a different explanation. Because the foreigner is not well versed in Japanese, he explains the man is a “fisting artist”, with the word “fisting” having a slight sexual connotation. The other character steps in and corrects him by saying he is a “punch-out artist”. The main character is still confused and asks if this is “some kind of S&M thing”. The Japanese version had the foreigner say that his business is called an oshitaoshite mite business, when he wanted to say taoshite miro. Both sound particularly alike, but have a significantly different meaning. 9 The English version has managed to retain the original contextual meaning, while also introducing an original solution to this translation of Japanese wordplay.

9 Taoshite miro roughly means “Just try and knock me down”, while oshitaosu refers to the practice of romantically knocking someone over and falling on top of them.

In highly rare cases, political issues in the real world affect dialogue in games, altering content that is deemed inappropriate by other countries. In Yakuza 6: The Song of Life (2016), for instance, the player has the opportunity to meet up with a Taiwanese hostess, who talks about her homeland. One question the hostess would ask is what the main character’s impression is of the country of Taiwan. At the time, there was no English version yet10, but a screenshot of the Chinese subtitles was posted online and stirred up controversy in China (Image 1.05). A week later, the dialogue was revised by Sega, the game’s producer, with the hostess now asking what the main character’s impression of Taiwan is. The reason why this is such a bizarre phenomenon is that there has never been an official release of any of the Yakuza games in China, and Yakuza 6 was never planned to be released in China. Sega has in a manner employed self-censorship to appease a market that would not be entered in the first place.

2.2 Symbolic changes

Symbolic changes are very similar to graphical changes in that in-game symbols and icons are technically classified as graphics. Therefore, any symbolic changes implemented are also graphical. However, my distinction between symbolic and graphical changes in this chapter is the reason behind such applications. With symbolic changes, revision takes place because of the difference in connotation between target regions. Elements such as gestures, symbols, icons, logos and other visual features that imply various meanings in, or are unknown to, other countries are considered symbolic, whereas material objects and displays, such as the inclusion of firearms or (partial) nudity, are branded as graphical. As O’Hagan and Mangiron point out, games often have their visuals changed, being deprived of their logos and signs in order to cater to the American and European audience. Though it is evident that the degree of cultural adaptations in localizations contribute to the success of games in target markets, the way in which this practice affects market reception is not predictable (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2013, 206-207). This section will showcase certain examples of such revisions in Japanese games that have been localized for the West.

Despite the small minority of Christians in Japan, Christian crosses occasionally appear in anime and video games. Patrick Drazen explains that “in general the Japanese have only been interested in the tangential trappings and trimmings of Christianity.” American video game

10 Yakuza 6 released in the West in 2018, 2 years later.

21 companies feared, however, that a cross or other religious artefacts depicted in-game might be construed as blasphemous (Drazen 2003, 144). It was a serious concern in the days when many games were targeted directly at children, but even today religious symbolism continues to be censored in certain video games, albeit to a lesser degree.

Additionally, certain symbols in Japan have different meanings and connotations than in the West, and therefore have to be localized to prevent confusion. This is not a practice of censorship, but of localization due to cultural differences. Video game consoles were necessary to play a certain game, and the PlayStation is one of the most prominent consoles on the market today. The controllers on the PlayStation console have four action buttons on the right side with symbols that correspond to a certain task: a red circle, a green triangle, a blue cross and a pink square. In Japan, the symbol used to indicate a correct answer is the circle (O), or maru, often depicted in red. An incorrect answer is known as batsu, indicated by a blue cross (X). In localized versions of Japanese video games, this lay-out is reversed. In the West, the combination of the color red and the O symbol is associated with stop signs halting a certain action.11

Logos that represent real-life situations or resemble companies or organizations are also removed occasionally. In the West, the inclusion of the Swastika is strictly regulated, and in some countries even illegal, as the Swastika is viewed as a symbol of racial supremacism and the German Nazi Party. In Japan, this symbol is often portrayed on Buddhist temples and represents good fortune or well-being. In the Japanese version of Persona 5, a character is seen wearing white shoes with the Japanese imperial flag. In the Korean version this logo is removed (Image 1.06). Due to the flag’s use in World War II, some Koreans still associate the motif with its war-time meaning and thus can be seen as offensive. In the localized version of Earthbound (1995), all red crosses were removed, presumably due to concerns regarding copyright issues and the International Committee of the Red Cross not condoning misuse. This is why most in- game medical crosses are green and not red.12 In Earthbound, the members of the in-game cult

11 The color red can be seen as a ‘negative’ color in the sense that it prohibits or limits progress. Take for example a red traffic light or red markings on a graded test. 12 https://www.redcross.ca/about-us/about-the-canadian-red-cross/red-cross-emblem/it-may-just-be-a-game-to- you-but-it-means-the-world-to-us. The Canadian Red Cross states: “When someone misuses the red cross, (the video game industry being just one of many), we seek their cooperation in ending the unauthorized use. In nearly all cases, they comply and no further action is necessary. As a humanitarian organization, our preferred choice is to educate people about the emblem and seek their cooperation. That includes the makers of video games whose products touch the lives of millions.”

“Happy Happyism” have also been altered. In the Japanese version, they are seen wearing hoods with the letters “HH” on it, while also holding a paint brush. Localizers were concerned that the appearance of these characters would too closely resemble the Ku Klux Klan, an American white supremacist hate group. The North-American version added a puff ball to the end of the cap, and the “HH” was also removed, because the low-resolution image caused the two letters to resemble the letters “KK” (Image 1.07).13

Not only symbols and logos, but also gestures carry different meanings in other regions. In Japan, placing one hand on the opposite bicep and flexing their arm is an indication of showing strength and resilience. In the West, such a gesture may be deemed offensive and is comparable to showing someone the middle finger. In games such as Super Mario RPG (1996) and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe (2017), characters can be seen performing this gesture after a victory. In Western releases, they either have their left hand removed in the animation or are shown clenching their fists instead (Image 1.08). In Japan, blood type is an important aspect of daily life and in marketing. For instance, on collectibles like Japanese baseball cards, every player has their blood group type showcased. It is a popular belief in Japan that a person’s blood type affects their personality. For example, a person with blood type A would have a high likelihood to be of a timid or tense nature, whereas someone with blood type B is prone to be selfish and outgoing. Many Japanese games display the blood type of the main characters and, when able to create your own character, will ask you to indicate his or her blood type. In Western releases, on the other hand, such beliefs are less common and references to characters’ blood types are often left out.

13 The letters “HH” would also be troublesome to show in Europe because it refers to the infamous “Heil Hitler” chant being used by the Nazi Party. While not released in Europe, it is likely the letters would have been removed if a release was planned for it.

2.3 Graphical changes

In this subchapter, examples of the removal or censorship of material objects and miscellaneous displays are presented and discussed. These changes were not implemented because of varying meaning in other countries and cultures; rather, it is the inclusion of these elements that some developers deemed unfit for certain target audiences. O’Hagan and Mangiron suggest that Japanese games tend to contain more overt and covert sexual references and imagery, while Western games tend to depict more graphic violence and gore (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2013, 207). The Japanese law in general also has a higher degree of tolerance towards erotic and/or suggestive images or content in media products (Cooper-Chen 2010, 63-64). It is no surprise then, that the majority of graphical adjustments were implemented because the content was considered too suggestive. In anime and video games alike, (partial) female nudity is a hot topic. There are countless anime and video game titles in which partial nudity and suggestive themes have been censored. In an episode of the anime Yu-Gi-Oh! (2000), the female character Téa is confronted by a mugger who demands all of her money. In the Japanese version, the mugger is seen holding a camcorder, videotaping Téa’s skirt. The Western release removed all shots of the camcorder and the suggestive footage he was filming. Perversion in anime and video games was kept to a minimum in the West, but the most occurring changes revolved around female breasts and the length of skirts. 4Kids, an American company, was responsible for the localization of various anime in the West, including Yu-Gi- Oh!, One Piece, and Pokémon. As anime in the West was specifically targeted towards kids, 4Kids felt it was necessary to remove sexualized imagery of females. Bust sizes of female characters were made smaller, and the skirts they wore were either lengthened or had an extra piece of leg garment added to cover up exposed thighs (Image 1.09). Outfits that exposed the female’s cleavage were often covered up as well.

Surprisingly, sexual references and imagery were not the only adult themes addressed in the localization of anime and video games. The portrayal and usage of firearms in anime was strictly controlled, despite them being present in American cartoons and video games. Depending on the company responsible for the localization, guns would either be replaced with items of a “family-friendly” nature (such as water guns) or edited out, on occasion leading to amusing scenarios (Image 1.10). Violence in video games and anime is not necessarily censored, but the results from violence, such as characters bleeding or being noticeably wounded, are in most cases removed. Blood in video games is either removed or colored green, while in anime,

24 it is simply removed altogether. In general, Western games tend to be more explicit with violence, while Japanese games usually portray little blood. It is peculiar then, that violence in Japanese games is often subdued in localized versions, while the violence was already not exceedingly present. However, Japanese games that have been designed with a Western audience in mind, such as Resident Evil, contain considerable amounts of gore and violence, with the Japanese original version being softened (Mangiron 2013, 208).

Tobacco use in anime and video games have also been censored numerous times. In One Piece (1999), the character Sanji has a habit of smoking, but in Western releases of the anime, all instances of him smoking a cigarette were redrawn to make him appear to enjoy lollipops (Image 1.11). The inclusion of adult beverages or any reference to alcohol has been toned down significantly as well, as most localizing companies had a strict policy against the portrayal of alcohol. In racing sports, victories are often celebrated with a bottle of champagne. In the game Super Mario Kart (1992), when winning a Grand Prix as either Bowser or Peach, the victory animation shows the characters picking up a bottle of champagne and drinking it repeatedly, with Peach’s face even turning red. The international version shows the characters throwing their bottle up in the air in a celebratory manner. In the North-American version of Earthbound, the bar visited by the player was changed to a café, and any reference to alcohol was replaced by coffee instead. Interestingly, in the Japanese version, one of the NPCs in the bar explains how he was drunk and knocked on the wall instead of the bathroom door. The same man comments in the North-American version that he was having a caffeine buzz and needed to go to the bathroom fast. When he got there, he accidentally knocked on the wall instead of the restroom door. With graphical changes often come changes to corresponding dialogues as well, as graphical features in games and anime can be referenced or discussed in dialogue. If the dialogue does not match the visual alterations, then the content and context would be illogical.

Occasionally, character designs are only altered on the box art or during marketing, with their in-game appearance remaining the same as in the country of origin. A prominent example is Crash Bandicoot, which was viewed as too aggressive in Japan, but in America, the Japanese characters’ art designs were often revised to appear more aggressive and less cute. Kirby is the titular small pink spherical creature and main protagonist of Nintendo’s Kirby franchise. On the box art of Japanese releases of the Kirby games, Kirby is almost always seen smiling. However, NoA decided to depict his eyes significally sharper-looking and with an angry expression (Image 1.12). No official statement was given regarding the change, but a possible explanation

25 could be that this was done to appeal to Western fans who do not share the same interest in cute characters and want more action. This change resonates with Carlson and Corliss’ argument that localization shapes our perception of cultural differences (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 78). In other words, Kirby looks happy in Japan because Japanese people like cute characters, and Kirby looks angry in America, because that is what NoA’s perception is of what Americans want. O’Hagan and Mangiron discuss how the tastes of Japanese and Western players differ, stating that Japanese players prefer stylized and cute characters, and American and European players masculine and realistic character designs (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2013, 205).

Looking at games made by Western developers versus Japanese developers, it is not surprising that such a conclusion is reached, but there is a major flaw in this theory. Western games were originally not intended to be sold in Japan and vice versa, meaning that the developers have for a long time catered to the desires of their own market. However, during the era that video games were progressively entering the worldwide market14, developers were afraid that cultural differences in their games would repel potential overseas customers. Producers, developers and localizers analyzed what type of games were popular in the target region and made adjustments accordingly. This was also during a time when the “Cool Japan” trend had not emerged yet, and there was uncertainty whether a foreign product would sell or not regardless of localization changes. According to Iwabuchi, numerous Japanese developers tried to make their product as “non-Japanese” as possible, because it was believed that any reference to Japanese culture or the inclusion of Japanese elements would be too unknown to a Western audience, thus limiting sales. He labels this practice mukokuseki (無国籍), which translates to “statelessness”. Any “cultural odor”15 from the product would be removed to make it more appealing to worldwide audiences (Iwabuchi 2002, 53).

14 There is no official date on when video games were going “worldwide”, but my educated guess would be around the end of the 1990s, when Nintendo released the Nintendo 64 console. Games were of course sold worldwide already, but they were always made with the audience of the country of origin in mind. 15 Any hints of nationality or racial and/or ethnic characteristics from a cultural product is what Iwabuchi considers as cultural odor. Making a product “odorless” means that it has no distinct feature(s) that make the product Japanese and does not carry any cultural features of its country of origin to be considered Japanese.

2.4 Gameplay changes

Various games have multiple difficulty levels to allow casual and advanced players to customize their gaming experience. Not all games have such an option available, though; many developers are convinced that providing the player with a universal difficulty level will bring fans on the same level of discussion. Miyazaki Hidetaka, the creator of Dark Souls (2011), explains that their goal is for everyone “to feel the same level of accomplishment”. In that way, the players plays the game the way it is meant to be played.16 Dark Souls is incredibly popular in the West and is, despite its grueling difficulty, praised for its gameplay and challenge it offers. But for many years, Japanese games were made explicitly less difficult for US audiences. The theory is that Japanese children are more proficient at video games, and what they would consider to be challenging and fun would be frustrating for American children. However, it seems that actually the opposite might be the case, with the best players coming from America due to their active attitude towards video games and the presence of an inherent competitiveness in their national identity (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 69). 17 Vestal proposes that changes in difficulty levels were not necessarily implemented because of cultural differences, but differences in markets. When video game rental was still a potent market, developers strived to make their games “rental-proof”, often by amplifying the difficulty, slowing the player’s progress (Vestal 2005). When video game rental became obsolete and developers realized that Western gamers did not prefer lower difficulty levels, developers ceased to change difficulty levels in games released overseas.

The game Devil May Cry 3 (2005) did have its difficulty changed for Western audiences, though it is unknown if this was intentional or a programming error. In the original North American release the difficulty levels were shifted up by one, making the “Easy” mode equivalent to the Japanese “Normal” mode, and so on. The highest difficulty, “Hard”, became a unique difficulty that was later branded as “Very Hard” in the special edition of the game. As the game is already widely regarded to be one of the most challenging games of all time, it is likely the adjustment in difficulty levels is an unintentional development error. The special edition release of the game corrected the difficulty levels to be consistent across all regions.

16 https://www.gamespot.com/articles/heres-why-dark-souls-bloodborne-and-sekiro-dont-ha/1100-6459827/. 17 The last sentence is an insight of a Japanese developer (Itagaki Tomonobu) on the theory of American players being worse at video games than Japanese players, quoted in the article by Carlson & Corliss.

Instances of localization providing the player with little to no information about Japanese culture might also hurt the player’s experience. In Persona 5, a question about shōgi, a Japanese two-player strategy board game similar to chess, is presented in-game. The high school teacher shows you a Japanese character written in cursive and asks you what the meaning of the character is, allowing you to choose between “Flight”, “Divination”, or “Gold” (Image 1.13 & 1.14). The correct answer is “Gold” (金 kin), but there has been uncertainty regarding the answer to the question. Nathaniel Chapman, a senior encounter designer for the game World of Warcraft, addressed the issue to Atlus, stating that “the character is not a cursive 金, but a cursive と” (to).18 A response from Atlus reads:

Regarding the ‘gold’ character in question, in Japan this is a trick question because the cursive kanji of ‘gold’ looks exactly like the standard hiragana ‘to’. So gold appears to be accurate.19

There has been discussion about whether the character in question can be referred to a cursive form of the kanji, let alone the cursive form of 金, as Persona 5 does. Even though this may potentially be a small localization error, it still hinders the player’s in-game progression. The game is designed with a particular progression system in which the protagonist gradually raises his social stats in five different categories: charm, guts, kindness, knowledge, and proficiency. The player can perform various activities to increase their stats: creating tools will increase proficiency, going to a bath house increases charm, reading certain books raises kindness, and so on. Each social stat has different ranks; for instance, the Charm proficiency can develop from “Existent” to “Debonair” (Image 1.15). By answering each of the school questions correctly, the player increases his proficiency in the knowledge stat, enabling the player to progress with certain characters and score higher on tests.

Another reason that such trivia hinders gameplay experience is that in order to achieve trophies in the game20, the player must complete certain challenges. One of the challenges required for a trophy revolves around achieving the highest test score in the entire school.

18 https://twitter.com/pedrothedagger/status/851847724018221056, https://kotaku.com/this-might-be-persona-5s- biggest-translation-fail-1794223069. Accessed 30th of May 2019. 19 https://kotaku.com/this-might-be-persona-5s-biggest-translation-fail-1794223069. Accessed 30th of May 2019. 20 Trophies are achievements that the player can get when completing certain tasks the game asks you to do. They can be as simple as “Defeat the first boss”, but can also be lengthy endeavors such as “Max out every proficiency”. If the player manages to get every trophy in the game, he or she is awarded with a platinum trophy, indicating completion of the game.

Persona 5 employs a day-by-day system, in which you cannot repeat previous events and once a day has passed, it is impossible to return. For people who are keen on fully completing games, also known as “completionists”, a second or even third playthrough is mandatory21, but their advance can be hampered when their stats are unable to progress due to poor localization, causing frustration for many players. It is here where the shōgi question can block such progress. The player is unable to develop with certain characters if their knowledge stat is deemed too low. As time is finite and the player does not have full-time access to interact with these characters22, the best option is to maximize social stats as quickly as possible. As said before, one way to increase knowledge is answering the school questions correctly. However, because the player is only able to answer the shōgi question if they have a sufficient amount of knowledge of Japanese culture, many are forced to randomly pick an answer, with a great possibility of answering incorrectly, thus not raising their knowledge stat. On the one hand, this is only a minor problem, as there are multiple ways of increasing knowledge and the points received for answering this answer correctly is minimal. One the other hand, a halt of progress that is beyond the player’s control is unacceptable and frustrating to many players. In future renditions, I would recommend to not change the theme of the question (being the origin of a chess piece), but instead provide the player with additional information or translation in order to get a firm grasp of the content that is being shown. In that way, the Western player will still learn more about Japanese culture and experience the game in its original intent, while also providing the player with the same amount of challenge as Japanese players. Persona 5 is a sufficient example of how localization can have an impact on the gameplay experience of the player, and shows that it is not the inclusion of foreign elements that is harmful, but rather the faulty execution of conveying foreign concepts.

21 When initiating a second playthrough, your social stats are carried over, meaning you do not have to start from the beginning again. 22 Either they are busy, can only be accessed on certain days in the week, or on certain times of the day (e.g., only at night). Keep in mind that if you have performed a mission, your character will be tired and rest for the remainder of the day.

2.5 Conclusion

Text-based revisions are by far the most occurring element in localization, and the degree of effectiveness varies greatly, from simple grammatical mistakes to providing bad and humorous translation errors. Dialogue is often altered in order to avoid cursing, jokes of a suggestive nature or any reference to adult themes such as politics, religion or the use of alcohol. We saw that in a satisfactory translation, the original meaning of the context was carried over in the localized product. To this day, many localization companies have a strict policy regarding the occurrence of religious or spiritual beliefs, however minute they may be. Due to copyright concerns and other issues, such as misuse or misrepresentation, affiliations with any real-life organization or party, such as the Red Cross, are removed. Gaming fundamentals, such as the signifiers on a gaming controller, are reworked to fit the signified meaning in their respective culture. Rather than explaining the context of certain gestures and hand motions, localizers instead alter the animation to avoid offending Western audiences. Video games and anime have received extensive modification in regard to adult subject matters, although the intensity of these revisions differs from company to company. The sexualizing of females, tobacco use, inclusion of firearms, portrayal of alcoholic beverages, and gore and violence have all been significantly softened, with changes to the female body occurring to the greatest extent. In terms of gameplay changes, only in the early of years of video games were difficulty levels changed for the West, presumably due to market differences and the perception of American and Japanese players and their desires. Nowadays, difficulty levels remain the same across all regions. On occasion, localization practices will interfere with gameplay, impeding the player’s progress, which in turn makes their experience suffer.

As video games are increasingly targeted to a worldwide audience, approaches to localization have become intensified as well, with blending practically having become the norm in video game localization. Localization practices in anime still remain in the realm of complex localization, but often scratch the surface of blending. The next chapter will take an in-depth look at the Pokémon series, reviewing the first two and most recent two generations of the anime and video game series. On occasion, a different generation might be referred to or discussed, but the focus remains the analysis of the aforementioned four generations. The Pokémon series boasts an impressive twelve-year gap between the end of the second generation and the start of the sixth, and therefore has potential for a fruitful comparison.

Chapter 3: Pokémon

This chapter will provide an in-depth analysis of the first and last two generations of the Pokémon video games and anime and discuss several changes that have been implemented in the localization of Pokémon in the West. Via this research, similarities, commonalities, and differences between the Pokémon franchise and other Japanese video games and anime are established, through which a conclusion can be reached. A guide to the Pokémon generations timeline will be provided at the end of the paper.

3.1 Textual alterations in Pokémon

The Pokémon anime first premiered in Japan in 1997, with the American release debuting in 1998. The American company 4Kids was in charge of the localization of Pokémon, along with several other anime titles that were broadcast in America. In the English version of the Pokémon anime, various changes have been implemented that removed elements of Japanese culture. In the first episodes, the majority was dialogue-based, with the visuals remaining the same. Though on the surface such practices resemble a basic localization strategy (Thayer & Kolko 2004, 485), 4Kids often changed the narrative to be more in line of what Western audiences were familiar with. From the very start of the anime, 4Kids implemented a blending procedure. Various examples of such revisions are presented below.

The opening song for the first season of the anime is completely different in the West, due to 4Kids commissioning a different production company to compose the theme’s music. In the opening song of the anime, Pikachu is seen running beneath the legs of an unnamed girl who, while appearing in the opening, does not appear throughout the entire show. Many non- Japanese fans have speculated about the origin of this character, but it actually turns out that the girl is referred to in the Japanese version of the opening song. While Pikachu is running beneath the girl’s legs, the Japanese lyrics read:

Even through fire, water, grass, forests, through earth, clouds, that girl’s skirt (Eek!) たとえ火の中水の中草の中森の中、土の中雲の中あのコのスカートの中（きゃ～！）

While the English opening remains visually unchanged, the opening song has cut any reference to the girl, and instead has Pikachu running while the chant “A heart so true” is heard. To

31 commemorate the Pokémon franchise’s 20th anniversary in Japan in 2016, the original Japanese theme song has been chosen as the intro song for the anime Pokémon: Sun & Moon. Ironically, the infamous skirt line has remained intact, with Pikachu also being shown underneath the skirt of Lillie, a character introduced in the Sun & Moon series. In the first episode, the Japanese version tended to be a bit more serious with the script, while the English version included various puns such as the electric mouse Pokémon Pikachu having an “electrifying” personality and how the professor was “shocked”. When the main character Ash gets to choose one of three Pokémon inside three Poké balls, he instantly knows which Pokémon is which, but there is no way of actually knowing this in the English version. The Japanese version had their Japanese names inscribed on the side of the Poké ball, but the English version removed it entirely (Image 1.16). 4Kids also thought that the original episode was too violent for Western audiences. In the English release, when Ash first meets Misty, she asks if he is okay, and then says she did not refer to Ash, but Pikachu. In the Japanese version, you can see Misty hitting Ash for putting Pikachu in danger, with the sound effect resembling a slap being removed from the dubbed version. In the following episode, Misty scolds Ash for being careless, with the Japanese version showing Misty hitting Ash. In the English version, this is cut out, but the sound effect of the slap can still be heard.

The second episode contained several references to Japanese food that were removed in the English version, a type of edit that was commonly made by 4Kids in future episode releases of Pokémon. When Ash is talking to the professor over a video call, he asks him if he is cooking ramen, a Japanese noodle soup dish. In the English version, he makes no mention of this whatsoever, and instead says that he did not recognize the back of the professor’s head. Soon after, the professor ends the phone call by saying that his ramen is overcooking, but the English version instead has him saying his pizza is being delivered, with the addition of a sound effect representing a doorbell. The most infamous example of Japanese food being removed or altered for a Western audience is the rice ball, or onigiri in Japanese. Its long history of removal in the Pokémon anime began with the twelfth episode, when it first appeared on-screen. In the English version, the rice balls remained visually unchanged, but the dialogue surrounding the food was altered. Instead of calling them rice balls, the characters in the anime label the food “jelly donuts”. Throughout later episodes this trend continued with rice balls being referred to as donuts. It was only much later that the visual appearance of rice balls was changed into other food such as sandwiches, as seen in episode 366 for example, when the Pokémon franchise was in its third generation. O’Hagan and Mangiron have discussed that games often have had their

32 visuals changed to appeal to a Western audience (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2013, 206). The early years of Pokémon localization proved to be a rare case, where, although narrative was restructured and the signified meaning altered, the signifiers remained exactly the same. In the international version of the game Pokémon: Sun & Moon (2016), onigiri are not present, but the player is able to purchase Asian and Japanese food, specifically ramen from the region of Hoenn (Image 1.17). Hoenn is the name of the map in the third Pokémon generation, and is based on the third largest Japanese island Kyūshū. This marked the first time in a localized Pokémon game where the player could buy ramen and other Japanese food, as opposed to pizza, donuts and sandwiches in the early years of the localization of Pokémon.

The 34th episode stars a young boy named Tommy, who lives outside the realm of civilization and is raised by the Pokémon Kangaskhan. His appearance and vocabulary resembles caveman behavior. In the Japanese version, there is a scene where the boy gazes upon Misty’s chest and then promptly asks if he can suck breasts. NoA would never have approved such dialogue in the international version, and the close-up of Misty’s chest along with the dialogue was reworked. The boy now asks if Misty is a Pokémon. In all versions of the first Pokémon game, Pokémon: Red & Green23 (1996), in front of the Celadon City Gym, there is an old man looking through the building windows. When approached by the player, the man exclaims that the gym is great, because it is full of women. In Pokémon: HeartGold & SoulSilver (2009), the old man now remarks that the gym is full of strong trainers. Japanese versions of the most recent remakes of the first Pokémon generation, Pokémon: Let’s Go Eevee & Let’s Go Pikachu (2018), include the original line uttered by the old man. The international version has remained in an altered state ever since 2009.

Furthermore, any reference to sexuality in the game’s dialogue has been eliminated entirely. In the Japanese version of Pokémon: X & Y (2013), after battling a Beauty trainer, she will tell the player that she used to be a Karate King, and is stunned by the power of medical science. In the international version, she instead proclaims that she used to be a Black Belt six months ago and has “transformed” since, signifying her feminine looks (Image 1.18). A Black Belt is a title that both men and women can possess, though Karate King is an exclusively male title. The Japanese version implies that the Beauty is actually transgender, but the international version has removed such inferences. It is unknown why the dialogue was changed, but it may

23 Pokémon Green was Pokémon Blue outside of Japan.

33 have been the case that the notion of a character being transgender in Pokémon was considered an adult theme too confusing and inappropriate for children. Thayer and Kolko argue that if the franchise is based on a world-renowned persona or when the developers are certain the game’s concept will be understood, developers avoid blending (Thayer & Kolko 2004, 485, but the previous examples evidently show that the Pokémon franchise has predominantly been localized through blending.

Being transgender was not the only issue cut in dialogue. In Pokémon: Red & Green, the player’s path is blocked by an old man lying on the ground. In the Japanese version, the old man has a hangover, and speaks to the player in unintelligible gibberish. His daughter then apologizes for his behavior and scolds the man for making a scene in such a public place. After the man has sobered up, he tells the player that his head hurts and drank too much. In the international version, the old man is grumpy because he has not had his morning coffee yet, and after consuming his drink, says he is now in a better mood and feeling great.

3.2 Revisions of symbols in Pokémon

Coming back to O’Hagan and Mangiron, logo’s and icons in digital media products underwent revision to appeal to a non-Japanese market (O’Hagan & Mangiron 2013, 206-207). With the localization of the Pokémon anime for the West, 4Kids made sure to remove any signs of religious themes. This is in line with Iwabuchi’s argument that any resemblance to nationality or “Japaneseness” was removed from the Pokémon series (Iwabuchi 2002, 53). It is important to note, however, that Iwabuchi’s argument emerged during a time when it was uncertain if Japanese digital media products would be successful overseas. Japanese elements, though heavily suppressed in the anime and video games, have eventually sprung up in later generations and are increasingly present with every new iteration, undermining Iwabuchi’s theory. Instances of practices related to nationality and beliefs in certain nations are presented below.

In the Japanese version of the third episode, when Ash first catches the Pokémon Caterpie, he happily says that when Pokémon are in heaven, he is in heaven as well. With “heaven”, Ash refers to the comfortable life Pokémon live inside of Poké balls. Misty replies by saying that if they are in heaven, she is in hell. 4Kids removed the inclusion of themes such as heaven and hell and replaced the dialogue with Ash saying he loves his new little Pokémon,

34 to which Misty replies that it takes a worm to love a worm. In another episode, Ash faces a couple of Pokémon named Clefairy who are dancing around certain stones on a full moon. Unaware of what they are doing, Ash asks the others if they have any clue. Pikachu then pulls out a string of Ash’s hair and shows it to him. The Japanese word for hair is kami, but the word can also mean “God”. Ash concludes through the double meaning of the word that the Clefairy are protecting their god, being the moon stone they dance around. In the English version, the string of hair was now shown to rhyme with “prayer”, removing any reference to the moon stone being their god. Religious practices were forbidden in the video games as well. In the international versions of Pokémon: Gold & Silver (1999), the Sage trainer class is no longer praying, and the Medium trainer class has had her prayer beads removed (Image 1.19 & Image 1.20). Ironically, the Sage can still be seen with prayer beads around his waist.

In the third episode of the Sun & Moon series, one of the main antagonists, Meowth, nearly died after an encounter with the Pokémon Mimikyu, who knocked him unconscious and send him to a heaven-like realm. His partners Jesse and James only barely manage to save him by throwing water on him. Several instances of Meowth being near-death would appear in later episodes, but are noticeably toned down in the West to reduce the resemblance of death. Episode twelve has Meowth noticing that Mimikyu has gone missing and spots him in the water without his disguise. The following shot then shows Meowth lying face down in the water, nearly drowning. He then is seen lying on the ground unconscious, while the image of his soul fades back into his body, thus regaining consciousness. The English version entirely cut the shot of Meowth drowning in the water, and also removed the soul returning to his body, now waking up immediately. There are several other instances where lifeless bodies and soul imagery are cut in the English version, with the examples presented only being a handful. With blending, as mentioned previously, narrative and visual elements are reworked to either appeal to a wider audience or to avoid confusion. Localization through blending in Pokémon was not always implemented with those values in mind. Rather, as Pokémon was especially targeted to kids in the West, NoA sought to maintain as much of a family-friendly nature as possible. Their goal was not to appeal to a wider audience in the West, but instead to a certain age group in the West. The Pokémon games have always been rated three years and up, and by that logic, the whole Pokémon franchise needed to be suited for very young children, despite older audiences who grew up with Pokémon fervently watching the show as well.

Starting from generation 5 in 2010, Pokémon introduced two new alphabets in the anime and video game series. Both alphabets are based on the Latin alphabet, but the characters have a strong resemblance to Japanese characters (Image 1.21).24 With the inclusion of a universal alphabet, animators and localizers no longer had to remove or alter Japanese text in the anime.25

Earlier in chapter two, I have discussed the removal of the Japanese gesture in which someone places one hand on the opposite bicep and flexes their arm, to indicate strength and resilience. In the Pokémon games, such a gesture is also present, used by the Sailor trainer class. The gesture was not used in the first generation, but debuted in all versions of the Pokémon games during the second generation. It was only in the third generation that the gesture was removed in international versions of the Pokémon games (Image 1.22). Ever since then, all future releases of the Pokémon games, including the Japanese versions, have cut the gesture entirely. 3.3 Graphical adjustments in Pokémon

The blending procedure is implemented when narratives or visual features needed to be reworked, either to be in line with the understanding of the target audience or to avoid controversy (Thayer & Kolko 2004, 483). While Pokémon is popular in Japan among kids and teens alike, in America Pokémon was marketed towards kids only. Because the Pokémon anime in the West appeared on TV-channels specifically meant for viewership by children, instances of episodes where the visuals were deemed inappropriate for the audience were simply banned in the West. NoA had a strict policy regarding allowing certain content in Pokémon games, and 4Kids even took it one step further in the anime. Few examples of such practices are presented below.

The first example is the episode “Beauty and the Beach”, being criticized for its depiction of women’s breasts and usage of sexual innuendos. In this episode, there is a segment where the character James is seen cross-dressing, wearing inflatable breasts for a beauty contest. Another banned episode is “The Legend of Dratini”, in which a man points a revolver at Ash and the others. Throughout the entire episode, pervasive use of firearms is shown, and the episode also contains a segment of one of the main character’s rivals, Meowth, who is seen

24 You might notice the hiragana mi (み), to (と), ro (ろ), ru (る), ka (か), se (せ), re (れ), so (そ), and katakana ta (タ), as well as the kanji character ko (子) and ji (字). 25 In the video games, Japanese text was not present on buildings or other objects.

36 wearing a mustache that, even though being modeled after the stereotype of a police chief, resembles Adolf Hitler’s mustache.

The episode “Holiday Hi-Jynx” was banned due to controversy surrounding the Pokémon Jynx being criticized for resembling a racist depiction of black people in America in the 20th century, also known as “blackface” (Image 1.23). Future episodes had Jynx’ design changed from black to purple and this has remained since then in the anime and in video games. Jynx has long blond/white hair, a black face, large pink lips, and thus fits the picture of blackface. However, Jynx’ design is actually based on the Japanese tale of the yamauba (山姥), or mountain witch. They live alone in the icy mountains and offer shelter to weary travelers. When their guests are asleep, they transform into their true forms and eat their guests, utilizing magic. The dark skin of Jynx could be a reference to the Japanese Nō Theater, which often portrayed yamauba in blackface. In the Pokémon anime and video game, Jynx’ typing is Psychic/Ice, a direct reference to the snowy mountains and the magic used by yamauba. While Game Freak, the producer of Pokémon, conveyed their best intentions by incorporating elements of Japanese culture into their games for a worldwide audience, it is also reasonable that the official design of the Pokémon was changed, as the issue of blackface is not only a remarkably sensitive topic in the United States, but in many European countries as well. The resemblance to blackface is simply too striking to be left ignored.

As Pokémon is a franchise directed towards children, NoA has a particularly strict policy with regards to adult themes. Sexuality, erotic and/or suggestive images or content especially underwent fierce censorship, as evident by the banned episodes and altered dialogue previously discussed. Female characters had their skirts lengthened and were no longer shown winking in the international versions of Pokémon: Gold & Silver (Image 1.24 & Image 1.25). In other titles, such as Pokémon Colosseum (2003), one of the character’s skirt has been lengthened and her midriff fully covered. In the Japanese version of Pokémon Stadium (1998), the Pokémon Nidoqueen, upon entering the battle arena, was seen cupping its breasts. This animation has been removed in the international version.

Not only dialogue referring to alcohol, but visual cues to drinks that could resemble alcohol were deemed inappropriate and altered. In the Japanese version of the 42nd episode in the Sun & Moon series, a shot is seen where children and adults are drinking a dark orange substance. The English version changed the color of the substance in the glasses of the adults

37 from orange to green. This is likely due to the differences of mugs the characters are holding, with the children holding glasses, and the adults holding what appears to resemble beer mugs. Several episodes later, in episode 55, two adult characters are seen drinking a light-yellow substance. In the Japanese version, the glasses they hold resemble wine glasses. In the English version, the wine glasses have been replaced by regular glasses, and the substance is now orange, presumably to indicate orange juice. Furthermore, in-game depictions of smoking have been removed. In the Japanese version of Pokémon: Gold & Silver, the Fisherman trainer class is seen smoking a cigarette, a common stereotype in Japan. In international versions, the cigarette has been erased. The Fisherman was never seen smoking a cigarette again after. In 2005, the Pokémon Company International decided to take charge of the localization of Pokémon in the West, and 4Kids was let go, soon after filing for bankruptcy. The localization practices of 4Kids in the Pokémon anime were largely dialogue-based, and 4Kids mainly banned certain episodes where other companies would implement visual changes. The only optical revisions were the removal of Japanese text in the anime. Over the years, visual alterations have become more commonplace, and 4Kids continued to swap rice balls and other Japanese food with sandwiches in the anime. When the Pokémon Company took over localization, such actions were withdrawn in future episodes, but the focus remained altering observable content.

3.4 Changes to gameplay in Pokémon

As argued in chapter 1.1, anime is experienced while viewing it, while video games have to be actively engaged with in order to get a grasp of its potential and reach. Vestal explains that Japanese video games were purposely made increasingly difficult in order to make games “rental-proof” and to increase the buy-back value (Vestal 2005).26 Carlson & Corliss further suggest that it was in fact not Japanese, but American players that were more proficient in video games, eliminating the need for a lower difficulty level (Carlson & Corliss 2011, 69). While it is possible to experience anime differently as a result of the localization changes, this subchapter is dedicated to the Pokémon video games only, as gameplay experience is not present in anime.

Ever since the release of the first Pokémon games, difficulty levels have not been a factor in Western localization practices. The Pokémon games do not have multiple difficulty levels, nor does the difficulty level differ between regions. As discussed in chapter 2, some Japanese games have had their difficulty reworked to be more approachable to the target audience. This is not the case with Pokémon, as players in all regions experience the same difficulty level. There is one instance though, where localization of certain Pokémon games has had an impact on the gameplay experience. A certain feature in the Pokémon games has been cut from the game entirely due to age rating concerns: the inclusion of the Game Corner slot machines.

Since the fourth generation of Pokémon (2006), PEGI (Pan European Game Information), a European video game rating system, had developed stricter policies and concluded that the Game Corner in the Pokémon games was a means to gamble. The Game Corner is a place in every Pokémon game where you can play slot machines and various mini-games to win coins, which the player can exchange for Pokémon and/or items. According to PEGI, any game with elements of gambling must have an age rating of at least twelve years and up, potentially reaching the highest rating of “Adults only” (18+).27 A game with a twelve and up rating would severely limit sales in the West, and so, in order to comply with European laws, Nintendo

26 Buy-back means buying something that one previously sold or owned. Buy-back value entails the qualitative time spent on a second-hand game, when many games were sold in rental shops. Increased difficulty often resulted in the player spending more time in completing the game, which increases buy-back value. 27 https://pegi.info/what-do-the-labels-mean. Accessed 24th of June 2019.

39 removed the possibility to interact with slot machines in Generation 4 in the European versions of the game. In the Japanese and American version, it was still accessible. While the Game Corner still existed for a while after the incident, all references to playing games of chances were also cut from the game. Whereas in the American version, the sign of the building would read “Aim for an explosion of luck”, the European version read “The place everyone talks about”. At first, the slot machines were replaced by a card game, as it relied less on random chance. However, in the Pokémon games of generation 5 (2010), the Game Corner was removed and never seen again. In all versions of the remakes of games where the Game Corner was still present, such as Pokémon: OmegaRuby & AlphaSapphire (2014), the building is inaccessible. The owner stands outside the building, and when speaking to him, he says: “I used to run a business here, but I had to close it for reasons you don’t need to know.”

It is peculiar to see how after almost every occurrence of censorship in the West, future Japanese releases have incorporated the changes made and kept them permanent. For example, after modifying the sprites of the winking Beauty trainer class in the Western, the character was never seen winking again in subsequent Japanese releases. Similarly, the Sailor trainer class was never seen executing his trademark gesture in Japanese future releases since its Western alteration.

3.5 Conclusion

The early years of localization of the Pokémon anime saw significant alterations in dialogues, while visuals remained unchanged despite occasional cuts. Do not be mistaken: such practices are not aspects of basic localization, but of blending. Basic localization only focuses on the translation of text, while blending focuses on adapting the text, often changing the narrative as a result. Furthermore, not only narratives, but visual themes were reworked as well. The issue of racism, sexual orientation, tobacco use, implications of drinking alcoholic substances, gambling, perverseness, erotic or suggestive content, religion, the afterlife, food culture, violence, firearms, unknown gestures, Japanese text; virtually no stone has been left unturned. Episodes where visual adjustments could have sufficed were outright banned, and dialogues containing any reference to themes of an adult nature were completely erased in both the anime and video games. Examples of graphical changes were evident with the removal of cigarettes and alcohol, in the same way that elements of Asian culture, such as Japanese cuisine,

40 were replaced by Western food, despite the Japanese dishes still being noticeable in the anime. In the later years of localization of the Pokémon anime did actual visual changes occur, removing pieces of Japanese culture and censoring what was deemed to be mature content. Enactments representative of real-life (religious) practices were strictly forbidden, and tools used to pray were deleted from the games. Even mentioning the possible existence of a God was deemed too inappropriate. Additionally, gestures unfamiliar in Western culture, in particular the “muscle-flexing” gesture, were quickly removed as well. In the anime, visual changes have been the priority for localization in the last two generations, with very little revisions to the dialogue. Japanese text in the anime was no longer present with the application of a new alphabet in 2010, and therefore textual revisions were a thing of the past. Despite the differences in methods between the two generations, Pokémon localization has always been a blending process. The methods may have changed, but the subject matters did not. With every new installment incorporating the changes made in past localized works, it is evident to what degree localization contributes in shaping future games, even affecting gameplay experience in some cases, as was seen with the Game Corner.

Conclusion

Over the past few decades, localization has proven to be indispensable in the context of successful product globalization. It is key in bridging the gap between culture and language barriers, while also providing the foreign consumer with the same experience the original audience has enjoyed. The first video games were text-based, and only required basic localization. As the market grew and games became more ambitious and expansive, localization practices developed into a complex, multi-layered process undertaken by a variety of actors with divergent skill sets, materials and approaches to each media product. With localization becoming increasingly broad and complex, philosophical aspects, such as the concept of faithful translation among others, came to the forefront. Initially, Japanese digital products were designed for the Japanese market, entering the Western market afterwards if positively received, but growing popularity of Japanese cultural products in the West (Cool Japan) established new video game production strategies, where games are specifically designed for global consumption. This reorientation of Japanese game developers also shifted the practices of localization companies, with deviating results between game genres and franchises. The multitude of analyzed Japanese works in this thesis indicate various degrees of localization, primarily ranging from complex to blending. In certain video games and anime, violence is softened, while in others, references to alcohol are removed. Each adult theme has been reworked to a certain degree in localization for the Western market and, while not every product received equal attention, it is remarkable to notice the copious amounts of censorship present in localized Japanese digital media products. Evidently, localization companies had strong convictions on what would be appealing to the target audience.

For a long time, it has been thought that video games which incorporated elements inherent to Japanese culture would not sell well in the West, because of cultural differences many people in the West were presumably not aware of. As a result, many Japanese games underwent a full localization process, where the narrative was reworked, symbols and icons were changed, and content deemed inappropriate was altered or eliminated. Not only content deemed inappropriate due to its nature, but any type of content that Western audiences were not used to, such as suggestive imagery, was heavily toned down. It is highly likely that the strict policies of localization companies reflect on their view of the target audience, in many cases being children. The gaming and anime community has developed and grown significantly throughout the years, and the belief that only children and teens enjoy these media products has

42 strongly eroded. The “Cool Japan” trend further diminished this perception, and with that, Japanese developers became steadily more confident in selling their game overseas without the need for undesired localization, as they wanted to convey as much of the original experience to the foreign player as possible.

Changes that occurred in localized versions of the Pokémon video games were carried over in the subsequent Japanese releases, even if the reason behind previous alterations were merely cultural differences. As Consalvo argues that the demands of the local audience shape cultural products as they travel around the world, localization of the Pokémon franchise has had such a significant impact on the franchise, that Japanese content was reworked as well to be in line with the tastes of overseas audiences. Pokémon is a franchise that began solely in Japan, but has been designed for global consumption ever since it entered the Western market in 1997. Thorough revisions via the blending process have been executed to ensure the lack of Japanese elements and flavor that might have been deemed too foreign for non-Japanese audiences. As Pokémon became one of the most successful franchises of all time around the world, localization practices need not just cater to Western audiences, but audiences in other regions as well. Therefore, it was vital to take as little risk as possible and eliminate any reference to adult themes, however negligible they may have been. It could very well be that, in order to maintain a low age rating for the anime and video games in every target region, future Japanese iterations of the video games incorporated revisions that were solely made in the localized versions of previous releases.

Almost no other Japanese franchise has underwent such major revisions in its lifespan as Pokémon. Whereas numerous Japanese games are designed with the Japanese market in mind (and potentially the Western as well), the Pokémon franchise had instantaneously recognized its potential for worldwide growth, and adjusted localization accordingly. While it can be argued that several revisions may have been unnecessary, the success of Pokémon has not faltered because of these changes. The degree of localization also depended on the company in charge of localization, and Pokémon encountered various approaches in tackling adjustment for the Western market. The first two generations of Pokémon removed elements of Japanese culture, predominantly through dialogue, striving to be as mukokuseki as possible. The last two generations actually increased elements of Japanese culture, but progressively reworked universal adult themes, such as alcohol and sexuality. As Pokémon developed over time, the creators and localizers no longer had uncertainty if the game would be well received in the West,

43 which could explain why the video games gradually implemented features of Japanese culture without them being reworked.

A case study of only one video game and anime franchise can, unfortunately, not even hope to grasp the full understanding of the localization practices in the video game and anime industry, and rightfully so. Further research of Japanese digital media, including but not limited to video games and anime, is needed to expand our comprehension of the varying degrees of localization practices in digital media product. This essay can, however, prove as a starting point for further inquiry into history of localization practices in Japanese video game and anime franchises.

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► Mandiberg, S., 2015. Responsible Localization: Game Translation between Japan and the United States. University of California Press. ► O’Hagan, M. & Mangiron, C., 2006. Game Localization: Unleashing Imagination with ‘Restricted’ Translation. The Journal of Specified Translation, 6, 10-21. ► O’Hagan, M. & Mangiron, C., 2009. ‘Putting Pleasure First: Localizing Japanese Video Games’. TTR, 22:1, 147-165. ► O’Hagan, M. & Mangiron, C., 2013. Game Localization: Translating for the Global Entertainment Industry. Amsterdam John Benjamin’s Publishing Company. ► Thayer, A. & Kolko, B., 2004. Localization of Digital Games: The Process of Blending for the Global Games Market. Technical Communication, 51-4, 477-489. ► Tobin, J., 2004. Pikachu’s Global Adventure. The Rise and Fall of Pokémon. Duke University Press. ► Venuti, L., 2004. The Translator’s Invisibility. A history of translation. New York Routledge. ► Vestal, A., 2005. Japantown. The Official Playstation Magazine. San Francisco Ziff Davis Media Inc.

Glossary

Anime: Japanese animation. Blending: Process of localization where the story is rewritten, and the graphics are recreated to match the requirements of a different culture. Bug: An error in a computer program or system. Domestication & Foreignization: Strategies in translating text. Domestication refers to the practice of translating text to conform to the culture of the target language, whereas Foreignization tries to preserve as much of the hidden cultural meaning as possible, breaking conventions of the target language. Dubbing: Adding a soundtrack to visual media in a different language from the original. Generation (Pokémon): A grouping of Pokémon games that separates them based on the Pokémon they include. In each generation, a new set of Pokémon, moves, abilities, characters, maps etc. that were not existent in the previous generation are introduced. In each new generation, the Pokémon from the previous generation are also included for the sake of continuity and completion. Glitch: A sudden, usually temporary malfunction or fault of equipment. Graphical User Interface (GUI): A visual way of interacting with a computer using items such as windows, icons, and menus, used by most modern operating systems. Graphics: Visual images produced by computer processing. Hype: Extravagant or intensive publicity or promotion. Indie: A small, independent group, not belonging or affiliated to a major company. In-game: Done or happening when someone is playing a computer or video game. In-game refers to the action of someone playing a video game at that moment. Interface: Connecting with a computer or another piece of equipment by an interface. Localization: The process of making a product or service more suitable for a particular country, region or culture. Mukokuseki (無国籍): Lit. “statelessness”. The deliberate lack of ethnic features included in the character design of Japanese fictional characters, as if it had “no nationality”. Non-Playable Character (NPC): A character in-game that you can interact with, but not control. Pixel: The smallest unit of a digital image or graphic that can be displayed and represented on a digital display device. Pixels are combined to form a complete image, video, text or any visible thing on a computer display.

Anime and video game list

Call of Duty series: A first-person shooter video game in which the player takes control of an infantry throughout multiple wars, such as World War II, the Vietnam War, and several fictitious wars in modern times and the near and distant future. The game currently has three developers, Infinity Ward, Sledgehammer Games and Treyarch, alternating between releases each year, allowing for yearly output while still being able to have a three-year development process. First released in 2003. Crash Bandicoot series: A platform video game where you take control of Crash, a mutant bandicoot. The game is set in the fictitious Wumpa Islands, an archipelago situated to the south of Australia. In the game, Crash must defeat Doctor Neo Cortex, who created Crash and has world domination plans. Crash Bandicoot was designed because Sony was desperately in need of a mascot to bolster the PlayStation’s popularity, much like Sonic the Hedgehog did to Sega and Mario to Nintendo. The series was first produced by Naughty Dog in 1996 and the franchise switched between various developers since. Devil May Cry series: A Japanese hack and slash game set in the modern day. Developed and produced by Capcom, Devil May Cry mainly focuses on fast and stylish combat, with one of the objectives being obtaining a high style rank. The game also features various puzzle-solving and exploration elements retained from its origins as a survival horror game. First released in 2001. Far Cry series: A first-person shooter video game where the player roams through an open world, seeking escape while combating enemies within that region. The open worlds range from a tropical jungle in the South Pacific, a village in the Nepalese mountains, or a fictional region in Montana, United States. The player is free to explore the map on his or her own terms, and the outcomes of certain missions can impact the progression of the narrative. The more recent renditions in the Far Cry series, such as Far Cry 4 (2014) & Far Cry 5 (2018), have emphasized on the aspect of branching storylines. First released in 2004. Grand Theft Auto series: An action-adventure video game in which the player is put in an open world where he or she is free to explore the region and do as one pleases. Each game takes place in a fictional universe that is based on a real-life location. In Grand Theft Auto, the player takes the role of a criminal in the big city, either trying to advance in the ranks of the underworld or to escape his past. Assassinations and other violent crimes are featured regularly, along with driving multiple types of vehicles. Originally, the game was about stealing and delivering cars,

47 but with new iterations of the franchise this expanded to arson, vice, homicide, manslaughter, and many other crimes. First released in 1997. Harry Potter series (game): A game series based on the critically acclaimed novels by J.K. Rowling. The game tries to emulate the main story as much as possible, while also providing the player with options to experience elements of the story that, while canon, were not present in the book or movie adaption. First released in 2001. Kirby series: A Japanese action-platformer game developed by HAL Laboratory and released by Nintendo. The series centers on Kirby, a small, pink alien ball, who has to save his home planet from a variety of threats. A majority of entries in the Kirby franchise are side-scrolling platform games with elements of a “beat ‘em up” game. “Beat ‘em up” is a style of games in which the player engages in hand-to-hand combat with a large number of opponents. First released in 1992. The Last of Us: An action-adventure survival horror game in which the player must traverse through a post-apocalyptic America while smuggling a teenage girl. Ammo, resources and food are scarce, and the player must be wary of different kinds of zombies and human enemies on his path. The goal of the game is to reach a certain destination in order to find a possible cure for the modern fungal plague that has nearly decimated the human race. First released in 2013 for the PlayStation 3, with a remastered version for the PlayStation 4 being released in 2014. Mario Kart series: A kart racing game featuring Mario and other characters from the Mario universe racing against each other in go-karts on tracks inspired by locations of the Mario universe. Each game features multiple grands prix, a sequence of four races on designated tracks for the player to complete. First released in 1992. Oregon Trail series: An educational video game designed by student teachers to teach children about the realities of 19th-century pioneer life on the Oregon Trail. The players takes the role of a wagon leader guiding a group of settlers. First produced in 1971. Pac-Man: An arcade video game where the player takes control of Pac-Man, eating white pellets in a digital maze, while avoiding to get eaten by ghosts. To complete each level, every pellet in the maze has to be eaten. From there, the player moves on to the next level, with increasing difficulty. First released in 1980. Persona series: A role-playing game where a group of high school students engage in combat with Demons and Shadows using Personas (a physical manifestation of a person’s psyche and subconscious). While battling these foes, the player also experiences the daily life of a Japanese high school student, taking place in modern-day Japan. First released in 1996.

Phoenix Wright series: A visual novel adventure game where the player takes the role of a rookie defense attorney and attempts to defend clients in several cases. First released in 2001. Pinball: An arcade game in which points are scored by a player manipulating one or more metallic balls on a play field inside a glass-covered cabinet, also called a pinball machine. The main objective is to score as much points as possible. Pokémon series (game): A Japanese role-playing game where the player follows the standard model of a Pokémon trainer through a specific region to catch and raise Pokémon, battle trainers, fight crime, and earn recognition until they are recognized as the strongest trainer. While also battling Pokémon, the player is set on a quest to catch every Pokémon in the region in order to complete the Pokédex, a high-tech encyclopedia. First released in 1996. Pong: One of the earliest arcade video games, Pong is a table tennis sports game featuring simple two-dimensional graphics. First released in 1972. Recettear: A Japanese role-playing game created by the indie developer EasyGameStation, where the player is in charge of an item shop and has to sell various items to pay off the debt. In the game, the player can bargain and discuss the goods of prices with customers, while also explore randomly generated dungeons to acquire more items to sell. First released in 2007. Resident Evil series: A survival horror video game, where the player is trapped in a region infested with zombies and other monsters, trying to uncover secrets and ultimately escape. First released in 1996. Sonic the Hedgehog 2006: A platform video game where the character takes control of Sonic, a blue hedgehog that runs lightning fast. The game was made to commemorate the Sonic series’ 15th anniversary, but was ultimately a critical failure due to bad camera controls, long loading times, stability issues, and weak story. Released in 2006. Space Invaders: An arcade shooter game where the goal is to defeat wave after wave of descending aliens with a horizontally moving laser to earn as many points as possible. First produced in 1978. Super Mario RPG: A role-playing game where Mario travels with his party to eliminate Smithy, who has stolen several star pieces. The game features turn-based combat, a first for the Mario series. First released in 1996. Tekken series: A fighting game where the gameplay is focused on hand-to-hand combat with the opponent. The story follows the events of the King of Iron Fist tournament, and the player can control a wide range of characters to win said tournament. Tekken is known for being one of the first fighting games to use 3D animation, and has a diverse set of characters from all over the world. First released in 1994.

Tetris: A tile-matching puzzle video game in which the player tries to get rid of the increasing pile of blocks by lining up tiles next to each other. Tetris is to this date one of the most successful games of all time. First released in 1984. Yakuza series: An action-adventure video game in which the player takes control of a former yakuza member, seeking to escape life in the underworld. The game is set in Japan and gives us an insight into the way of life of the yakuza. First released in 2005.

Title in Japanese: Pokemon getto daze! Nihon no geemu to anime to kaigai muke no roukaraizu no shuhou.

Guideline to Generations

Titles in italics represent a remake of the game with similar names (Let’s Go Eevee/Pikachu is a remake of Pokémon: Yellow). Generations in bold are included in this case-study.

Gen 1: Pokémon: Red/Green/Blue/Yellow/Stadium (1996-1999). Gen 2: Pokémon: Gold/Silver/Crystal (1999-2001). Gen 3: Pokémon: Ruby/Sapphire/Emerald/FireRed/LeafGreen/Colosseum/XD (2002-2005). Gen 4: Pokémon: Diamond/Pearl/Platinum/HeartGold/SoulSilver (2006-2010). Gen 5: Pokémon: Black/White/Black2/White2 (2010-2012). Gen 6: Pokémon: X/Y/OmegaRuby/AlphaSapphire (2013-2014). Gen 7: Pokémon: Sun/Moon/UltraSun/UltraMoon/Let’sGoEevee/Let’sGoPikachu (2016- 2018).

Appendix

Image 1.01: Triangle of quality by Chandler and Deming. The simplified idea is that when localizing a digital product, a developer can only realistically optimize two out of the three options, with the one left behind being the lacking aspect.

Image 1.02: Crash Bandicoot: N-Sane Trilogy box art for the Western & Japanese version (2017).

Image 1.03: Untranslated images and video in Persona 5.

Image 1.04: Inconsistent handling of honorifics in Persona 5.

Image 1.05: The game’s Chinese subtitles being altered in Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, despite there not being an official Chinese release.

Image 1.06: Removal of the Japanese Imperial Flag logo on Ryuji’s shoes in the Korean version of Persona 5.

Image 1.07: Cultists of Happy Happyism in Earthbound (Japanese & US version).

Image 1.08: The Inkling Girl using the muscle flexing gesture in Mario Kart 8 Deluxe (Japanese & US version).

Image 1.09: Dark Magician Girl in Yu-Gi-Oh! (Japanese & Western version). Notice how the pentagram is also removed due to concerns about affiliation with religion and the occult.

Image 1.10: The removal of guns in Yu-Gi-Oh! (Japanese & Western version).

Image 1.11: Sanji from One Piece smoking a cigarette versus enjoying a lollipop (Japanese & US version).

Image 1.12: Box art for Kirby’s Air Ride (2003) (Japanese & US version).

Image 1.13: The question about the shōgi piece in Persona 5. It reads: “This character is the cursive form of a specific kanji. Do you know which one it is?”

Image 1.14: Explanation of shōgi in Persona 5.

Image 1.15: Social Stats and their ranks in Persona 5.

Image 1.16: Removal of Japanese text in Pokémon, such as names of Pokémon inscribed on the ball, International & Japanese version.

Image 1.17: The option to purchase “Hoenn ramen” in Pokémon: Sun & Moon (Generation 7).

Image 1.18: The Beauty Trainer Class being a former Karate King versus being a Black Belt in Pokémon: X & Y (Generation 6).

The text reads as follows (with Romanization and translation below): 半年前はカラテ王だったのに医学の力ってスゲーよね！ Hantoshi mae wa karate ou datta no ni igaku no chikara tte sugee yo ne! “Half a year ago I was a Karate King. The power of medical science is awesome, right?”

Image 1.19: The Sage Trainer Class (Generation 2) (International & Japanese version).

Image 1.20: The Medium Trainer Class (Generation 2) (International & Japanese version).

Image 1.21: The new alphabet in the Pokémon games and anime.

Image 1.22: The Sailor Trainer Class shown performing the muscle flexing gesture (Generation 3) (Western & Japanese version).

Image 1.23: The design of Jynx being changed from black to purple (Generation 2) (International & Japanese version). From generation 3 onward, Jynx’ design remained purple.

Image 1.24: The Swimmer Trainer Class (Generation 2) (International & Japanese version).

Image 1.25: The Beauty Trainer Class (Generation 2) (International & Japanese version).