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The Influence of Ambient Temperature on High Performance Concrete

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The Influence of Ambient Temperature on High Performance Concrete materials Article The Influence of Ambient Temperature on High Performance Concrete Properties Alina Kaleta-Jurowska * and Krystian Jurowski Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Opole University of Technology, Katowicka 48, 45-061 Opole, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 2 September 2020; Accepted: 12 October 2020; Published: 18 October 2020 Abstract: This paper presents the results of tests on high performance concrete (HPC) prepared and cured at various ambient temperatures, ranging from 12 ◦C to 30 ◦C (the compressive strength and concrete mix density were also tested at 40 ◦C). Special attention was paid to maintaining the assumed temperature of the mixture components during its preparation and maintaining the assumed curing temperature. The properties of a fresh concrete mixture (consistency, air content, density) and properties of hardened concrete (density, water absorption, depth of water penetration under pressure, compressive strength, and freeze–thaw durability of hardened concrete) were studied. It has been shown that increased temperature (30 ◦C) has a significant effect on loss of workability. The studies used the concrete slump test, the flow table test, and the Vebe test. A decrease in the slump and flow diameter and an increase in the Vebe time were observed. It has been shown that an increase in concrete curing temperature causes an increase in early compressive strength. After 3 days of curing, compared with concrete curing at 20 ◦C, an 18% increase in compressive strength was observed at 40 ◦C, while concrete curing at 12 ◦C had a compressive strength which was 11% lower. An increase in temperature lowers the compressive strength after a period longer than 28 days. After two years of curing, concrete curing at 12 ◦C achieved a compressive strength 13% higher than that of concrete curing at 40 ◦C. Freeze–thaw performance tests of HPC in the presence of NaCl demonstrated that this concrete showed high freeze–thaw resistance and de-icing materials (surface scaling of this concrete is minimal) regardless of the temperature of the curing process, from 12 ◦C to 30 ◦C. Keywords: concrete; temperature; high performance concrete (HPC) 1. Introduction 1.1. Temperature Influence on the Hydration Process of Portland Cement Temperature is an important factor which influences the hydration process of cement and the properties of concrete mixture and hardened concrete. It is known that the rate of reaction of cement hydration grows with increasing temperature. The consequence of this is a faster increase in the strength of concrete in the early stage of maturation [1–3]. The influence of temperature on the cement hydration process has been the subject of many studies. It has been found that, in the early stages of maturation, the rate of hydration of the alite significantly increases along with an increase in temperature, but later (from 28 to 90 days) it decreases depending on the type of cement [4]. After a year of maturation, the highest degree of hydration was observed in cement pastes cured at 10 ◦C and the lowest in those at 60 ◦C. Furthermore, it was found that, in cement paste Materials 2020, 13, 4646; doi:10.3390/ma13204646 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials Materials 2020, 13, 4646 2 of 16 curing at 10 ◦C, almost all the cement grains were hydrated, while at 60 ◦C cement grains which were only partially hydrated could be observed. Studies on the microstructure of hydrated cement phases at different temperatures have shown that temperature also influences the morphology, type, and number of hydrate phases formed. At higher temperatures, the more heterogeneous distribution of hydrate phases and formations of shorter needle-shaped ettringite crystals are observed [5]. Moreover, the results indicate that at elevated temperatures the hydration rate of alite and belite is higher. The results of the authors of the study [6] indicate that the apparent density of cement paste increases with temperature (in the range from 5 ◦C to 60 ◦C). According to the authors, this is due to the reduction of bonded water. This results in a more porous microstructure of the cement paste and a reduction in the volume occupied by the C-S-H phase. Higher porosity of cement pastes cured at elevated temperatures was also found by the authors [7]. The result is lower strength of the paste and lower durability of the resulting material. The studies presented in the paper [8] indicate that at elevated temperatures (40 ◦C and 50 ◦C) the formation of the C-S-H phase with higher density, more heterogeneous distribution of hydration products and higher porosity were observed. At 50 ◦C, calcium monosulphate was observed in the initial period, while the amount of ettringite significantly decreased. This was also confirmed by the authors of other works [9,10]. Due to the increase in porosity, the strength decreases later on. An increase in the porosity of cement pastes cured at elevated temperatures was also observed in binders containing granulated blast-furnace slag [11–14]. Cement pastes with the addition of fly ash, volcanic ash or granulated blast-furnace slag, cured in the temperature range from 10 ◦C to 60 ◦C were tested in the study [11]. It was found that blast furnace slag was the only additive that positively influenced the strength (in relation to the strength of the cement paste without additives), especially at 60 ◦C. According to these authors, the microstructure of cement pastes cured at 60 ◦C showed higher porosity than the microstructure of grouts cured at 10 ◦C. In [15], it was found that the microstructure of cement paste with silica fume, cured at 23 ◦C, is homogeneous. This cement paste has a much less porous structure compared to a cement paste without an additive, with the same degree of cement hydration. On the other hand, cement pastes cured at 30 ◦C ◦ ◦ and 70 C differ from cement pastes cured at 23 C with their Ca(OH)2 concentration. While the distribution of hydration products is still relatively homogenous, there are larger continuous pores between the cement grains. The authors found that the temperature of curing has a greater impact on the microstructure of a cement paste with silica fume than cement paste without this additive. Tests of cement pastes cured at temperatures ranging from 5 ◦C to 50 ◦C carried out after a longer period of time (up to 91 days) showed that the cement pastes cured at the lowest temperature was hydrated to the greatest extent [16]. These authors have also shown that at a higher curing temperature in a cement paste, the distribution of hydration products is uneven, resulting in a lower compressive strength of these cement pastes after a longer curing time [17,18]. Summing up the results of the research conducted by various authors, it should be stated that the increase in temperature leads to the acceleration of the hydration process of Portland cement, with the distribution of hydration products being more irregular. This results in increased compressive strength in the early stages of curing. Increased temperature also makes the distribution of cement hydration products uneven and increases the porosity of the resulting structure. The consequence of this is a reduction in compressive strength after a longer curing period. This also applies to cement pastes containing mineral additives, although, in the case of additives, such as fly ash or granulated blast-furnace slag, the scale of the phenomenon is smaller, which can be explained by the reduction in hydration heat of binders with these mineral additives. Materials 2020, 13, 4646 3 of 16 1.2. Influence of Temperature on the Properties of a Fresh Concrete Mixture and Hardened Concrete The influence of temperature on the cement hydration is reflected in the properties of the concrete mixture and hardened concrete. The production of concrete mixtures at elevated temperatures causes many problems due to the accelerated hydration process of the cement. In addition, the concrete mix has a higher water demand due to evaporation. The influence of temperature on the workability of normal strength concrete is well recognised—increasing temperature leads to workability deterioration [19,20]. The authors of the paper [21] also stated that there is an optimal temperature (about 20 ◦C) allowing them to obtain a concrete mixture with the most advantageous workability. Klieger [22] found that with the temperature increase of 11 ◦C, the slump decreases by 25 mm, the result of which it is necessary to increase the water content to maintain its consistency. The consistency of the concrete mixture also depends on the effectiveness of chemical admixtures at elevated temperatures. Schmidt et al. [23] demonstrated that the behaviour of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC), containing a superplasticizer, at different temperatures, is different from that of normal concrete. Superplasticizers in a concrete mixture, depending on their chemical structure, have different effects on rheological properties of the concrete mixture. A linear relationship between the temperature and the yield stress of the concrete mixture was shown. The higher the temperature, the faster the yield stress increases [24]. The paper in [25] shows that the temperature of concrete mixture also has an influen on the initian and final setting time of cement. The difference between the initial and the final setting time of the cement decreases as the ambient temperature increases. Moreover, the study [26] shows that an increase in the cement content results in an increase in the temperature of the concrete mixture, as well as a shortening of the setting time. An increase in ambient temperature generally results in a loss of workability of the concrete mixture. The reason for this phenomenon is both the acceleration of the cement setting process and the faster evaporation of the mixing water at higher temperatures.
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