PART - II

WETLAND DESTRUCTION AND MITIGATION IN

CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 Wetlands in Colombo 4.1 Geographical setting in Colombo

Lessened knowledge on wetlands and rising demand for land directly involve for reducing this fascinating, unique, peaceful ecosystem and landscape from earth. We have to look in to the heart breaking story of roots of changing environment of fresh water inland wetlands in Colombo , before rush in to the solutions for its' protection. Specially third world country like ours, where have high population, among them most of are the jobless, youth who demand for job and home for starting a new life to fulfill their needs in youth. On the other hand, to fulfill this demand a poor country like ours, never think of long term solutions, tend to go for short cuts which seems as the best by foolish politicians and administrators who want to fulfill their selfish desires by leasing dreams of civilians. In this unplanned short term strategies, urban sprawl and agglomeration of infrastructures and services in Colombo cannot be ignored, as this is the beginning of stresses for rapid, uncontrolled !lurbanization". Thus demand for piece of land in and around Colombo is getting increased. Where there is no naturally suitable land for the need, the solution given by politicians, administrators and so called policy makers are to fill the wetlands which seems as wastelands that nobody inhabits. Hence, it is the way of loosing this years otd natural environment which is actually a country's invaluable hydrological, chemical, biological and socio economic assets.

Despite of seeing the history and background of Colombo we never be able to design for future with enhancing our natural resources and landscapes; Fresh water inland wetlands.

Colombo - By considering good olden stories of heritage and scholarly articles of Prof. J.B. Dissanayake, Julius de Lanerolle, Padma Edirisnghe and others the word Colombo derives from Sinhala word "Kolomba" meaning " Kola amba-trees" or "leafy mango trees" that could be seen in nearby environments of harbor artd the coastal belt in the area, many years ago. That's why it was named "Kolon thota" meaning "the ferry/ harbor or haven of

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.. Kola amba trees". Even the meaning derives from trees, that could make metal picture of green and shady, salubrious environment of the area. As the beliefs evidences and sweet memories of Colombo proves that it was a gift of Mother Nature fulfilled with natural water bodies, vegetation and wild animals that really a paradise on earth before it goes to hands of colonial empires.

Fig 4.1 Lake of Colombo in Dutch period (Source: Early Prints of Ceylon 1800- 1900, page 105)

Further as Padma Edirisinghe points out "the place names like Madnmpitiya, were probably spawned out ofgroves ofMaadnm (a kind ofjuicy edible fruit even now growing in clusters by our streams) and Bambala(a name now not in usage)" (1) That means, "Colombo" was a place shared the characteristics of the average topography of our island as a showcase of lakes, waterways, marshes, shrub land, pachyderms on run and gushing water ways.

Colombo city being situated on lower valley of "Kelani river" where the river finishes her journey after meeting Indian ocean at Colombo- Mutwal area. In this area Kelani River flows slowly, meanders and spread widely by creating deltas over the valley. In rainy season, river floods by over flowing of its banks and alluvial plains in and around the area. In

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• other words, Colombo is developed gradually, on flood plain of Kelani river during past 600 years and its territorial boundaries are further defined by other natural water bodies such as Bolgoda lake and Panadura river on its southern ends, Diyawanna oya in Kotte side and river Kelani on its northern and eastern limits. Within that there were numerous rice fields spread in Colombo and its' suburbs in lower land valleys of "Kelani river" . It sharpened the idea of that most parts of Colombo could be defined as natural fresh water inland wetlands or marshlands.

As R.L.Brohier recalls in his book that " the enclave of Kelani ganga(river) and off its' left bank which lay north of plantations there were extensive areas of grass fields and swampy lands which extends south wards from Bloemendahl (meaning the vale offlowers) most of it was once owned by a Hollander and named after him "Vander Meyden's Ponder" (means pasture lands reclaimed from marshes)." (2) It reveals that the most parts of heart of Colombo were marshlands and swampy, when the Dutch came to Sri ·Lanka.

A;.,,.

Fig 4.2 in Dutch period (Source: Early Prints of Ceylon 1800-1900, page

He further describes (page 57) it was in Dutch ti!lles drained and used as cinnamon gardens as a model farm. " .... tradition holds that cows were milked on the "polders" and

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.. that milk was brought to a central depot in flat bottomed boats which plied on the network of canals dug to drain the lands."

4.2 Fresh Water Inland Wetlands in Colombo- Then and Now

This is evidence that the net work of canals were dug with Beire lake in Dutch period; this system of canals was used to drain the reclaimed lands and as low budget mode of transport to bring the harvest of cinnamon and other spices from remote areas to Colombo harbor. The Dutch were canal experts, who had diverse knowledge on building and developing cities over the water and had perfect knowledge of drainage science.

R.K. De Silva, (1985, page 106) commented on the lake of Colombo that it is" a fine piece of water, supplied by several small tributary streams, and extending, from the glacis of the , four offiv e miles in a north easterly direction. It communicates by means of canals with Kelani ganga (river) near the 'bridge of boats' and so with Negombo, North wards with the lake of Bolgobbe; Panadura river or estuary and thus with Kalu river near Calutara, south wards, affording great fadlities for internal communication which might;..l}e most advantageously extended without much labour and expense. He further said " the lake forms one of the greatest attractions in Colombo. And by its' margin stand some of most delightful residences in the island; whilst its waters afford the favourite and healthful recreationof boating in all its branches to the officers of garrison and all its inhabitants. An annual regatta was established some years ago and on these occasions the lake puts on the most gay and animated appearance , the number of yachts and sailing boats having considerably increased. In consequence of promotion this truly English aquatic amusement."(3)

The British later extended the "beire lake" and developed many lands in Colombo to fulfill their administrative, commercial and residential needs. Compared with today they had lesser needs and demands; therefore they were able to maintain the ecological balance although they filled the swampy lands and cut green groves in Colombo for example: and Cinnamon Gardens, and Galle face for achieving to meet their needs, and they did this to a plan. They used water bodies not only'as a mode of transport but to create healthy and pleasant environment. That's why although they filled marshes they dug the

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• deep canals to Jet the surface drainage water drains out and they maintained the ecological balance by keeping large land extensions as wide open spaces. Thus the wild flora and fauna got their niches to allow them to stay while the people defined their city boundaries in Colombo. They understood the value of trees and vegetation as well as other creatures to the island. They changed the green paradise of Colombo gradually but allowed it to keep its' tropical identity by doing things in future plan with a vision of environmental management. As a result of that, a proper planning programme was followed by the British administrators who ruled the country by 19th century. Several Physical plans were prepared for Colombo during these colonial times.

Fig 4.3 Kolpity Cinnamon Gardens in Dutch period (Source: Early Prints of Ceylon 1800 -1900, page 111)

Patrick Geddes Plan -1921 Patrie Geddes Plan for Colombo (1921) was the first development plan in the recent history of Sri lanka. As explained in the Colombo Metropolitan regional Structure Plan (1998, page15) "The main concept was to make the city of Colombo " The Garden City of the

East" by confining the planning area to Colombo cit{t' (4) under it, the Cinnamon Garden area was developed according to the theme leaving large green spaces right round the buildings. "The tree-lined streets and grid system of roads in Cinnamon gardens are legacies of

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.. the Patrie K.Geddes plan which still provides most sought after residential areas in the city."(4) Even the "Viharamaha devi pariC' which has many old, shady trees, is the result of this plan.

Patrick Abercrombie Plan -1948 Increased pressure to expand the city to meet growing demand after world war II led to the Patrick Abercrombie Plan -1948. This was made by considering the city of Colombo within its' surrounding region (covering nearly 220 sq. miles) and which extended up to Ja-Ela in the North to to Moratuwa in the South and 14 miles inland to the East. As it is pointed out in Colombo Metropolitan regional Structure Plan (1998, page15) "The main problems highlighted in Abercrombie plan were the high concentration of economic, trade and port related activities in the city and their effects. The introduction of satellite towns in Rathmalana, , and were based on proposal made in this plan"(4) and also density zoning was introduced for the first time, inorder to help meet demands of population increase, but these proposals were never fully implemented.

This plan signaled to the administrative bodies the ill effects of aggregating and concentrating trade and economy in the city centre. But further expansion of Colombo ..... ~ ignored this consideration and the need for the city to expand in balanced and not a concentrated way. After long time, in 1978, Under the UNDP(United Nations Development Programme) further proposal was produced and this was known as Colombo Master Plan Project

Fig 4.4 Arial View of Colombo Metropolitan region 2010 (Source: Colombo Metropolitan

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• Colombo Master Plan Project (UNDP) -1978 The Colombo Metropolitan regionaf Structure Plan explains that (1998, page15) "This proposed a balanced regional development strategy covering the including the area now classified as the Gampaha district and part of District. The central sub region consisted of the Colombo urban area, while the outer region consisted the outer urban cluster. However this strategtj of balanced spatial development did not succeeded."(4) This was mainly because of unplanned services expansion populationincreased which outstripped planning and which caused to Colombb to continue to expand beyond its' physical limits as defined in the Colombo Master plan.

City of Colombo Development Plan -1985 Under the City of Colombo Development Plan -1985 it was further mentioned to expand the city toward North and South boundaries of Colombo. The reason was the reason for pulling and pushing people towards Colombo as compare to other parts of the country Colombo. Thus the Negative impact was the increasing of environmental pollution and congestion. Unbalanced, rapid economic growth after 1978 political and economical transformations also affected to lose the moral values of people and it was the invisible reason of degrading environment as people forgotten.... their duties towards nature .

Colombo Metropolitan region Structure plan -1998 Under this whole Colombo region including the Wetern province was planned to take under the Colombo Metropolitan region where the areas include Colombo District , Kalutara from Southern side and Gampaha from Northern Side. Colombo Metropolitan regional Structure Plan describes that (1998, page18) "Here it is concerned Urban Re­ Development projects, Industrial estates, New roads,street lines, mass transport system, Environmental improvement projects, Urban Design for town centres (as Malambe) and town development (as Homagama) were identified as main features ofCMR Plan."(4) The development cannot be stopped but it can be managed in a proper manner. There would not be a plan for city development without proper environmental improvements. When city expands it does not mean that the natural environment has to be sacrificed little by 1ittle in ad-hoc manner. If we do not think of preserving and conservation methods that going hand in hand with physical development, then no one can stop pollution, deforestation and marshland reclamation. Ultimately it means we are losing

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• our landscape heritage and environment. As Colombo is on low land lying on the Kelani river catchment with natural swampy and marshlands, the increasing intensity of urbanization directly or indirectly involves he reducing these wetlands to fulfill the short term physical needs of the city. When the development spread towards inland it means, that marshes, paddy lands, streams and all fresh water wetlands have to be sacrificed partially or completely. This short term encroachment upon what in effect are essential, dispersing soak-aways draining off surcharges of rain water during the South- West monsoon is merely storing up and creating conditions for the future catastrophie flooding of the city.

Fig 4.5 Land filling for Fig 4.6 Illegal encroaching of wet Development works [ photographs by Nalaka Krishantha] [ photographs by Nalaka Krishantha] ...... lands

4.3 Present Reasons For Destruction of Fresh Water unartu vvtmanu~ Significance of wetlands, fascinating tands -provide lots of goods ·and services at no cost are threatened due to increasing urban sprawl, rapid growth of population, pollution, unmanaged urban growth in hinterlands of Colombo ..... etc. Increasing demand for the land in Colombo city and in suburbs has obliterated almost inland marshes to scattered pockets that will also eventually go under development. These are the reasons for increased destruction for wetlands and as a result of that there are lot of other natural disasters tends to be increased too.

Physical Reasons Land : Man Ratio in Sri Lanka and Colombo Increasing population and consequence to that the land becomes the limited factor which is the centre for many of the problems in development sense. "Total land arer-.....~.o fSri Lanka after leaving the area occupied by inland waters is only 6.44 million hectares.

Jrd land commission report after allowances are made for forest cover, steep and b,

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• urban and rural dwellings about 2.5 billion hectares. Nearly 39% of total land area for further development and agricultural production."(5) When the land become limited factor for development, for Colombo or any other city couldn't be refraining from getting expand. According to the department of census and statistics- 2001 David Perera analyzes "The amalgamation of adjoining areas from time to time increased the physical size of the city. Such changes occurred in 1901, 1911, 1946, 1953, and 1963. The present city size has increased up to 37.3sq.km. The average population density of city according to the first available records in 1871 was 40 people per hectare. This has reached up to 105 people per hectare in 1940. The current density is 172 people per hectare."(&) This is further confirmed by the evidences of population growth in Sri Lanka and Colombo. Table 4.1 : Population Growth 1871- 1992

Year Population Average Annual Average Annual (000') Growth Rate(%) Additions (000') 1871 2,400 1881 2760 1.4 36 1891 3008 0.9 25

~901 3566 , .... 1.7 56 1911 4106 1.4 54 1921 4498 0.9 39 1931 5307 1.7 81 1946 6657 1.5 90 1953 8098 2.8 206 1963 10582 2.7 248 1971 12690 2.2 263 1981 14847 1.7 216 1991 17247 1.4 240 1992 17480 1.0 233

(Source: Environment & Sustainable development 1994, p41 edited By Ashley L.S. Perera, quoted from census reports, Dept. of Census and Statistics]

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• Table 4.2 :Population Growth 1981-2001

Description Population Annual 1981 2001 Growth 1981- 2001

Total Population of Sri Lanka 14,846,750 18,732,255 1.1

Total Population of Colombo 1,699,241 2,234,239 1.3

[Source: Census of Population and Housing 2001] The above tables show the demand for lands in Cotombo go htgh overt past decades with increasing of population in Colombo. And the population for 2015 has been esttmates at 21.9 mitlion. The increasing population again helps to destroy the natural environment including wetlands to fulfill the increasing needs of them.

Rapid Urbanization In Colombo .... Sri Lanka has been considered to be one of the most densely populated countries in the world in the "1991 the density was 292 persons square kilometer and according to estimates it will exceed 310 by the year 2005."(7} It has been found that the population is concentrated mostly in the western and central parts of country. However in Sri Lanka, migration of the rural population to the urban areas has been slower than in most developing countries. An increase of the urban population from 15% of total population in 1946 to 22.5% in 1971 was witnessed due to po~itical and economical changes. After 1971, increasing of private sector employments in urban areas was grown in considerable rate. And it was created rapid development in infrastructure facilities in urban areas especially in western province. Colombo was changed rapidly and it was the main factor of increasing urban groth in Colombo and its suburbs.

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• Table 4.3: Population Growth in and around Colombo up to 1-981

City 1946 1953 1963 1971 1981 Colombo 362074 426,127 511,644 562,420 587647 - 56881 78213 110,934 154,193 173,529 Mt.Lavinia Moratuwa 50,698 60,215 77,833 96,265 134,826 Kotte 40,218 54,381 73,324 93,686 101 ,042

[Source: State of Woman in Urban Local Government www.unescap.org)

Other than that for understanding the urbanization of Colombo, it must be necessary to Include the population data of , Kaduwela and Kesbewa; because in Colombo, suburbanization has been taken place towards all directions. For example Highlevel road, Negombo road, Kandy road, Kaduwela road by clearing all habitable lands as well as reclaiming wetlands as possible as can.

Land Reclamation and Fragmentation When population grows high, the spatial $mand is fulfiHed by reclamation of tow tying areas and wetlands in and around Colombo to give nouses and infrastructures. Not only the above reasons, fragmentation of in~and wetlands in Colombo for development purposes also affect for destruction of fresh water wetlands in Colombo; that affects for natural growth of flora and fauna in these ecosystems. By dividing natural systems in to smaller patches, unlike original, results loss of flora and fauna, invasion of exotic plants, and deruption of critical and eco system process.

Poor land use planning To accommodate this expansion conventionally 5 alternatives has been used by city planners since then for overcome the growing demand for space. lnfill ( densification) Suburbanization Urban development Changing of zoning Reclaimation of wetlands.

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• Fig 4.7 Wetlands in , Colombo are sacrificed for increasing needs of Urban life. [photographs by Nalaka Krishantha]

By using above conventional methods as blinds go in the dark, it again proves the poor land use planning ~n Sri lanka which doubles the problems such as flash floods, blocking drainage system of Colombo and suburbs, reducing natural wetlands which are natural sponges of recharging and discharging ground water, moderating the local climate, reducing existing open spaces, destroying natural e11vironment .. . etc. In each methQd they practice as solution fQr urban growth, confirms how they deviate fmm natural simple life style to artificial, complex life style.

Social reasons All the above reasons are affected for destruction of wetlands in Colombo which are arisen as a result of Rapid Development that causes of Urbanization. On the other hand Changing of life style and value system affect for destruction of wetlands in Colombo.

As a result of continuous land reclamations of flood plain of Kelani river for creating space for migratory population in Colombo, city of Colombo is get extended day by day; but the intrinsic feature of old 'Kolontota' or Colombo couldn't be totally disappeared. The canal system which was developed by Dutch not only for as a transport solution but also as strategy for bearing excessive flood and surface drainage water in developing City of Colombo. Without being understanding of those effective planning strategies, our imprudent planners and related professionals allow to reclaim the wetlands & water streams, use them as dumping yards, and convert the canals and streams for

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• development sake toughen the problem. By increasing use of polythene, block the canals and water bodies in and around Colombo; which affects to destroy the drainage pattern as well as natural ecosystems. Using of non permeable grounds, increase the surface runoff when raining, but it never expand the volumes of wetlands, water streams, natural drains and canals of Colombo. Instead of that, they tend to get reduced in size and capacity day by day as a result of illegal encroaching and unlimited reclamation of these wetlands, streams and canals.

Greater Colombo Canal S ystem

Fig 4.8 Greater Colombo Canal System (Source: Floods in Colombo, Role of SLLRDC in provision of Storm water drainage Semina paper, page 4 by PP. Gnanapala DGM( research 6 design) SLLRDC ]

Ecological reasons These are could be named as ecological threats that of course arising as a results of above mentioned things.these are Eutrophication, Succession & Spreading of invasive species.

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.. Eutrophication "Eutrophication is the process in which streams and fresh water wetlands receive inputs of plants ( mostly nitrates and phosphates) from surrounding agricultural lands as a result of natural erosion and surface runoff This process gradually fills the water body with sediments over many years. However near urban or agricultural centres, the input of nutrients will be greatly accelerated or cultural etrophication is caused by effluents from sewage treatment plantsand soil erosion.Th is type of water body is usually shallow, warm water large population of phyto planktons and zoo planktonsand diverse population of.fish ."(B) Due to increasing of reclaiming the wetlands for providing urban infrastructure facilities, the natural drainage pattern of the earth has been affected and blocked. Hence the sedimentation process is increased as a result of high runoff and soil erosion. When sediments deposits in the wetlands and inland water bodies creates problems in water retention process and natural discharging process of surface water. On the other hand increasing use of agro chemicals for raising the harvest is also affect to collecting the Nitrogen and Phosphates to the natural water bodies tllat makes high growth in some flora and fauna species while destroying the natural growth of some other species. By the time due to etrophication, the low lying water bodies, canals, and fresh water wetlands gradually tends to become terrestrial grounds that also affect for natural .., .. .. drainage pattern of the city. This process get speedy by fragmentation of wetlands for development activities.

Fig 4.9 Eutrophication converting Fig 4.10 High growth of Lotus and Talangama Lake Pond apple or Annona glabra Lake into Terrestrial ecosystem .. ... invasive plants and trees in Talangama [ Source: Photographs by Nalaka Krishantha]

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.. The process of eutrophication again would be a source of many other problems such as mosquito problems which would make serious health problems such as Dengue, Filaria ... etc due to stagnation of water as a result of loss of natural enemies of mosquitoes, and blocking the natural drainage pattern of the water body.

Spread of invasive alien species (lAS)

Fig 4.11 water hayacinth -Eichhornia crassipes Fig 4.12 Hambu pan- Reed sp.

Typha angustipholia ......

Fig 4.13 Pond apple ( Wet atha) Annona zlabra

The introduction of several species of exotic aquatic animals and plants that have eventually escaped into wild habitats are posing a serious threat to native aquatic biodiversity. "Obseroations made during the past five years have enabled to document 10 species of invasive alien fauna (8 species of fish, one turtle and one aquatic mollusca) and 12 species of invasive alien flora, spreading in different wetland ecoSljStems throughout Sri Lanka. Among them, 4 species of fauna (Tilapia - Oreochromis mossambicus, Walking catfish - Clarias

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• batrachus, Rainbow Trout - Oncorhynchus mvkiss and Mosquito fish - Gambusia a(tinis) and two species offlora (Water hyacinth - Eichhornia crassipes and Giant mimosa - Mimosa 1!igm) are included in the list of the world's 100 worst invasive alien species."(9) The ornamental fish trade has been the sole contributory factor to the introduction of invasive alien aquatic species into Sri Lanka. The major impacts of lAS could be summarized as follows:

Table 44: Population

Example of Invasive Affected native wetland Impacts of lAS species species/ecosystems . . . Predatory species (Trout, D1rect exploitation. . or Cl own-k m"f e f IS h , W a lkmg. des t ~u~lon of native catfish, Red-eared slider Endemic freshwater fish specie turtle)

Superior competitors Native aquatic fish and Tilapia, Water hyacinth for resources plants Deterioration of the Tanks, Marshes, Salvinia, Water hyacinth quality of wetlands Estuaries Agricultural Apple Snail, Wat&.. Rice fields, Tanks, pests/weeds hyacinth, Salvinia, Hydrilla Irrigation canals

References (1) Edirisinghe. Padma. Colombo Then and Now Sunday Observer - 14 Feb 2004

(2) Brohier. R. L. Changing face of Colombo (1505-1972) Visi dunu Publication

(3) De Silva. R. K. Early prints of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Serendib Publication, London, 1985.

(4) Colombo Metropolitan Region Structure Plan Urban Development Authority, 1998.

(5) Article on Land Use, Soil drainage & Soil www.fao.org 26--11 -2006

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• (6) Perera. David. A City floods cause havoc Daily News, Fri day Focus: 25-05 2007

(7) State of Woman in Urban Local Government www.unescap .org

(8)Miller. G.Tyler JR. Living in the Environment An introduction to Environmental Science. Wordsworth publishing Co, 1988.

(9)Bambaradeniya. Channa Ramsar Convention on Wetlands World Wetlands day 2002 -Article www.iucn.lk

1>. ..

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