sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cerro Pedernal, Jicarilla Apache, Navajo pueblitos, Navajo River, Navajo Wars, Shiprock

DINETAH-PHASE OCCUPATION AND THE TWIN WAR GODS ON THE JICARILLA RESERVATION: Excavations along NM 537, Rio Arriba County,

Yvonne R. Oakes

Office of Archaeological Studies

Museum of New Mexico AN 344 2007

MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO

OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES

Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods on the Reservation: Excavations along NM 537, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico

Yvonne R. Oakes

with contributions by

Richard G. Holloway M. Steven Shackley Mollie S. Toll John A. Ware C. Dean Wilson Dorothy A. Zamora

Timothy D. Maxwell, Ph.D. Principal Investigator

ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES 344

SANTA FE 2007 NEW MEXICO

Administrative Summary

The Office of Archaeological Studies (OAS), occupation during the Dinetah phase Museum of New Mexico, excavated two sites (1620–1650). A nearby Gallina-phase tower struc- within the right-of-way of NM 537 on Jicarilla ture with attached rooms, a component of LA Apache Nation land in Rio Arriba County, New 143324 (the Site of the Ancients), contained corn- Mexico. A nearby tower structure and a picto- cobs left by Dinetah-phase people, as indicated graph of the Twin War Gods, components of LA by a radiocarbon date of about AD 1640. A picto- 143324 (the Site of the Ancients), were also inves- graph of the Twin War Gods is on the cliff wall tigated. The archaeological work was completed near the tower unit. The who left the between September 16 and October 24, 1991. The corncobs and drew the pictograph may have two excavated sites, LA 71263 and LA 76270, had occupied LA 71263. been previously investigated during a testing LA 76270 consisted of a sparse sherd and lith- program conducted by OAS at the request of the ic scatter that could not be dated except New Mexico Department of Transportation by the presence of Dinetah Gray sherds. It may (NMDOT). have been a temporary campsite used by a LA 71263 was occupied during the Gallina group during the Dinetah or subsequent period (AD 1050–1300) and between AD 1300 Gobernador phase (ca. 1600–1775). and 1700, as indicated by the occurrence of Jemez These sites are extremely important to our Black-on-white . Excavations revealed a knowledge of the little-known Navajo occupa- burned Navajo and a nearby storage pit tion of Rio Arriba County. LA 71263, in particu- associated with Dinetah Gray utility sherds, lar, confirms the presence of early Navajo peo- Jemez Black-on-white, glaze-on-yellow, and sev- ples on the eastern edge of traditional Dinetah eral other minor pottery types. The burned wood lands and permits us to compare the site with in the structure and its allowed for radio- other early Navajo occupations in northwestern carbon and dendrochronological dating of the New Mexico in terms of subsistence and settle- site. Three of the dates confirmed an early Navajo ment systems.

Submitted in fulfillment of Joint Powers Agreement D04322 between the New Mexico Department of Transportation and the Museum of New Mexico, Office of Archaeological Studies.

NMDOT Project No. FLH-1352(8), CN 2067. MNM Project No. 41.485 (Jicarilla). BIA Permit No. AAO-91-001. NMCRIS No. 85917. Jicarilla Apache Nation permit issued June 24, 1988.

Administrative Summary iii

Contents

Administrative Summary ...... iii Introduction ...... 1 Environmental Setting...... 3 Physiography...... 3 Soils and Vegetation ...... 3 Climate ...... 3 Wildlife ...... 5 and History of the Area...... 7 Prehistory ...... 7 The Navajos ...... 9 The Jicarilla ...... 15 Research Proposal ...... 17 LA 71263...... 17 LA 76270...... 17 Chronometric Studies...... 18 Occupational Patterns ...... 18 Cultural Affinity ...... 18 Descriptions of Excavated Sites ...... 21 LA 71263 (Los Ojitos) ...... 21 LA 76270 (Sand Hill) ...... 33 LA 143324 (The Site of the Ancients) ...... 39 Gallina Tower Ruins...... 39 Cavate ...... 40 Pictograph of the Twin War Gods ...... 40 Second Panel...... 44 Ceramic Artifacts ...... 53 Methodology ...... 53 Temper ...... 53 Paint ...... 53 Surface Manipulation ...... 53 Vessel Form ...... 54 Ceramic Types ...... 54 Ceramic Dating of Navajo Period Sites ...... 56 Pottery Trends of the Navajo Occupation...... 57 Vessel Use...... 57 Lithic Artifacts ...... 59 Chipped Stone Research Orientation...... 59 Chipped Stone Reduction Strategy ...... 59 Material Selection ...... 64 Thermal Alteration ...... 66 ...... 68 Summary ...... 68 Analysis ...... 71 LA 71263...... 71 LA 76270...... 73 Animal Bone ...... 75 Floral Remains ...... 77 Methods ...... 77 Results...... 79

Contents v Discussion ...... 79 Summary ...... 82 Corncobs ...... 83 Pollen Analysis of Three Samples from LA 71263 ...... 85 Methods and Materials ...... 85 Results...... 87 Discussion ...... 89 Source Provenience of Obsidian Artifacts ...... 91 Analysis and Instrumentation...... 91 Geochemical Results and Summary...... 91 Conclusion...... 95 Subsistence Adaptations ...... 95 Site Structure ...... 97 Dinetah Settlement Pattern in the Project Area ...... 97 The Twin War Gods ...... 104 Summary ...... 104 References Cited...... 107 Appendix 1: Site Location Information ...... 119

FIGURES

1. Project vicinity map ...... 2 2. Environment of LA 71263...... 4 3. Environment of LA 76270...... 4 4. Possible areas of Navajo origins ...... 10 5. Jicarilla Apache reservation ...... 16 6. Plan of LA 71263 ...... 23 7. Uncovering the floor of the Navajo habitation structure, LA 71263 ...... 24 8. Navajo habitation structure, LA 71263 ...... 25 9. Profile of fire pit, LA 71263, facing north...... 26 10. Fire pit, LA 71263 ...... 27 11. Profile of bell-shaped pit, west half, LA 71263 ...... 27 12. Distribution of ceramic artifacts within structure, LA 71263 ...... 29 13. Distribution of lithic artifacts within structure, LA 71263...... 30 14. Chronometric data, LA 71263 ...... 31 15. Plan of LA 76270 ...... 35 16. Provenienced artifacts, LA 76270 ...... 37 17. LA 143324 ...... 39 18. Plan of southern area with cliff-face features, LA 143324 ...... 40 19. Interior of Gallina-phase tower, LA 143324...... 41 20. Exterior of Gallina-phase tower, LA 143324 ...... 41 21. Anthropomorphic figure pecked on cavate wall, LA 143324 ...... 42 22. Pictograph of Twin War Gods, LA 143324 ...... 43 23. Location of rock art in rincon, LA 143324 ...... 45 24. Complete rock art panel, LA 143324...... 45 25. Drawing of second rock art panel, LA 143324 ...... 46 26. Scene 1, big ye'i, LA 143324 ...... 47 27. Closeup of big ye'i, LA 143324...... 48 28. Scene 2, incised ye'i, LA 143324...... 49 29. Modern inscription incised into rock, LA 143324...... 49 30. Right half of rock art panel, LA 143324 ...... 50 31. Closeup of anthropomorphic figure, LA 143324...... 50 32. Scene 3, handprints and cross, LA 143324 ...... 51

vi Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods 33. Large and small figures, LA 143324 ...... 51 34. Ceramic sherds recovered from project sites...... 56 35. Polythetic set of variables for biface manufacture ...... 61 36. Areas of resource acquisition or trade for project sites ...... 64 37. Lithic artifacts from project sites ...... 69 38. Ground stone and miscellaneous artifacts...... 72 39. Corncobs from storage bin northwest of LA 71263...... 83 40. Y versus Zr biplot of the archaeological specimens...... 93 41. Dinetah sites in northwest New Mexico with possible use of corn...... 97 42. Area of settlement-pattern study, showing Dinetah-phase sites ...... 99 43. Area of settlement-pattern study, showing Gobernador-phase sites ...... 100 44. Mean site elevations by cultural period ...... 101 45. Distribution of sites by elevation...... 102 46. Site placements relative to USGS quadrangles ...... 103 47. Twin War Gods sites ...... 105

TABLES

1. Artifact assemblages of the Jicarilla project ...... 21 2. C-14 dates, LA 71263 ...... 32 3. Distribution of pottery types by site ...... 54 4. Temper by ware ...... 58 5. Vessel form by ware ...... 58 6. Artifact morphology by , LA 71263 ...... 62 7. Flake length by material type, LA 76270 ...... 62 8. Amount of cortex on flakes by material type, LA 76270 ...... 63 9. Cortex type by material type, LA 76270...... 63 10. Artifact morphology by material type, LA 71263 ...... 65 11. Artifact type by material, LA 76270 ...... 65 12. Thermal alteration by feature, LA 71263 ...... 67 13. Core flake portion in hearth , LA 71263 ...... 67 14. Ground stone tools, LA 71263 ...... 71 15. Animal bone, LA 71263...... 75 16. Full-sort flotation results, LA 71263 ...... 78 17. Scan flotation results, LA 71263...... 79 18. Species composition of wood, Features 1 and 2, LA 71263...... 80 19. Comparative flotation and macrobotanical results from Navajo sites of the area . . . . 81 20. Comparative wood use at Navajo sites of the Four Corners area ...... 82 21. Comparative Zea mays cob morphometrics from Navajo sites of the Four Corners area ...... 84 22. Pollen counts and concentration values, LA 71263 ...... 88 23. Estimated potential pollen concentration values, LA 71263 ...... 89 24. X-ray fluorescence concentrations, selected trace elements ...... 92 25. Element concentration in the archaeological samples ...... 92 26. Dinetah sites with evidence of possible corn use ...... 96

vii

Introduction

At the request of William L. Taylor of the New Moore et al. (1991) tested LA 76270, a sherd Mexico Department of Transportation and lithic artifact scatter. Although the artifact (NMDOT), the Office of Archaeological Studies scatter was sparse, subsurface deposits were (OAS) conducted excavations at two archaeolog- thought to exist. The ensuing excavation revealed ical sites (LA 71263 and LA 76270) within the no subsurface or surface cultural features, and no highway right-of-way along NM 537 on southern materials useful for absolute dating were found. Jicarilla Apache Nation lands in Rio Arriba John A. Ware, project director, performed the County, New Mexico (Fig. 1 and Appendix 1). fieldwork for the current study. He was assisted LA 71263 and LA 76270 had been previously by Laurel Wallace, Lynn Drake, Laurie Evans, recorded by the Jicarilla Apache Nation (Velarde Daisy Levine, and Macy Mensel. The principal 1989) and tested by the OAS (Zamora 1989; investigator at the time was David A. Phillips, Jr. Moore et al. 1991). A nearby tower structure and Before the project was completed, John Ware left a pictograph of the Twin War Gods, components the OAS. Years later, the project was assigned to of LA 143324 (the Site of the Ancients), were also Yvonne R. Oakes for completion. Timothy D. investigated. The excavations were performed Maxwell served as principal investigator. between September 16 and October 24, 1991, in This project complies with the provisions of preparation for the realignment of NM 537. the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as LA 71263 was first tested by Zamora (1989). amended through 1992, and applicable regula- Several burned areas, gray wares, Jemez Black- tions. The report is consistent with applicable on-white pottery, a few polychrome sherds, and federal and state standards for cultural resource chipped and ground stone debris were found. management. The presence of subsurface cultural deposits was confirmed.

Introduction 1 Figure 1. Project vicinity map.

2 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Environmental Setting

PHYSIOGRAPHY in one of the areas of shallow soils. Vegetation around the site is mostly a sagebrush-grass mix- The project area lies 10–20 km west of the ture. Also found are rabbitbrush, broom snake- Continental Divide. Its drainages eventually flow weed, Mormon tea, grasses of blue grama, sand into the San Juan River. It is within the dropseed, squirreltail, Indian ricegrass, galleta, Plateau physiographic province, characterized in three-awn, and ring muhly. Sparse stands of the project area by gently sloping to moderately piñon and juniper also occur on higher slopes steep plateaus and mesas. However, surround- and on Wild Horse Mesa (Maker et al. ing areas have rough and variable topography 1973:11–12). with high, rimmed areas, steep-sided mesas, LA 76270 lies within the Travessilla– deep canyons, and relatively narrow valley bot- Persayo–Rock Land association, found on valley toms (Maker et al. 1973:6). The region is within floors and moderately steep uplands (Fig. 3). the far eastern limits of the Soils are shallow to moderately deep; however, (Ireland 1984) and contains many volcanic forma- Rock Land soils are very shallow, with outcrops tions as opposed to mostly sedimentary units of interbedded sandstone and shale. Soils consist within much of the rest of the basin. of noncalcareous, fine sandy loam underlain by LA 71263 is at an elevation of 2,124 m (6,970 clay loam subsoils. Beneath the subsoils are grav- ft) on a sagebrush plateau. The steep cliffs of els and cobbles (Maker et al. 1973:13–14). The soil Wild Horse Mesa rise to the west (Fig. 2). LA association supports a good cover of piñon and 76270, at an elevation of 2,240 m (7,350 ft), is also juniper with a few ponderosa pines. LA 76270 is on a sagebrush plain. There is little permanent outside of this wooded zone. However, the close- water in the vicinity of either of the two sites. ness of juniper trees, in particular, may have Cañon de los Ojitos is 220 m southeast of LA encouraged site occupants to camp in the area. 71263, but it is not perennial. Ephemeral water McBride (2002:463) found that wood recovered courses 700 m east of LA 76270 are the only near- from numerous Navajo sites in the region is over- by source of water. Seasonal flow in Cañon de los whelmingly coniferous. Native vegetation, most- Ojitos may have provided sufficient water dur- ly big sagebrush, blue grama, and western ing the summer and fall at LA 71263. The only wheatgrass, is found at the site (Maker et al. perennial flow in the region is the Navajo River, 1973:13). in the northwest corner of the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. CLIMATE

SOILS AND VEGETATION Maker et al. (1973:5) provides climatological data for the project area. Mean average temperatures The sites, although only 8.5 km apart, lie in at the Dulce weather station reach their highest slightly different soil associations. LA 71263 is point in July at 30 degrees C (86 degrees F) and within the Penistaja–Valent–Rock Land associa- their lowest in January at 22 degrees C (36 tion, found on gentle slopes and rolling uplands degrees F). Continuously freezing periods of up of the region (Maker et al. 1973:11–12). There are to 25 days occur in this mountain region. The nearby outcrops of sandstone and shale with high elevation of the sites results in cold winters some steep canyons and rough topography. Soils and usually mild summers. The frost-free period are usually deep and sandy, developing in eolian at these elevations is generally less than three and alluvial deposits. Small masses of lime and a months, between mid-June and September. This calcareous sandy loam are often found in the sub- short growing season made dry farming a risky soil. There are some areas of shallow soils weath- proposition in the area (Boyer 1996). ering from the underlying sandstone. LA 71263 is Precipitation is heaviest in October at 58.6 mm

Environmental Setting 3 Figure 2. Environment of LA 71263, looking west toward sandstone mesas.

Figure 3. Environment of LA 76270, looking across valley to piñon-covered hills.

4 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods (2.31 inches) and almost as high in July and WILDLIFE August at 57.6 mm (2.27 inches). Spring and early summer are relatively dry (Maker et al. 1973:5). Wildlife supported by the native vegetation of The average annual precipitation in the area is the region includes elk, mule deer, coyote, squir- 40.6 cm (16 inches) (Cordell 1979a: Map 6). rel, chipmunk, cottontail, jackrabbit, skunk, and various rodents. The larger game animals live at higher elevations. Numerous birds are also pres- ent in the area.

Environmental Setting 5

Prehistory and History of the Area

Little information is available on the area west of peoples focused on large mammals supplement- the Continental Divide and encompassing the ed by gathering wild food resources and hunting Jicarilla Apache Reservation, the Carson National smaller mammals. Mobility was high, deter- Forest, and some private lands. Research activi- mined primarily by the location of the wild game ties have not focused on a Navajo occupation of being pursued. Large, diagnostic dart points are the region, the major concern of this report. the primary means of identifying Paleoindian Excavations have been almost nonexistent, and sites. with a few exceptions, surveys have been limited in scope. Broster and Ireland (1984) investigated Archaic Period 155,200 acres of Jicarilla Apache Nation lands and recorded 196 prehistoric sites. In the Carson The Archaic period extends from ca. 5,500 BC to National Forest, only 4 percent of the Jicarilla about AD 300. Archaic sites, for the most part, Ranger District had been surveyed by 1987 have a lack of ceramics, smaller projectile points, (Young and Lawrence 1988), and most of the sites occasional shallow pit structures, and an infre- were prehistoric . A survey across the area quent use of cultigens as a supplement to hunt- by Enloe et al. (1974) found two undated Navajo ing and gathering. In the study area, the Archaic sites. Boyer (1996) completed a small testing pro- is generally considered to be in the Oshara tradi- gram at two Rosa-phase sites along NM 537. tion (Irwin-Williams 1973); however, points of Velarde conducted several surveys along NM the Cochise tradition to the south have also been 537 on Jicarilla lands. During one survey, he found in this part of northern New Mexico. The found five Gallina-phase sites, one Gobernador- utility of the Oshara classification scheme has phase site, a Navajo artifact scatter, two lithic been questioned, but as stated by Sesler artifact scatters, and one historic site (Velarde (2000a:95), it is a useful concept for dating 1988). During another, he recorded a Navajo Archaic sites. hogan, 13 Gallina-phase sites, 3 Rosa-phase sites, The Archaic occupation in the San Juan Basin and 2 historic sites (Velarde 1989). is also sparse, particularly in the Early Archaic. The people practiced a hunting-and-gathering subsistence adaptation, depending mostly on PREHISTORY gathered plant resources. They were seasonally mobile and often varied the dynamics of group Paleoindian Period size to meet subsistence needs (Hogan et al. 1991). Rabbits and small game were hunted, but The Paleoindian period dates roughly between deer and antelope were probably preferred. By 10,050 and 5,500 BC. There was minimal occupa- the Late Archaic, there was increasing occupa- tion of the entire San Juan Basin during this peri- tional intensity, a greater use of different land od (Kearns 1992:35), and in 2000 only 12 forms, and a rise in population (Kearns 1992:35). Paleoindian components had been recorded Shallow pithouses, sometimes arranged in vil- (Gerow and Hogan 2000). Most of these are lages, were used for short-term residences. Folsom or Folsom-Midland components. Kearns Occasionally, plain gray ware is present at (1992) suggested that the lack of sites indicates Archaic sites. The mobility of Archaic groups that the area was not “critical Paleoindian habi- changed with the seasons, as different wild foods tat.” Cordell (1979b:133), however, notes that this and game became available. area is one of soil aggradation and not degrada- Archaic points of the southern tion, making early sites more difficult to locate. In Cochise tradition dating between 3500 and 1500 the study area, two Paleoindian sites are within BC were found on the Jicarilla Apache 11 km of Dulce (Kearns 1992:18). Reservation (Broster and Ireland 1984). But The subsistence strategies of Paleoindian Kearns (1992:26) believes they may be Oshara

Prehistory and History 7 types, either San Jose or Armijo. Two Middle of Dulce. Archaic points have been recorded within 8 km The following Piedra phase (AD 850–950) of Dulce; however, no Late Archaic sites are was a period of important changes in material known in the study region (Kearns 1992:21, 25). culture. Added to the pithouses are stockades, The Basketmaker II period, dating between large , village settlements, and isolated 800 BC and AD 400, is transitional between the fieldhouses. Pottery consists of Piedra Black-on- Archaic and Anasazi periods and equates with white and Bancos Black-on-white (Wilshusen et the Los Pinos phase of the Anasazi sequence. al. 2000:112–127). The Piedra phase may also During this time, we see stemmed and corner- extend eastward to the Continental Divide notched projectile points, large amounts of (Shields and Cater 1992). ground stone, and slab-lined storage pits (Sesler Wilshusen et al. (2000:112) consider the 2000a:95–96). The limited use of cultigens was an Arboles phase (AD 950–1050) to be part of the important subsistence strategy, supplemented by , but Gerow and Hogan (2000) hunting and gathering. One Basketmaker II site believe that it defines the Pueblo II period. has been recorded in the study area, 19 km south Occupation did not extend eastward to the of Dulce (Kearns 1992:27). Continental Divide as in the two preceding phas- es, and sites have not been found in the study Anasazi Culture area. The phase sites have masonry surface struc- tures, Arboles Black-on-white ceramic artifacts, Anasazi culture (ca. AD 700–1350) is divided and corrugated pottery. Pithouses are also typi- into several phases and periods. The Los Pinos cal and may occur in multiple units (Gerow and phase, corresponding to Basketmaker II, extends Hogan 2000:10). This was also when construction from AD 1 to 400 and is considered the earliest of began on the great communities at Chaco the Anasazi settlement phases (Dittert et al. Canyon and many of its outliers. However, there 1963). Sites are characterized by surface struc- is little evidence of related sites in the San Juan tures with shallow, basin-shaped floors, little drainage at this time (Gerow and Hogan 2000:9). refuse, and storage features. Polished brown The Pueblo III period in northwest New ware is occasionally found (Sesler 2000b:104). It is Mexico is dominated by the rise and fall of the believed that Anasazi occupation in northwest- Chaco system; however, the Navajo ern New Mexico began in the Pueblo I period and area appears to have been unoccupied during lasted until Pueblo V. During the Pueblo I period this time (Gerow and Hogan 2000:11). The (AD 700–950), three phases can be identified: the Gallina phase (ca. AD 1050–1260) of the Pueblo Rosa phase (AD 700–850), the Piedra phase (AD III period is considered an outgrowth of the 850–950), and the Arboles phase (AD 950–1050) Rosa–Piedra cultural system although it is little (Wilshusen et al. 2000:112). The Pueblo I period is understood, and often classified as aberrant characterized by above-ground rooms and neck- because of its vague origins and its architecture banded pottery. and material culture, which were different from The Rosa phase, as first defined by Mera those of other Pueblo groups (Hibben 1938; (1940), is characterized by single-residence pit- Seaman 1976:3). The culture was isolated from houses arranged in random layouts (Eddy other groups, and there is little evidence of out- 1966:485). The suggested eastern boundary of side trade (Seaman 1976:16). Sites are character- Rosa-phase settlements is thought to be the ized by pithouses, surface storage rooms, mason- Continental Divide (Shields and Cater 1992). ry towers, and occasional stockaded settlements Broster and Ireland (1984) recorded 21 Rosa- and extend as far east as the and phase sites on Jicarilla land. A higher number south to the Rio Puerco below Cuba. Numerous were found on the Carson National Forest, just to sites are in the immediate vicinity of the project the west (Boyer 1996:9). Two Rosa sites, consist- area along Cañada de los Ojitos and Cañada ing of an artifact scatter and two pithouses, were Larga. It is generally accepted that the Gallina tested by Boyer (1996) along NM 537, immediate- people migrated to the Jemez area by AD 1275, ly north of the project area. Peckham (1953) exca- but Elliott et al. (1988:30) note that this movement vated two Rosa-phase sites along U.S. 64, south has not been verified.

8 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Pueblo IV sites date between AD 1300 and west of Frances Mesa (see Fig. 4). 1540, the time of the Spanish conquest of New Mexico. Along the Rio Chama north of Española Phases, Places, and Dates are large pueblo sites with hundreds of rooms, plazas, and numerous kivas. Ceramics include The discovery of early Navajo structures during biscuit wares and glazes. This was a an excavation at Navajo Reservoir led Dittert time of aggregation into large settlements and the (1958:19) to suggest a name for this early cultural abandonment of some settlements (Cordell manifestation—the Dinetah phase. He produced 1979b:145–146). The area of northwest New a trait list by subtracting traits from the - Mexico seems to have been mostly abandoned at established late Navajo phase (the Gobernador) this time. that were thought to be Pueblo-influenced. However, Hester and Shiner (1963) did not believe there was sufficient proof of an early age THE NAVAJOS to justify a Dinetah phase. Eddy (1966:507) also thought that the concept did not offer convincing Origins evidence of a pre-1700 Navajo occupation. Rejection of the Dinetah phase continued into the The Navajo tribe today is composed of many dif- 1980s. Schaafsma (1981), Wilcox (1981), and Eddy ferent clans (possibly 50 or more) who have come et al. (1984) did not accept it. However, Marshall together over time to produce one Navajo entity. (1985) revived the Dinetah-phase concept with The origins of these clans are celebrated today by the recovery of several early Navajo radiocarbon the people in their origin myths, which say the dates (ca. 1550) from Blanco Canyon. Early dates Navajos came from several places to the north of were also obtained in La Plata Valley (Gaudy their present lands. One place of suggested origi- 1986). Many more early radiocarbon, den- nation is the Mesa Verde or La Plata area of drochronological, and thermoluminescence dates southwestern Colorado or, in the case of one clan, have been obtained, and the existence of an earli- from the Stinking Lake area of northern New er Dinetah phase has been firmly established Mexico (Ellis 1974:91; Akins 1993:108). Stinking (Brown and Gish 1991:731). Some researchers are Lake (now Burford Lake) is only 33 km (21 miles) now arguing that there may be a precursor to the northeast of the project sites on Jicarilla Apache Dinetah phase with the recovery of dates possi- Nation land (Fig. 4). bly as early as the late 1300s (Brown 1996:55). Sesler et al. (2000:165) relate the Navajo oral Research concerning early Navajo entry tradition that says the Tha’pahahalkai (White dates has produced estimates ranging from AD Valley among the Waters) Clan settled at 1000 to 1700. Hall (1944) and Haskell (1987) To’indotsos (Stinking Lake) for a number of believe that the earliest sites could date to per- years. They subsisted on ducks and fish rather haps AD 1000, although to date, no data support than farming and were friendly with the Navajos this possibility. Wilcox (1988:278) acknowledges but lived apart from them. They eventually that early dates may be recovered at ca. AD 1300, moved to an area along the San Juan River and but he questions whether they are actually intermarried with the Navajos, becoming the Navajo rather than Ute or other Athabaskan Tha’paha (Among the Waters, or Waters Edge) groups. This question will be addressed later in Clan. The people proved to be good hunters and this report. A probable date of AD 1350–1400 is taught the Navajos their skills. They also pro- suggested by Worcester (1951), Jett (1964), duced abundant crops and built stone storehous- Brugge (1992), and Hancock (1992); however, as es among the cliffs to store corn (Matthews 1897). stated above, Brown (1996:55) thinks that sites However, others in the clan state that their origi- with dates within this time frame actually may be nal home was at Meeting of Waters, just below precursors of the Dinetah phase. Perry (1991), Frances Mesa, rather than Stinking Lake Winter and Hogan (1992:303), and Brown (O’Bryan 1956). Matthews (1897) believes that the (1996:56) advocate an arrival closer to AD 1500. original clan settled in Cereza Canyon, near the Many early dates have been retrieved from mouth of Delgadita Canyon, 14 km (9 mi) south- northwestern New Mexico and present a case for

Prehistory and History 9 Figure 4. Possible areas of Navajo origins.

Navajo groups being in the region by the 1400s ing the phase; it may have been manufactured (see Hogan 1989:64; Reed and Horn 1990:297; around 1700. But in recent years, Gobernador Brown and Hancock 1992:86). On the Arkansas Polychrome has been found on sites dating to Loop Project near Cedar Hill, the majority of 73 1630 (Reed and Reed 1996:88), 1650 (Sesler et al. radiocarbon assays predate 1500 (Fetterman (2000:165), pre-1680 (Wilson and Blinman 1993), 1996:75). In fact, most researchers now agree that and 1694 (Hogan 1991). Brown and Hancock the Navajo people definitely were in the area by (1992:102) note that Gobernador Polychrome 1500 or earlier (Hogan 1992:4). Holdouts for a could actually date to around 1625. With these later date, around 1700, include Schaafsma (1996) early dates, some researchers would push back and Habicht-Mauche (1992). There are contami- the beginning of the Gobernador phase to 1630 nation problems with radiocarbon and tree-ring (Reed and Reed 1996:88) or 1650 (Brown 1996:57). dates, and many of the earliest dates may be later Reed and Reed (1996:88) suggest that the phase than the assays indicate. According to current should be divided into early (1630–1720) and late thinking, the Dinetah phase is well-established (1721–1775) periods. Others believe the appear- by 1500 and ends at approximately 1700. ance of Gobernador Polychrome may be an However, with the many newly recorded Navajo attribute of the late Dinetah phase (Hogan 1991). sites with pre-1500 dates, a Dinetah phase begin The appearance of the pottery type during date of AD 1450 or even AD 1400 seems warrant- Dinetah times blurs some of the distinctions ed. between the two phases and may eventually The date of 1700 traditionally has been result in an earlier begin date for the Gobernador accepted as the start of the sequential phase than those quoted above would advocate. Gobernador phase (Hester 1962; Reed and Horn There is general agreement, however, that the 1990:292; Brown and Gish 1991:731). The pres- Gobernador phase ends around 1775 or 1780 ence of Gobernador Polychrome pottery on these (Reed and Reed 1996:91), followed by the more later sites was one of the major features identify- recent historic Cabezon phase (Brown 1996:56).

10 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods The area occupied by the Navajo people dur- extend into the following Gobernador phase. ing the Dinetah and Gobernador phases is often Today, we recognize a variety of Dinetah- referred to as Dine. The boundaries of Dine, how- phase structural dwellings besides the forked- ever, have somewhat changed through time as stick hogan: log and brush structures, simple researchers find increasing evidence of early brush constructs, ramadas, lean-tos, possible rec- Navajo sites outside of their earlier known limits. tangular , windbreaks, and sweat lodges Dine was first believed to be in the Largo and (Hogan 1992:5; Winter and Hogan 1992:310). Gobernador drainages and bounded on the north Generally, hogans are 3–8 m in diameter (Sesler by Navajo Reservoir, but current thinking et al. 2000:176), although Hogan (1992:4) gives a (Towner and Dean 1996:15) ranges from limiting maximum dimension of 4 m. They are usually Dine to a 30-mile radius around Gobernador shallow and roughly circular with unprepared Knob to all of the territory between the four floor surfaces. Juniper poles are the preferred sacred mountains, extending to the San Francisco material for the superstructure, overlain with Peaks in . Sesler et al. (2000:160) bound brush and occasionally earth (Brown 1990:8). Dine on the east by the Continental Divide, south Forked-stick hogans and brush structures are by Chaco Canyon, west by the La Plata drainage, sometimes ringed with stones (Marshall and north by the New Mexico state line, with the 1991:238–239) laid in a single course around the center at Frances Mesa rather than Gobernador outside of the structure to prevent the entry of Knob (see Fig. 4). moisture and perhaps to keep out pests. The establishment of the Continental Divide Occasionally, postholes are found around the as the eastern boundary of Dine is not necessari- perimeter also. Doorways are rare due to poor ly a shared consensus. Several researchers preservation, but they usually open to the south- believe it could extend as far east as the Chama east (Brown 1990:8). Valley (Wozniak 1992:327), while others think the Interior features of Navajo habitations Chama Valley (in the Piedra Lumbre area) is include , milling bins, small ash pits, and actually where Navajos lived first (Schaafsma possibly postholes for looms or drying racks. 1996; Habicht-Mauche (1992). As for the western Milling bins can be preserved intact, but fre- boundary, Reed and Horn (1990:297) acknowl- quently they are found as shattered sandstone edge that the discovery of many early sites in the slabs or as pieces of broken (Hovezak and Four Corners area would extend the boundary at Sesler 1999). In the Fruitland area, there was only least that far (see Fig. 4). one milling bin for each small group of clustered hogans, indicating that the settlements shared a Material Culture common milling facility (Sesler et al. 2000:217). Hearths were mostly shallow, unlined basins in Early Navajo sites are generally found in rel- the center or in the southeast quadrant of the atively open country near major canyons, with an structure (Winter and Hogan 1992:310). Hearths, eventual shift to the edges of mesas and among sparse with charcoal but few artifacts, sandstone boulders in canyon bottoms (Powers storage , and special activity areas are often and Johnson 1987). Remains of these Dinetah- found outside of habitations. phase sites are often ephemeral and poorly pre- Traditionally, Navajo habitations are occu- served at best; however, occasionally intact fea- pied by single, nuclear families, but Sesler et al. tures are found. Artifacts are few, particularly (2000:219) note that they also tend to occur in ceramics, and lithic artifacts are likely to number groups of two or three. Hogans have an approxi- no more than 500 (Kearns 1996:113). Dittert mate use-life of ten years (Russell 1983), and it (1958) characterizes typical Dinetah-phase sites could be much less. When they are burned, it is as having forked-stick hogans, Dinetah Gray util- usually because the owner has died or left the ity ware, side and corner-notched projectile area, in which case, they are cleaned out first, points, side-notched , and full-grooved then fired. Burning may also be the result of a mauls. Hester (1962) adds corn, beans, and bottle disastrous fire or an attack by enemies (Sesler et gourds. However, as Brown and Hancock (1992), al. 2000:226). among others, point out, almost all of these traits Hints of seasonality in residential placement

Prehistory and History 11 have been noted by Winter and Hogan is believed to have been a fairly common practice (1992:310), who think that the winter camps may (Hancock et al. 1988). be placed in protected areas, while summer The Gobernador phase (ca. 1700 to 1775) is camps are in open areas and somewhat dis- characterized by population aggregation, the persed. In Blanco Canyon, Marshall (1985) found introduction of Gobernador Polychrome pottery, dispersed camps in lowland areas and sage trade wares from the , European trade grasslands in the summer, and in upper canyons goods, the building of pueblitos, bone and shell and mesa tops in winter. Use of the lowlands was ornaments, wooden artifacts, specialized lithic likely for farming, small-game hunting, and plant tools, and domesticated animals Hester (1962). gathering (Winter and Hogan 1992:310). The Brugge (1963) adds the development of an intri- summer camps could easily consist of only brush cate ceremonial system to this list. Reed and Reed windbreaks or ramadas with outside hearths (1992:93) believe there was extensive Pueblo (Hogan 1992:5). influence on the Navajos at this time because of Ceramics associated with the Dinetah phase the high number of northern Rio Grande glaze are Dinetah Gray utility ware, Jemez Black-on- wares and biscuit wares, polychromes, and white, and Jeddito Yellow, a ware (Mills Eastern Keres, Zuni, and Hopi wares on sites. 1992:30). Rio Grande C, D, and E glaze wares They also cite the large amount of Gobernador have also been found on a number of Dinetah- Polychrome, the building of defensive sites, and phase sites (Reed and Reed 1992:102). All but the the appearance of Pueblo-like masked dancers Dinetah Gray are considered trade wares, and and kachina figures in Navajo rock art as charac- their manufacture began around AD 1300–1425. teristic of the phase. We now know that The presence of many varieties of trade wares Gobernador Polychrome is not a Pueblo ware, and other nonlocal goods indicates that trade although many would say that it is based on Rio with Pueblo Indians, in particular, was an impor- Grande glaze ware styles. We also believe that tant component of Dinetah-phase culture. This is Pueblo peoples did not construct or aid in con- in disagreement with Winter and Hogan structing the numerous defensive sites in the (1992:311), who believe there was little contact Dinetah area, with perhaps a few exceptions. with the Pueblos during this phase. Gobernador The only new architectural style that first Polychrome, thought to be diagnostic only of the appears during the Gobernador phase is the Gobernador phase, has now been found on sites pueblito. Usually constructed of masonry with dating to ca. 1625–1640 (Reed and Reed 1996:88). mud , the towerlike structures often con- This indicates that it was manufactured well tain up to 35 rooms built onto them and sur- before the of 1680, and researchers rounded by hogans of various styles (Powers and consider it an indigenous Navajo pottery type Johnson 1987). The earliest dated pueblitos (Wilson and Blinman 1993; Sesler et al. 2000:159), appear at about 1680 (Towner 1996:158–161). not produced by Pueblo refugees. Material culture, except for ceramic styles, does As mentioned above, chipped and ground not change significantly from one phase to the stone artifacts on Navajo sites are few. Raw mate- next. rials for chipped stone production are both local One addition to Dittert’s (1958) interpretation (chert, quartzite, and siltstone) and nonlocal, of Gobernador site dynamics is that the Navajos including Pedernal chert and, particularly, obsid- had a seasonal settlement pattern whereby they ian from the area, which is con- aggregated around the pueblitos in winter and in sidered a characteristic early Navajo exotic mate- summer dispersed to other areas (Hogan et al. rial (Kearns 1996). Navajo projectile points have 1991). This model is really not much different been identified by Marshall (1985) as small, side- from the seasonal aggregation and dispersal of or corner-notched, and triangular. Kearns peoples in the Dinetah phase, only there are no (1996:136) and Kleidon and Wilshusen (2000:337) pueblitos to anchor the aggregations in the earli- note that this type is typical of Navajo assem- er phase. Another model by the same authors blages and is often reported from prohistoric and suggests that the dispersed sites date to the late early historic sites in northwest New Mexico. Dinetah phase rather than the Gobernador phase However, scavenging from earlier Anasazi sites and that aggregation was the norm as a defense

12 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods against attacks by others. This model can only be now believe they were farming by the early evaluated by the recovery of numbers of radio- 1600s; however, only a few Dinetah-phase sites carbon dates from dispersed Navajo sites. have produced evidence of cultigens (Hogan 1992:5). At La Plata Mines, domesticated foods Subsistence including corn seem to be a minor constituent of the diet (Brown and Hancock 1992:85). Early Navajo groups in the Dinetah area may Most sites yielding corn remains are multi- have possessed a hunting-and-gathering subsis- component, and the presence of corn cannot be tence economy like that of Archaic peoples before absolutely dated to an early Navajo occupation. them. However, later Navajos of the Gobernador For example,, El Campo Navahu contains an phase made greater use of domesticated plants underlying Anasazi site (Hogan 1992:94). LA and animals such as sheep, goats, and horses 16151, LA 38951, LA 81172, LA 49498, and DCA- (Brown and Hancock 1992:85). 86-79 are other early corn-yielding sites (Marshall Large numbers of animal bones are not com- 1985; Reed and Reed 1988; Reed and Horn 1990; monly found on Navajo sites. They consist most- Fetterman 1996). ly of deer and rabbits, with smaller amounts of Radiocarbon dates of recovered corn have antelope and small game. No of been as early as the 1400s. For example, corn animals has been verified for the Dinetah phase dates range from AD 1427 to 1480 at DCA 86-79, (Brown and Hancock 1992:85; Hogan 1992:5). At AD 1437 to 1466 at LA 49498, and 1500 to 1575 at LA 17483, a probable Gobernador-phase site, an Ceja Blanca (LA 38591) in Blanco Canyon. Many unusually good bone assemblage consisted researchers believe corn was present on early mainly of antelope, but also included two horses, sites by the mid-1500s (Reed and Reed 1988:94; some domesticated sheep, and possibly bighorn Hogan 1992:94; Winter and Hogan 1992:310), or sheep (Simmons 1983:163). 1600 at the latest. The problem of assigning an Horses were not introduced to the Navajos early date to sites with corn remains is the Navajo until the late 1600s (Sesler et al. 2000:167). Hester practice of using old wood in site construction, (1962) doubts the Navajos had horses before the resulting in dates that are too early. Until this early 1700s. Brugge (1981:17) suggests that hors- problem is resolved, it is currently not possible to es were brought to the Dine area by Pueblo unequivocally assign a date in the 1400s to the refugees. But couldn’t the Navajos have acquired cultivation of corn by Navajo people. them just as easily through raiding or trade? He Navajos met some of their subsistence needs thinks that at first the animal was of minor through trade with the northern Rio Grande importance to the Navajo lifestyle. Navajos also Pueblos, , and probably Zunis. Ceramics domesticated sheep and goats. from each of these areas has been found on many Plant remains on Navajo sites include cheno- Navajo sites, beginning with the Dinetah phase. ams and goosefoot from the La Plata Mine area Obsidian may have been acquired at the Jemez (Brown and Hancock 1992:85). At El Campo Mountains sources, but also through trade. Hides Navahu (LA 38946), pigweed, goosefoot, and meat may also have been exchanged for pot- purslane seeds, unburned tobacco, and charred tery and corn (Winter and Hogan 1992:311). corn were recovered (Winter and Hogan Increased trade is noted during the following 1992:305). Other utilized plant resources include Gobernador phase (Reed and Reed 1992:93). amaranth, beeweed, dropseed, piñon nuts, and possibly juniper berries and barrel cactus seeds History or fruit (Hogan 1992:5). Most of these plants are available only seasonally and may grow in spe- In some ways, the history of the Navajo tribe as cific areas, suggesting movement of Navajo we know it today began with the Gathering of groups in seasonal rounds. the Clans, the joining of over 50 Athabaskan The presence of ground stone at early Navajo clans from all parts of the Dine homeland, includ- sites, including one- and two-hand manos and all ing some dispersed Pueblos and Utes (Sesler et types of , suggests that Navajos al. 2000:164). This event is believed to have processed and ground food. Many researchers occurred around 1680 or shortly thereafter, when

Prehistory and History 13 the Spaniards were entering Dine and intimidat- Rio Chama drainage by 1678, but they used it ing the Navajo people (Sesler et al. 2000:164, only as a staging area for raiding to the east. In 251–252). other words, he believes the area was no more One of the outgrowths of the Gathering of the than an entryway to the eastern pueblos and Clans was the emergence of the Blessingway cer- other settlements. Schaafsma (1996:20) says that emony, one of the most powerful ceremonies the Navajos settled first in the Chama Valley and today. According to Brugge (1981:16), it is “a did not move west of the Continental Divide nativistic re-assertion of the Athabaskan way of until after ca. 1696—after the Pueblo Revolt and life with mechanisms for the integration of for- the Spanish Reconquest, when some portion of eign elements that were compatible with it.” He the Pueblo people moved to the country west of cites the “ceremonial break” in material goods the Continental Divide (Forbes 1960:270–273). I (such as pottery, rugs, and sand paintings) as one believe that Schaafsma’s statement is contradict- of those mechanisms. ed by the numerous early Navajo radiocarbon Another aspect of the Blessingway ceremony and thermoluminescence dates recovered from began around 1750 or so with the practice of dis- this western area, even allowing for dating prob- posing broken pottery away from dwellings and lems with the cross-section effect and the use of not in household ash heaps. The pottery was old wood. placed at a distance under bushes and ledges In August 1706, Governor Cuervo y Valdez (Brugge 1981:15). Brugge notes that this is why notes that the eastern boundary of the Navajo we find relatively few sherds on later Navajo people extended to the pueblos along the Rio sites. Chama, the Piedra Lumbre Valley, and several of The cocumented history of the Navajo people the northern Rio Grande pueblos (Hackett begins with the Coronado expedition of 1541, 1937:381–383). In September 1709, Marques de la when encounters with possible Athabaskans or Peñuela and gave about the Querechos were noted (Sesler et al. 2000:167). same boundaries for the Navajo country (C. The first mention of Navajos, referred to as Schaafsma 1992:321). However, these statements Apaches and Cocoyes, was by Governor Juan de neither support or refute Schaafsma’s statement Oñate in 1598, who placed them near Jemez that Navajos were in the Chama Valley and did Pueblo (Hammond and Rey 1953:345). The name not move west until after 1696. It seems likely Navajo was not used until 1626 when Father that Navajos were in the Rio Chama Valley by the Zarate Salmerón, a priest at Jemez Pueblo, late 1500s and, at the same time, west of the observed that “Apaches de Nabaxu” were living Continental Divide. up the Rio Chama and east of the San Juan River Although the Dine was sparsely settled early (Lummis 1900). In 1629 Santa Clara Pueblo, con- in Navajo history, the Navajos were not the only sidered to be on the border between the Tewa ones to occupy this vast land. The Utes were on Indians and the Apaches de Nabaju, suffered the landscape of the Dine and to the north across many raids as a result (Forrestal and Lynch the New Mexico border. They played an impor- 1964:45). However, Wozniak (1992:329) points tant role in shaping Navajo history, and any dis- out that the word “Nabaju” was actually a place cussion of Navajo history needs to include these name referring to an area of large fields between people. Some say they were present in the Rio Chama and the San Juan River. Thus, some Southwest by AD 1300 and no later than AD 1400 scholars do not believe that the Apaches de (Nickens 1982:36; Black 1991:4). There are no data Nabaju were living near the Rio Chama (Carrillo to support these early dates; however, by 1700 1992; Wozniak 1992). the Utes had shown up in numerous documen- Many researchers do believe that early tary records. There are references to frequent Navajos lived in the Chama Valley (Bartlett warfare between the two tribes in the early 1700s 1932:29; Mera 1934, 1940; Harrington 1940; (Schroeder 1963:11) and throughout the century Hester 1962). Schaafsma (1981:313) thinks (Brugge 1983:5). The Utes were apparently the Navajos were in this area by 1640. Wozniak more aggressive of the two, which Hovezak et al. (1992:331) acknowledges that the Apaches de (2000:344) say was fueled by the profitable slave Nabaju were in the Piedra Lumbre Valley of the trade in the Spanish-held territory. By 1750

14 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Anglo settlers had moved into portions of the Juan Basin area against the Navajos, passing Dine and were recruited by Navajos as allies Cañada Larga (McNitt 1972:230–231), near the against the Utes. However, conflicts between the project sites. During the 1860s valuable mineral two groups did not allow the relationship with to deposits were discovered in the upper San Juan develop (Brugge 1981:16). In 1765 Juan María Basin, leading to settlement of the area (Hovezak Antonio Rivera explored the area for mineral and Wilshusen 2000:262). In 1863 continuing resources. In 1773 the governor of New Mexico troubles with the Navajos caused the govern- secretly allied with the Utes against the Navajos ment to relocate them to Ft. Sumner. In 1868 the (Reeve 1960:219). Frustrated, the Navajos Navajos were moved back from Ft. Sumner to the declared war in 1774 and were able to drive out Chuska Valley and Farmington area (Bailey and all outsiders except the Utes. Sparring between Bailey 1986). the Navajos and Utes continued for about anoth- After the Navajos abandoned portions of the er 100 years (Brugge 1981:16). In 1776 the Dine area in the mid to late 1700s, there seems to Domínguez-Escalante expedition to the Dine be no archaeological evidence that some impor- region (Warren 1976:8) passed close to the project tant places, such as Frances Mesa in the heartland sites, near Heron and Horse lakes. Along the of the Dine, were ever reoccupied (Hovezak and way, they saw Utes in northern New Mexico and Wilshusen 2000:262). Jett and Spencer (1981:134) southern Colorado. believe that they moved south and west of Dine, The consensus is that the Navajos built their and there is archaeological evidence to support pueblitos in the 1700s to protect themselves from later Navajo occupations in Chaco Canyon the Utes. Eventually, the constant pressure of Ute (Brugge 1981:16–17), Canyon de Chelly (Brugge raiding is believed to have caused the Navajos to 1967:397), Bisti Badlands (Powers 1979), the move out of their homeland in the mid to late Cabezon area (Marmon and Pearl 1958), the 1700s, beyond reach of the Utes (Brugge 1981:16). Seboyeta area (Carroll 1979), and Black Mesa, Magers (1976:65) wrote that no Ute sites have Arizona (Gumerman et al. 1972:29). been found that date earlier than 1863. Wilcox (1988:275) differentiated between Navajo and Ute sites. Ute sites (like Navajos sites) have brush THE JICARILLA APACHES structures, brown ware ceramics, and small pro- jectile points. Navajo sites are more formal in The Jicarilla Indians were among the first architectural style, while Ute construction is Apaches encountered by Spaniards in the 1500s. more expedient. Few features are found within or In 1598 most Apaches were observed in north- around Ute houses, and trash deposits are rare eastern New Mexico near Taos and Picuris and (Buckles 1971). Brown (1996:63–64) notes basic on the . By the late 1600s, differences in the brown wares of the two groups: had pushed the northern Apaches the Utes have “Shoshonean-like ,” which out of the plains and into the foothills and moun- the Navajo do not. In terms of subsistence, tains of northern New Mexico. However, the Navajos supposedly supplemented a hunter- name Apaches de la Xicarilla was first recorded gatherer lifestyle with the cultivation of corn, in 1700. By 1786 the Comanches were subdued, while it is exceedingly rare to find corn at Ute and the Jicarillas could be found throughout sites. northeastern New Mexico and southeastern While the Navajos were busy in the 1700s Colorado (Tiller 1983:447). contending with the Utes, the Spaniards fre- By 1821 much traditional Jicarilla land had quently ran punitive campaigns against them for been given away as land grants. The Jicarillas raiding the eastern pueblos and Spanish settlers were supposed to have been allowed to occupy along the Rio Grande. One of the first raids on the the land until they chose to leave, but this agree- Navajos was by Roque de Madrid in 1705 into La ment was never enforced (Cutter 1974:261). In Jara and Largo Canyons (Hovezak and 1848 Jicarilla lands were under the jurisdiction of Wilshusen 2000:261). A later campaign, under the U.S. government. By 1850 Jicarilla hunting the U.S. government, was conducted in 1853 by territory extended as far west as the Chama Lt. Robert Ransom Jr., who marched to the San Valley (Opler 1936:202), but encroachment by

Prehistory and History 15 settlers exerted pressure on the Apache way of Jicarillas did not like this choice, either, although life, and hostilities became common. Thus, the some of them moved there. The rest were sent to U.S. government built several forts in Jicarilla the Reservation and remained there country as a defense against the Jicarillas, includ- until 1887, when they renegotiated for the north- ing Fort Union near Las Vegas and Cantonment ern lands. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 Burgwin in Taos (Utley 1967:85–87). A treaty was divided the Indian lands into 160-acre allotments finally signed with the Jicarillas in 1851 whereby to be used for farming. The Jicarillas were not they agreed to submit to the , be able to sustain themselves on the allotments confined to specific territories, cultivate the land, because the terrain was too rugged, the climate cease hostilities, and return all captives and was too unpredictable for farming, settlers had stolen goods. In return, the United States offered claimed the best land, and the U.S. government aid (Tiller 1983:451). proved to be indifferent to their problems, saying By 1852 some Jicarillas had settled near it was unfair to eject the settlers (Nicklason Abiquiu and grew crops, but the U.S. reneged on 1972:6–16; Tiller 1983:452) Poverty became com- its support and war was declared on the Jicarillas monplace, and the people depended on govern- in 1854. Another treaty was signed in 1855 at ment rations. In 1894 the Jicarillas were allowed Abiquiu. A reservation was supposed to have to raise livestock and sell timber, but only on been set aside for the Jicarillas, but the treaty was unallotted lands. Several bands temporarily left never ratified, and the Jicarillas lived among the reservation until 1906, when permission was northern New Mexico communities. By 1873 all finally granted to sell timber from all Jicarilla New Mexico Indians had been placed on reserva- lands. tions except the Jicarillas. The government A southern portion was added to the Jicarilla planned to consolidate them with the Mescalero Reservation in 1907, bringing the total area of the Apaches in southern New Mexico. Instead, the reservation to 742,315 acres. This land was flatter, Jicarilla Apache Reservation was established on had a milder climate than the northern part, and the headwaters of the San Juan River by execu- was better for livestock grazing. However, even tive order on March 25, 1874. This order was up to 1920, the people were barely subsisting on rescinded in 1876 because settlers wanted the unproductive allotments with no rations. In 1925 land and the Jicarillas had not really taken pos- the U.S. government started economic and health session of it. In 1880 another reservation of about programs, and the Jicarillas began to recover 416,000 acres was established in Rio Arriba (Tiller 1983:453–454). Today the Jicarillas also County near the Navajo River (Fig. 5). The have a stable tourist . From the above documentation, it can be seen that the Jicarillas were not in the area of the two project sites until approximately the 1880s. Therefore, even though the land now belongs to the Jicarilla Apache Nation, the Jicarillas were not a factor in establishing the sites.

LA 76270 LA 71263

Figure 5. Jicarilla Apache reservation.

16 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Research Proposal

(adapted from Moore et al. 1991)

Research parameters for the data recovery plan 1. Can multiple occupation of the sites be deter- were based on expectations that the two sites mined, and if so, what are the dates of those occu- were associated with an Archaic, Gallina-phase, pations? or Jemez-phase occupation of the area. As it turns 2. What was the nature of site occupations? out, the sites are both related to a Navajo use of 3. How are the sites integrated with regional pat- the area, and a nearby Gallina-phase site is asso- terns of land use? ciated with one of them. However, the research proposal did call for obtaining information that Each of these questions subsumes more detailed can be employed on sites of any cultural associa- research concerns, which are addressed in the tion, such as chronometric studies and the nature following discussion. of the occupation patterns. Therefore, the research proposal pertained to sites of Navajo origin. LA 71263 Less work has been done in the area north- west of the Jemez Mountains than in the San Juan As noted earlier, we thought that at least two Basin to the west or the upper Rio Grande Valley occupations could be present at LA 71263 if the to the east. Also, many previous excavations in utility and painted wares are unrelated. During the area have never been properly reported. In testing, most of the utility wares were recovered most cases, we have only summaries based on a from below the surface and were thought to rep- normative view of behavior. Thus, in terms of resent a Gallina occupation (AD 1050–1300). The what has been learned we are not much further painted wares were surficial and probably repre- along than we were two decades ago. sented a later use of the site (ca. AD 1300–1700). The consequence of this relative lack of infor- The cultural affinity of this occupation was diffi- mation was that it was unrealistic to ask the types cult to assess from existing data. Three scenarios of detailed research questions that are raised, for were likely: (1) Site occupants were Anasazis, example, relative to the Chaco phenomenon. related to those occupying the Jemez area; (2) Sophisticated research designs require sophisti- they were non-Puebloan; or (3) they were Jemez cated data, especially in terms of tight chronolog- refugees fleeing the Spaniards after the ical controls and good documentation of the par- Reconquest of 1696. As it turned out, the site was ent population that is being sampled. In the case non-Puebloan, having been occupied by Navajos of LA 71263, this type of control simply was not of the Dinetah phase. available. As a further consideration, because the arti- fact sample was small, a fairly modest theoretical LA 76270 approach was proposed for the data recovery program. The specific research questions focused Based on a single Late Archaic period projectile on confirming or extending our existing knowl- point and what were thought to be Gallina gray edge of local chronology, subsistence practices, wares, it was likely that LA 76270 had also seen and site structure. By asking and answering these multiple occupations. No Archaic period sites basic kinds of questions, we contributed to the had been found in the project area, making a sort of “foundation building” research already determination of occupation dates at the site very accomplished in other parts of the Southwest, but important. The En Medio phase, to which the which is still needed in this particular area. point has been assigned, and the subsequent The sites had several common problems to be Trujillo phase of the Archaic period belong to an addressed. The general questions to be answered interval of culture history that spans the transi- included: tion from Late Archaic to Basketmaker II and

Research Proposal 17 early Basketmaker III. 1. What was the nature of the prehistoric environ- The En Medio phase is characterized as a ment when the sites were occupied? period of increased emphasis on the use of 2. What food resources were exploited, and what ground stone and increased stylistic variability in does this information tell us about the potential artifact assemblages. By this period, prehistoric of the local environment for farming or hunting populations had integrated horticultural subsis- and gathering? tence into their diets. Unfortunately, the Archaic 3. What do the cultural remains reveal about the point seems to have been a dropped item or structure of society at the time of occupation? curated by later occupants. A Largo-Gallina–phase occupation of the site The subsistence response made by site inhab- was also proposed in the data recovery plan, itants to this environment was assessed by the based on what were thought be Gallina gray recovery and analysis of macrobotanical and fau- wares. Upon detailed analysis, they proved to be nal materials. The array of formal and informal Dinetah Gray wares, placing the site into the tools found was used to infer activities such as Navajo cultural scheme. There were no other dat- hunting and plant-food processing. However, ing mechanisms on the site. very few macrobotanical and faunal remains were found. Evidence of seasonality was obtained from CHRONOMETRIC STUDIES pollen, flotation, and faunal samples, and inferred from certain types of structural features. Consistent with our assumption that local chronology is poorly understood, extensive chronometric studies would be useful in dating CULTURAL AFFINITY not only these sites but similar ones in the area. The resulting need is for as large a sample of LA 76270 independent dates as possible. For this reason, use of a variety of dating techniques was prefer- At this site, Moore et al. (1991) wanted to deter- able, provided the proper materials were recov- mine if an Archaic period occupation was repre- ered. Testing suggested that, minimally, chrono- sented. They also noted that the nature of site metric information would be provided by pot- occupation seemed quite temporary and asked tery and radiocarbon samples. Charred logs also the following questions, which were also used to provided the opportunity to employ den- address the Navajo occupation. drochronological dating at LA 71263. Archaeomagnetic sampling was not a possibility. 1. What was the nature of site occupation? Was it At LA 76270, charcoal granules were recovered for floral or faunal exploitation or both? Was it a during auger testing. Although a test pit was temporary campsite? Was it a site for the pro- excavated in the same location, no additional curement of lithic material? charcoal was found. There was not enough of the 2. If used for resource exploitation, what was the material to obtain a radiocarbon date. range of resources collected by occupants? 3. What does the lithic artifact assemblage indi- cate about material availability and the distance OCCUPATIONAL PATTERNS traveled to procure those materials? In other words, what might be the extent of the territory In general, the occupation of the Llaves-Lindrith used by regional populations? District may be characterized by a low popula- tion density during all phases of settlement in LA 71263 this area. To explain this pattern, Moore et al. (1991) proposed that it reflects an environment Believing the site to contain Gallina-phase or that provided limited potential for subsistence. Jemez refugee structural remains, Moore et al. To test this hypothesis, they asked the following (1991) asked the following questions, which we questions: have adapted to a Navajo occupation of the site:

18 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods 1. What is the pattern of remains at LA 71263 in the core area? Is such a site a camp site, a perma- terms of habitation structures, work areas, stor- nent occupation site, a farmstead, or some other age areas, and other feature types? As part of this kind of site? Also, would such a site be used on a pattern, can we discern discrete clusters of occu- short-term basis or over a period of many years? pation and activity? In turn, do these clusters reflect site use by multiple households? The artifact assemblage was important in 2. How does LA 71263 relate to the other sites defining site function and cultural affinity. identified nearby? In particular, was it part of an Specifically, the various ceramic types recovered identifiable “community” cluster? from LA 71263 allowed us to determine that 3. What constitutes a Jemez occupation outside Navajo peoples had occupied the site.

Research Proposal 19

Descriptions of Excavated Sites

The OAS conducted excavations at two sites on the test pits to an average depth of 20 cm. A total the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Both sites were of 74 lithic artifacts and 38 ceramic artifacts were Navajo-related and associated with the Dinetah recovered. Ground stone and charcoal fragments phase. LA 71263 revealed the remains of a hogan were noted on the surface but not collected. with an interior fire pit, ash pit, and milling bin. Ceramic artifacts were identified as 34 possible LA 76270 contained an artifact scatter. Gallina gray ware sherds, 3 Jemez Black-on- A total of 1,056 artifacts were recovered from white sherds, and 1 unidentified polychrome the two sites (Table 1). In addition, 10 macrobot- sherd. The researchers determined that LA 71263 anical samples, 3 palynological samples, and 2 contained sufficient subsurface remains to war- corncobs were analyzed. Seven radiocarbon rant archaeological excavation. It was suggested assays were conducted, 14 dendrochronological that the site could include a Gallina-phase com- samples were dated, and 7 obsidian artifacts ponent and a post–AD 1300 Pueblo component were submitted for source proveniencing. All of (Zamora 1989:24). the recovered artifacts were analyzed. The two Subsequently, a data recovery plan was pre- assemblages and those of comparable sites are pared by OAS personnel (Moore et al. 1991). The compared at the end of this chapter. site was classified as associated with the Largo-

TableTable 1. Artifact assemblages assemblages of the of theJicarilla Jicarilla project project

Site Ceramic Chipped Stone Ground Stone Animal Bone Total

LA 71263 292 470 7 8 777 LA 76270 12 266 1 0 279 Total 304 736 8 8 1056

A total of 102.6 cu m of dirt was removed Gallina phase (AD 1050–1300) and an undeter- from the two sites by hand or mechanical means. mined Pueblo period, ca. AD 1300–1700. The Mechanical trenching was employed to confirm quantity of surface artifacts suggested that this that all cultural features had been found. was a camp site, but the depth of deposits indi- cated that LA 71263 may have been a more exten- sive encampment. LA 71263 (LOS OJITOS) LA 71263 was excavated between September 18 and October 24, 1991, by John A. Ware, assist- In April 1989 the New Mexico Department of ed by Lynn Drake, Laurie Evans, Daisy Levine, Transportation (DOT) requested that a testing Macy Mensel, and Laurel Wallace. Two features program be conducted at LA 71263, on Jicarilla were identified: the burned surface of a log and Apache Nation land in Rio Arriba County along possibly brush superstructure with a fire pit, a NM 537. The site was within the highway right- concentration of sandstone slabs, and associated of-way and would be affected by the proposed artifacts; and a large, bell-shaped pit with only widening of the roadway. Testing was conducted one sherd and some charcoal fragments. Over under the direction of Dorothy Zamora; Yvonne 100 tree-ring samples and 18 radiocarbon assays Oakes, Scott Geister, and Guadalupe Martinez were collected. An additional 10 macrobotanical worked as field assistants (Zamora 1989). David and 3 palynological samples were also taken. The A. Phillips Jr. served as principal investigator. results of these datable samples revealed that the Four test pits of 1 by 1 m each were excavat- site actually dates to the Dinetah phase, as does a ed on the site near artifact concentrations or char- nearby Gallina-phase tower structure. coal stains. Artifacts were recovered in three of The size of the site was originally estimated

Excavated Sites 21 by Zamora (1989) at 150 by 100 m (15,000 sq m). practices, and addressing how the site meshes The excavation crew later recorded the size as115 with the regional use of the area by the various m north-south by 80 m east-west (9,200 sq m). prehistoric and protohistoric cultures. The final determination of site size is 95 m north- south by 55 m east-west (5,225 sq m). The dis- Excavation Procedures crepancies arise from originally including sherds within the site limits that were actually an exten- Prior to the excavation of the site, LA 71263 was sion of the nearby Gallina-phase site. The Gallina photographed, and the limits of the associated tower and two rock art panels had been previ- surface artifacts were defined. The site was then ously recorded as LA 143324. Other recorded mapped with an optical transit and stadia rod, sites in the immediate vicinity lie mostly to the and a metric grid system was established. A pri- west at the base of or on the top of Wild Horse mary datum (A) was established several meters Mesa. These include nine Gallina-phase sites (LA east of the NM 537 eastern right-of-way fence. All 26152, LA 26153, LA 26155, LA 47781, LA 47782, artifacts within the right-of-way were collected LA 67419, LA 67423, LA 68312, and LA 68313), by site quadrant. The 1 by 1 m grid units were one Anasazi cavate (LA 3944), two Pueblo II (pos- referenced by their northeast corners, and all sibly Rosa-phase or Gallina-phase sites (LA 20376 excavation levels were calibrated to the known and LA 35569), one Pueblo III site (LA 50452), elevation of Datum A at 2,119.37 m. and one Pueblo IV site (associated with LA Data recovery began with extensive backhoe 67419) within 3.2 km (2 mi) of the project area. exploration (Fig. 6). Five backhoe trenches were Three other Gallina-phase towers and many excavated on the site: three small trenches on the other Gallina-phase sites are within this USGS west side of the right-of-way and two long quadrangle (Schmitz ). A few Rosa-phase trenches on the east. Each trench placement was and Piedra-phase sites are also present. based on the potential for likely cultural features as recorded in the testing program (Zamora Site Setting 1989). The trenches measured as follows:

LA 71263 is on both sides of NM 537 within the Backhoe Trench 1 = 4.1 by 1.0 m by 50 cm deep southern half of the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Backhoe Trench 2 = 3.8 by 1.0 m by 40 cm deep The original construction of the highway cut Backhoe Trench 3 = 3.4 by 1.0 m by 50 cm deep through the site. The elevation of the site is 2,119 Backhoe Trench 4 = 35.0 by 1.0 m by 50 cm deep m (6,950 ft) on an alluvial fan 0.35 km west of the Backhoe Trench 5 = 15.0 by 1.0 m by 50 cm deep intermittent Cañon de los Ojitos. Vegetation is principally desert shrubs, grasses, and cacti, All trenches were cleaned out, and the including rabbitbrush, sage, snakeweed, blue exposed surfaces were faced by hand. The depth grama, Indian ricegrass, and prickly pear. of the trenches ranged from 40 to 50 cm, well into Juniper and piñon grow on top of Wild Horse sterile soil. Profiles of each trench were made and Mesa, 300 m west of the site. photographs taken. The trenches did not reveal any subsurface cultural deposits. Research Objectives In addition to the backhoe trenching, a rec- tangular area of 13.5 sq m was excavated adjacent The research goals set forth in the data recovery to the original Test Pit 4, an area that yielded plan (Moore et al. 1991) were based on the prem- extensive subsurface cultural remains during the ise that LA 71263 was a Gallina-phase campsite testing program. Another area of 20 sq m, 7 m with a later, Pueblo period occupation because of southwest of Datum A, was also excavated after the recovery of suspected Gallina gray wares and the discovery of an extramural pit. One other 1 by one Pueblo sherd. The site was to be studied in 1 m grid was excavated to a depth of 30 cm terms of defining occupational sequences directly south of Backhoe Trench 5 and yielded through chronometric techniques, determining nothing. The entire area was excavated with the nature of the site occupation through artifac- hand tools in 1 by 1 m grids using natural strati- tual and floral studies, identifying subsistence graphic levels. All fill was screened through 1/4-

22 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods BHT 3

BHT 2

F 2

TP 2 BHT 4

BHT 1

TP 4 F 1

TP1 BHT 5

TP 3

NM

Figure 6. Plan of LA 71263.

Excavated Sites 23 inch wire mesh. Cultural Features All cultural features were excavated by tak- ing one-half of the fill full-cut to a definable uti- LA 71263 consists of the remains of an early lization surface. A profile of the remaining fill Navajo habitation unit containing interior fea- section was drawn and mapped, nonartifactual tures of a fire pit, an ash pit, a slab feature, possi- samples were taken, and the other half of the fill ble postholes, and numerous charred logs on the was removed in natural stratigraphic levels. Fill burned floor. A nearby bell-shaped pit was the from all features was screened through 1/4-inch only other feature found at the site. wire mesh. Pollen, flotation, and chronometric Habitation structure. The structure was not samples were recovered from all cultural fea- visible on the surface of the site except for a few tures. cm of sandstone slabs extending above the sandy Upon completion of the excavation, the ground surface and charcoal-stained soil exposed exposed features were mapped, profiled, pho- in the slope cut. Upon excavation, the feature tographed, and described on OAS forms. Soil col- floor was found at a depth of 20–25 cm below ors were defined using a Munsell color chart. The ground surface. total amount of soil excavated on the site was The nearly round structure had been cut 70.4 cu m to an average depth of 49.4 cm in the slightly on its western edge by the slope cut mechanical trenching and 18.8 cm in the excavat- along the highway and by Test Pit 4 during the ed units. testing program (Fig. 7). The approximate dimen- sions were 3.6 m north-south by 2.8 m east-west, an area of 10.1 sq m (Fig. 8). The fill consisted of

Figure 7. Uncovering the floor of the Navajo habitation structure, LA 71263.

24 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 8. Navajo habitation structure, LA 71263.

Excavated Sites 25 medium to dark brown sandy soil. Within the fill and directly above the floor were sherds, numer- ous lithic flakes, and a few burned animal bones. The edges of the floor were indicated by the mar- gin of charcoal staining around the perimeter of the feature. The floor itself was burned over most of its surface with areas of very heavy oxidization (Figs. 7 and 8). Notable artifacts associated with the floor were a large abraded sandstone slab in the southern portion and a concentration of 68 biface trimming flakes lying on the heavily oxi- dized surface. Also on the floor, in a roughly con- ical pattern (according to excavators) were about 100 charred pieces of timber up to 40 cm long and Figure 9. Profile of fire pit, LA 71263, facing 15 cm in diameter. Several were collected for north. dendrochronological analysis, but not all were mapped. Three possible postholes surrounded the lithic heat-treating facility. structure (Fig. 8), averaging 10 cm in diameter A disturbed feature of sandstone slabs lay 55 and 12 cm deep. Excavators decided they were cm directly east of the fire pit (see Fig. 7). The not postholes; however, no explanation was easternmost sandstone slab was set vertically offered in the field notes. Without knowing how into the floor, and others were semiupright or this conclusion was reached, we suggest that collapsed around it. All but the upright slab were they could be postholes for the superstructure, heavily oxidized. This slab may also have served which was apparently constructed of logs. The as a wind deflector, suggesting that the entrance burned floor and many charred logs within the to the structure was to the east. Originally, the unit suggest the feature burned, but it is not pos- feature appears to have been roughly rectangu- sible to say if the burning was intentional. The lar, measuring approximately 75 by 75 cm. burned logs that were mapped are generally scat- Within the bounds of the feature were one tered around the perimeter of the structure, sug- Dinetah Gray sherd and six lithic artifacts. A gesting they were collapsed construction materi- flotation sample was obtained from the soil with- al. No other wall material was present, although in the sandstone slabs. A literature search for pieces of burned adobe found within the unit comparative features at Navajo sites in north- may have been wall chinking. western New Mexico leads to the conclusion that Interior features of the structure consisted of this feature probably served as a milling bin. a fire pit, an upright slab unit, an ash pit, and two A small ash pit in the floor (36 cm north- small pits of unknown use. The fire pit was near- south by 10 cm east-west by 17 cm deep) had suf- ly circular, measuring 34 cm north-south by 38 fered considerable rodent disturbance. cm east-west by 50 cm deep (Figs. 9 and 10). Its Interestingly, it lay on the west side of the large walls were not smoothed. The upper walls were vertical slab of the above feature and extended to heavily oxidized with a Munsell color of 75 YR the bottom of the slab (see Fig. 9). Its position 4/4, dark brown. A fragment of a sandstone slab was, therefore, a short distance east of the fire pit. lay just under the surface of the fill of the pit. The Within the ash pit were six Dinetah Gray sherds, cultural fill consisted of dark, ashy soil (10YR a small, fragmented , and the sin- 5/2) with charcoal flecks. It contained three gle bone of a large squirrel or prairie dog. Dinetah Gray sherds and 81 lithic artifacts to a One of the three possible postholes was along depth of 30 cm. A flotation sample was taken. the north edge of the structure, and the other two The remaining fill of the fire pit was of sterile were along the east perimeter (see Fig. 8). The sand (10 YR 5/3) that appears to have been north posthole was 17 cm in diameter, while the placed there purposely. J. Ware (letter, Oct. 31, remaining two were 10 cm wide. Their average 1991) believes the fire pit may have served as a depth was 12 cm. The north posthole contained a

26 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 10. Fire pit, LA 71263, with upright slab feature to the right. fill of hard, compacted sand with chunks of Bell-shaped pit. A bell-shaped pit was found burned and unburned wood. The other two were 34 m north of the habitation structure (Fig. 11) filled only with sand. The possible postholes are during mechanical surface stripping. It appeared of a fairly substantial size, enough to have held first as a circular, burned stain. Upon excavation, beams that would have possibly been transport- the pit was found to have a rim measurement of ed from the rincons or slopes of Wild Horse 95 cm north-south by 86 cm east-west. The rim Mesa, 300 m away. itself was oxidized to a bright orange color. The Two small pits of unknown function were upper walls were also highly oxidized but also found within the structure (Fig. 8). The one became less so as excavation continued. The floor in the north-central portion was roughly three- was burned to a dark red hue. The pit was deeply lobed, heavily oxi- belled, with a bottom dized, 7 cm deep, and measurement of 115 cm filled with darkened north-south by 108 cm soil. No artifacts were east-west and a maxi- associated with it. mum width of 125 cm. Excavators speculated The depth of the pit that it might be a post- was 56 cm. hole for three posts, The upper 45 cm possibly a main roof of fill was clean, loose, support. The other tan sand (10YR 5/4, small pit along the east yellowish brown). edge was 30 cm in Excavators commented diameter and 5 cm that the fill was unlike deep with much char- the surrounding soil coal. Its function is matrix. It consisted of a unknown, and no arti- Figure 11. Profile of bell-shaped pit, west half, medium-grained quartz facts were present. LA 71263. sand with small flecks

Excavated Sites 27 of that was only available at a distance of 50 lithic artifacts were found mostly within and m. This means that the upper sand level was around the fire pit. brought in to fill the pit, possibly to prepare it for Of the seven pieces of ground stone, five reuse. Between 45 and 56 cm deep, the sand was were from the surrounding site surface, and two hard-packed and mixed with large quantities of were within the structure. The identifiable pieces charcoal, ash, and some burned clay. Within this such as metates and manos all came from the sur- cultural layer was one small sherd of an uniden- face. All are made from locally available sand- tified San Juan white ware. Several den- stone. It is possible that most manos and metates, drochronological and flotation samples were although close to the habitation, were not related taken. to the Navajo occupation, but rather to the near- The heavy burning of the pit rim and walls, by Gallina site. all the way to the floor, suggests the pit was used Eight pieces of animal bone were recovered to produce a high heat, perhaps for roasting. We from LA 71263. All are from within the structure, believe, however, that the original contents had mostly scattered around the fire pit; 62.5 percent been removed by site occupants, meaning that of them were burned. They consist of remains we do not know what material was being heated from two mule deer, a medium-to-large mammal in the pit, since the flotation samples provided no (possibly deer), a pocket gopher, and a large clues. squirrel or prairie dog. Because only one unidentified sherd was Flotation analysis was completed for five found in the pit, it is not possible to definitively proveniences (10 samples) within the structure. state that the pit is related to the Navajo struc- The slab feature produced the best macrobotani- ture. It could be associated with use of the area by cal results. Tansy mustard was the most preva- Gallina-phase occupants. lent plant. Other potentially cultural remains included goosefoot, pigweed, purslane, beeweed, Artifacts tobacco, and burned piñon shells. The fire pit also produced tansy mustard, goosefoot, pig- A total of 777 artifacts were recovered from LA weed, sunflowers, and piñon and yucca seeds. 71263 (see Table 1). The ceramic artifacts from the The bell-shaped pit contained only goosefoot site (n = 292) are mostly Dinetah Gray (90.7 per- seeds, but it had been cleaned out. There was no cent). A few Jemez Black-on-white, Gallina Black- evidence of the cultivation of corn. on-white, and yellow glaze wares (likely from Three palynological samples were submitted Zia Pueblo) were also found. All but one of the 11 for analysis. From the fill of the habitation came Jemez sherds were from the habitation unit, pollen from ponderosa pine, piñon, cheno-ams, while the Gallina Black-on-white sherds and the and sagebrush. Recovered from inside of the slab 3 glaze wares were collected from the right-of- feature were ponderosa pine, piñon, cheno-ams, way. The distribution of the ceramics found on sagebrush, and small amounts of ephedra and the floor and in the shallow fill of the structure is greasewood. The nearby bell-shaped pit pro- shown in Figure 12. Most sherds were found duced ponderosa pine, piñon, juniper, oak, around the slab feature or in the featureless cheno-ams, sagebrush, and small amounts of northwest quadrant. grasses and ephedra. The lithic artifacts consisted mostly of flakes (76.1 percent) in an assemblage of 470 pieces. Dating of the Site Only seven pieces showed any evidence of manufacture, six of which were bifaces. The most Seven radiocarbon and 14 dendrochronological commonly used material in the assemblage was samples were submitted for dating to Beta Pedernal chert (92.3 percent), available 41.1 km Analytic, Inc., and the Laboratory of Tree-Ring (25.5 mi) south of the site. Obsidian (6.2 percent) Research (Fig. 14 and Table 2). All but one sam- came from the Jemez Mountains, 88 km (54.6 mi) ple were from wood charcoal taken from the fill southeast of the site. Lithic artifacts within the of features or the charred beams within the habi- structure were distributed as shown in Figure 13. tation unit. The exception was an AMS radiocar- As opposed to the ceramic artifact distribution, bon date from a corncob recovered in a storage

28 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 12. Distribution of ceramic artifacts within structure, LA 71263.

Excavated Sites 29 Figure 13. Distribution of lithic artifacts within structure, LA 71263.

30 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 14. Chronometric data, LA 71263.

Excavated Sites 31 TableTable 2.2. C-14 C-14 dates, dates, LA 71263 LA 71263

Field Sample Beta No. Age B.P. Calibrated Calibrated Intercept Date Context 1 Sigma Date 2 Sigma Date

7B 179327 320 ± 30 A.D. 1510-1600 A.D. 1480-1650 A.D. 1530 slab feature A.D. 1620-1640 A.D.1560 A.D. 1630 29 179330 590 ± 40 A.D. 1310-1370 A.D. 1350-1420 A.D. 1400 habitation fill A.D. 1380-1410 30 179331 960 ± 90 A.D. 1000-1180 A.D. 900-1260 A.D. 1030 Backhoe Trench 4 3 179325 170 ± 60 A.D. 1660-1700 A.D. 1640-1950 A.D. 1680, A.D. 1770, hearth in habitation A.D. 1720-1820 A.D. 1800, A.D. 1940, A.D. 1840-1880 A.D. 1950 A.D. 1920-1950 7A 179326 470 ± 50 A.D. 1420-1450 A.D. 1400-1490 A.D. 1430 habitation fill 12 179328 570 ± 50 A.D. 1310-1360 A.D. 1300-1430 A.D. 1400 bell-shaped pit A.D. 1390-1420 53 180707 280 ± 30 A.D. 1530-1550 A.D. 1520-1590 A.D. 1640 corncob in Gallina room A.D. 1630-1650 A.D. 1620-1660 room on the nearby Gallina site. Navajo-associated date. The best dates are The denrochronological dates from charred between 1620 and 1650, with an intercept date of beams were interesting, although somewhat dis- 1640 and a 2-sigma range of AD 1480 to 1660. appointing. The 14 samples, all from piñon In summary, 1 date indicates collection of wood, date between AD 1300+ and 1571+. These wood from the Gallina structures, 17 dates are vv (noncutting) dates. They are too late for the strongly imply that dead piñon wood was gath- Gallina occupation and too early for a Navajo ered for fuel and construction, and 3 dates con- presence, except possibly the latest date, which firm a 1600–1660 Navajo occupation of the habi- extends past AD 1571. The dates appear to repre- tation unit. The bell-shaped pit yielded two dates sent the utilization of dead wood on the site for from old wood dating in the AD 1300s. Ceramics firewood and probably construction material, as from the site also verify an early Navajo occupa- William Robinson of the Tree-Ring Research tion; 90.7 percent of the sherds were Dinetah wrote in a letter to John Ware on Sept. 14, 1992: Gray, with a smattering of probable trade wares “There is no doubt that all the dated material is of Jemez Black-on-white and yellow glaze wares. Navajo. . . . Although none of the dates are cut- The lack of Gobernador Polychrome also sup- ting dates, and the material has the ‘feel’ of dead ports an early 1600s date for the site. firewood, the [habitation unit] may still be fairly early—say first half of the 1600s or so.” The seven radiocarbon assays produced Site Interpretation three dates that could be definitely assigned to a Navajo occupation of the site. These dates, from LA 71263 is an early Navajo habitation site with a within the slab feature and the hearth, yielded nearby bell-shaped pit that is most likely associ- results that statistically fall between 1600 and ated with it. The main feature consists of a shal- 1650, accounting for overlapping between the low, generally circular living space with a central dates. Three of the other dates match the radio- fire pit, ash pit, milling bin, and numerous carbon dead wood dates and lie between AD charred log fragments on a burned floor. Many 1300 and 1490. One date, with a 2-sigma range of sherd and lithic artifacts, as well as a few burned AD 900 to 1260, is more than likely from scav- animal bones, were found on the floor and in the enged wood of the Gallina structure to the west. fire pit. Three radiocarbon assays indicate an The corncob was recovered from a cache of cobs occupation date between 1620 and 1650. found within one of the Gallina rooms against Dendrochronological samples all date to the AD the cliffs of Wild Horse Mesa. Surprisingly, it did 1300–1400s and are likely from old wood gath- not date to the Gallina phase, but produced a ered from Wild Horse Mesa, a short distance to

32 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods the west. seems to be an excellent example of an early One corncob was recovered from a former Navajo hogan, lacking only an interior storage Gallina room to the west and was the same age as . the Navajo structure, implying use of the Gallina We suggest that LA 71263 was not an isolat- site by Navajos to store corn. However, there are ed hogan on the alluvial slope adjacent to Wild no physical corn remains to verify its use by site Horse Mesa. These early settlements typically occupants. No corn remains or pollen were found occur in small units of two structures at least at LA 71263, but site occupants may have stored (Reed and Horn 1990:293). Writing about the the corn without grinding any of it. Numerous Fruitland Project, to the west, Sesler et al. slab metates were found at the site outside the (2000:217-219) note that Navajo occupations fre- right-of-way. Corn on early Navajo sites is not quently occur in clusters of contemporary, close- uncommon, but it is somewhat elusive; at sever- ly spaced hogans. They observed only one al sites, corn pollen suggests it was used more as milling bin for each cluster of hogans and con- a dietary supplement than a staple (Brown and cluded that spatially related Navajo households Hancock 1992:85). shared a common milling facility. Based on sev- The habitation feature at LA 71263 is similar eral charcoal stains, scattered ground stone and to other Navajo structures at sites to the west. ceramic artifacts immediately outside of the Reed and Horn (1990:293) record substantial right-of-way, and the substantial milling bin, we earthen or brush structures like forked-stick believe that the structure excavated at LA 71263 hogans in San Juan County. Navajo architecture was not the only habitation in the immediate seems to include forked-stick hogans, rectangu- vicinity of the site in the past. lar hogans, log and brush structures, ramadas, Most upright or scattered slab features with- and sweat lodges. Winter and Hogan (1992:310) in Navajo structures prove to be milling bins note that ephemeral brush structures are the (Hovezak and Sesler 1999; Sesler et al. 2000:217). most common. The habitation at LA 71263 was We assume that the slabs within the LA 71263 made at least partially of logs, rather than brush, structure were also the remains of a milling bin. and was therefore more substantial. Its interior Several manos were recovered from around the features, consisting of a fire pit, ash pit, and site, but there was no evidence of what was being milling bin, also suggest a covered space. ground. Corn pollen or kernels were not found. Macrobotanical samples indicate utilization of Flotation analysis identified beeweed, tansy mus- surrounding resources from early summer to fall tard, and tobacco within the feature. The seeds of or in early summer and again in the fall. Nights tansy mustard are nutritious, and occupants may are known to be cool, if not cold, year-round in have been processing them. Beeweed and tobac- this region, so the presence of a fire pit does not co are occasionally found on early Navajo sites negate a summer occupation. The mean life of a (Toll, this report). Navajo hogan is 10 years (Russell 1983) and often The structure at LA 71263 was definitely used much less. Considering the structure was proba- as a living space where domestic activities were bly of logs, it could well have served a Navajo performed. The bell-shaped pit and milling bin family for a number of years. indicate that economic resources were being Navajo hogans generally range from 3.0 to processed and roasted. The temporally related 8.0 m in diameter (Sesler et al. 2000:176), while corncob suggests that corn was being stored in a small brush structures range from 2.5 to 4.0 m in nearby, former Gallina room. The high number diameter. LA 71263 has a maximum diameter of of heat-treated biface flakes within the unit indi- 3.6 m. Early Navajo units are usually described as cates the preparation of tools for hunting or cut- shallow, roughly circular, with unprepared ting. floors; they often have only a hearth in the center or in the southeast quadrant. They may also con- tain small ash pits, storage cists, and slab-lined LA 76270 (SAND HILL) bins. They may have postholes around the edges and burned adobe in the fill. Doorways, if found, LA 76270 is a small sherd and lithic artifact scat- usually face southeast (Hogan 1992:4). LA 71263 ter originally recorded by G. Velarde in 1989 and

Excavated Sites 33 subsequently resurveyed by the OAS in 1990 in Research Objectives advance of highway construction. Artifacts had also been observed on the west side of NM 537, Based on a possible late Archaic projectile point but they were not relocated. In 1991 a field crew and probable Gallina gray wares sherds, it was from the OAS conducted a limited testing pro- initially thought that LA 76270 had two separate gram at the site (Moore et al. 1991). Five 1 by 1 m cultural occupations (Moore et al. 1991). No test pits were excavated and 18 auger holes Archaic sites had been recorded in the project placed to determine the depth and extent of cul- area, making site dating an important goal of the tural resources. Only one test pit yielded a dark, research. The quantity of the sherds suggested a charcoal-stained soil lens with associated lithic Gallina-phase campsite with an emphasis on artifacts at 40 cm below the ground surface. hunting indicated by the number of lithic arti- Based on the recovery of artifacts from the facts. surface, a Largo-Gallina–phase occupation (AD The depth of the subsurface artifacts found in 950–1275) was thought to be possible. Also, the one of the test pits suggested multiple occupa- finding of a large corner-notched projectile point tions of the site. Another research goal was to implied that an earlier Archaic or Basketmaker II evaluate the relationship between the two com- component (ca. 100 BC to AD 400) might be pres- ponents. However, Moore et al. (1991) acknowl- ent. A data recovery plan was prepared by edge disturbance of the site, which may have Moore et al. (1991). conditioned the vertical placement of artifacts. Extensive subsurface explorations at the site The recovery of datable materials was necessary failed to yield substantial cultural deposits. A to resolve these issues. total of 12 ceramics, 266 lithic artifacts, and 1 However, extensive subsurface explorations piece of ground stone were recovered. No fea- at the site failed to recover substantial subsurface tures were found, and no macrobotanical or paly- deposits. Although many of the research aims nological samples were taken. The site measures posed in the data recovery plan for LA 76270 67.5 m north-south by a maximum of 19 m east- could not be addressed, all surface artifacts with- west, an area of 1,282.5 sq m. Only one other site in the project area were collected and analyzed. lies within 1 km of LA 76270: LA 4761, a Pueblo General chronological data were provided by the II site (Rosa or Gallina phase). Several other ceramics, which proved to be Dinetah Gray Rosa-phase and Gallina-phase sites lie 2 to 3 km wares, probably of the Dinetah phase, but possi- to the southeast. bly from the later Gobernador phase. Specific questions on multiple site occupations could not Site Setting be answered. Excavators focused on the larger lithic assemblage to gain a perspective on lithic LA 76270 is on the east side of NM 537 near the procurement and tool manufacturing technolo- crest of a low hill in a heavily dissected upland gies. region of the southern Jicarilla Apache Reservation. It is close to a small, sandstone out- Excavation Methods crop that is covered by a thin mantle of stabilized eolian sand. Several meters north of the site lies a Before the excavation, the site was photographed large borrow pit belonging to the DOT. The pit and a ground reconnaissance was conducted to may have impacted the cultural resources at LA define the limits of the surface scatter. A 1 by 1 m 76270. grid system was established employing the pri- LA 76270 is at an elevation of 2,244 m (7,360 mary datum of 110N/100E and grid orientation ft). Vegetation consists primarily of grasses and that had been used during the testing program. high desert shrubs including rabbitbrush, sage, Excavation began with extensive backhoe testing. snakeweed, blue grama, and Indian ricegrass. Five backhoe trenches were excavated (Fig. 15). Around the perimeter of the site and on sur- Backhoe Trenches 3 and 4 were placed to explore rounding slopes are dense stands of piñon, areas of possible cultural feature concentrations juniper, and Gambel oak. and examine additional portions of the site that were not intensively treated during the testing

34 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 15. Plan of LA 76270.

Excavated Sites 35 phase (Backhoe Trenches 1, 1A, and 2). Backhoe Artifacts trenches were excavated to the level of the sand- stone bedrock, which was encountered at depths Of the 279 artifacts found at LA 76270, 98.9 per- ranging from 40 cm to 1.15 m below the present cent were undiagnostic chipped stone. The 12 ground surface. The top 20 cm of soil within the sherds of Dinetah Gray do indicate, however, trenches was a loose, sandy matrix. This soil that this is a Navajo site. As at LA 71263, most of gradually changed to a browner sand with the lithic artifact materials were sourced to the organic material and root rot. Portions of Jemez Mountains and Cerro Pedernal. The single Backhoe Trench 2 deposits at its northern end Late Archaic projectile point may have been scav- were a reddish-brown sand rather than brown. enged from another site. One piece of ground The trenches measured as follows: stone was also recovered, a one-hand that was polished on the ground surface. Backhoe Trench 1 = 9.0 by 1.0 m by 1.15 m deep Backhoe Trench 1A = 2.5 by 1.0 m by 55 cm deep Dating of the Site Backhoe Trench 2 = 20.0 by 1.0 m by 70 cm deep Backhoe Trench 3 = 3.0 by 1.0 m by 40 cm deep The only means of dating LA 76270 are the few Backhoe Trench 4 = 10.0 by 1.0 m by 53 cm deep Dinetah Gray sherds that imply the site was occupied by Navajo occupation. However, the All trenches were faced and cleaned by hand, temporal span could extend anywhere within the detailed profiles were completed, photographs Dinetah or Gobernador phases since Dinetah were taken, and all trenches were backfilled at Gray was produced during both periods. the completion of fieldwork. A total of 32.2 cu m of soil was excavated, Site Interpretation with an average depth of 66 cm. LA 76270 is a mid-sized artifact scatter of Navajo Cultural Features origin, based on the presence of Dinetah Gray. It was probably a campsite where lithic materials When looking at the map of the provenienced were prepared for use and at least some process- artifacts (Fig. 16), it becomes clear that the main ing occurred, as indicated by the single mano. part of LA 76270 has been dissected by slope cut- Hearths were most likely present in the missing ting and the original highway corridor. Most of portions of the site. LA 76270 is important, how- the site would have been in the western part of ever, because it informs us that Navajo groups this area. Therefore, while numerous artifacts were using the surrounding landscape for their were recovered from LA 76270, no cultural fea- resources, and the presence of any Navajo site in tures were found. this area allows us to better understand patterns of Navajo mobility.

36 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods NM

Figure 16. Provenienced artifacts, LA 76270.

Excavated Sites 37

LA 143324 (The Site of the Ancients)

LA 71263 (Los Ojitos) is archaeologically signifi- of a small, compact roomblock with an attached cant because it is one of a few fairly well-pre- tower, typical of many Gallina-phase settlements. served Navajo structural sites dating to the The roomblock has deteriorated, and portions of Dinetah phase in the early 1600s. However, site only six rooms are visible. One or two more dynamics are perhaps best understood by rooms could have been present. Walls abut the expanding the scale of observation and looking at cliff face and are of stone with mud mortar and the several components of nearby LA 143324. faced with a mud plaster on the interior (Fig. 19). This site, also known as the Site of the Ancients, They range from 35 to 45 cm wide. The tower extends along the base of the cliffs of Wild Horse stands 3.1 m high. Next to the cliff, within the Mesa, 300 m northwest of LA 71263 (Figs. 17 and tower, is an opening measuring 63.5 cm high by 18). One spring and one runoff drainage are also 40.6 cm wide with a stone lintel (Fig. 20). located along the cliffs. The several components Artifacts, including Gallina Black-on-white of LA 143324 include a small Gallina roomblock sherds, are eroding down the slope in front of the with the remains of a tower, a small cavate with rooms. a Basketmaker II , and two areas of Gallina-phase sites date between AD 1050 to rock art. The Gallina roomblock and the petro- AD 1260, and there are many in the surrounding glyph are important in interpreting the dynamics region. While visiting the site during the testing of LA 71263. phase, the crew noted the presence of about one dozen corncobs within one of the tower rooms GALLINA TOWER RUINS and recovered two of them in hopes of dating the tower site more accurately. Rather than a date The southernmost portion of LA 143324 consists within an acceptable range for Gallina sites, the

Figure 17. LA 143324, with cavate in center, Gallina-phase tower to right behind rubble mound, and pictograph behind trees to left.

The Site of the Ancients 39 Figure 18. Plan of southern area with cliff-face features, LA 143324. corrected AMS radiocarbon assay for the corncob CAVATE came back with an intercept date of 1640. This correlates with the radiocarbon and den- Another feature in this area is a small cavate drochronological dates for the Navajo structure about 8 m west of the Gallina roomblock. It is excavated by OAS. The dates are statistically the about 2.5 m above a ledge, and no attempt was same and lead to the conclusion that the corncobs made to climb to it. The cavate is about 2.5 m were stored in the Gallina roomblock by the resi- wide by 1.5 m high by 2 m deep. Several pecked dents of LA 71263. This finding was quite inter- toeholds lead to it. Fire has stained the roof black, esting considering that no pollen or flotation and a single anthropomorphic figure, 20.3 cm analyses produced corn remains at LA 71263. We tall, is pecked into the rock on the north wall (Fig. do not know if the cobs were brought to the site 21). This type of figure is commonly referred to as area from another site to sustain the people at LA a Rosa-phase “handholder” petroglyph (P. 71263 or if the site occupants grew the corn them- Schaafsma 1992:13). If the cavate was used dur- selves and were storing it for return to another ing this phase, it would date between AD 700 and settlement or their own use. It is know that 850. Many Rosa-phase sites have been identified Navajo peoples reused Gallina sites. Leeson in the surrounding area. Cliffhouse and Starve-Out Point, south of the project area, were both reoccupied by Navajos (Seaman 1976:6). Leeson Cliffhouse contained a PICTOGRAPH OF THE TWIN WAR GODS . A Navajo pictograph was found along the same cliff face, 22 m southwest of the Rosa-phase

40 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 19. Interior of Gallina-phase tower, LA 143324, showing wall construction.

Figure 20. Exterior of Gallina-phase tower, LA 143324, with window.

The Site of the Ancients 41 younger twin, is more spiritual, reserved, cau- tious, prone to thoughtful preparation, and femi- nine (Reichard 1950:76). He is also considered a god of darkness and a god of the south. Twin War God depictions are usually carved into or drawn onto a smoothed or abraded rock wall, generally at the base of cliffs within canyons or at canyon junctions. Monster Slayer is charac- terized by a round head, usually with a red paint outline. His eyes and mouth are shown by small holes cut into the rock. Zig-zag lightning marks may decorate his cheeks. A single red feather protrudes out of the top of his head and it leans to one side. The torso is rectangular, and the arms are bent up. Monster Slayer wears a kilt which is normally red and may have decorative lines (or a fringe) along its margins. At Wilmer Canyon in the Dinetah, a pictograph of a Monster Slayer’s kilt is covered with red pecked dots with pecked dots or balls extending from a belt, much like what remains at this site. Copeland (1996) notes that the left hand is always empty, while the right almost always holds a large stone for slay- ing monsters. He also is known for carrying a bow. Figure 21. Anthropomorphic figure pecked on Born-for-Water is always painted entirely in cavate wall, LA 143324. Such figures are com- red with a well-defined body image. He too is monly known as handholder . round-headed; however, he may or may not have pecked eyes or a mouth. Born-for-Water wears a kilt only in one known example. His arms are cavate. It is a drawing of the Twin War Gods (Fig. upraised, usually holding cylinders of piñon or 22), a significant symbol in Navajo ceremonial- juniper, symbols of thunderbolts (Matthews ism. The pictograph is an anthropomorphic rep- 1897:223). Bows, (zig-zag for Monster resentation of the Twin Gods, prominent in Slayer and straight for Born-for-Water), and Gobernador-phase ceremonial art. These gods hourglass-shaped queues are often found in asso- maintain a high status in the hierarchy of Navajo ciation with the Twin War Gods, but they are also ye’i (Copeland 1996). The Twins are the type found alone as symbols of the gods. Queues sym- heroes for all other stories, “a personification of bolize scalp knots that Born-for-Water takes after all conceivable power” Reichard (1950), and pos- Monster Slayer first kills the enemy (P. sibly a class unto themselves. Schaafsma 1992:28). They are also sometimes The Twin War Gods (or Hero Twins) were found drawn onto corn stalks as symbols of fer- the children of Changing Woman and the Sun tility (Stevenson 1891:247). Paired, round shields and were responsible for clearing the world of may also be depictions of the two gods enemy gods and monsters to create a safe world (Copeland 1996). for the yet-to-be-born Navajo people (Sessler et Representations of the Twin War Gods can al. 2000:163). Monster Slayer (Naye’neezgani), vary greatly from site to site and canyon to the older twin, is the more impulsive, aggressive, canyon. They may face in any direction, although and masculine of the two (Reichard 1950:76). He southerly or easterly is the more common. The has also been called a god of light (Matthews War Gods at LA 143324 are facing east. Besides 1897:35) and a god of the north (Wheelwright pictographs, petroglyph and sand-painting sym- 1946:121). Born-for-Water (To’badzistsini), the bolizations of the gods are also known.

42 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 22. Pictograph of Twin War Gods, LA 143324.

The Twin War Gods at LA 143324 are tradi- leave no doubt that these are representations of tional characterizations of the gods. Born-for- the Twin War Gods. Born-for-Water stands 50.8 Water is well-preserved and clearly drawn in red cm high at the base of the cliff wall. This picto- ocher. He is leading Monster Slayer, his feet graph is very similar to one photographed in turned to the north. Monster Slayer is barely vis- Schaafsma (1980: Plate 27) from Largo Canyon. ible, but the round, red-outlined head with the Copeland (1996) indicates that these ceremo- single red feather, dotted kilt, and probably a belt nial images were used for specific purposes.

The Site of the Ancients 43 There are accounts of Navajo warriors going to SECOND ROCK ART PANEL Meeting of Waters (To’heedilth) in the late 1800s, where an image of the Twin War Gods once North along the same cliff face, around a corner existed (it was destroyed during the construction within a protected rincon, lies another panel of of Navajo Reservoir) to make offerings before rock art (Fig. 23). The representations are more going into battle (Matthews 1886). Navajos were extensive than in the southern area and include also known to have collected medicine and water at least eight various anthropomorphic figures, for ceremonial purposes at To’heedilth (Van handprints, a cross, modern graffiti, and several Valkenburgh 1974:142, 149). Copeland (1996) drawings too faint or damaged to identify. All believes we can probably assume that many are pictographs drawn in white paint except for a other ceremonial imagery sites in Dinetah were single incised ye’i, the graffiti, and some uniden- used similarly. It is possible that some of the sites tifiable markings. Runoff from on top of the cliff correspond to occurrences of traditional creation has created a ponding area at the base of the rock events, or they may have been mnemonic devices art panel and provides enough water for the for recounting important stories or events growth of several piñon trees. (Copeland 1996). He also suggest that much of Rock art extends 6 m along the base of the the Twin War Gods symbolism in Dinetah may cliff (Figs. 24 and 25). The red patina on the cliff be associated with warfare. Schaafsma face is a result of photographic reproduction. (1963:64–65) suggested that Navajo ceremonial Scene 1 includes all drawings on the left side art sites may have served as shrines because of of the panel (Fig. 26). The large ye’i-like figure their strong tendency to be situated apart from with upraised arms is 1.65 m high with a break at living areas. (The pictograph at LA 143324 is midsection and at the base of the cliff face (Fig. about 300 m from LA 71263). She also suggested 27). The figure is painted in white except for the that Navajos could communicate with supernat- face (or mask), which is a bluish gray. Some type ural beings with prayers and offerings at such of topknot is on the head, and eyes and mouth sites. may be present. One side of the head has been It has been written that Navajo rock art came flattened. This figure is likely of Navajo origin. into existence only after the Pueblo Revolt, dur- Immediately to the left of the figure are what ing the Gobernador phase, when there was more appear to be two small anthropomorphic draw- extensive contact with Pueblo Indians (P. ings, probably not associated with the larger rep- Schaafsma 1992). Many symbols do seem to have resentation. Further to the left are about six correlates with Pueblo art forms. However, unidentifiable paintings which could also be Copeland and Rogers (1996) and Wheeler et al. figures. Starting at the chest of the possi- (1996) argue for the beginning of Navajo nativis- ble ye’i and extending to the right is a line of tic art well before the Pueblo Revolt, perhaps what appear to be Basketmaker III (Rosa phase) even in the 1500s. This revision of the dating of anthropomorphs. The ye’i figure has been super- Navajo art has a bearing on the ceremonial picto- imposed over this row of hand-holders. Navajos graph at LA 143324. Assigning a Gobernador frequently place their art work directly over date sometime after 1700 to the Twin War Gods Rosa-phase anthropomorphs. To the lower left of would mean that the pictograph could not be the photograph are pictographs of an unknown associated with LA 71263 and the Navajo corn- nature. cobs in the Gallina tower, which date between Scene 2, immediately to the right of the large 1620 and 1640. However, if Navajo ceremonial ye’i, shows a single incised drawing of a much art is 100 years or so older, it is possible that all of smaller Navajo god, 19.7 cm high, made by a dif- the Navajo features in this area are correlated. ferent hand (Fig. 28). The figure is wearing a kilt This would make the Twin War Gods pictograph and a sash across the chest. This is a common at LA 143324 one of the oldest representations Navajo art style. known, as well as being the most easternmost To the left of the incised figure, and not visi- currently known in Dinetah. ble in the photographs, a modern inscription is incised into the rock (Fig. 29). It is not clear if the words “holy water” were meant as a separate

44 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 23. Location of rock art in rincon, LA 143324.

Figure 24. Complete rock art panel, LA 143324.

The Site of the Ancients 45 Figure 25. Drawing of second rock art panel, LA 143324 (continues on facing page). phrase, and if so, whether or not they refer to the large anthropomorph and another smaller one water at the site. Neither can it be determined if (Fig. 33). The larger representation has no fea- “MOJAVE SQUAW” was meant as a separate tures or body adornment, but it does have what phrase, nor how it fits into the inscription. appears to be a long horn extending from the side Scene 3 shows the remaining pictographs on of the mask. It also has a skewed feather (?) on the right side of the panel (Fig. 30). Another top and an earlike protuberance on its other side. anthropomorphic figure can be seen in the mid- The figure could be a Navajo ye’i, or it may have dle of the photograph and in Figure 31, a close- some other affiliation. The small, sticklike figure up. The figure may have some type of headress to the right seems to be throwing or catching a coming off the top of its head. Its cultural affilia- ball with outstretched hands. This figure has a tion is not known. Another pictograph to the feather extending up from the back of its head. It right of this figure has been obliterated by cracks does not seem to be related to the larger masked in the rock. figure because of the difference in size and style. Immediately to the right of the figure are a Its cultural association is also unknown. group of three right handprints and a possible In summary, this rock art panel probably cross (Fig. 32). The cross suggests placement after extends in age from Basketmaker III (ca. AD 700 contact with the Spaniards. Above the hand- to Navajo), with post-Spanish contact indicated. prints are what appear to be peckings but they Some of the figures could also relate to Pueblo or are not clear. To the lower right of the cross is Plains peoples. We cannot associate this panel what seems to be another small Basketmaker III with LA 71263, but some of the ceremonial fig- anthropomorph. ures could be related to it. The last two figures on the panel are a very

46 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 26. Scene 1, big ye'i, LA 143324 (1.65 m high).

The Site of the Ancients 47 Figure 27. Closeup of big ye'i, LA 143324.

48 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 28. Scene 2, incised ye'i, LA 143324 (19.7 cm high).

Figure 29. Modern inscription incised into rock, LA 143324.

The Site of the Ancients 49 Figure 30. Right half of rock art panel, LA 143324.

Figure 31. Closeup of anthropomorphic figure, LA 143324.

50 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 32. Scene 3, handprints and cross, LA 143324.

Figure 33. Large and small figures, LA 143324.

The Site of the Ancients 51

Ceramic Artifacts

C. Dean Wilson

A total of 304 sherds were recovered during the Homogenous greenish, gray, or black-cov- archaeological investigations. This analysis was ered angular rock fragments indicate the use of conducted on 25 sherds from the testing of LA crushed basalt temper. 71263, 12 sherds from the testing of LA 76270, and 267 sherds from the data recovery phase of LA 71263 (Table 3). The information given here is PAINT PIGMENT based on reanalysis of many of the sherds. Pigment categories were recognized based on surface characteristics (Shepard 1965). Surfaces METHODOLOGY without painted decorations were assigned to the none category. The distribution of pottery types and categories Organic pigment refers to the use of vegetal allows us to examine various trends and issues only. Color ranges from black to bluish, relating to Anasazi and Navajo occupations of and edges are often fuzzy. Organic pigment is this area. Pottery was analyzed with categories, soaked into rather than deposited on the surface. definitions, and codes similar to those used in Surface irregularities and polishing are visible previous studies in the Upper San Juan region through the paint and often create a shiny (Brugge 1963; Carlson 1963; Hill 1991; Wilson appearance. and Blinman 1993; Blinman and Wilson 1994; Lagenfeld 1996; Wilson 2000). Descriptive attrib- utes recorded include temper, paint pigment, SURFACE MANIPULATION surface manipulation, and vessel form. Surface textures and treatments were created during the construction of pottery vessels. TEMPER Attributes reflecting various surface manipula- tions were recorded for both the interior and Temper categories were identified by examining exterior surfaces. Surfaces that have been too freshly broken sherd surfaces with a binocular heavily worn to determine the original surface microscope. Broadly defined tempering cate- treatments were classified as surface missing. Plain gories were identified based on the combinations unpolished refers to surfaces that are smoothed of color, shape, fracture, and sheen of temper and obliterated, but not polished. Plain incised particles. was assigned to plain surfaces with incised deco- The majority of the sherds examined appear rations. Polished surfaces are those which have to have been tempered with rounded or sub- been intentionally smoothed with a polishing rounded, white to translucent, well-sorted, fine stone to produce an evenly smoothed, compact, quartz grains, classified as sand. This temper and lustrous surface. Plain polished refers to sur- appears to have derived from a crushed granite faces that have been smoothed and intentionally and is similar to examples classified as leucocrat- polished. Other surface treatments reflect the ic sand (Blinman and Wilson 1994). application of distinct clay or organic layers. Tuff or ash consists of fine volcanic fragments Surfaces to which low iron slips were applied presumably derived from pumice, ash, or tuff were classified as white slip polished. Clapboard deposits used by Pueblo potters in the Rio refers to overlapping coils. Smeared corrugated Grande region. This category consists of small, refers to coils on the exterior surfaces that have clear to light or dark vitreous, angular to rod- been partially obliterated. Polished smudged shaped particles with light-colored, dull pumice denotes the presence of a thick black soot deposit particles. over a highly polished surface.

Ceramic Artifacts 53 TableTable 3. Distribution of ofpottery pottery types types by site by (column site (column percentage) percentage)

Pottery Type LA 71263 LA 71263 LA 76270 Total Testing Excavation Excavation

Jemez Black-on-white 3 8 - 11 12.0% 3.0% - 3.6% Unpainted Jemez - 3 - 3 - 1.1% - 1.0% Glazed unslipped body 1 3 - 4 4.0% 1.1% - 1.3% Glaze-on-yellow undifferentiated - 2 - 2 - 0.7% - 0.7% Unpainted “Anasazi” white - 2 - 2 - 0.7% - 0.7% “Anasazi” plain gray - 2 - 2 - 0.7% - 0.7% Gallina Black-on-white - 3 - 3 - 1.1% - 1.0% Dinetah Gray 21 244 12 277 84.0% 91.4% 100.0% 91.1% Total 25 267 12 304 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

VESSEL FORM CERAMIC TYPES

Vessel form categories were assigned to sherds Each sherd was also assigned to a ceramic type, a based on shapes and manipulations observed on convenient category designed to relay informa- the sherds. Bowl sherds are recognized based on tion about combinations of traits with temporal, the shape or location of polish or painted decora- spatial, and functional significance. Each sherd tions. Those for which the shape could not be was also assigned to a specific typological catego- determined were classified as indeterminate. Bowl ry based on combinations of traits. First, sherds rim sherds are identified by an inward slope from were placed into a spatially distinct tradition pri- the rim. Bowl body sherds were recognized by the marily based on temper, paste, and paint charac- presence of polishing or painting on the interior teristics. Next, ware categories were assigned surface. Jar body refers to unpolished gray body based on surface manipulation and form. Items sherds without polished or painted decorations were then assigned to a specific ceramic type or those from decorated wares exhibiting polish- based on temporally sensitive surface manipula- ing or painted decorations on the exterior sur- tions and design styles. face. Jar neck refers to nonrim sherds exhibiting Pottery recognized during the present study distinct changes in curvature, indicating they includes types associated with protohistoric were derived from the neck of a jar. Jar rim refers Navajo, historic Puebloan, and prehistoric to forms with relatively wide rim diameters, Anasazi groups. Pottery descriptions are fol- which could have been used for or stor- lowed by brief discussions of trends relating to age. Polished both sides refers to sherds from late the time of occupation, production, exchange, Pueblo forms in which surfaces are polished on and use of pottery vessels. both the interior and exterior surface so that the vessel form cannot be determined. Prehistoric Pottery Types

While the great majority of pottery examined

54 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods during the present study represents types pro- surfaces of Dinetah Gray vessels. While the duced by Navajo or Pueblo groups during the majority of Dinetah Gray sherds exhibit plain protohistoric period, six sherds were assigned to surfaces, low frequencies of this type display a types presumably associated with a prehistoric variety of textures formed through decoration occupation. applied to unobliterated coils, smearing, or incis- Two utility wares were assigned to the ing of smoothed surfaces. Indented varieties have Anasazi gray category. These sherds are similar sometimes been referred to as Gobernador to the Dinetah Gray from the same site in that Indented, which has been described as a late vari- they are tempered with sand and exhibit plain ant of Dinetah Gray (Dittert 1958; Marshall 1985). unpolished manipulations on the interior and While this type was not recognized during the exterior surfaces. The sherds were distinguished present study, surface manipulation was record- from Dinetah Gray by harder and lighter-colored ed for all sherds assigned to Dinetah Gray. While pastes. Characteristics of these sherds conform the majority (88.4 percent) of the Dinetah Gray closely to descriptions previously defined as sherds examined here exhibited plain exteriors, Rosa Gray or Gallina Gray (Knight 1990; Wilson 1.8 percent exhibited clapboarded exteriors, and and Blinman 1993). 9.7 percent exhibited smeared corrugated exteri- Four bowl sherds exhibit polished interior ors (Fig. 34d). surfaces and sand temper, characteristic of pre- Vessel walls tended to be thin relative to total historic white wares. Three of these sherds were size, ranging from 3 to 6 mm. Vessel forms most- assigned to Gallina Black-on-white based on sim- ly consisted of cooking or storage jars, although ple designs in organic paint (Hibben 1949; Fiero rare examples of bowl sherds were noted. 1978; Hawley-Ellis 1988). Two other white ware sherds with similar temper and manipulations, Historic Pueblo Types but without painted decorations, were classified as unpainted Anasazi white. It is likely that these Two basic groups of Pueblo pottery types were seven sherds represent prehistoric pottery from a identified. A total of 14 (4.6 percent) of the sherds Gallina period component. This is not surprising, represent sherds derived from Jemez Black-on- given the proximity of a Gallina site to LA 71263. white vessels (Fig. 34c). This represents the deco- rated black-on-white form produced by Jemez Navajo Period Pottery Pueblo potters. Jemez Black-on-white is charac- terized by decorations in black carbon-painted The remaining pottery represents a combination designs on a thick, pearly, “oyster” white slip of Navajo and Puebloan types associated with (Mera 1935; Reiter 1938). Both surfaces are highly the protohistoric Navajo occupation of the Upper polished and slipped on both jar and bowl forms. San Juan. The great majority (277 sherds, or 91.1 Pastes are hard and often vitrified, indicating a percent) of this pottery was assigned to Dinetah high firing temperature. Temper consists of a fine Gray (Figs. 34a and 34b). Dinetah Gray sherds volcanic ash or tuff. Painted designs are com- from the Upper San Juan region are usually tem- monly executed in organic paint on both the inte- pered with sand or leucocratic . rior and exterior surfaces. Designs are arranged Sherds are often soft and crumbly. The surface in simple combinations with heavy lines, dotted color is usually dark gray or black but occasion- backgrounds, and dotted rims. Pastes are dark ally dark brown or red. The paste cross section is gray to brown and contain very fine, volcanic ash usually dark gray to black, and sometimes dark temper. Painted sherds were classified as Jemez brown, red, or gray. The dark pastes indicate that Black-on-white. Sherds with these pastes but firing took place in a predominantly reduction without painted decorations were classified as atmosphere and contrast with the neutral atmos- unpainted Jemez Black-on-white. phere commonly employed in the firing of A total of six sherds, or 2.0 percent of the pot- Anasazi gray and white ware types. tery identified during the present study, were The interior and exterior surfaces of most assigned to glaze ware types (Figs. 34e and 34f). Dinetah Gray vessels are smoothed and unpol- This is not surprising. During the protohistoric ished. Coil junctures are only rarely visible on period, pottery produced over much of the mid-

Ceramic Artifacts 55 Figure 34. Ceramic sherds recovered from project sites: (a-b) Dinetah Gray; (c) Jemez Black-on-white; (d) Dinetah smeared corrugated; (e-f) Rio Grande Glaze-on-yellow. dle Rio Grande region and the Little Colorado ware, and 292 Dinetah Gray sherds from LA country along the central New Mexico–Arizona 71263 (see Table 3). The very conservative nature border was decorated with glaze pigments (Mera of change in Navajo pottery creates several diffi- 1939; Shepard 1942). Sherds derived from glaze culties in the assignment of ceramic dates to ware vessels were assigned to two categories: Navajo sites. Navajo occupations in the Upper glaze unslipped body and glaze-on-yellow, San Juan are often divided into the Dinetah and undifferentiated. All of these sherds were tem- Gobernador phases. The Dinetah phase begins pered with similar basalt, indicating they origi- with the onset of a distinct Navajo material cul- nated in the Puname district, where Zia Pueblo is ture that can be dated as early as the beginning of located. the sixteen century and spans to the end of the seventeenth century. The Gobernador phase was originally characterized as reflecting the spread CERAMIC DATING OF NAVAJO PERIOD SITES of Puebloan traits as Pueblo groups moved into Navajo sites after the Pueblo Revolt and the Except for the six prehistoric sherds associated Spanish Reconquest during the late seventeenth with a probable Gallina period occupation, pot- century. It ended with the abandonment of the tery from the Jicarilla sites represents protohis- Upper San Juan country by the Navajos during toric Navajo occupations. This occupation is the late eighteenth century. While occupations reflected by the 12 Dinetah Gray sherds from LA associated with the Dinetah phase were original- 76270; and 14 Jemez, 6 Puname province glaze ly assumed to reflect an early complex largely

56 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods unaffected by traits introduced by Pueblo groups Puname districts. (Hester 1962; Hester and Shiner 1963), recent Previous examinations, indicating consider- studies indicate Pueblo pottery types are present able variation in the total frequency and associat- at Navajo sites as early as AD 1500 along with ed traditions of Pueblo decorated types at early evidence of the local production of Puebloan- Navajo sites, have been interpreted as reflecting a influenced Gobernador Polychrome by at least very loose interaction or alliance between the AD 1650 (Reed and Reed 1992, 1996). Thus, it early Navajo and Pueblo groups (Reed and Reed simply cannot be assumed that sites from the 1996; Wilson 2000). Thus, Puebloan pottery at Upper San Juan containing either protohistoric Navajo sites is represented by types associated Pueblo pottery types or Gobernador Polychrome with a variety of regional Pueblo pottery tradi- date to the Gobernador phase. Still, Gobernador tions, and no particular tradition appears to dom- Polychrome appears to be absent at sites dating inate contemporaneous early Navajo sites in a to the early part of the Dinetah phase. given locality. Thus, interaction between Navajos While a number of Pueblo pottery types are and Pueblos appears to reflect a general strategy present at both Dinetah-phase and Gobernador- that may have involved clans or households with phase sites, there are some potential differences similar social groups in scattered Pueblo villages in combinations of associated pottery traditions and Navajo settlements, rather than the establish- occurring at sites occupied during different ment of strong political alliances or networks. Navajo phases. The most common Pueblo type at Even households at nearby residences may have early Dinetah-phase sites appears to be Jemez established alliances or exchange relationships Black-on-white, which may represent the earliest with very different groups based on historic ties Pueblo type occurring in the Dinetah phase or needs. It is interesting that all the Pueblo pot- (Reed and Reed 1992). Other Pueblo pottery tery from LA 71263 was assigned to types from types noted in Dinetah Gray assemblages with- Jemez and Zia, which are close to each other. This out Gobernador Polychrome include Jeddito may reflect alliances with pueblos from this area Yellow wares and late glaze ware forms and represent a manifestation of widespread ties (Marshall 1985; Reed and Reed 1996). Other between groups in the Puname–Jemez districts Pueblo pottery types occurring during the and the Gobernador (Upper San Juan) country. Gobernador phase include Tewa Polychrome, Puname Polychrome, and later Glaze F painted types, which appear to date to after 1700 date. VESSEL USE

Most of the sherds from both sites are derived POTTERY TRENDS OF THE NAVAJO OCCUPATION from similar Dinetah Gray jars (Table 5). The size, shape, and sooting on surfaces suggest that the Variation in decorated types appears to reflect great majority of these vessels were probably temporal differences and patterns of vessel pro- used for cooking (Mills 1992), although some duction, exchange, and use. Dinetah Gray sherds may have been used for storage of dry materials. concisely exhibit a similar sand temper with high The dominance of sherds derived from Dinetah iron, red-firing pastes (Table 4). Most of the Gray suggests an overwhelming emphasis of pastes exhibit similar dark colors and seem to specific activities such as the cooking of food. reflect a fairly consistent . It is likely Sherds derived from Jemez Black-on-white and that this pottery was produced locally at or near glaze wares appear to represent a mixture of pot- the project sites. In contrast, all of the decorated tery derived from bowls and jars. These wares pottery exhibits manipulations, pastes, and tem- could have been used for both serving and stor- per indicating production in the Jemez and age.

Ceramic Artifacts 57 TableTable 4. Temper by by ware ware (column (column percentage) percentage)

Temper Prehistoric Prehistoric Glaze Historic Navajo Total Gray White White Utility

Sand 2 5 - - 277 284 100.0% 100.0% - - 100.0% 93.4% Tuff and ash - - - 14 - 14 - - - 100.0% - 4.6% Basalt - - 6 - - 6 - - 100.0% - - 2.0% Total 2 5 6 14 277 304 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

TableTable 5. Vessel formform by by ware ware (column (column percentage) percentage)

Vessel Form Prehistoric Prehistoric Glaze Historic Navajo Total Gray White White Utility

Indeterminate - - - 1 3 4 - - - 7.1% 1.1% 1.3% Bowl rim - 2 - 2 - 4 - 40.0% - 14.3% - 1.3% Bowl body - 3 2 8 1 14 - 60.0% 33.3% 57.1% 0.4% 4.6% Jar neck - - - - 30 30 ----10.8% 9.9% Jar rim - - - - 9 9 ----3.2% 3.0% Jar body 2 - 1 3 234 240 100.0% - 16.7% 21.4% 84.5% 78.9% Polished both sides - - 3 - - 3 - - 50.0% - - 1.0% Total 2 5 6 14 277 304 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

58 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Lithic Artifacts

(from notes by John Ware and staff)

The primary emphasis of this investigation was artifacts were (angular debris and to document strategies and tool flakes). Analysis of debitage has shown that lith- use at LA 71263 and LA 76270. This was specifi- ic material did not have to be shaped or elabo- cally directed toward creating a base from which rately worked to create a useful tool; any sharp investigatory analysis could be conducted, as edge can cut or perform a variety of tasks. well as adding to the foundation of archaeologi- Debitage used without further modification are cal information for this area. informal tools. Formal tools have had their shape The testing phase at both sites provided ini- or edge angle modified for a specific purpose. In tial information about cultural affiliation that the Southwest, researchers such as Chapman was used to help develop plans for data recovery. (1977), Chapman and Schutt (1977), and Schutt Several hundred meters west of LA 71263 along and Vierra (1980) have oriented their analyses the vertical face of a mesa are Gallina-phase cliff toward an investigation of lithic reduction tech- dwellings dating to ca. AD 1059–1275. Gallina- nology and tool use. Our analysis is consistent phase ceramic artifacts and ground stone materi- with their approaches and artifact definitions. als were noted throughout a large area extending Morphological characteristics place artifacts from the cliff dwellings downslope to the road, into recognized stages of lithic reduction, name- including the area of our investigation. The struc- ly, core reduction and tool production. Primary ture excavated at LA 71263 was presumed to be a and secondary flakes are produced during core fieldhouse associated with the surrounding reduction. Primary reduction is the removal of Gallina artifacts. Subsequent ceramic analysis, the weathered outer rind or cortex from nodules. however, clearly indicates a Dinetah-phase Secondary reduction is the further removal of Navajo occupation (AD 1575–1680). The implica- flakes from a core for immediate or expedient tions of these interpretations for the lithic analy- use, or for further modification into a formal tool. sis revolved around the assumption that Gallina Tool production in chipped stone assemblages culture was agricultural and sedentary and where core flakes have been modified into formal would most likely exhibit an expedient lithic tools is indicated by the presence of biface or tool technology. Navajo culture, however, particular- manufacturing flakes. The presence of whole or ly in this early phase of occupation in the broken formal tools at a site suggests the possibil- Southwest, might exhibit a curated lithic technol- ity of formal tool manufacture but does not pro- ogy based on the manufacture of biface cores that vide conclusive evidence of tool making. reflected the needs of a mobile society (Elyea and Use-wear on informal tools was included as a Eschman 1985:247-251; Winter and Hogan descriptive attribute, but wear patterns were not 1992:305–310). Testing at LA 76270 suggested interpreted as evidence of any specific tasks. that the site was multicomponent. An Archaic En Chapman and Schutt (1977) have attempted to Medio projectile point (800 BC–AD 400) was replicate use-wear on a variety of lithic materials found along with what was thought to be Largo- to correlate wear patterns with specific activities; Gallina ceramics (AD 950–1275). During data such an attempt was not made here. Wear pat- recovery the emphasis was on investigating and tern was recorded, however, for future investiga- defining these components. tions.

CHIPPED STONE RESEARCH ORIENTATION CHIPPED STONE REDUCTION STRATEGY

A full descriptive analysis of the chipped stone LA 71263 assemblages from LA 71263 and LA 76270 included attributes that describe a range of LA 71263 contained a portion of a larger scatter aspects of manufacturing. Most of the of materials that superficially represented a

Lithic Artifacts 59 Gallina occupation (AD 1079–1275). Excavation occurs frequently during formal tool manufac- revealed a Dinetah-phase hogan that had been ture as the flakes removed become thinner dur- extensively burned. An exciting discovery at this ing the reduction process. Platform modification site was evidence of large biface manufacture. In by abrasion is used in tool manufacture to the southeast portion of the structure was a large strengthen edges and reduce the possibility of (87 mm long) core flake that had been reduced shattering during flake removal (Moore 1991:20). along both side margins. In essence, this is a Control over flake size and length is also biface, although the artifact does not morpholog- improved by platform modification (Moore ically fit this description. Near this artifact was a 1991:20). While platforms can collapse during broken sandstone fragment that had core reduction and tool manufacture, it is more carved into the upturned flat face. The core flake common in the latter process. had edges that were ground in preparation for reduction, presumably by this stationary sand- LA 76270 stone abrader. The dorsal surface of the core flake was blackened by the fire that consumed the This site was partially within the existing high- superstructure. This suggests that the structure way right-of-way on a low ridge bisected by the caught on fire before tools could be removed. highway. No subsurface remains were found A total of 470 lithic artifacts were recovered after extensive mechanical trenching of the site, during excavation. Of these, 383 were found though 32 lithic artifacts were recovered to a throughout the burned floor fill, 81 in the hearth depth of 0.40 m below the surface in three test or fire pit, and 6 in the mealing bin near the pits. The 234 artifacts recovered during excava- hearth. Seven formal tools were recovered tion were collected from the surface after (including the large worked core flake), all from mechanical trenching was completed. the floor fill of the structure (Table 6). A total of 172 flakes were analyzed, including While no flakes were found that fit the poly- one biface flake with an outrepassé termination. thetic set for biface manufacture (Fig. 35), several One hundred and fifty flakes (87.2 percent) were other characteristics suggest a curated technolo- 20 mm long or less, 22 ranged between 21 and 42 gy. These include the large core flake used as a mm long (12.8 percent; Table 7). The vast majori- biface, the abrading stone used to prepare flake ty of flakes (94.8 percent) had no dorsal cortex, edges for reduction, several other early-stage suggesting the later stages of reduction (Table 8). bifaces, the presence of a mid-range percentage These attributes in addition to a biface flake with of modified flake platforms (15.9 percent), and a an outrepassé termination suggest that tool man- high percentage of flakes exhibiting manufactur- ufacture and core reduction occurred at this site. ing breakage (26.7 percent). Modified platforms Thirty- two percent of platforms were modified, have been abraded prior to reduction, an essen- and 35.5 percent of the flakes exhibited manufac- tial preparation for biface reduction. turing breakage. Platform modification by abra- Archaic assemblages have a high percentage sion facilitates flake removal during tool manu- of modified platforms (50–70 percent), reflecting facture by strengthening the edges (Moore the importance of bifacial reduction strategies. 1991:20). The one outrepassé flake is the only Anasazi assemblages, in contrast, show a low flake definitely removed from a biface. Fifty- percentage (0–10 percent) of modified platforms, seven pieces of angular debris were also present, consistent with their use of expedient reduction yielding a flake to angular debris ratio of 3.2, strategies. In this analysis, 15.8 percent of modi- which is more suggestive of core reduction. fied platforms offers no conclusive evidence of a While tool manufacture seems to have occurred curated or an expedient reduction technology here, core reduction appears to have dominated (James L. Moore, personal communication). This lithic reduction activities (Table 9). The evidence evidence, coupled with the high percentage of seen in this assemblage of later-stage reduction is artifacts with manufacture breakage, suggests a not indicative of a reliance on a curated technol- moderate reliance on biface reduction, which ogy, but rather fits in with an Anasazi assem- characterizes early Navajo food gathering strate- blage model, with a reliance on expedient tool gies (Winter and Hogan 1992:305). Breakage strategies.

60 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Whole Flakes

1. Platform: a. has more than one facet. b. is modified (retouched and abraded).

2. Platform is lipped.

3. Platform angle is less than 45 degrees.

4. Dorsal scar orientation is: a. parallel. b. multidirectional. c. opposing.

5. Dorsal topography is regular.

6. Edge outline is even, or flake has a waisted appearance.

7. Flake is less than 5 mm thick.

8. Flake thickness is relatively even from proximal to distal end.

9. Bulb of percussion is weak (diffuse).

10. There is pronounced ventral curvature.

Broken Flakes or Flakes with Collapsed Platforms

1. Dorsal scar orientation is: a. parallel. b. multidirectional. c. opposing.

2. Dorsal topography is regular.

3. Edge outline is even.

4. Flake is less than 5 mm thick.

5. Flake thickness is relatively even from proximal to distal end.

6. Bulb of percussion is weak.

7. There is pronounced ventral curvature.

Artifact is a biface flake when:

z If whole, it fulfills 7 of 10 attributes. z If broken or platform is collapsed, it fulfills 5 of 7 attributes.

Figure 35. Polythetic set of variables for biface manufacture.

Lithic Artifacts 61 TableTable 6. Artifact morphology morphology by feature,by feature, LA 71263 LA 71263 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Morphology Bin Hearth Structure Floor Total

Angular debris - 19 84 103 - 4.0% 17.9% 21.9% Core flake 6 62 290 358 1.3% 13.2% 61.7% 76.2% Core - - 2 2 - - 0.4% 0.4% Worked core flake - - 1 1 - - 0.2% 0.2% Biface (early stage) - - 4 4 - - 0.9% 0.9% Biface (late stage) - - 2 2 - - 0.4% 0.4% Total 6 81 383 470 1.3% 17.2% 81.5% 100.0%

TableTable 7. Flake length length by by material material type, type, LA 76270 LA 76270 (count (count and table and percentage) table percentage)

Material Type 0-10 mm 11-20 mm 21-30 mm 31-40 mm 41-50 mm Total

Chert, not sourced 4 1 - - - 5 2.3% 0.6% - - - 2.9% Pedernal chert 71 44 15 - - 130 41.3% 25.6% 8.7% - - 75.6% Silicified wood 6 10 1 - - 17 3.5% 5.8% 0.6% - - 9.9% Obsidian 8 5 3 - 1 18 4.7% 2.9% 1.7% - 0.6% 10.5% Quartzite - 1 - 1 - 2 - 0.6% - 0.6% - 1.2% Column total 89 61 19 2 1 172 51.7% 35.5% 11.0% 1.2% 0.6% 100.0% Combined total 150 22 172 (0-20 and 21-50 mm)87.2% 12.8% 100.0%

62 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods TableTable 8. Amount of of cortex cortex on onflakes flakes by material by material type, LAtype, 76270 LA 76270 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Material Type 0% Cortex 1-50% Cortex 51-100% Cortex Total

Chert, not sourced 4 1 - 5 2.3% 0.6% - 2.9% Pedernal chert 128 1 1 130 74.4% 0.6% 0.6% 75.6% Silicified wood 13 4 - 17 7.6% 2.3% - 9.9% Obsidian 16 2 - 18 9.3% 1.2% - 10.5% Quartzite 2 - - 2 1.2% - - 1.2% Total 163 8 1 172 94.8% 4.7% 0.6% 100.0%

TableTable 9. Cortex type type by by material material type, type, LA 76270 LA 76270 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Material Type Waterworn Nonwaterworn Total Cortex Cortex

Chert, not sourced - 1 1 - 7.7% 7.7% Pedernal chert 1 3 4 7.7% 23.1% 30.8% Silicified wood - 6 6 - 46.2% 46.2% Obsidian - 1 1 - 7.7% 7.7% Quartzite - 1 1 - 7.7% 7.7% Total 1 12 13 7.7% 92.3% 100.0%

Lithic Artifacts 63 MATERIAL SELECTION of locations in the central and eastern Jemez Mountains, and major prehistoric quarries have LA 71263 been identified at Obsidian Ridge, Polvadera Peak, and Cerro del Medio. The majority of Three major material types had been reduced at obsidian used (86.2 percent) was unflawed. this site: chert, obsidian, and quartzite. Cherts Unflawed obsidian is an easy material to work were further classified as Pedernal chert (92.3 and control during reduction. Obsidian has supe- percent) or varieties from undifferentiated rior cutting abilities and was a preferred material sources (1.3 percent; Table 10). Cerro Pedernal is for Archaic hunters and gatherers (James L. a prominent feature in the Chama Valley; an Moore, personal communication). Obsidian is exposure of bedded chert occurs several hundred also very brittle and relatively fragile compared feet below the summit (Warren 1974:87). This to chert. Whether Pedernal chert was selected same chert bed is also exposed on San Pedro predominantly because of its tensile strength, Mountain, about seven miles south of Gallina, availability, and abundance, or because of socio- New Mexico (Warren 1974:87). LA 71263 is 41.4 cultural conditions is hard to determine. While it km from Cerro Pedernal and 27.8 km from San seems possible to us that the early Navajos could Pedro Mountain (Fig. 36). Cortex was nonwater- have made an expedition to the nearby lithic worn, indicating that the material was procured sources to obtain obsidian and chert, it is equally at or near the source. All of the chert at this site possible that material was obtained from Pueblo was fine-grained, or fine-grained and flawed. Indians who lived in these areas or during trad- Obsidian comprised 6.2 percent of the assem- ing expeditions (Eddy 1966:513). blage and appears to have come primarily from Jemez sources. All of the obsidian found had LA 76270 nonwaterworn cortex and was obtained at or near the source. Obsidian outcrops in a number Four main lithic material types were used at this site. The majority of artifacts were made from chert; 76.1 percent were identified as Pedernal chert and 3.8 percent as unsourced chert (Table 11). This site is 40 km from Cerro Pedernal and 27.8 km from San Pedro Mountain by air. Most of the cortex on chert was nonwaterworn, indicat- ing collection at or near the source , although the single waterworn item indicates collection from a source downstream from Cerro Pedernal. Silicified wood accounted for 10.3 percent of the assemblage, and all of the cortex was nonwater- worn. It is not known where the silicified wood was collected, but it appears to have been collect- ed at the source. Obsidian comprised 8.6 percent of the material at the site. The obsidian was from Jemez Mountain. Of the 20 obsidian artifacts, only one had cortex, which was nonwaterworn. This indicates collection near or at the source, although the single artifact offers no conclusive evidence of this. If obsidian was directly pro- cured, Polvadera Peak is the nearest source, just east of Cerro Pedernal. The Jemez Mountains contain many other sources of obsidian as well. A few artifacts were made from quartzite (1.3 per- Figure 36. Areas of resource acquisition or trade cent). Fine-grained materials were selected for for project sites. and comprise 98.7 percent of the assemblage.

64 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods TableTable 10. Artifact morphology morphology by materialby material type, type,LA 71263 LA 71263 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Morphology Chert Pedernal Obsidian Quartzite Total Chert

Angular debris 2 89 11 1 103 0.4% 18.9% 2.3% 0.2% 21.9% Core flake 1 340 17 - 358 0.2% 72.3% 3.6% - 76.2% Core - 2 - - 2 - 0.4% - - 0.4% Worked core flake 1 - - - 1 0.2% - - - 0.2% Biface (early stage) - 3 1 - 4 - 0.6% 0.2% - 0.9% Biface (late stage) 2 - - - 2 0.4% - - - 0.4% Total 6 434 29 1 470 1.3% 92.3% 6.2% 0.2% 100.0%

TableTable 11. Artifact type type by by material, material, LA 76270LA 76270 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Artifact Type Chert Pedernal Silicified Obsidian Quartzite Total (not sourced) Chert Wood

Angular debris 3 46 5 2 1 57 1.3% 19.7% 2.1% 0.9% 0.4% 24.4% Core flake 5 129 17 18 2 171 2.1% 55.1% 7.3% 7.7% 0.9% 73.1% Biface flake - 1 - - - 1 - 0.4% - - - 0.4% Unidirectional core - - 1 - - 1 - - 0.4% - - 0.4% Multidirectional core - - 1 - - 1 - - 0.4% - - 0.4% Biface, early stage - 1 - - - 1 - 0.4% - - - 0.4% Biface, middle stage 1 1 - - - 2 0.4% 0.4% - - - 0.9% Total 9 178 24 20 3 234 3.8% 76.1% 10.3% 8.5% 1.3% 100.0%

Lithic Artifacts 65 THERMAL ALTERATION 350 and 400 degrees C are the most effective. The most common prehistoric method of heat treat- LA 71263 ment was to dig a pit, lay in the lithic raw mate- rial, cap this with a protective covering, and One major question that needed to be resolved build a fire on top. The fire was then maintained through analysis was whether the hearth/fire pit for an extended period (Gregg and Grybush was used for heat treating flakes prior to tool 1976:190). manufacture. Since the structure had burned it Flakes that are heated to improve their work- was necessary to separate the unintentional heat- ability for formal tool manufacture should be ing of artifacts during that fire from the presum- large enough to accommodate the necessary ably intentionally heated artifacts in the shaping that will result in a projectile point or hearth–fire pit. Heat treatment is usually demon- other specific tool form. Sixty-two flakes were strated by mistakes that occur during the process. found in the hearth/fire pit at LA 71263. Thirty- Crazing of the outer surface and pot-lid fractures two (51.6 percent) were whole (Table 13). While are attributes that are easily seen and recorded as four of these whole flakes were large enough to evidence of heat treatment. The vast majority of make small tools, they probably would have lithic material used at this site was Pedernal chert been rejected because their thick distal termina- (92.3 percent), and 18.6 percent exhibited pot-lid tions made reduction too difficult. Of the flakes fractures or crazing. Of all Pedernal chert arti- found in the hearth, 87.1 percent were under 20 facts, 55.5 percent also had a heat-induced color mm long; too small for formal tool manufacture. change, which happens when hematite inclu- Four flakes exhibited crazing and/or potlids (5 sions oxidize (Table 12). Color change can occur percent). Forty-two flakes and 10 pieces of angu- at temperatures lower than those needed to alter lar debris exhibited color change (64.2 percent). the material’s crystalline structure. Such a change Two pieces of Jemez obsidian debitage were also enhances flakeability and does not necessarily found in the hearth fill and were not thermally indicate intentional heating (Collins and Fenwick altered. Pottery was also recovered from the fill. 1974:135). These factors suggest that the hearth was filled Not all siliceous materials need thermal treat- after the structure burned. Intentional heat treat- ment. Many materials can be worked in their nat- ment requires consistent heat radiation to prop- ural state (Schindler et al. 1982:526). Heat treat- erly treat siliceous material, necessitating a clean ment mainly helps facilitate tool manufacture. sandy fill. Fill containing objects of varying sizes Heat treating also alters hard siliceous material and thermal qualities such as potsherds and rock so that it responds more like glass (Gregg and would interrupt a consistent heat dispersion, Grybush 1976:189). Changes in the crystalline negating control over uniform treatment. The structure of the material allow longer and more presence of color change on pieces of angular predictable flakes to be removed. Heat treatment debris and flakes also suggests that the hearth fill facilitates the shaping of a core flake into a formal was noncultural in origin and was deposited tool such as a biface, partly because it reduces the after the superstructure burned. tensile strength of a material, making it easier to The percentage of thermally altered materials remove flakes (Collins and Fenwick 1974:137, was consistently higher than 50 percent through- Schindler et al. 1982:532). While this is a benefit in out the site. The mealing bin contained only six formal tool manufacture, it is a disadvantage in artifacts, all Pedernal chert; five exhibited color informal tool use because heat-treated, expedi- change and/or crazing (83.3 percent). The struc- ently used debitage will have a shorter use-life ture floor contained 55 artifacts that exhibited (James L. Moore, personal communication). crazing and pot lids; color change had occurred Desirable changes take place in siliceous on 205 artifacts (67.9 percent). The fact that a high stone, like Pedernal chert, if it is heated slowly at percentage of thermal alteration was found in a relatively low temperatures and out of direct feature like a mealing bin further suggests that contact with intense heat (Gregg and Grybush thermal alteration of chert at this site was unin- 1976:189). Experiments by Bleed and Meier tentional and a result of superstructure burning. (1980:504) indicate that temperatures between

66 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods TableTable 12. Thermal alteration alteration by byfeature, feature, LA 71263 LA 71263 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Feature Potlids Crazing Crazed and Color No Thermal Total Pot Lids Change* Alteration

Bin - 1 - 4 1 6 - 0.2% - 0.9% 0.2% 1.3% Hearth 1 3 - 52 25 81 0.2% 0.6% - 11.1% 5.3% 17.2% Structure floor 1 50 4 205 123 383 0.2% 10.6% 0.9% 43.6% 26.2% 81.5% Total 2 54 4 261 149 470 0.4% 11.5% 0.9% 55.5% 31.7% 100.0%

* Color change was identified on Pedernal chert only.

TableTable 13. Core flakeflake portion portion in hearthin hearth , LA ,71263 LA 71263 (count(count andand table table percentage) percentage)

Portion 1-10 mm 11-20 mm 21-30 mm 31-40 mm 41-50 mm Total

Whole 13 14 1 2 2 32 21.0% 22.6% 1.6% 3.2% 3.2% 51.6% Proximal 3 6 - - - 9 4.8% 9.7% - - - 14.5% Medial - 2 - - - 2 - 3.2% - - - 3.2% Distal 3 6 - 2 - 11 4.8% 9.7% - 3.2% - 17.7% Lateral 3 4 - 1 - 8 4.8% 6.5% - 1.6% - 12.9% Column total 22 32 1 5 2 62 35.5% 51.6% 1.6% 8.1% 3.2% 100.0% Combined total54 6 2 62 (1-20 and 21-40 mm)87.1% 9.7% 3.2% 100.0%

Lithic Artifacts 67 LA 76270 abraded for platform preparation. The early- stage biface and middle-stage biface broken in No features were encountered during testing or manufacture suggest tool manufacture at this excavation at this site, but some evidence of heat site. In addition to these other tools, a core flake treatment of lithic material is present. Fifty-three made of Pedernal chert was marginally artifacts (22.6 percent), including two bifaces and retouched at the distal end for use as a . one scraper, exhibited color change. Seven arti- facts also exhibited pot-lid fractures or crazing. SUMMARY

TOOLS Some evidence of a curated reduction technology was found at LA 71263, a Dinetah single-hogan LA 71263 site, providing partial support for the idea that the early Navajos were seminomadic hunter- Seven formal tools were found, including a pro- gatherers (Dittert et al.1961:248; Eddy 1966:510). jectile point fragment, a possible drill fragment, a Comparisons of Navajo and Archaic lithic assem- large core flake in the initial stages of formal tool blages have shown that the Navajos used a biface manufacture, and four early-stage biface frag- technology, but not to the extent that Archaic ments (Fig. 37). The projectile point was made peoples did (Elyea and Eschman 1985:249, 251, from dark gray chert that was crazed when the 253). Early Navajo falls between superstructure burned. It was a proximal frag- the Archaic and Anasazi because it ment, triangular, with basal and side notches, has a lower percentage of bifacial reduction and it had a crenated break, which is evidence of debris than the Archaic, but a somewhat higher heat-induced breakage. No wear patterns were percentage than the Anasazi (Winter and Hogan discerned. Its morphology suggests a general 1992:305). This observation has been further Athapaskan type and is similar to ones found at strengthened by this analysis, which found the Navajo sites in the La Plata Valley in the Four percentage of modified platforms to be 16 per- Corners area of New Mexico (Reed et al. cent, between Archaic and Anasazi assemblages 1988:318). Navajo projectile points are known for (James L. Moore, personal communication). exhibiting a wide morphological variation, sug- Most of the lithic materials used at LA 76270 gesting that earlier sites were scavenged for were obtained from sources near Cerro Pedernal reusable projectile points (Dittert et al. 1961:242). and in the Jemez Mountains; the silicified wood The possible drill fragment was made from a and quartzite could not be sourced. The assem- purple-gray chert. It was a distal fragment with blage suggests an expedient lithic technology no wear patterns visible, suggesting breakage model similar to Anasazi assemblages. Previous during manufacture. All of the formal tools were investigations (Moore et al. 1991) suggested a made from fine-grained material. Late Archaic En Medio occupation (800 BC–AD 400), evidenced by a projectile point; and a LA 76270 Gallina-phase affiliation (AD 1050–1275), evi- denced by what were thought to be Gallina Two early-stage bifaces were found, both of ceramics. The lithic assemblage seems to further Pedernal chert. One was an edge fragment, and strengthen the evidence for Navajo presence at the other was a proximal fragment broken during this site. The possibility exists that the En Medio manufacture. Both exhibited color change. One point represents a curated artifact scavenged middle-stage biface fragment made from a medi- from an earlier site. No distinct separation um gray chert was also found. This fragment was between these cultural phases was suggested by broken during manufacture, and its edges were the results of this analysis.

68 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 37. Lithic artifacts from project sites: (a) projectile point, LA 71263; (b) initial stages of tool manufacture, LA 71263; (c) early-stage biface, LA 76270; (d) early-stage biface, LA 76270; (e) retouched core flake, LA 76270.

Lithic Artifacts 69

Ground Stone Analysis

Dorothy A. Zamora

Standardized ground stone analysis methods vex and was ground smooth with use. The sur- were followed without modification (OAS 1994). face has been pecked to roughen or sharpen it for The ground stone assemblage from LA 71263 a better grinding surface. The opposing surface is and LA 76270 consists of eight items. One is a convex and was ground for shaping but not used. small ground slab fragment of unknown func- This mano was recovered from the surface and tion. Each tool has been categorized according to may be associated with a nearby Gallina-phase its function; however, in some instances an arti- occupation of the area. However, according to fact may have had more than one use. Dittert et al. (1961), Hester (1962), Hester and Manos and metates are used in food process- Shiner (1963), and Eddy (1966), one-hand manos ing. Manos are hand-held stone tools used on a are common at Dinetah-phase sites. base stone to grind nuts, corn, or fibrous materi- FS 22, a two-hand mano, is wider and longer als. One-hand manos are small and fit comfort- than FS 21 (Fig. 38b). The artifact has been pecked ably in one hand. Two-hand manos are elongat- and ground along the edges for shaping and has ed and held with two hands side by side. Metates opposing grinding surfaces. One surface is con- are the base stones on which food processing is vex and very smooth from repeated use; howev- performed. They are categorized as basin, slab, or er, pecking is slightly visible. The edge of the trough metates. mano has been ground, suggesting that it was used on a shallow trough . The other sur- face is flat and rough with peck marks, suggest- LA 71263 ing little use. The striations on the surface are width-wise shallow scratches. Hester and Shiner Seven fragmented artifacts constitute the ground (1963:75) believe that Gobernador-phase ground stone assemblage from LA 71263. One, a shaped stone is represented by large, flat, two-hand slab, has been exposed to heat. Most of the arti- manos. These manos are generally rectangular facts were recovered from the site surface (Table with rounded corners, much like those used by 14). , but they are not finished as well.

Manos Metates

The manos from LA 71263 are all broken end FS 23 had two functions. Although it is only a fragments. FS 21 is small and was shaped by fragment, the intact portion shows that it has pecking and grinding (Fig. 38a). Both surfaces of been shaped by flaking and grinding along the the artifact have been ground. It has a wedged or edges. One side of the ground stone was used as tapering appearance. One surface is slightly con- a basin metate and the other as a slab metate. The

TableTable 14. Ground stone stone tools, tools, LA LA71263 71263

FS No. Function Material Provenience

21 one-hand mano fragment fine-grained sandstone surface 22 two-hand mano fragment fine-grained sandstone surface 23 slab metate fragment fine-grained sandstone surface 24 slab metate coarse-grained sandstone surface 27 trough metate fine-grained sandstone surface 45 indeterminate fragment fine-grained sandstone Feature 1 56 shaped slab fine-grained sandstone Feature 1

Ground Stone 71 Figure 38. Ground stone and miscellaneous artifacts: (a-b) mano fragments; (c) trough metate; (d) calcite cobble; (e) baked-adobe fragment; (f) sandstone cobble used for grinding.

72 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods basin metate has a concave surface that has been Shaped Slab pecked for sharpening the smooth surface. The striations are barely visible and seem to run par- FS 45 and FS 56 were recovered from Feature 1, allel to both the long and short axes of the arti- a burned hogan. FS 45 is a small ground stone fact. Basin metates may indicate minimal fragment of unknown function. FS 56 is a shaped dependence on maize as a foodstuff, with a sug- slab recovered from the floor of the structure and gested reliance on nonagriculturally produced is associated with a large biface tool. The fine- food resources (Chapman 1977:423). grained sandstone slab has been shaped by On the other side of the tool, the surface is grinding along the sides and both surfaces. On flat, and striations are visible along the long axis. one of the surfaces there are numerous shallow This side of the artifact sits at an angle on the scratches, suggesting use as a sharpening stone. ground, suggesting that it may have been used in The stone was exposed to heat, making it friable. a milling bin at one time, although it was recov- ered from the surface of the site. The surface of Miscellaneous Ground Stone the slab is very smooth with visible pecking that has been ground down from use. Slab metates Recovered with the ground stone from LA 71263 are representative of the Navajo period (Hester was a cobble of calcite that has been ground and Shiner 1963:75). down in areas. Its function is unknown (Fig. 38d). FS 24 is a small edge fragment of a slab metate that has been shaped by grinding. The Adobe Sample surface is smooth and does not exhibit pecking. Striations are slightly visible and run lengthwise. An adobe sample was collected from LA 71263. This small fragment could also be representative The adobe is baked sand with very little clay. of Navajo use. Oxidation is present. Archaeomagnetic samples FS 27 also has been fully shaped by grinding were taken from the burned area, but no results and pecking. It served as a trough metate with a were obtained. The artifact measures 20 by 19.9 grooved abrader along one raised side (Fig 38c). by 8.0 cm thick. It may be an adobe collar taken The trough of the metate is 1.7 cm deep and is from the edge of a hearth or pit (Fig. 38e). smoothed. There is no evidence of pecking to sharpen the ground surface. A U-shaped groove is found along one raised side of the metate. The LA 76270 indentation is 2.1 cm wide, 4.4 cm long, and 0.9 cm deep. The surface is polished and exhibits One ground stone artifact was found on the sur- striations the length of the groove. U-shaped face of LA 76270. A rounded, quartzitic sand- abraders are commonly used for shaping wood- stone cobble was used for grinding on one con- en shafts, spindles, prayer sticks, and vex surface (Fig. 38f). It is possible that the cobble strings of beads (Jernigan 1978). was used on soft materials, as suggested by the FS 23 and FS 27 were collected from the sur- polish on the ground surface. Adams (1988:308) face, which may indicate that they are associated states that hide-processing stones are shinier with the Gallina phase. However, according to than the surfaces of manos. She also states, “The Dittert et al. (1961), Hester (1962), Hester and grains of the hide-processing stones have melted Shiner (1963), and Eddy (1966), ground stone together, while the individual grains on the sur- from the Dinetah and Gobernador phases in the faces of the manos appear more distinct and the Navajo Reservoir District have different attrib- surface looks rougher.” The stone weighs 1.23 kg, utes. Dinetah basin and trough metates are shal- too heavy for prolonged seed grinding. lower than Gobernador artifacts. Both of the recovered artifacts had shallow concave surfaces.

Ground Stone 73

Animal Bone

Only eight pieces of animal bone were recovered esting that no rabbit remains were recovered from LA 71263 and none from LA 76270. All from LA 71263. The best season for hunting mule remains are fragmented and derive from within deer is the fall, but hunger could force people to the habitation structure, scattered around the fire hunt deer at any time. Brown and Hancock pit. Five of the eight pieces (62.5 percent) are (1992:85) indicate that, especially during the lightly scorched to calcined (Table 15), indicating Dinetah phase, Navajo people emphasized hunt- that most were consumed as food items, perhaps ing and gathering. The number of biface flakes at including the squirrel and pocket gopher. the site confirms this subsistence strategy. No Animal bone is not usually found at Navajo domesticated animals have been found at sites. Mule deer and rabbit are the most common Dinetah-phase sites. species (Brown and Hancock 1992:85). It is inter-

TableTable 15. 15. Animal Animal bone, bone, LA 71263 LA 71263

Taxon Common Name Count Element Comments

Medium to large mammal dog to deer size 1 vertebra fragment mature, in two pieces Large Sciuridae large squirrel or prairie dog 1 proximal femur fragment mature, calcined Thomomys bottae Botta's pocket gopher 3 mandible mature, left side proximal femur fragment mature, blackened to calcined femur shaft immature, lightly scorched Odocoileus hemionus Mule deer 3 metatarsal shaft fragments from two mature individuals, lightly to heavily burned, surface is moderately pitted Total 8

Animal Bone 75

Floral Remains

Mollie S. Toll

This series of soil samples provides some infor- Mexico’s Office of Archeological Studies by the mation about plant utilization associated with simplified “bucket” version of flotation (Bohrer archeological features dating to the early Navajo and Adams 1977). Each 1 liter sample was occupation of northwestern New Mexico in the immersed in a bucket of water, and a 30–40-sec- 1600s. Excavated proveniences include the ond interval allowed for settling out of heavy remains of a circular log and brush room (Feature particles. The solution was then poured through 1, probably a hogan) with an interior hearth and a fine screen (about 0.35 mm mesh) lined with a a collapsed slab feature, and a bell-shaped roast- square of chiffon fabric, catching organic materi- ing pit (Feature 2) about 35 m to the northeast. als floating or in suspension. The fabric was lift- The two features share early Navajo ceramics, ed out and laid flat on coarse mesh screen trays. appropriate to a broad time span, but no other After the recovered material was dried, each connections in time or space. Each of these fea- sample was sorted using a series of nested geo- tures could easily represent isolated short-term logical screens (4.0, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5 mm mesh), use of the site area, or they could be linked to weighed to the nearest 0.1 g on a top-loading dig- other features outside the right-of-way. ital balance, and packaged. All light-fraction Few direct records of subsistence and plant samples were reviewed under a binocular micro- manipulation exist for the Athabaskan occupa- scope at 7–45x in their entirety. Heavy-fraction tion of northern New Mexico prior to the forced samples were examined under 5–10x magnifica- settlement at Bosque Redondo. Analysis of mac- tion for small artifacts, and the residue was dis- robotanical remains from the Navajo Reservoir carded. Microflakes were recovered from four Survey, for instance, exists only in manuscript samples in Feature 1 (FS 48 and FS 49 from the form (Dittert and Dickey n.d.; Eddy 1966). More slab feature, and FS 52 and FS 54 from the recent excavation projects have included routine hearth). collection and analysis of flotation samples from All taxa recorded as “cultural” in Tables 16 Navajo sites. Many of these sites date from the and 17 are represented by carbonized specimens. late nineteenth century to the present. Floral data “Possibly cultural” taxa are uncarbonized (but from earlier Navajo sites (Smith 1991; Brandt not pristine) specimens co-occurring in samples 1994; Matthews 1996) form the beginning of a with carbonized seeds of the same, economically comparative perspective on this era. useful taxon. “Noncultural” taxa are uncar- Unfortunately for our particular interest in attrib- bonized specimens bearing indicators of newness utes of subsistence in the early Navajo period, (shiny, hairy, light-colored) and/or occurring one project, the Arkansas Loop Corridor, com- without burned specimens of the same taxon. bines data from protohistoric and historic Navajo From each of the five full-sort flotation sam- occupations (Brandt 1994:26–13). ples with sufficient charcoal, a sample of 20 At an elevation of 2,119 m (just under 7,000 pieces was identified (10 from the 4 mm screen, ft), vegetation in the immediate site area consists and 10 from the 2 mm screen). Each piece was of Great Basin Grassland on an alluvial fan, with snapped to expose a fresh transverse section and open Great Basin Conifer Woodland habitat identified at 45x. Low-power, incident-light iden- (Brown 1994) available in several nearby mesa tification of wood specimens does not often allow and slope contexts. species- or even genus-level precision, but it can provide information useful in distinguishing broad patterns of utilization of a major resource METHODS class.

The 10 soil samples collected during excava- tion were processed at the Museum of New

Floral Remains 77 TableTable 16. Full-sort flotation flotation results, results, LA 71263 LA 71263 (frequency (frequency per liter per of seedsliter of and seeds fruits) and fruits)

Feature 1 Feature 1 Feature 1 Feature 2 Feature 2 Slab Feature N. Hearth Level 1 Hearth Level 4 Layer 1 Layer 2 FS 48 FS 52 FS 57 FS 12 FS 13

Cultural Annuals: Amaranthus 15 - - - - Chenopodium 6-1-4 Cleome 1---- Descurainia 442 45 9 - - Helianthus -1--- Nicotiana attenuata 1---- Portulaca 1---- Perennials: Pinus edulis 21--- Total cultural 468 47 10 - 4 Possibly Cultural Annuals: Amaranthus 4---- Chenopodium 4---3 Cleome 2---- Portulaca 4---- Perennials: Opuntia 5---- Total possibly cultural 19 - - - 3 Noncultural Annuals: Amaranthus -1-259 Chenopodium -1--2 Portulaca 5---1 Total noncultural 5 2 - 25 12

78 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods TableTable 17. Scan flotation flotation results, results, LA 71263LA 71263 (relative(relative abundance)abundance)

Feature 1 Hearth Slab Feature South Level 3

Cultural Annuals: Amaranthus +- Chenopodium +- Cleome +- Descurainia +++ +++ Unidentifiable seed + + Perennials: Yucca +- Possibly Cultural Annuals: Chenopodium +- Noncultural Annuals: Portulaca +-

+ 1-10 items, ++ 11-25 items, +++ more than 25 items.

RESULTS hearth is similar in the two middle levels, where juniper makes up 68 percent in Level 2 and 65 A collapsed slab feature (a probable milling percent in Level 3. Piñon constitutes the remain- bin) inside Feature 1 provided the greatest abun- ing third (Table 18). dance and diversity of plant remains at this site. Floor fill contained low-density trash Among carbonized and hence presumably cul- remains seen elsewhere in Feature 1. Seeds and tural specimens, tansy mustard seeds were most fruits used as food comprised only yucca and numerous, and several other economic annuals piñon (no annuals). Charcoal was coniferous and (goosefoot, pigweed, purslane, beeweed, and predominantly juniper. tobacco) put in cameo appearances (Table 16). The bell-shaped fire pit 35m away from Carbonized piñon nutshell was recovered, sug- Feature 1 contained few botanical clues on its gesting this prime local food product was also uses. Charcoal in both sampled layers was again utilized. Unburned prickly pear seeds are a dominated by juniper (Table 18). Flotation favorite rodent food and may represent some remains consisted solely of goosefoot seeds, very cohabitation or postoccupation use of the hogan. few of which were charred (Layer 2, FS 13). Charred juniper scale leaves (1–10 items) and pine bark (11–25 items) may relate to fuel use of these two taxa in Feature 1, as seen in the hearth DISCUSSION and floor fill (Table 18). The hearth in Feature 1 was examined by a Jicarilla flotation remains included no culti- combination of full-sort and scan samples from gens. While lack of bean or cucurbit remains in a four distinct levels (really layers) of fill (Tables 16 10-sample assemblage may be a consequence of and 17). Charred tansy mustard seeds were com- sampling error rather than a dietary hole, mon to all levels of the hearth, diminishing in absence of the durable and ubiquitous by-prod- quantity from top to bottom. Other annual taxa ucts of corn translates more confidently to a state- (goosefoot, pigweed, and sunflower) and two ment on diet and economic behavior at this site. perennials (piñon and yucca) occurred as single Several annuals (goosefoot, pigweed, and seeds in various levels. Fuel associated with this purslane) make a repeated and generally numer-

Floral Remains 79 TableTable 18. Species composition composition of wood, of wood, Features Features 1 and 12, and LA 71263 2, LA 71263

Sample Juniperus Pinus edulis Undetermined Unknown Total (juniper) (piñon) Conifer

Feature 1 Hearth, Level 2, FS 54 0.49 g 0.23 g - - 0.72 g Hearth, Level 3, FS 55 0.30 g 0.16 g - - 0.46 g Floor fill, FS 60 0.30 g - 0.02 g - 0.32 g Feature 2 Layer 1, FS 12 0.83 g - - 0.29 g 1.12 g Layer 2, FS 13 11.90 g 1.97 g - - 13.87 g Total 13.82 g 2.36 g 0.02 g 0.29 g 16.49 g 84.0% 14.0% <1% 2.0% 100.0% ous appearance as food debris at Archaic, 1994:26–28). At five dry shelters in the lower Anasazi, and Athabaskan sites but are present in Navajo Reservoir area, special preservation con- very low numbers at LA 71263. Tansy mustard is ditions and admixture with more recent deposits the only economic annual showing up in abun- has resulted in recovery of several other culti- dance in Feature 1 at this site. Beeweed and gens, including some that were in use in the tobacco (in the slab feature) are of considerable Puebloan era (common and tepary beans, interest despite their low numbers. Economic squash), some early and popular introductions perennials include piñon nuts (found in all by Spanish and Mormon settlers (peaches, apri- Feature 1 proveniences) and yucca (Feature 1 cots), and some later or less widely utilized taxa hearth and floor fill). Unburned prickly pear (plum, cherry, watermelon, wheat). seeds (a favorite rodent comestible) in the slab Morphometric studies of early Navajo corn feature may be someone else’s food. are few and far between, but at least one assem- If LA 71263 is considered a likely candidate blage (35 cobs from the Palluche Canyon ceremo- for short-term occupation(s), the co-occurrence of nial cache; Toll 1994:8, Table 10) shows several tansy mustard seeds (a relatively early crop, key ties to ancestral Pueblo corn of the San Juan maturing in June) with late summer crops (sun- Basin, suggesting early Navajo farming knowl- flower, beeweed, tobacco) and fall crops (piñon edge may have evolved in part from sixteenth- nuts, yucca fruits) is an interesting conundrum. century contacts with Puebloans. Dickey (in Botanical recovery points rather to either multi- Dittert and Dickey n.d.:35–36) also notes links season occupation or transportation of stored with Anasazi varieties in types of common beans food products by temporary occupants. found in early Navajo shelters in the Navajo Consideration of the LA 71263 plant remains Reservoir area. Brandt (1994:26–33) concludes in the context of other Navajo sites in northwest- from her sizable sample in the Arkansas Loop ern New Mexico provides some important per- project that the Navajo assemblages more closely spectives (Table 19). Farming, for instance, shows resemble Anasazi than Archaic subsistence pat- up as a distinct part of Navajo subsistence pat- terns. terns at LA 104202 (Matthews 1996), sites in the In northwestern New Mexico, the predomi- Arkansas Loop Corridor (Brandt 1994), and at an nance of juniper as fuelwood increases wherever early Dinetah site in the La Plata Mine area Great Basin conifer woodland habitat is found (Smith 1991). Maize is the only consistent floral and increases steadily through time (Toll 1983; evidence of in these open sites. In the Brandt 1994). Usage of shrubby fuel is more Arkansas Loop project, where documentation is important (in quantity and diversity) earlier, and most detailed (106 flotation samples from 12 where habitat is Great Basin Desertscrub or Great Navajo site components), maize remains are Basin Grassland. The strong focus on juniper as most ubiquitous in middens, followed by interior fuel material in Navajo sites in conifer woodland and exterior thermal features (Brandt is illustrated in Table 20.

80 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods TableTable 19.19. Comparative Comparative flotation flotation and macrobotanical and macrobotanical results from results Navajo sites from of Navajothe Four sitesCorners of area the Four Corners area

Taxon LA 71263 LA 1042021 Arkansas Loop2 Lower Navajo (n=10 samples) (n=4 samples) (n=106 samples) Reservoir Shelters3 (n=5 sites)

Annuals Amaranthus (pigweed) ++ +++ * - Chenopodium (goosefoot) ++ +++ * - Cheno-ams (goosefoot- - - ** - pigweed) Cleome (beeweed) ++ * Ƈ Cycloloma (winged pigweed) -+ - - Descurainia (tansy mustard) +++ + * - Helianthus (sunflower) + (uncharred only) * - Mentzelia (stickleaf) -+ * - Nicotiana (tobacco) + (uncharred only) * - Portulaca (purslane) + +++ * - Sphaeralcea (globemallow) -- * - Grasses Oryzopsis (ricegrass) -- * - Phragmites (reedgrass) -- * Ƈ Sporobolus (dropseed) -- * Ƈ Perennials Juniperus (juniper) - - *** ƇƇƇ Opuntia (prickly pear) -- * ƇƇ Pinus edulis (piñon) +- ** ƇƇƇ Rhus (squawberry) -- * - Yucca (yucca) +- * ƇƇƇ Cultigens Zea mays (corn) +++ (cupules, kernels, ** ƇƇƇ (husks, stalks, cob fragments) leaves, cobs, kernels)4

1 Matthews 1996: Table F-2. 2 Brandt 1994: Tables 26-7 and 26-14. 3 Dickey, in Dittert and Dickey n.d.:34 4 Also: common and tepary beans, squash, watermelon, wheat, peach, apricot, plum, and cherry. Measures of relative abundance of recovered carbonized plant remains (Jicarilla and Matthews 1996): + 1-10 items, ++ 11-25 items, +++ >25 items Measures of ubiquity of carbonized plant remains (Brandt 1994): * 1-10% of samples, ** 11-25% of samples, *** >25% of samples Measures of ubiquity of plant remains (mostly uncarbonized; Dittert and Dickey n.d.): Ƈ 1 of 5 sites, ƇƇ 2-3 of 5 sites, ƇƇƇ 4-5 of 5 sites

Floral Remains 81 TableTable 20. Comparative wood wood use use at Navajoat Navajo sites sites of the of Four the Corners Four Corners area area

Early Dinetah Combined Protohistoric (percent by weight) and Historic Navajo (percent of samples)

Jicarilla LA 1042021 Arkansas Loop2 (16.5 g) (4.8 g) (n=106 samples)

Juniper 84% 92% 90% Piñon 14% 6% 40% Ponderosa pine - - 5% Pine - - 18% Undetermined conifer <1% - - Total conifer 98% 98% NA Sage - - 20% Saltbush - - 5% Mormon tea - - 3% Oak - <1% 8% Undetermined dicot - 2% 3% Total nonconifer 0 2% NA Unknown 2% 0 0

1 Matthews 1996: Table F.2 2 Brandt 1994: Table 26-7 and 26-14

SUMMARY at other early Navajo sites, and broadly and abundantly at Archaic, Anasazi, and Athabaskan In contrast to several other early Navajo sites throughout the (annuals botanical assemblages, no floral evidence of of pigweed, goosefoot, purslane, tansy mustard). farming was recovered at LA 71263. The proba- More restricted in their recovery (geographically ble function of the site as a limited-activity, lithic- or culturally) are several taxa that have turned up manufacturing site does not explain the absence with some regularity in our still-preliminary of corn, particularly given the likelihood of uti- view of early Navajo subsistence (annuals of bee- lization of stored resources collected from sever- weed, sunflower, stickleaf, tobacco; perennials of al segments of the growing season. Wild food juniper, piñon, yucca). products found at LA 71263 repeat several found

82 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Corncobs

Mollie S. Toll

Two unburned corncobs from a storage structure of the shank. This fragment had 14 rows, a length directly northwest of LA 71263 were examined of 24.5 mm, glume width of 8.3 mm, and a rachis (Fig. 39). One was a fragment from near the tip of segment length of 3.8 mm. a cob. The fragment was 43.0 mm long and flat- These two corncob fragments are very tened. It appears to have 12 rows, including a robust, with wide cupules and large diameters. partially developed row-pair. Incomplete row Cob morphometrics from LA 6532 (Table 21), an development is a common response to inade- eighteenth-century Navajo site in the Navajo quate or irregular moisture during tasseling and Reservoir area, resemble those of Anasazi corn of silking stages (Robins and Domingo 1953; the San Juan Basin, where 10- and 12-rowed corn Denmead and Shaw 1960), and all row configura- predominates and glume widths are much nar- tion irregularities are most often expressed in the rower. The Jicarilla cobs compare more closely to base or tip regions of the ear. The cob diameter late nineteenth- and twentieth-century Navajo was 17.9 mm, glume width was 7.7 mm, and corn (Winter 1999), which has an average of 14 rachis segment length was 3.4 mm. rows. The cobs from the modern Navajo corn The other cob fragment was from the butt of study (Winter 1983) from Hard Ground Flats fall a cob and included about 6 mm of what remained somewhere in between the two.

Figure 39. Corncobs from storage bin northwest of LA 71263.

Corncobs 83 TableTable 21. Comparative Comparative Zea Zea mays mays cob morphometricscob morphometrics from Navajo from sites Navajo of the Foursites Corners of the area Four Corners area

Site/Project Cob Glume Width/ Rachis Segment Number of Diameter (mm) Cupule Width Length (mm) Rows

Near LA 71263 (n=2) 21.3 8 3.6 12 Lower Navajo Reservoir Shelters (LA 6532)¹ (n=90) 14 7.4 3.5 10 Lower Chaco/San Juan² (n=844) - - - 14 Hard Ground Flats Wash³ (n=61) 19.3 7.4 - 13

¹ Toll 1994: Tables 11 and 12 ² Winter 1983: Table 27.14 ³ Winter 1999: Table 103

84 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Pollen Analysis of Three Samples from LA 71263

Richard G. Holloway

Three pollen samples from LA 71263 were sub- pollen grains, from the heavier fractions. The fine mitted to Quaternary Services for analysis. The material was concentrated by centrifugation at modern vegetation consists primarily of desert 2,000 rpm. shrubs, grasses, and cacti. Juniperus sp. And Pinus The fine fraction was treated with concentrat- edulis (piñon) grow on the top of a low mesa 300 ed hydrofluoric acid (HF) overnight to remove m west of the site and on the surrounding slopes silicates. After the acid was completely neutral- and mesa tops. Other plants in the area are ized with distilled water, the samples were treat- Chrysothamnus sp. (rabbitbrush), Artemisia sp. ed with a solution of darvan and sonicated for 30 (sagebrush), Gutierrezia sp. (snakeweed), Opuntia seconds. The darvan solution was removed by sp. (prickly pear cactus), Bouteloua sp. (blue repeated washing with distilled water and cen- grama), and Oryzopsis sp. (Indian rice grass). trifuged (2,000 rpm) until the supernatant liquid was clear and neutral. This procedure removed fine charcoal and other associated organic matter METHODS AND MATERIALS and effectively deflocculated the sample. The samples were dehydrated in glacial Chemical extraction of pollen samples was acetic acid in preparation for acetolysis. conducted at the Palynology Laboratory at Following Erdtman (1960), acetolysis solution A&M University, using a procedure designed for (acetic anhydride: concentrated sulfuric acid in semiarid Southwestern sediments. The method, 9:1 ratio) was added to each sample. Centrifuge detailed below, specifically avoids use of such tubes containing the solution were heated in a reagents as nitric acid and bleach, which have boiling water bath for eight minutes and then been demonstrated experimentally to be destruc- cooled for an additional eight minutes before tive to pollen grains (Holloway 1981). centrifugation and removal of the acetolysis solu- From each pollen sample submitted, 15 ml of tion with glacial acetic acid, followed by distilled soil were subsampled. Prior to chemical extrac- water. Centrifugation at 2,000 rpm for 90 seconds tion, three tablets of concentrated Lycopodium dramatically reduced the size of the sample, yet spores (Batch #307862, Department of from periodic examination of the residue, did not Quaternary Geology, Lund, Sweden; 13,500 ± 500 remove fossil palynomorphs. marker grains per tablet) were added to each Heavy-density separation ensued using zinc subsample. The addition of marker grains per- bromide (ZnBr2) with a specific gravity of 2.00 to mits calculation of pollen concentration values remove much of the remaining detritus from the and provides an indicator for accidental destruc- pollen. The light fraction was diluted with dis- tion of pollen during the laboratory procedure. tilled water (10:1) and concentrated by centrifu- The samples were treated with 35 percent gation. The samples were washed repeatedly in hydrochloric acid (HCl) overnight to remove car- distilled water until neutral. The residues were bonates and to release the Lycopodium spores rinsed in a 1-percent solution of potassium from their matrix. After the acid was neutralized hydroxide (KOH) for less than one minute, with distilled water, the samples were allowed to which was effective in removing the majority of settle for at least three hours before the super- the unwanted alkaline soluble humates. natant liquid was removed. Additional distilled The material was rinsed in ethnol (ETOH) water was added to the supernatant, and the stained with safranin-O, rinsed twice with mixture was swirled and then allowed to settle ETOH, and transferred to 1-dram vials with terti- for five seconds. The suspended fine fraction was ary butyl alcohol (TBA). The samples were mixed decanted through 150μ mesh screen into a second with a small quantity of glycerine and allowed to beaker. This procedure, repeated at least three stand overnight for evaporation of the TBA. The times, removed lighter materials, including storage vials were returned to the Museum of

Pollen 85 New Mexico at the completion of the project. K *Sp A drop of the polliniferous residue was PC mounted on a microscope slide for examination = SL *S under an 18 by 18 mm cover slip sealed with fin- gernail polish. The slide was examined using where: PC = pollen concentration 200X or 100X magnification. Occasionally, pollen K Lycopodium grains were examined using either 400X or = spores added 1,000X oil immersion to obtain a positive identifi- Sp = fossil pollen counted cation to either the family or genus level. SL = Lycopodium spores counted Abbreviated microscopy was performed on S = sediment weight each sample in which either 20 percent of the slide (approximately four transects at 200X mag- nification) or a minimum of 50 marker grains Variability in pollen concentration values can were counted. If warranted, full counts were con- also be attributed to deterioration of the grains ducted by counting to a minimum of 200 fossil through natural processes. In his study of sedi- grains. Regardless of which method was used, ment samples collected from a rockshelter, Hall the uncounted portion of each slide was com- (1981) developed the “1,000 grains/g” rule to pletely scanned at a magnification of 100X for assess the degree of pollen destruction. This larger grains of cultivated plants such as Zea mays approach has been used by many palynologists and Cucurbita, two types of cactus (Platyopuntia working in other contexts as a guide to determine and Cylindropuntia) and other large pollen types the degree of preservation of a pollen assemblage such as members of the Malvaceae or and, ultimately, to aid in the selection of samples Nyctaginaceae families. to be examined in greater detail. According to For those samples warranting full Hall (1981), a pollen concentration value below microscopy, a minimum of 200 pollen grains per 1,000 grains/g indicates that forces of degrada- sample were counted (Barkley 1934), which tion may have severely altered the original allows the analyst to inventory the most common assemblage. However, a pollen concentration taxa present in the sample. All transects were value of fewer than 1,000 grains/g can indicate counted completely (Brookes and Thomas 1967), the restriction of the natural pollen rain. Samples resulting in various numbers of grains counted from pit structures or floors within enclosed beyond 200. Pollen taxa encountered on the rooms, for example, often yield pollen concentra- uncounted portion of the slide during the low- tion values below 1,000 grains/g. magnification scan are tabulated separately. Pollen degradation also modifies the pollen Total pollen concentration values were com- assemblage because pollen grains of different puted for all taxa. In addition, the percentage of taxa degrade at variable rates (Bryant and Indeterminate pollen was also computed. Holloway 1983; Holloway 1981, 1989). Some taxa Statistically, pollen concentration values provide are more resistant to deterioration than others a more reliable estimate of species composition and remain in assemblages after other types have within the assemblage. Traditionally, results deteriorated completely. Many commonly occur- have been presented by relative frequencies (per- ring taxa degrade beyond recognition in only a centages) where the abundance of each taxon is short time. For example, most (ca. 70 percent) expressed in relation to the total pollen sum angiosperm pollen has either tricolpate (three (200+ grains) per sample. With this method, rare furrows) or tricolporate (three furrows each with pollen types tend to constitute less than 1 percent pores) morphology. Because surfaces erode of the total assemblage. Pollen concentration val- rather easily, once deteriorated, these grains tend ues, provide a more precise measurement of the to resemble each other and are not readily distin- abundance of even these rare types. This pollen guishable. Other pollen types (e.g. cheno-am) are data are reported here as pollen concentration so distinctive that they remain identifiable even values using the following formula: when almost completely degraded. Pollen grains were identified to the lowest taxonomic level whenever possible. The majority

86 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods of these identifications conformed to existing lev- without identifiable characteristics. For example, els of taxonomy with a few exceptions. For exam- a grain that is so severely deteriorated that no ple, cheno-am is an artificial, pollen morphologi- distinguishing features exist closely resembles cal category which includes pollen of the family many spores. Pollen grains and spores are similar Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) and the genus in size and are composed of the same material Amaranthus (pigweed), which are indistinguish- (sporopollenin). So that spores are not counted as able from each other (Martin 1963). All members deteriorated pollen, only those grains containing are wind pollinated (anemophilous) and produce identifiable pollen characteristics are assigned to very large quantities of pollen. In many sediment the indeterminate category. Thus, the indetermi- samples from the American Southwest, this nate category contains a minimum estimate of taxon often dominates the assemblage. degradation for any assemblage. If the percent- Pollen of the Asteraceae (sunflower) family age of indeterminate pollen is between 10 and 20 was divided into four groups. The high-spine percent, relatively poor preservation of the and low-spine groups were identified on the assemblage is indicated, whereas indeterminate basis of spine length. High-spine Asteraceae con- pollen in excess of 20 percent indicates severe tains those grains with spine length greater than deterioration to the assemblage. or equal to 2.5μ, while the low-spine group have In those samples where the total pollen con- spines less than 2.5μ long (Martin 1963; Bryant centration values are approximately at or below 1969). Artemisia pollen is identifiable to the genus 1,000 grains/g and the percentage of indetermi- level because of its unique morphology of a dou- nate pollen is 20 percent or greater, counting was ble tectum in the mesocopial (between furrows) terminated at the completion of the abbreviated region of the pollen grain. Pollen grains of the microscopy phase. In some cases, the assemblage Liguliflorae are also distinguished by their fenes- was so deteriorated that only a small number of trate morphology. Grains of this type are restrict- taxa remained. Statistically, the concentration ed to the family Cichoreae, which includes such values may have exceeded 1,000 grains/g. If the genera as Taraxacum (dandelion) and Lactuca (let- species diversity was low (generally these sam- tuce). ples contained only pine, cheno-am, members of Pollen of the Poaceae (grass) family are gen- the Asteraceae family, and indeterminate), count- erally indistinguishable below the family level, ing was also terminated after abbreviated with the single exception of Zea mays, identifiable microscopy even if the pollen concentration val- by its large size (ca. 80μ), relatively large pore ues slightly exceeded 1,000 grains/g. annulus, and the internal morphology of the exine. All members of the family contain a single pore, are spherical, and have simple wall archi- RESULTS tecture. Identification of noncorn pollen depends on the presence of the single pore. Only complete Table 22 contains the raw pollen counts and or fragmented grains containing this pore were pollen concentration values from the three sam- tabulated as members of the Poaceae family. ples. The results of the individual analyses are Clumps of four or more pollen grains (anther presented below. fragments) were tabulated as single grains to avoid skewing the counts. Clumps of pollen Extramural grains (anther fragments) from archaeological contexts are interpreted as evidence of flowers at Specimen 7 was taken from the edge of a roadcut the sampling locale (Bohrer 1981). This enables from Grid S48/W4. The assemblage contained the analyst to infer human behavior. 6,563 grains/ml total pollen concentration values Finally, pollen grains in the final stages of and was based on a pollen sum of 158 grains, disintegration but retaining identifiable features, with 15.19 percent indeterminate. Pinus ponderosa such as furrows, pores, complex wall architec- type (291 grains/ml) and Pinus edulis type (997 ture, or a combination of these attributes, were grains/ml) were present in low amounts. Cheno- assigned to the indeterminate category. The am (3,240 grains/ml) clearly dominated the potential exists to miss counting pollen grains assemblage. High-spine (374 grains/ml) and

Pollen 87 Poaceae Cheno-am Indeterminate Transects Slide ponderosa edulis PinusJuniperus Pinus Quercus Sarcobatus Indeterminate Sum Total Markers % Transects/ Total Markers No. Artemisia Ephedra af. Asteraceae Asteraceae Raw Counts 71242Pollen Concentration Values 71242 - 2 - - 25 9 6 - 18 374 75 12 7 552 10 498 88 3 307 6 6 125 75 184 - 1 1 - 13 31 24 14 19 997 176 583 158 212 229 158 212 229 6563 2662 7026 6563 2662 7026 65 215 88 65 215 88 15.19 6.6 8.3 15.19 6.6 8.3 6 4 6 6 4 6 26 27 26 28 27 281.67 28 1451.25 281.67 410.67 1451.25 410.67 Raw Counts 71242Pollen Concentration Values extramural7 extramural12 Pit Structure 242 S48/W4 S48/W3 extramuralTable 22 (continued) extramural Pit Structure 2FS No. 1 2 S48/W4 S48/W3 Cheno-am - High-spine 1 2 - 1 Low-spine edge of roadcut miling (?) bin - 4 - 1 31 bell-shaped pit edge of roadcut milling (?) bin 61 4 1288 98 bell-shaped pit 7 1872 22 291 1231 27 675 24 39 997 339 1197 71 - - - 892 - 2 - 25 - - - 1 13 - 1 - 31 - 1 - - 42 - 3 78 38 113 3240 3467 72 904 Table 22. Pollen counts and concentration values, LA 71263 FS No. Structure Provenience Level Feature Type Table 22. Pollen counts and concentration values, LA 22. Pollen counts Table 71263

88 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods low-spine (498 grains/ml) Asteraceae were high, pollen types or indicators. Thus, the function of along with Artemisia (125 grains/ml) and moder- these features could not be determined. Even the ate amounts of Poacea (42 grains/ml). assemblage from the milling bin contained no indicators of which plants were processed. Bell-Shaped Pit The assemblages showed evidence of weath- ering. The percentage of indeterminate pollen Specimen 12 was taken from this pit feature. The from these samples ranged between 6.6 and assemblage contained 2,662 grains/ml total 15.19. While not indicating severe weathering, pollen concentration values and was based on a the percentages do suggest a higher than normal pollen sum of 212 grains. Pinus ponderosa type degree of weathering, which may account for the (339 grains/ml) and Pinus edulis type (892 absence of economic indicators. grains/ml) were present in low amounts, with Finally, based on the pollen taxa recovered, traces of Juniperus 25 grains/ml) and Quercus (13 the question always arises whether economic grains/ml) pollen. Cheno-am (904 grains/ml) taxa are absent from these assemblages because dominated the assemblage. It was present in low they are truly not present or because they are amounts but contained a high number of pollen present in such small amounts that they were clumps (25/ml). High-spine (75 grains/ml) and missed during sampling. To assess the likelihood low-spine (88 grains/ml)Asteraceae were both of their being missed, the estimated maximum high, along with Artemisia (75 grains/ml). potential concentration values of target taxa was Poaceae (38 grains/ml) was present in low computed. Since the entire slide was examined amounts, along with Ephedra (13 grains/ml). (either by count or low-magnification scan of the slide), the estimated number of marker grains per Milling Bin in Structure slide was computed by averaging the number of marker grains per transect and multiplying this Specimen 42 was taken from this suspected by the total number of transects examined. milling bin feature within the structure. The Assuming that the first grain observed on a assemblage contained 7,026 grains/ml total hypothetical second slide was one of the target pollen concentration values and was based on a taxa, the maximum potential concentration value pollen sum of 229 grains. Pinus ponderosa type can be computed. Thus, the number of the fossil (675 grains/ml) was present in low amounts, and grains is one, and the number of marker grains Pinus edulis type (1197 grains/ml) was present in per slide is substituted for the number of marker moderate amounts. Cheno-am (3467 grains/ml) grains counted in the pollen concentration for- clearly dominated the assemblage, along with mula. These data indicate that the estimated high amounts of high-spine (552 grains/ml) and potential pollen concentration values fall low-spine (307 grains/ml) Asteraceae and between 12.56 and 41.54 grains/ml (Table 23). Artemisia (184 grains/ml). No Poaceae pollen was Without examining the total of the pollen recovered, but a small amount of Sarcobatus and residues, we can never be absolutely sure that the Ephedra (31 grains/ml each) pollen was present. target taxa are indeed absent from the assem-

TableTable 23.23. Estimated Estimated potential potential pollen concentrationpollen concentration values, values,LA 71263 LA 71263 DISCUSSION FS No. Lycopodium Weight / Maximum Potential The pollen assemblage generally reflects the Added Area Concentration dominant vegetation in the area. Pinus, Juniperus, and Quercus pollen are common constituents of Raw Counts piñon-juniper woodland, which exists on nearby 7 40500 15 12 40500 15 mesas and slopes. While cheno-am pollen domi- 42 40500 15 nates the assemblages, it is only present in per- Pollen Concentration Values centages of 49 percent or less, which is more typ- 7 40500 15 41.54 ical of natural deposition than cultural activity. 12 40500 15 12.56 None of the samples contained economic 42 40500 15 30.68

Pollen 89 blage. Given the moderate to high estimated site consisted entirely of background pollen potential pollen concentration values, however, I types. These assemblages generally reflected a suspect that other taxa may indeed be present, similar vegetation in the area to that today. but have been weathered to such a low concen- However, given the absence of economic indica- tration value that they were absent from these tors, no interpretation of feature function was assemblages. possible. The pollen assemblages recovered from this

90 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Source Provenience of Obsidian Artifacts

M. Steven Shackley

The analysis of seven obsidian artifacts from dards certified by the National Institute of probable Dinetah period contexts at two sites in Standards and Technology (NIST), the U.S. northern New Mexico indicates procurement of Geological Survey (USGS), the Canadian Centre obsidian from the Jemez Mountains, particularly for Mineral and Energy Technology, and the Valle Grande rhyolite obsidian, which can only Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et be procured in the Valles Caldera proper Géochimiques in France (Govindaraju 1994). (Shackley 2003). Further details concerning the petrological choice of these elements in Southwest obsidians is avail- able in Shackley (1995, 2003), Mahood and Stimac ANALYSIS AND INSTRUMENTATION (1990), and Hughes and Smith (1993). Specific standards used for the best fit regression calibra- All archaeological samples have been analyzed tion for elements Ti through Nb include G-2 whole. The results presented here are quantita- (basalt), AGV-1 (andesite), GSP-1, SY-2 (syenite), tive in that they are derived from “filtered” inten- BHVO-1 (hawaiite), STM-1 (syenite), QLO-1 sity values ratioed to the appropriate x-ray con- (quartz latite), RGM-1 (obsidian), W-2 (diabase), tinuum regions through a least-squares fitting BIR-1 (basalt), SDC-1 (mica schist), TLM-1 formula rather than plotting the proportions of (tonalite), SCO-1 (shale), all USGS standards, and the net intensities in a ternary system (Schamber BR-N (basalt) from the Centre de Recherches 1977; McCarthy and Schamber 1981). Through Pétrographiques et Géochimiques in France the analysis of international rock standards, these (Govindaraju 1994). In addition to the reported data allow for interinstrument comparison with a values here, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Ga were measured, predictable degree of certainty (Hampel 1984). but they are rarely useful in discriminating glass The trace element analyses were performed sources and are not generally reported. in the Archaeological XRF Laboratory, The data from the WinTrace software were Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, translated directly into Excel for Windows soft- University of California, Berkeley, using a ware for manipulation and on into SPSS for Spectrace/ThermoNoran™ QuanX energy dis- Windows for statistical analyses. To evaluate persive x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The these quantitative determinations, machine data spectrometer is equipped with an air-cooled Cu were compared to measurements of known stan- x-ray target with a 125 micron Be window, an x- dards during each run. Table 24 shows a compar- ray generator that operates from 4 to 50 ison between values recommended for RGM-1 as kV/0.02–2.0 mA at 0.02 increments, using an IBM of December 1, 2002. Table 25 includes the analy- PC-based microprocessor and WinTrace™ sis of RGM-1 with this run. RGM-1 is analyzed reduction software. The x-ray tube is operated at during each sample run to check machine cali- 30 kV, 0.14 mA, using a 0.05 mm (medium) Pd bration. primary beam filter in an air path at 200 seconds Trace element data exhibited in Tables 24 and livetime to generate x-ray intensity Kα-line data 25 and Figure 40 are reported in parts per million for elements titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), iron (ppm), a quantitative measure by weight. Source (as FeT), thorium (Th), rubidium (Rb), strontium nomenclature is from Baugh and Nelson (1987), (Sr), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), and niobium Glascock et al. (1999), and Shackley (1995, 1998,

(Nb). Weight percent iron (Fe2O3T) can be derived 2003). by multiplying ppm estimates by 1.4297 (10-4). Trace element intensities were converted to con- centration estimates by employing a least- GEOCHEMICAL RESULTS AND SUMMARY squares calibration line established for each ele- ment from the analysis of international rock stan- It is likely that the obsidian raw material used to

Obsidian Artifacts 91 Table 24. X-ray fluorescence concentrations, selected trace elements (parts per million) SampleRGM-1 (Govindaraju 1994)RGM-1 (this study) 1600 279 1741±37 296±11 12998 Ti 14254±129 13±6 15 Mn 150±3 149 113±2 Fe 24±3 108 Th 220±3 25 9±3 Rb 219 Sr 8.9 Y Zr Nb Table 25. Element concentration in the archaeological samples (parts per million) SampleLA 76270 FS 1 TiFS 3LA 71263 FS 4 Mn 1150FS 37 1069FS 43FS 45 456 1021 FeFS 58 1146 441RGM1-H1 1150 9875 1122 360 1780 400 Rb 6828 1177 467 157 416 8590 304 9593 154 484 Sr 10161 9455 138 17 14054 163 10552 17 170 Y 162 162 16 172 48 17 17 25 Zr 118 12 19 46 165 38 40 73 21 Nb 41 156 43 57 170 174 46 222 167 Th 52 178 19 62 63 Source 15 Valle Grande rhyolite 11 52 59 12 El Rechuelos 35 24 Valle Grande rhyolite 12 Valle Grande rhyolite 27 Valle Grande rhyolite 29 standard Valle Grande rhyolite Valle Grande rhyolite Table 24. X-ray fluorescence concentrations, selected trace elements (parts per million) (parts 24. X-ray fluorescence concentrations, selected trace elements Table per million) 25. Element concentration in the archaeological samples (parts Table

92 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods 50 produce these artifacts is from the Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico, the nearest source to these sites. The presence of Valle 45 Grande rhyolite glass is most interesting. The long-term study of the secondary distribution of the rhyolite glasses from Quaternary sources in 40 and around the Valles Caldera indicates that Valle Grande, the most recent event, has not eroded outside the caldera wall (Shackley 2000). 35 While El Rechuelos and Cerro Toledo rhyolite glasses have been eroding into the Rio Chama Y ppm 30 and Rio Grande systems for over 1 million years, Valle Grande has not, except for some very small marekanites that occur as a result of the pyroclas- 25 tic eruption near Los Alamos (Shackley 2000, 2003). Any Valle Grande obsidian recovered in archaeological contexts must have been procured 20 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 originally at or near the primary sources of Valle Zr ppm Grande (i.e., Cerro del Medio) on the caldera source: Valle Grande Rhy El Rechuelos floor. Further evidence suggesting direct pro- curement from the Valles Caldera area is the Figure 40. Y versus Zr biplot of the archaeologi- angular to subrounded cortex on some of the arti- cal specimens. facts. Whether the one El Rechuelos sample (FS 3, from LA 76270) was procured from the primary source or secondary deposits is impossible to determine on this interior flake.

Obsidian Artifacts 93

Conclusion

Although the data recovery plan (Moore et al. nant), goosefoot, pigweed, purslane, beeweed, 1991) did not pertain to Navajos sites, the same sagebrush, sunflower, tobacco, yucca, Mormon research issues are relevant to LA 71263 and LA tea, grasses, piñon nut shells, and possibly prick- 76270. The authors intended to contribute to our ly pear seeds. The gathering of these plants or knowledge of local chronology, subsistence prac- their products occurs variously from early sum- tices, and site structure, but the focus of the proj- mer (tansy mustard) to late summer (sunflower, ect changed to early Navajo cultural adaptations. beeweed, and tobacco) to fall (piñon nuts and We tried to expand the very poorly understood yucca parts) (Toll, this volume). Of interest is the local chronology (particularly of Navajo sites) to use of tobacco by site inhabitants. This plant has determine what food resources were being also been found at Dinetah sites on the Arkansas exploited, learn how the local environment was Loop project in northwestern New Mexico utilized, and understand the nature of the occu- (Brandt 1994) and at El Campo Navahu (Marshall pation of the two sites. 1985), but not in the many lower Navajo Reservoir sites (Dittert and Dickey n.d.). The lack of corn remains at the site is most SUBSISTENCE ADAPTATIONS interesting. Several early Dinetah sites contain evidence of corn (Hogan 1992:94), but not of agri- The occupants of LA 71263 gathered wild plant cultural dependence on it. The residents of LA food and hunted game to satisfy their subsistence 71263, while leaving no visible sign of corn use, needs. We cannot be as confident about the use of may have been responsible for caching corncobs domestically grown crops, such as corn. It could in a nearby Gallina tower structure. The cobs have been present at the site; however, the pres- were radiocarbon-dated and calibrated to AD ence of subsistence resources in any archaeologi- 1640, probably Navajo-deposited, and possibly cal assemblage depends on the vagaries of cli- related to LA 71263. mate, seasonal availability, food preferences, and In summary, the use of wild plants as subsis- competition for those resources. The amount of tence items is definitely established at LA 71263. any particular resource also fluctuated yearly The use of domesticated corn is not so easily con- (Oakes 1999:50). firmed, but there is a possibility that site resi- dents gathered the corn from potentially arable Gathering of Wild Foods fields nearby and stored it directly in the Gallina tower for transport to another encampment, pos- Wild plant foods have always been important in sibly for winter subsistence. the dietary regimen of prehistoric populations. They included grasses, berries, vegetables, nuts, Wild Game shrubs, flowers, pods, and seeds. Availability is usually limited to seasonal maturities. Before Only eight animal bones were recovered from LA early peoples were dependent on cultigens, wild 71263. Bones of possibly three different mule plants nutritionally balanced the taking of wild deer are present, along with a squirrel and pock- game. In wild plant gathering, movement over et gopher (both calcined). The shallowness of the the landscape from one resource to another is structure and possible coyote scavenging may almost a necessity. account for poor preservation. However, faunal The wild plants economically utilized at LA remains are generally not found on early Dinetah 71263 were determined from the botanical and sites (Brown and Hancock 1992:85). Mule deer palynological material recovered from the site. and rabbits are the most common fauna found on No plant materials were identified at LA 76270. these sites, and it is of interest that no rabbit Recovered subsistence resources at LA 71263 remains were recovered at this site. Mule deer are include tansy mustard seeds (the most domi- best when taken in the fall, and their presence on

Conclusion 95 the site may corroborate a fall occupation at LA Horn 1990:287; Fetterman 1996). At LA 71263 71263. If squirrels and pocket gophers were (this report), the C-14 date of 1620–1660 was eaten, the inhabitants may have been experienc- taken from a corncob. LA 81172 had a bell- ing an unusual degree of hunger. shaped cist with corn and beams. The C-14 and dendrochronological dates from beams range Domesticated Crops from AD 1275 to 1430, while the dendro dates extend from AD 1400 to 1762. Fetterman As stated above, no evidence of corn use was (1996:76–77) suggests two occupations for the found at LA 71263. However, corncobs may have site. DCA-86-79, in the La Plata Valley, produced been cached at the nearby Gallina tower in five radiocarbon dates between AD 1427 and about1640. 1550 (Reed et al.1988). The La Plata Mine had Although several early Dinetah sites do con- corn pollen on the site, but Brown and Hancock tain some evidence of corn use, corn was not a (1992:85) were not sure if it is cultural or wind- primary dietary component (Table 26 and Fig. blown. No dates were given, but the site was sup- 41). Table 26 is less than definitive and has sever- posed to be of the Dinetah phase. al questionable inclusions. LA 3398, now covered Thus, very few Dinetah sites definitely con- by Navajo Lake, was considered Dinetah only tain corn remains. In the cases of LA 3398, LA because it lacked Gobernador Polychrome pot- 38946, LA 38951, and the La Plata Mine site, the tery (Eddy 1966). Corn was present, but the lack corn may not date to the Dinetah phase because of a solid cultural assignment and lack of a date of the presence of site components from other makes this association of corn with the Dinetah time periods or the lack of usable dates. At LA debatable. LA 16151 (San Juan Breaks), south of 81172, while early C-14 dates were obtained, the Farmington, produced five radiocarbon dates range extends to possibly 1762, eliminating a def- with midranges in the 1400s and upper confi- inite Dinetah association. This leaves only four dence limits of AD 1557–1588. Hogan (1992:21) sites that truly date to the Dinetah phase. Even puts the age of the occupation at ca. 1550. LA with the possible use of old wood, only LA 16151, 38946 (El Campo Navahu) contained corn within LA 49498, and DCA-86-79 fall into the acceptable a hearth, but there was an earlier Anasazi feature range for Dinetah sites. LA 71263, with a cob- beneath it, and the corn could have come from dated assay, also qualifies. The possible dates for this source (Winter and Hogan 1992). No dates these four sites range from AD 1427 to 1660. Even were obtained for the corn. LA 38951 (La Ceja with this limited data, we can tentatively con- Blanca) produced C-14 dates of 1500–1575 clude that there were Dinetah sites that utilized (Marshall 1985), but the corn could have derived corn in their subsistence adaptations and that from a later Gobernador occupation. LA 49498 some may date to the mid or late 1400s. It is (Kin’Atsa) had corn on the floor, and it was regrettable that more sites have not been dated radiocarbon-dated between AD 1437 and 1466. and that corn remains, when present, were not Two thermoluminescent dates gave 1600s dates selected for dating. and may indicate two occupations (Reed and

TableTable 26. DinetahDinetah sites sites with with evidence evidence of possible of possible corn use corn use

Site Location Date Reference

LA 3398 Navajo Lake Early Eddy 1966; Brown and Hancock 1992 LA 16151 Farmington ca. 1550 Hogan 1992 LA 38946 Angel Peak area Early Marshall 1985; Hogan 1989; Winter and Hogan 1992 LA 38951 Blanco Canyon 1500–1575 Marshall 1985; Winter and Hogan 1992 LA 49498 La Plata 1437–1466; 1620–1660 Reed and Horn 1990; Fetterman 1996 LA 71263 Wild Horse Mesa 1620–1660 this report LA 81172 Mount Nebo area 1400–1762 Ahlstrom 1985; Fetterman 1996 DCA-86-79 La Plata 1427–1550 Reed et al. 1988; Hogan 1992 La Plata Mine La Plata Early Brown and Hancock 1992

96 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 41. Dinetah sites in northwest New Mexico with possible use of corn.

SITE STRUCTURE The presence of a bell-shaped pit and milling bin within the hogan suggests that economic LA 71263 is an excellent example of the type of plant resources were being processed on the site. occupation found at Dinetah-phase sites. It is Corncobs in a nearby Gallina tower, dating to the very similar to other hogan habitations that were same period as the site (1620–1650), suggests but scattered across northwestern New Mexico at does not prove that site occupants were caching this time, such as at Kin’Atsa (Reed and Horn corn for late use at a winter base. Numerous 1990:288) and La Plata Mine (Brown and biface flakes also indicate that hunting or food- Hancock 1992:73). Habitations are roughly circu- processing occurred at the site. lar with a shallow, saucer-shaped floor, charred beams, unlined hearths, milling bins, and ash pits. LA 71263 lacks only an interior storage cist. DINETAH SETTLEMENT PATTERN A very sparse artifact scatter surrounds the site. IN THE PROJECT AREA The LA 71263 structure was built at least partial- ly of logs, one form that hogans can take. Others The two excavated sites are associated with the are forked-stick, rectangular, and brush and Dinetah phase, related to the Navajo population poles. Descriptions of these hogan types can be of the area. Not much has been written about found in “The Navajos” (this report). Navajo sites in the eastern portion of Navajo The structure at LA 71263 was 3.6 m in diam- country, so little is known about settlement pat- eter and fairly substantial, perhaps indicating terns in the area. A regional settlement-pattern seasonal rather than short-term use. We do not study revealed that a number of sites of all affini- believe it was a winter habitation, based on its ties exist in this area, which had not been as setting in open sagebrush and the types of mac- sparsely occupied as we expected. robotanical remains found on the site, such as The relatively high number of sites in the tansy mustard, beeweed, and tobacco. It is also region leads to the question of whether popula- possible that LA 71263 was not the only structure tion densities here are at all comparable with on the site. Dinetah-phase occupations tend to be those farther to the west near Navajo Lake and dispersed in small clusters of single-family resi- Canon Largo. Is there any truth to the origin dences, and because of several charcoal-stained myth that Navajo people came from the Stinking areas outside of the highway right-of-way, this Lake area (Ellis 1974:91), only 32 km (21 miles) site could easily have contained more than one northeast of the project sites? habitation unit. To better understand the settlement of the

Conclusion 97 Navajo people in the area and how they differ broad plains and low ridges of the eastern por- from other cultural groups, a comparative study tion of the study area, where Rosa- and Gallina- on a regional scale was undertaken. The study phase sites are located, are actually the highest area was defined as a 1,403.3 sq km (541.8 sq mi) elevations in the area. The Gobernador-phase block with the project sites near the center and sites, which are thought generally to have a lower encompassing Jicarilla Apache, Carson National visibility because of punitive raids by Spanish Forest, and private lands (Figs. 42 and 43). It troops, are frequently situated on the sides and includes nine USGS topographic quadrangles lower protuberances of the canyons to the west and extends from the southern edge of Carson and northwest within the study area, and thus at National Forest on the north to below Lindreth lower elevations than the . This, on the south and past Otero Store on the west then, conforms to the accepted belief that and just west of the Continental Divide on the Gobernador sites are often entrenched within east. Towns in the region are few and small, canyon hideways. including Lindrith, Ojito, and Otero Store. Next, histograms were created for each of the Higher mesas and dissected canyons on the west four cultural groups showing actual elevational descend to broad areas of sagebrush flats and figures for the sites (Fig. 45). Most of the Rosa- wide valleys on the east. phase sites lie between 6,900 and 7,360 ft. The The data base was created from the files of graph indicates no preferred selection of topo- the Archeological Records Management System graphic space by these peoples, but a wide vari- (ARMS) of the Historic Preservation Division, ety of land utilization. The Gallina-phase sites are Santa Fe. To provide a basis for comparison, all much more numerous (68.3 percent) but exhibit a sites related to the several major cultural groups much tighter settlement pattern. Sites are heavily that used the area were plotted topographically. concentrated between 6,900 and 7,500 ft, with a These include Rosa-, Gallina-, Dinetah-, and preference for the highest elevations (the plains) Gobernador-phase sites. This resulted in a data in the study area. Dinetah sites are broadly base of 778 sites: 10.9 percent Rosa, 68.3 percent spread between elevations of 6,480 to 7,460 ft, but Gallina, 8.6 percent Dinetah, and 12.2 percent the graph shows no preference for any specific Gobernador. Gallina-phase sites are overwhelm- locations. The patterning is indicative of small ingly the dominant cultural group found in the clusters of dispersed sites across the landscape. study area. It appears, though, that some areas of Gobernador sites also indicate clustering of scat- the study region are underrepresented because of tered sites, with slightly more indication of a lack of archaeological survey, specifically the aggregation than Dinetah-phase sites. southwest quadrant and the north-central area At mean site elevations between 6,950 and (Otero Store and Pine Lake quadrangles, respec- 7,217 ft (going up to 7,430 ft), it is not surprising tively). However, there are some definite settle- that there is little corn agriculture in the project ment trends apparent in these four groups. area. Given the additional possibility of or abnormally cold spells, the likelihood of pro- Elevation Patterns ducing sustainable corn crops is lowered even further. First, a graph was generated indicating the break- down of the four cultural periods by mean eleva- Site Locations tions of sites (Fig. 4; elevations are provided in feet, as on USGS topographic maps). Some defi- To examine the placement of sites on the Jicarilla nite elevational shifts from one period to the next landscape, each of the four types of sites on each can be seen along with corresponding one-stan- USGS topographic quadrangle map was counted dard deviations. and plotted onto a graph (Fig. 46). Starting with The elevational patterning represented in the Rosa phase, we see that sites are spread over Figure 45 is, at first glance, not what we expected: much of the project area but with a definite con- the two Navajo period sites were expected to be centration in the northwest quadrangle (Vigas at higher elevations. However, the topography of Canyon) and along the northern border. The the area must be taken into consideration. The Vigas Canyon quadrangle contains Tucker

98 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 42. Area of settlement-pattern study, showing Dinetah-phase sites.

Conclusion 99 Figure 43. Area of settlement-pattern study, showing Gobernador-phase sites.

100 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 44. Mean site elevations by cultural period.

Conclusion 101 Figure 45. Distribution of sites by elevation.

102 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Figure 46. Site placements relative to USGS quadrangles.

Conclusion 103 Ridge, Cereza Mesa, and portions of Carson (Fig. 47). Archival research produced only seven National Forest. Cereza Canyon cuts across the representations, with one more possible at 98.1 entire quad. We expect that other Rosa-phase km (61 miles) south of LA 71263. The War Gods sites are northwest of the study area in the at the project site do prove to be the most eastern Fourmile Mesa area. of all the pictographs, at what seems to be near Gallina sites are highly concentrated in the the southeastern boundary of the Navajo people southeast quadrant of the study area, in the in the 1500s and 1600s, when Navajo Lake was Lindrith and Billy Rice Canyon areas. However, the center of this population. No Twin War Gods they are the only sites that appear in all study are known west of Navajo Lake. area quadrangles. Gallina peoples obviously pre- Based on the site placement study of the var- ferred the more open lands of the region, and ious cultural groups, we note that there are only more do extend to the south and east towards seven Dinetah and two Gobernador sites in the Gallina, Regina, and Llaves. entire USGS Schmitz Ranch quadrangle around There are only 67 Dinetah sites in the area; LA 71263 and the site of the Twin War Gods (see however, they show a marked preference for the Fig. 46). Gobernador-associated pueblitos have mesas and canyons of the Vigas Canyon area and not been found near LA 71263. One is 14.4 km (9 have rarely been found in the flat plains of the mi) southeast, and the others are 19 km (12) mi east. The two project sites are in the Schmitz north and west, near Navajo Lake. Ranch quadrangle, an area that was used less but We cannot explain the presence of these very abuts Wild Horse Mesa to the west. From the sacred Navajo Twin War Gods near LA 71263, in graph, one would expect other Dinetah-phase such a thinly populated area. The most plausible sites to the northwest, towards the Navajo Lake suggestion is that the pictograph is on the escarp- area—the suggested homeland of the Navajo. It ment wall of the visibly higher Wild Horse Mesa appears, then, that the Jicarilla area was probably and marked the southeast boundary of the not an origin locality, but a peripheral area used Navajo people when it was drawn. by peoples to the northwest. Gobernador sites are slightly more spread out over the landscape than Dinetah sites, but SUMMARY they, too, aggregate in the northwest quadrangle. Deep canyons and large mesas were perhaps the The excavation of LA 71263 and LA 76270 led to draw for Gobernador peoples, who definitely did the addition of at least one more Dinetah-phase not care for the open plains of the east. The occur- site to the thinly settled eastern portion of Navajo rence of a Twin War Gods pictograph near a proj- land near Canon de los Ojitos. LA 71263 lies 20.9 ect site suggests that this area was some type of km (13 miles) west of the Continental Divide; boundary for the Navajo people at this time. only a handful of Dinetah sites are closer. The structure uncovered at LA 71263 represents tmany Navajo hogans scattered across north- THE TWIN WAR GODS western New Mexico with its log and brush con- struction, shallow basin fireplace, milling bin, As a result of the work completed at LA 71263, a and associated storage pit. This feature dates question remains regarding the presence of a between 1620 and 1650, which, along with the Twin War Gods panel in the immediate vicinity Dinetah Gray pottery, places it firmly in the of the site. Why was this sacred symbolism Dinetah phase. placed here, along the base of Wild Horse Mesa? No direct evidence for cultivation of domes- We wanted to find out if this is the easternmost ticated plants has been found at LA 71263. representation of these gods known to However, a nearby cache of corncobs in an earli- researchers. Are there others in the region? How er Gallina-phase tower (ca. AD 1050 to 1260) was widespread are they? Do they extend across all of radiocarbon-dated to within the same time peri- Navajo land? od as the structure at LA 71263 (1620–1640). The We plotted all known Twin War God pic- corncobs may be associated with LA 71263. Also tographs on a map of eastern Navajo country nearby, on the escarpment of Wild Horse Mesa, is

104 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods a red ochre pictograph of the the Twin War Gods, are thought to date to the later Gobernador sacred Navajo deities. Because the symbolic fig- phase. However, because of its closeness to LA ures could not be dated, their association with 71263, this drawing may date to the Dinetah LA 71263 is more tenuous. It is the easternmost phase. known representation of these gods, all of which

Figure 47. Twin War Gods sites.

Conclusion 105

References Cited

Adams, Jenny L. Bohrer, Vorsila L., and Karen R. Adams 1988 Use-Wear Analyses on Mano and Hide- 1977 Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approaches at the Processing Stones. Journal of Field Archaeology Salmon Ruin, New Mexico. San Juan Valley 15:308. Archeological Project, Technical Series 2, Eastern New Mexico University Contributions in Akins, Nancy J. Anthropology 8(1). Portales. 1993 Traditional Use Areas in New Mexico. Archaeology Notes 141. Office of Archaeological Boyer, Jeffrey L. Studies, Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. 1996 Well Testing: Archaeological Test Excavations at Two Sites along NM 537, Rio Arriba County, Bailey, G. A., and R. G. Bailey New Mexico. Archaeology Notes 154. Office of 1986 A History of the Navajos: The Reservation Years. Archaeological Studies, Museum of New School of American Research Press, Santa Fe. Mexico, Santa Fe.

Barkley, Fred A. Brandt, Carol B. 1934 The Statistical Theory of Pollen Analysis. 1994 Analysis of Plant Macroremains. In Excavations Ecology 15:283-289. along the Arkansas Loop Pipeline Corridor, Northwestern New Mexico, edited by L. Bartlett, Katherine Honeycutt and J. Fetterman. Bureau of Land 1932 Why the Navajos Came to Arizona. Museum Management, Farmington. Notes 5:29-32. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff. Brooks, David, and Karl W. Thomas 1967 The Distribution of Pollen Grains on Microscope Baugh, Timothy G., and F. W. Nelson, Jr. Slides. Part 1: The Non-Randomness of the 1987 New Mexico Obsidian Sources and Exchange on Distribution. Pollen et Spores 9:621-629. the Southern Plains. Journal of Field Archaeology 14:313-329. Broster, John B., and Arthur K. Ireland 1984 Sample Strategy, Field Methods, and Research Black, K. D. Questions. In A Cultural Resource Management 1991 Archaic Continuity in the Colorado Rockies: The Plan for Timber Sale and Forest Development Mountain Tradition. Plains Anthropologist Areas on the Jicarilla Apache , 36(133):1-29. edited by John B. Broster and Arthur K. Ireland, pp.57-62. Archeological Program, USDI Bleed, Peter, and Marlene Meier , Albuquerque Area 1980 An Objective Test of the Effects of Heat Office, Albuquerque. Treatment of Flakeable Stone. American Antiquity 45:502-507. Brown, David E. 1994 Biotic Communities: Southwestern United States Blinman, Eric, and C. Dean Wilson and Northwestern Mexico. University of Utah 1994 Ceramic Analysis. In Excavations along the Press, Salt Lake City. Arkansas Loop Pipeline Corridor, Northwestern New Mexico, edited by L. Honeycutt and J. Brown, Gary M. Fetterman. Woods Canyon Archaeological 1990 Old Wood and Early Navajos: A Chronometric Consultants, Inc., Yellowjacket. Analysis of the Dinetah Phase. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Navajo Studies Conference. Bohrer, Vorsila L. Shiprock, New Mexico. 1981 Methods of Recognizing Cultural Activity from Pollen in Archaeological Sites. The 46:135- 1996 The Protohistoric Transition in the Northern San 142. Juan Region. In The Archaeology of Navajo

107 Origins, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. 47-69. Buckles, William G. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 1971 The Uncompahgre Complex: Historic Ute Archaeology and on the Brown, Gary M., and J. W. Gish Uncompahgre Plateau in West Central Colorado. 1991 Archaeological Summary and Conclusions. In Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, Archaeological Data Recovery at San Juan Coal Boulder. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Company’s La Plata Mine, San Juan County, New Carlson, Roy L. Mexico, edited by G. M. Brown, pp.705-732. 1963 Basketmaker III Sites near Durango, Colorado. Technical Report No. 355. Mariah Associates, Studies in Anthropology 8. University of Albuquerque. Colorado Museum, Boulder.

Brown, Gary M., and Patricia M. Hancock Carrillo, Charles M. 1992 The Dinetah Phase in the La Plata Valley. In 1992 Where Were the Sheep: The Piedra Lumbre Phase Cultural Diversity and Adaptation: The Archaic, Revisited. In Current Research on the Late Anasazi, and Navajo Occupation of the Upper Prehistory and Early , San Juan Basin, edited by L. S. Reed and P. F. edited by B. J. Vierra, pp. 323–326. New Mexico Reed, pp. 69-90. Cultural Resources Series No. 9. Archaeological Council, Albuquerque. Bureau of Land Management and New Mexico State Land Office, Santa Fe. Carroll, Charles H. 1979 Seboyeta Pumped Storage Archeological Study. Brugge, David M. Public Service Company of New Mexico, 1963 Navajo Pottery and Ethnohistory. Albuquerque. Papers in Anthropology 4. Window Rock, New Mexico. Chapman, Richard C. 1977 Analysis of Lithic Assemblage. In Settlement and 1967 Revised Dates for Navajo Hogans near Canyon de Subsistence along the Lower Chaco River: The Chelly. American Antiquity 32(3):296- 298. CGP Survey, edited by C. A. Reher, pp. 371-452. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 1981 Navajo Pottery and Ethnohistory. Navajo Nation Papers in Anthropology No. 4. Navajo Nation Chapman, Richard C., and Jeanne A. Schutt Cultural Resource Management Program, 1977 Methodology of . In Archeological Window Rock, New Mexico. Investigations in Cochiti Reservoir, New Mexico, vol. 2, edited by R. C. Chapman and J. V. Biella, 1983 Navajo Prehistory and History to 1850. In pp. 83-96. Office of Contract Archeology, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 10, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Southwest, edited by A. Ortiz, pp. 489-501. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Collins, Michael B., and Jason M. Fenwick 1974 Heat Treatment of Chert: Methods of 1992 Discussion of Athabaskan Research. In Current Interpretation and Their Application. Plains Research on the Late Prehistory and Early Anthropologist 19:134-145. History of New Mexico, edited by B. J. Vierra, pp. 337-352. Special Publication 1. New Mexico Copeland, James M. Archaeological Council, Albuquerque. 1996 Hero Twin Ceremonial Art in Dinetah. Paper pre- sented at Ninth Annual Navajo Studies Bryant, Vaughn M., Jr. Conference, Durango. 1969 Pollen Analysis of Late Glacial and Post-Glacial Texas Sediments. Ph.D. dissertation, University Copeland, James M., and Hugh C. Rogers of Texas, Austin. 1996 In the Shadow of the Holy People: Ceremonial Imagery in Dinetah. In The Archaeology of Bryant, Vaughn M., Jr., and Richard G. Holloway Navajo Origins, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. 213- 1983 The Role of Palynology in Archaeology. In 229. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 6, edited by M. Schiffer, pp. 191-224. Cordell, Linda S. 1979a A Cultural Resource Overview of the Middle Rio

108 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Grande Valley, New Mexico. U.S. Government Eddy, Frank W., Allen E. Kane, and Paul R. Nickens Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1984 Southwest Colorado Prehistoric Context: Archaeological Background and Research 1979b Prehistory: Eastern Anasazi. In Handbook of Directions. Colorado Historical Society, Office of North American Indians, vol. 9, Southwest, edited Archaeology and Historic Preservation, . by A. Ortiz, pp. 131-151. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Elliott, Michael L., Sandra L. Marshall, and J. Andrew Darling Cordell, Linda S., and Fred Plog 1988 Archaeological Investigations at Small Sites in 1979 Escaping the Confines of Normative Thought: A the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. Cultural Reevaluation of Puebloan Prehistory. American Resources Document 6. , Antiquity 44:405-429. Santa Fe.

Cutter, Donald C. Ellis, Florence H. 1974 An Inquiry into Indian Land Rights in the Jicarilla 1974 An Anthropological Study of the Navajo Indians. Apache Area in the American Southwest under In American Indian Ethnohistory. Indians of the Spain, Mexico, and the United States, with Southwest: Navajo Indians I. Garland Publishing, Particular Reference to the Jicarilla Apache Area New York. of Northeastern New Mexico. In Apache Indians, vol. 6, pp. 245-280. Garland Press, New York. Elyea, Janette, and Peter Eschman 1985 Methods and Results of the Lithic Analysis. In Denmead, O. T., and R. H. Shaw The Excavation of the Cortez CO2 Pipeline 1960 The Effects of Soil Moisture Stress at Different Project Sites, 1982-1983. Office of Contract Stages of Growth on the Development and Yield Archeology, University of New Mexico, of Corn. Agronomy Journal 52:272-274. Albuquerque.

Dittert, Alfred E. Enloe, James G., Andrew T. Smith, and Stewart L. 1958 Preliminary Archaeological Investigations in the Peckham Navajo Project Area of Northwestern New 1974 Archaeological Survey of the San Juan-to-Ojo Mexico. Papers in Anthropology 2. Museum of 345 KV Transmission Line, Northwest New New Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Mexico. Laboratory of Anthropology Notes 105. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Dittert, Alfred E., Jr., and Beth L. Dickey n.d. Rock Shelters in the Lower Navajo Reservoir. Erdtman, Gunnar Laboratory of Anthropology Archives, Museum 1960 The Acetolysis Method: A Revised Description. of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Svensk.botanisk Tidskrift 54:561-564.

Dittert, Alfred E., Jr., Frank W. Eddy, and Beth L. Dickey Fetterman, Jerry 1963 Evidences of Early Ceramic Phases in the Navajo 1996 Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dating at Early Reservoir District. El Palacio 70(1):5-12. Navajo Sites: Examples from the Aztec Area. In The Archaeology of Navajo Origins, edited by R. Dittert, Alfred E., Jr., Jim J. Hester, and Frank W. Eddy H. Towner, pp. 71-82. University of Utah Press, 1961 An Archeological Survey of the Navajo Reservoir Salt Lake City. District, Northwestern New Mexico. School of American Research and the Museum of New Fiero, Kathleen Mexico, Santa Fe. 1978 Archaeological Investigations at LA 11850: A Gallina Phase Village on the Continental Divide, Eddy, Frank W. Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. Laboratory of 1966 Prehistory in the Navajo Reservoir District, Anthropology Notes 11f. Museum of New Northwestern New Mexico. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Mexico Papers in Anthropology 15 (1 and 2). Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Forbes, Jack D. 1960 Apache, Navajo, and Spaniard. University of Press, Norman.

109 Forrestal, Peter P., and Cyprian J. Lynch (translators) New Mexico: A Marginal Anasazi Development 1964 Benavides Memorial of 1630. Academy of from Basketmaker III to Pueblo I Times. American Franciscan History, Washington, D.C. Columbia Studies in Archeology and Ethnology 2(1). New York. Gaudy, Peggy 1986 An Archaeological Inventory of an Area around Hall, Steven A. the Sundance Pit, La Plata Mine, San Juan 1981 Deteriorated Pollen Grains and the Interpretation County, New Mexico. Manuscript on file, Bureau of Quaternary Pollen Diagrams. Review of of Land Management, Farmington Resource Paleobotany and Palynology 32:193-206. Area, Farmington. Hammond, George P., and Agapito Rey (translators) Gerow, Peggy A., and Patrick Hogan 1953 Don Juan de Oñate, Colonizer of New Mexico, 2000 Investigations at LA 110299: A Late Dinetah 1595-1628. University of New Mexico Press, Phase Occupation along U.S. 550, North of Albuquerque. Cedar Hill, New Mexico. Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Mexico, Hampel, Joachim H. Albuquerque. 1984 Technical Considerations in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis of Obsidian. In Obsidian Studies in the Glascock, Michael D., R. Kunselman, and Daniel Great Basin, edited by R. E. Hughes, pp. 21-25. Wolfman Contributions of the University of California 1999 Intrasource Chemical Differentiation of Obsidian Archaeological Research Facility 45. Berkeley. in the Jemez Mountains and Taos Plateau, New Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science Hancock, Patricia M. 26:861-868. 1992 Evidence of the Dinetah Phase in the La Plata River Valley, San Juan County, New Mexico. In Govindaraju K. Current Research on the Late Prehistory and 1994 1994 Compilation of Working Values and Sample Early History of New Mexico, edited by B. J. Description for 383 Geostandards. Geostandards Vierra, pp. 287-297. Special Publication 1. New Newsletter 18. Mexico Archaeological Council, Albuquerque.

Gregg, Michael L., and Richard J. Grybush Hancock, Patricia M., Timothy M. Kearns, Robert A. 1976 Thermally Altered Silicious Stone from Moore, Margaret A. Powers, A. C. Reed, Linda Prehistoric Contexts: Unintentional versus Wheelbarger, and Peggy A. Whitten Intentional Alteration. American Antiquity 1988 Excavations in the Middle La Plata Valley for San 41:189-192. Juan Coal Company. Studies in Archaeology 6. San Juan County Museum Association, Division Gumerman, George J., Deborah Westfall, and Carol S. of Conservation Archaeology, Farmington. Weed 1972 Archaeological Investigations on Black Mesa: Harrington, John P. The 1969-1970 Seasons. Studies in Anthropology 1940 Southern Peripheral Athapaskan Origins, 4. Prescott College, Prescott. Divisions, and Migration. Miscellaneous Collections 100:503-532. Smithsonian Institution, Habicht-Mauche, Judith A. Washington, D.C 1992 Coronado’s Querechos and Teyas in the Archaeological Record of the Texas Panhandle. Haskell, J. L. Plains Anthropologist 37(140):247-259. 1987 Southern Athapaskan Migration, A.D. 200-1750. Navajo Community Press, Tsaile, Arizona. Hackett, Charles W. 1937 Historical Documents relating to New Mexico, Hawley-Ellis, Florence Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches thereto, to 1773. 1988 From to Drought: Gallina Culture Carnegie Institution 330(3). Washington, D.C. Patterns. Sunstone Press, Santa Fe.

Hall, Edward T., Jr. Hester, James J. 1944 Early Stockaded Settlements of the Gobernador, 1962 Early Navajo Migrations and Acculturation in the

110 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Southwest. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Production Company and Burlington Resources, Fe. 1991-1994. Ms. in progress. La Plata Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. Hester, James J., and Joel L. Shiner 1963 Studies at Navajo Period Sites in the Navajo Hovezak, Timothy D., Leslie M. Sesler, and Richard H. Reservoir District. Museum of New Mexico Wilshusen Papers in Anthropology 9. Museum of New 2000 Conclusions, Future Research, and Management Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Recommendations. In Frances Mesa Alternative Treatment Project, edited by Richard H. Hibben, Frank C. Wilshusen, Timothy D. Hovezak, and Leslie M. 1938 The Gallina Phase. American Antiquity Sesler, pp. 339-347. La Plata Archaeological 14(2):131-136. Consultants, Dolores.

1949 The Pottery of the Gallina Complex. American Hovezak, Timothy D., and Richard H. Wilshusen Antiquity 14(3):194-200. 2000 Historic Occupation and Use. In Frances Mesa Alternative Treatment Project, edited by R. H. Hill, David V. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovezak, and L. M. Sesler, pp. 1991 Pottery Type Descriptions of Dinetah Gray and 261-274. La Plata Archaeological Consultants, Gobernador Polychrome. Paper presented at the Dolores. Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists, Denver. Hughes, Richard E., and Robert L. Smith 1993 Archaeology, Geology, and Geochemistry in Hogan, Patrick Obsidian Provenance Studies. In Scale on 1989 Dinetah: A Reevaluation of Pre-Revolt Navajo Archaeological and Geoscientific Perspectives, Occupation in Northwest New Mexico. Journal of edited by J. K. Stein and A. R. Linse, pp. 79-91. Anthropological Research 45(1):53-56. Special Paper 283. Geological Society of America. 1991 Navajo-Pueblo Interaction during the Gobernador Phase: A Reassessment of the Evidence. In Ireland, Arthur K. Rethinking . Cultural Resources 1984 Environmental Setting. In A Cultural Resource Series, Vol. 8. USDI Bureau of Land Management Plan for Timber Sale and Forest Management, Albuquerque. Development Areas on the Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation, vol. 1, edited by J. B. Broster 1992 Archaeology of the San Juan Breaks: The Navajo and A. K. Ireland, pp. 3-12. USDI Bureau of Occupation. Office of Contract Archeology, Indian Affairs, Forestry Archeological Program, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Albuquerque Area Office, Albuquerque.

Hogan, Patrick, Janette Elyea, and P. Eschman Irwin-Williams, Cynthia 1991 Overview and Research Design for the Fruitland 1973 The : Origins of Anasazi Coal Gas Development Area. Office of Contract Culture. Contributions in Anthropology 5(1). Archeology, University of New Mexico, Eastern New Mexico University, Portales. Albuquerque. Jernigan, E. Wesley Holloway, Richard G. 1978 Jewelry of the Prehistoric Southwest. School of 1981 Preservation and Experimental Diagenesis of the American Research, Southwest Indian Arts Pollen Exine. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M Series. University of New Mexico Press, University, College Station. Albuquerque.

1989 Experimental Mechanical Pollen Degradation and Jett, Stephen C. Its Application to Quaternary Age Deposits. Texas 1964 Pueblo Indian Migrations: An Evaluation of the Journal of Science 41:131-145. Possible Physical and Cultural Determinants. American Antiquity 29:281-300. Hozevak, Timothy D., and Leslie M. Sesler 1999 Fruitland Excavations Conducted for Amoco

111 Jett, Stephen C., and V. E. Spencer 54:2257-2276. 1981 Navajo Architecture: Forms, History, Distribution. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Maker, H. J., J. J. Folk. J. U. Anderson, and V. G. Linl 1973 Soil Associations and Land Classification for Kearns, Timothy M. , Rio Arriba County. Report 254. 1992 The Preceramic Archaeology of the Upper San Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico Juan River in Northwest New Mexico and State University, Las Cruces. Southwest Colorado. In Cultural Diversity and Marmon, Lee H., and George Clayton Pearl Adaptation: The Archaic, Anasazi, and Navajo 1958 A Fortified Site near Ojo del Padre: Big Bead Occupation of the Upper San Juan Basin, edited Mesa Revisited. El Palacio 65(4):136-142. by L. Reed and P. F. Reed, pp.9- 35. Cultural Resources Series No. 9. Bureau of Land Marshall, Michael P. Management, Santa Fe. 1985 The Excavation of the Cortez CO2 Pipeline Project Sites, 1982-1983. Office of Contract 1996 Protohistoric and Early Historic Navajo Lithic Archeology, University of New Mexico, Technology in Northwest New Mexico. In The Albuquerque. Archaeology of Navajo Origins, edited by Ronald H. Towner, pp. 109-145. University of Utah Press, 1991 The Pueblito as a Site Complex: Archaeological Salt Lake City. Investigations in the Dintah District. In Rethinking Navajo Pueblitos. Cultural Resources Kleidon, James H., and Richard H. Wilshusen Series, Vol. 8. USDI Bureau of Land 2000 Limited Excavation Site Summaries. In Frances Management, Albuquerque. Mesa Alternative Treatment Project, edited by R. H. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovezak, and L. M. Sesler, Martin, Paul S. pp. 275-337. Research Paper 3, Vol. 1. La Plata 1963 The Last 10,000 Years. University of Arizona Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. Press, Tucson.

Knight, Terry L. Matthews, Meredith 1990 Largo Gallina Ceramics: Inter-Intra Site 1996 Macrobotanical Analysis. In Results of Limited Variability in Cultural Technoogical Attributes. Data Recovery Investigations at Site LA 104202, Paper presented at Society for American Located on the Unit 210 Well Tie as Part of Archaeology, 55th meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada. Phillips Petroleum Company 30-5 Gathering System, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, by E. M. Lagenfeld, Kristin Kotyk. San Juan College Research Papers in 1996 Analysis of the Ceramic Assemblages. In Small Anthropology 11. Farmington. Site Archaeology in the Upper San Juan Basin: Investigations at Archaic, Anasazi, and Navajo Matthews, Washington Sites in Northwestern New Mexico, by J, T, 1886 The Gods of the Navajos. Matthews Papers, Box Wharton, D. D. Dykeman, and P. F. Reed, pp. 27- 8, Item 398. Wheelwright Museum, Santa Fe. 95. Papers in Anthropology 32. Navajo Nation, Window Rock, New Mexico. 1897 Navajo Legends. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Lummis, Charles 1900 Fray Zarate Salmerón’s Relación. Land of McBride, Pamela J. Sunshine 12:12-187. 2000 Archaeobotanical Remains. In Frances Mesa Alternative Treatment Project, edited by R. H. Magers, P. C. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovezak, and L. M. Sesler, pp. 1976 Navajo Settlement in Canyon del Muerto. Ph.D. 451-466. Research Paper No. 3, Vol. 1. La Plata dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson. Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. McCarthy, J. J., and F. H. Schamber Mahood, Gail A., and James A. Stimac 1981 Least-Squares Fit with Digital Filter: A Status 1990 Trace-Element Partitioning in Pantellerites and Report. In Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, Trachytes. Geochémica et Cosmochímica Acta edited by K. F. J. Heinrich, D. E. Newbury, R. L.

112 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Myklebust, and C. E. Fiori, pp. 273-296. National Southeastern Utah, assembled by S. G. Baker. Bureau of Standards Special Publication 604. Bureau of Land Management, Utah State Office, Washington, D.C. Salt Lake City.

McNitt, Frank Nicklason, Fred 1972 , Military Campaigns, Slave Raids, 1972 Report on the Jicarilla Apache Accounting Claim, and Reprisals. University of New Mexico Press, Docket 22-K, for the Years 1887-1907 and 1907- Albuquerque. 1940. Jicarilla Apache Tribe, Dulce, New Mexico.

Mera, H. P. OAS (Office of Archaeological Studies) 1934 A Survey of the Biscuit Area in Northern New 1994 Standardized Ground Stone Artifact Analysis: A Mexico. Laboratory of Anthropology Technical Manual for the Office of Archaeological Studies. Series, Bulletin 6. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Archaeology Notes 24b. Office of Archaeological Fe. Studies, Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe.

1935 Ceramic Clues to the Prehistory of North Central Oakes, Yvonne R. New Mexico. Technical Series, Bulletin 8. 1999 Synthesis and Conclusions. In Archaeology of the Laboratory of Anthropology, Museum of New Mogollon Highlands: Settlement Systems and Mexico, Santa Fe. Adaptations, vol. 6, edited by Yvonne R. Oakes and Dorothy A. Zamora. Archaeology Notes 232. 1939 Style Trends of Pueblo Pottery in the Rio Grande Office of Archaeological Studies, Musuem of and Little Colorado Cultural Areas from the New Mexico, Santa Fe. Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century. Laboratory of Anthropology Memoirs 3. Museum of New O’Bryan, A. Mexico, Santa Fe. 1956 The Dine. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 163. Smithsonian Institution, 1940 Ceramic Clues to the Prehistory of North Central Washington, D.C. New Mexico. Laboratory of Anthropology Technical Series, Archaeological Survey Bulletin Opler, Morris E. 8. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. 1936 A Summary of Jicarilla Apache Culture. American Anthropologist 38(2):202-223. Mills, Barbara J. 1992 Navajo Ceramics from LA 16151 and LA 16153. Peckham, Stewart In Archaeology of the San Juan Breaks: The 1953 Two Rosa Phase Sites near Dulce, New Mexico. Navajo Occupation, edited by P. Hogan, pp. 29- In Highway Salvage Archaeology. Notes 24c. 38. Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Mexico State Highway Department and New Mexico, Albuquerque. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe.

Moore, James L. Perry, R. J. 1991 Archaeological Testing at LA 67550 in the Dry 1991 Western Apache Heritage: People of the Cimarron Valley, Union County, New Mexico. Mountain Corridor. University of Texas Press, Archaeology Notes 22. Office of Archaeological Austin. Studies, Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Powers, Margaret A. Moore, James L., David A. Phillips, Jr., Timothy D. 1979 An Inventory and Analysis of Archaeological Maxwell, and Dorothy A. Zamora Resources on 38 Sections of Land near the Bisti 1991 Testing Report and Data Recovery Plan for Sites Badlands, Northwestern New Mexico. along SR 537, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. Contributions to Anthropology Series 199. Laboratory of Anthropology Notes 505. Museum Division of Conservation Archaeology. of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Powers, Margaret A., and B. J. Johnson Nickens, Paul R. 1987 Defensive Sites of Dinetah. Cultural Resources 1982 A Summary of the Prehistory of Southeastern Series, Vol. 2. USDI Bureau of Land Utah. In Contributions to the Prehistory of Management, Albuquerque.

113 Reed, Alan C., Patricia M. Hancock, Timothy M. Kearns, Russell, S. C. Margaret A. Powers, and Roger A. Moore 1983 The Navajo History and Archaeology of East 1988 Excavations at Three Early Navajo Sites in the La Central Black Mesa. Navajo Nation Papers in Plata Valley. Division of Conservation Anthropology 12. Window Rock, New Mexico. Archaeology, Farmington. Schaafsma, Curtis F. Reed, A. D., and J. C. Horn 1981 Early Apacheans in the Southwest: A Review. In 1990 Early Navajo Occupation of the American The Protohistoric Period in the North American Southwest: Reexamination of the Dinetah Phase. Southwest, A.D. 1450-1700, edited by D. R. The Kiva 55(4):283-300. Wilcox and W. B. Masse, pp. 291- 320. Anthropological Research Papers No. 24. Arizona Reed, Lori Stephens, and Paul F. Reed State University, Tempe. 1992 The Protohistoric Navajo: Implications of Interaction, Exchange, and Alliance Formation 1992 A Review of the Documentary Evidence for a with the Eastern and Western Pueblos. In Cultural Seventeenth-Century Navajo Occupation in the Diversity and Adaptation: The Archaic, Anasazi, Chama Valley. In Current Research on the Late and Navajo Occupation of the Upper San Juan Prehistory and Early History of New Mexico, Basin, by Lori Stephens Reed and P. S. Reed, pp. edited by B. J. Vierra, pp. 313-321. New Mexico 91-104. Cultural Resource Series No. 9. USDI Archaeological Council, Albuquerque. Bureau of Land Management, Santa Fe. 1996 Ethnic Identity and Protohistoric Archaeological 1996 Rexamining Gobernador Polychrome: Toward a Sites in Northwestern New Mexico: Implications New Understanding of the Early Navajo for Reconstructions of Navajo and Ute History. In Chronological Sequence in Northwestern New The Archaeology of Navajo Origins, edited by R. Mexico. In The Archaeology of Navajo Origins, H. Towner, pp. 19-46. University of Utah Press, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. 83-108. University of Salt Lake City. Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Schaafsma, Polly Reeve, F. D. 1963 Rock Art in the Navajo Reservoir District. 1960 Navajo-Spanish Diplomacy, 1770-1790. New Museum of New Mexico Papers in Anthropology Mexico Historical Review 35:200-235. 7. Santa Fe.

Reichard, Gladys A. 1980 Indian Rock Art of the Southwest. School of 1950 Navaho Religion: A Study of Symbolism. American Research and University of New Princeton University, Princeton. Mexico Press, Santa Fe and Albuquerque. 1992Rock Art in New Mexico. Museum of New Reiter, Paul Mexico Press, Santa Fe. 1938 The Jemez Pueblo of Unshagi, New Mexico, with Notes of Earlier Excavations at Anokiumqua and Schamber, F. H. Guisewa. Parts 1 and 2. Monographs 5 and 6. 1977 A Modification of the Linear Least-Squares School of American Research, Santa Fe. Fitting Method, which Provides Continuum Suppression. In X-Ray Fluoresecence Analysis of Robins, J. S., and C. E. Domingo Environmental Samples, edited by T. G. Dzubay, 1953 Some Effects of Severe Soil Moisture Deficits at pp. 241-257. Ann Arbor Science Publishers. Specific Growth Stages in Corn. Agronomy Journal 45:618-621. Schindler, Debra L., James W. Hatch, Conran A. Hay, and Richard C. Bradt Rose, Martin R., Jeffrey S. Dean, and William J. 1982 Aboriginal Thermal Alteration of a Central Robinson Pennsylvania Jasper: Analytical and Behavioral 1981 The Past Climate of Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico, Implications. American Antiquity 47:526-544. Reconstructed from Tree Rings. Arroyo Hondo Archaeological Series 4. School of American Schroeder, Albert H. Research. Santa Fe. 1963 Navajo and Apache Relationships West of the Rio Grande. El Palacio 70(3):5-23.

114 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Schutt, Jeanne A., and Bradley J. Vierra Depositional Effects in the Jemez Mountains and 1980 Lithic Analysis Methodology. In Human the Sierra de Los Valles, Northern New Mexico. Adaptations in a Marginal Environment: The UII Report for the Ecology Group, Los Alamos Mitigation Project, edited by J. L. Moore and J. C. National Laboratory. Los Alamos. Winter, pp. 45-65. Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. 2003 Obsidian in the North American Southwest: Geology, Archaeology, and History. University of Seaman, Timothy J. Arizona Press, Tucson. 1976 Archaeological Investigations on the San Juan-to- Ojo 345 KV Transmission Line for the Public Shepard, Anna O. Service Company of New Mexico: Excavation of 1942 Rio Grande Glaze Paint Ware: A Study of the LA 11843, an Early Stockaded Settlement of the Place of Ceramic Technological Analysis in Gallina Phase. Laboratory of Anthropology Archaeological Research. Contributions to Notes 111g. Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. American Archaeology and History 39. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Sesler, Leslie M. 2000a Archaic Use of Frances Mesa. In Frances Mesa 1965 Ceramics for the Archaeologist. Publication 609. Alternative Treatment Project, compiled by R. H. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, Wilshusen, T. D. Hovezak, and L. M. Sesler, pp. D.C. 95-101. Research Paper 3, Vol. 1. La Plata Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. Shields, William Lane, and John D. Cater 1992 The Cedar Hill Project: An Anasazi Frontier. In 2000b Basketmaker II Sites. In Frances Mesa Cultural Diversity and Adaptation: The Archaic, Alternative Treatment Project, compiled by R. H. Anasazi, and Navajo Occupation of the Upper Wilshusen, T. D. Havezak, and L. M. Selser, pp. San Juan Basin, by L. S. Reed and P. F. Reed, pp. 103-109. Research Paper 3, Vol. 1. La Plata 55-68. USDI Bureau of Land Management, Santa Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. Fe.

Sesler, Leslie M., Timothy D. Hovezak, and Richard H. Simmons, Alan H. Wilshusen 1983 Excavations at Prehistoric Sites on the Navajo 2000 Cultural Landscape of Dinetah: The Navajo Indian Irrigation Project, Northwestern New Occupation of Frances Mesa. In Frances Mesa Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 10(2):155- Alternative Treatment Project, compiled by R. H. 176. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovezak, and L. M. Sesler, pp 159-253. Research Paper 3, Vol. 1. La Plata Smith, Craig S. Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. 1991 Plant Macrofossil Analysis. In Archaeological Data Recovery at San Juan Coal Company’s La Shackley, M. Steven Plata Mine, San Juan County, New Mexico, edit- 1995 Sources of Archaeological Obsidian in the ed by G. M. Brown, pp.629-658. Mariah Southwest: An Archaeological, Petrological, and Associates Technical Report 355. Albuquerque. Geochemical Study. American Antiquity 53(4):752-772. Stevenson, James 1891 Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis and Mythical Sand 1998a Sources of Archaeological Obsidian in the Painting of the Navajo Indians. In Eighth Annual Greater American Southwest: An Update and Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. Quantitative Analysis. American Antiquity 229-285. Washington, D.C. 60(3):531-551. Tiller, Veronica E. 1998b Geochemical Differentiation and Prehistoric 1983 Jicarilla Apache. In Handbook of North American Procurement of Obsidian in the Mount Taylor Indians, vol. 10, Southwest, edited by A. Ortiz, Volcanic Field, Northwest New Mexico. Journal pp. 440-461. Smithsonian Institution, of Archaeological Science 25:1073-1082. Washington, D.C.

2000 Archaeological Obsidian and Secondary

115 Toll, Mollie S. Mexico Geological Society, Twenty-third Field 1983 Changing Patterns of Plant Utilization for Food Conference, Silver Anniversary Guidebook. Santa and Fuel: Evidence from Flotation and Fe. Macrobotanical Remains. In Economy and Interaction along the Lower Chaco River: The Warren, Ted J. (editor) Navajo Mines Archeological Program, 1976 The Domínguez-Escalante Journal. Brigham Area III, edited by P. Hogan and J. C. Winter. Young University Press, Salt Lake City. Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Wheeler, Charles W., Scott Wilcox, and David O. Ayers 1996 Material Correlates of Early Navajo 1994 Plant Materials of Cached Eighteenth-Century Ceremonialism. In The Archaeology of Navajo Navajo Ceremonial Paraphernalia from Palluche Origins, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. 231-252. Canyon (LA 6532), Northwest New Mexico. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Prepared for the Bureau of Land Management, Albuquerque. Wheelwright, Mary C. 1946 Hail Chant and Water Chant. Navajo Religion Towner, Ronald H. Series 2. Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, 1996 The Pueblito Phenomenon: A New Perspective on Santa Fe. Post-Revolt Navajo Culture. In The Archaeology of Navajo Origins, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. Wilcox, David R. 149-170. University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City. 1981 The Entry of Athapaskans into the American Southwest: The Problem Today. In The Towner, Ronald H., and Jeffrey S. Dean Protohistoric Period in the North American 1996 Questions and Problems in Pre- Southwest, A.D. 1450-1700, edited by D. R. Navajo Archaeology. In The Archaeology of Wilcox and W. B. Masse, pp. 213-256. Navajo Origins, edited by R. H. Towner, pp. 3-18. Anthropology Research Paper No. 24. Arizona University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City. State University, Tempe.

Utley, Robert M. 1988 Avonlea and Southern Athapaskan Migrations. In 1967 Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States and the Avonlea Yesterday and Today: Archaeology and Indian, 1848-1865. MacMillan Press, New York. Prehistory, edited by L. B. Davis, pp. 273-280. Saskatchewan Archaeological Society, Regina, Van Valkenburgh, Richard F. . 1974 Navajo Sacred Places. In American Indian Ethnohistory: Indians of the Southwest. Garland Wilshusen, Richard H., Leslie M. Sesler, and Timothy D. Publishing, New York. Hovezak 2000 Pueblo I Sites across the San Juan Region. In Velarde, Gifford Frances Mesa Alternative Treatment Project,by 1988 An Archaeological Survey of Six Miles of Right- R. H. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovesak, and L. M. Sesler, of-Way along the New Mexico Highway 537, pp. 111-158. Research Papers 3, Vol. 1. La Plata Conducted for the New Mexico State Highway Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. and Transportation Department. Report CR-88- 270. Jicarilla Apache Archaeological Services, Wilson, C. Dean Dulce. 2000 Appendix B: Early Navajo Ceramic Trends. In Frances Mesa Alternative Treatment Project, by 1989 An Archaeological Survey of Nineteen Miles of R. H. Wilshusen, T. D. Hovesak, and L. M. Sesler, Rights-of-Way along State Highway 537, pp. 371-401. Research Papers 3, Vol. 1. La Plata Conducted for New Mexico State Highway and Archaeological Consultants, Dolores. Transportation Department. Report CR- 89-309. Jicarilla Apache Archaeological Services, Dulce. Wilson, C. Dean, and Eric Blinman 1993 Upper San Juan Pottery Typology. Archaeology Warren, A. H. Notes 80. Office of Archaeological Studies, 1974 The Ancient Mineral Industries of Cerro Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe. Pedernal, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. New

116 Dinetah-Phase Occupation and the Twin War Gods Winter, Joseph C. Mexico, edited by B. J. Vierra. New Mexico 1983 A Comparative Study of Prehistoric, Historic, and Archaeological Council, Albuquerque. Contemporary Agriculture along the Lower Chaco. Part 2, The Navajo. In Economy and Worcester, D. E. Interaction along the Lower Chaco River: The 1951 The Navaho during the Spanish Regime in New Navajo Mine Archaeological Program, Mining Mexico. New Mexico Historical Review 26:101- Area III, San Juan County, New Mexico, edited by 118. P. Hogan and J. C. Winter, pp. 463-519. Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Mexico, Wozniak, Frank E. and Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, 1992 The Location of the Navajo Homeland in the Albuquerque. Seventeenth Century: An Appraisal of the Spanish Colonial Records. In Current Research on the 1999 Corn across the Southwest. In Across the Late Prehistory and Early History of New Mexico, Colorado Plateau: Anthropological Studies for edited by B. J. Vierra, pp.327-333. New Mexico the Transwestern Pipeline Expansion Project, vol. Archaeological Council Special Publication 1. 15, parts 4 and 5, Subsistence and Environment, Albuquerque. by J. W. Gish, J. E. Hammett, M. E. Brown, P. McBride, J. C. Winter, K. L. Brown, J. J. Young, Jon N., and Bob Lawrence Ponczynski, and J. L. DeLanois, pp. 521-600. 1988 Carson National Forest Cultural Resources Office of Contract Archeology, University of New Planning Assessment. Cultural Resources Report Mexico, and Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, No. 1988-02-006. Carson National Forest. Taos. Albuquerque. Zamora, Dorothy A. Winter, Joseph C., and Patrick Hogan 1989 Archaeological Testing of the Cañada Larga and 1992 The Dinetah Phase of Northwestern New Mexico: Los Ojitos Sites in Rio Arriba County, New Settlement and Subsistence. In Current Research Mexico. Laboratory of Anthropology Notes 486. on the Late Prehistory and Early History of New Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe.

117