MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Decline of Corsetry in The Forsyte Saga

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2013

Supervisor: Written by:

Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk Hana Pavlisová

Annotation

This thesis deals with the transition of Victorian society to a modern society as it is perceived by the characters of The Forsyte Saga by John Galsworthy. But as the turn of the century was revolutionary in many areas, my main focus is the social aspect with special regard to the traditional Victorian virtues, family and women. This thesis is divided into seven chapters. The first two provide general information about the novel and Victorian England and the rest of the thesis is divided into chapters dealing with Family, Divorce, Fashion, Freedom of movement and New Women; the very last chapter Youth and sentiment describes the generation gap between the first and last generations of the Forsytes. The aim of this thesis is to document general knowledge about the change with quotations and further interpretations of the novel.

Key words Galsworthy, The Forsyte Saga, transition, Victorian England, Victorian virtues, corsetry, corset, family, divorce, fashion, movement, New Women, sentiment

Anotace

Tato práce se zabývá přeměnou viktoriánské společnosti na společnost moderní tak, jak tuto změnu vnímají postavy románu Sága rodu Forsytů od Johna Galsworthyho. Jelikož byl však přelom století převratný v mnoha směrech, zaměřuji se především na tradiční viktoriánské hodnoty, rodinu a ženy. Práce je rozdělena do sedmi kapitol. První dvě stručně popisují zápletku a všeobecné historické zasazení románu do Viktoriánské Anglie. Zbytek je rozdělen do kapitol, které se zabývají konkrétními tématy: Rodina, Rozvod, Móda, Svoboda pohybu a Nové ženy. Poslední kapitola Mládí a sentiment popisuje generační rozdíl mezi první a poslední generací Forsytů. Cílem této práce je doložit všeobecné informace o změně ze sekundární literatury citacemi a intepretacemi románu.

Klíčová slova Galsworthy, Sága rodu Forsytů, přerod, viktoriánská Anglie, viktoriánské hodnoty, korzet, rodina, rozvod, móda, pohyb, Nové ženy, sentiment

Prohlášení

Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou (bakalářskou, diplomovou, rigorózní, disertační práci) vypracoval/a samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

Declaration

I declare that I have compiled this bachelor thesis independently, using only the sources listed in the bibliography.

Brno 19 April 2013 Hana Pavlisová

______

Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Mgr. Jaroslav Izavčuk for his kind approach, patience and constructive criticism.

Contents

Introduction ...... 6 1. The Forsyte Saga ...... 9 1.1 The Plot ...... 9 1.2 Who is a Forsyte? ...... 10 2. Victorian England ...... 14 2.1 Victorian virtues ...... 16 2.2 A decline? ...... 17 3. Family ...... 19 4. Divorce ...... 24 5. Fashion ...... 28 6. Freedom of movement and the New women ...... 30 7. Decline and sentiment ...... 34 7.1 Sentiment ...... 36 Conclusion ...... 38 Bibliography ...... 40

Introduction

In this thesis I focus on the transition of Victorian society to a modern society, as it is perceived by the characters of The Forsyte Saga by John Galsworthy. I have decided to choose this topic because I have always fancied reading family sagas for the visible shift there is among the first and last generations of a family. The elders always feel that modern times are a decline as compared to their own youth (which, naturally, by their elders was also perceived as a decline). The aim of this thesis is to document general knowledge about the period with quotations and further interpretations of the novel. Because the turn of the century was revolutionary in many areas (such as technology or politics), my main focus is the social aspect, with special regard to the traditional Victorian virtues, family and women. Sometimes it can be hard to draw a clear line among the topics, because they are all interconnected as one aspect affects all the others. My thesis is divided into seven chapters. The first one deals with the novel itself and presents its plot and characters (for the sake of understanding the complicated family relations, I enclose the family tree). Then I continue by characterizing a typical Forsyte, who serves in the novel as a prototype of an upper-middle class member. The second chapter briefly describes general features of Victorian England and the Victorian virtues. This chapter serves only as a general overview, as further details regarding each particular topic are outlined at the beginning of each chapter. Its subchapter A decline? briefly discusses the economic aspects and the question, whether the decline on economic scale was actual. This sequence of chapters is important as in the chapter Victorian England I already refer to characters from the novel, and thus prior knowledge of the plot is fundamental. The next chapters deal with specific topics, which had undergone some vital changes: Family, Divorce, Fashion and finally Freedom of Movement and New Women, which is dedicated mainly to women and their emancipation on the social scale. And the last chapter Youth and Sentiment comments on the generation gap between the old and the young generations of the Forsyte family, together with the indispensable sentiment continuously expressed in the novel. The Forsyte Saga by John Galsworthy comprises three novels and two interludes published between 1906 and 1921. They depict three generations of an upper-middle class family of the Forsytes during the years of 1886 to 1920. Ancestors of the Forsytes were farmers, however, generations discussed in the novel are already keenly aware of their social position and of their nouveau riche status. Because publishing of the novels coincided with Modernism, Galsworthy‟s traditional storytelling, concentrating rather on content than the

6 form, was soon overshadowed by authors such as Virginia Woolf or Joseph Conrad. Nevertheless, he was awarded Nobel Prize for literature in 1922 and remains one of the greatest English writers for his satirical yet faithful image of the class of his time. Some aspects of the novel are clearly autobiographical, such as the social position and origins of the Forsytes, or the relationship of Jolyon and Irene, strikingly similar to Galsworthy‟s own relationship with his cousin‟s wife. The secondary literature used can be divided into three main groups. The first one is general literature about Victorian England, such as Perugini‟s Victorian Days and Ways or Bédarida‟s Social History of England 1851 – 1990. The second group covers literature with more specific content: Mason‟s The Making of Victorian Sexual Attitudes or Himmelfarb‟s De-moralization of Society. The last group contains various internet sources, dealing mainly with fashion. Fashion is also the area from where the term corsetry, used in the name of this thesis, comes from. “Corset – a piece of women‟s underwear, fitting the body tightly, worn especially in the past to make the waist look smaller.” This is the Oxford Dictionary definition of the term. However, there is much more hidden under these plain words. The legendary Victorian corset is today perceived as one of the symbols of its time. But corsetry is not merely the act of producing or wearing a corset; the term incorporates all the historical and social significance the garment had to its time and to morals of that time. The corset symbolically and literally restricted freedom; in this thesis corsets and corsetry are used as a metaphor for the social restrictions, necessity of respectability, for the stiffness and strictness of Victorian morals, and the severity of social disapproval. With the approaching new century and the introduction of revolutionary new fashion just before the World War I, corsets came into decline. The decline of corsetry symbolizes the freshness and lightness of the new century, its new ideals and possibilities, which are expressed in the novel at various levels.

7

Supplement no. 1: The Forsyte Family Tree

8 1. The Forsyte Saga

1.1 The Plot

The Man of Property (1906) The story starts in 1886 with June Forsyte‟s engagement celebration where all the family members are introduced. Then the author describes Soames Forsyte, “the man of property”, and his relationship with his very attractive, yet unresponsive wife Irene. She has succumbed to his courting in 1885, although she has never loved him, and their marriage has been deteriorating ever since. Soames is driven by the “property instinct” and perceives Irene as his property: “to feel himself the possessor of this gracious creature before all London had been his greatest, thought secret, pride” (Galsworthy 200), and the family does not approve of her friendship with June, because “she was getting to have opinions on her own. He felt that friends ought to be chosen for her” (Galsworthy 56). So Soames develops a plan to “get Irene out of London, away from opportunities of going about and seeing people, away from her friends and those who put ideas into her head!” (Galsworthy 62) and engages June‟s fiancé, architect Phillip Bossiney, to design a house in Robin Hill. However, Irene and Bossiney fall in love and have an affair. Soames is patient, until one night, when he rapes Irene. Bossiney dies from inattention in fog under wheels of a cab after hearing this news, “so cracked with jealousy, so cracked for his vengeance, that he heard nothing of the omnibus in that internal fog” (Galsworthy 293) and Irene runs away at night. In parallel, the story of Soames‟ cousin Young Jolyon – June‟s father – is told. Years ago, he has left his wife for his daughter‟s governess, seceding from the family. Now he is rebuilding relationship with his father – Old Jolyon – and June.

Indian Summer of a Forsyte (1918) Old Jolyon bought the house at Robin Hill and lives there with Young Jolyon and his family. From time to time Irene comes secretly to sit under the hill and look at the house her lover has built. One day in summer of 1892, Old Jolyon encounters her while on walk and their friendship develops during the summer. Old Jolyon leaves Irene money in his will, establishing Young Jolyon as trustee. In the end of the interlude, Old Jolyon dies peacefully under an ancient oak.

9 In Chancery (1920) The second novel is set at the turn of the century. It deals mainly with marital matters of Soames and his sister Winifred who both take steps to get divorced. While Winifred has been left by her husband Montague Dartie, Soames is driven by the desire for an heir. First he stalks Irene, but she keeps on refusing him and finds shelter at Young Jolyon. Then she leaves for Paris and Jolyon visits her. Their friendly relationship develops, but Jolyon has to return to England, because his son Jolly has joined the Royal Yeomanry and goes to fight in the Boer war. Soames follows Irene even to Paris to persuade her, she returns to England and keeps in touch with Jolyon. They are accused of having an affair (which is not true at that time), but their assertion is a stepping-stone for the following divorce proceedings. Soames is then able to marry a young French girl Annette, who soon gives birth to a girl Fleur. Jolly dies in South Africa, Jolyon marries Irene and soon after their marriage Irene gives birth to a boy Jon.

Awakening (1920) The second interlude describes the growing up of eight-year-old Jon Forsyte.

To Let (1921) This last novel takes place in 1920s, when the third generation Forsytes, Fleur and Jon, meet and fall in love, ignoring their parent‟s story and mutual feelings. As soon as their parents discover it, they prohibit any further development of their relationship. Jon and Fleur step by step reveal the family history, wondering why their parent‟s history should interfere with their present. Jolyon writes a letter to Jon, explaining all the wrongs Soames has done, and dies while Jon is reading the letter. Jon is aware of the fact that if he chooses Fleur, his mother will be left all alone. In the end, Jon rejects Fleur and with a broken heart leaves for Canada with his mother. Fleur marries her suitor Michael Mont, although she has no feelings for him. Soames and Irene meet before she is to depart and finally a kind of peace is established between them.

1.2 Who is a Forsyte?

The Forsyte family is presented as a typical Victorian upper-middle class family. The name is often used generally, relating to the whole class. They are “good solid middlemen, they had gone to work with dignity to manage and possess” (Galsworthy 848). All Forsytes

10 “have shells .. composed of circumstance, property, acquaintances, and wives, which seem to move along with them in their passage through a world composed of thousands of other Forsytes with their habitats. .. Without a habitat a Forsyte is inconceivable ..” (Galsworthy 90). They are very “particular about money matters” (Galsworthy 167) and “never attempt anything too adventurous or too foolhardy” (Galsworthy 204). That is why “there has never been a distinguished Forsyte,” but “that very lack of distinction was the name‟s greatest asset” (Galsworthy 560). They never show emotions – “a Forsyte is nothing if not undemonstrative” (Galsworthy 155), not even gratitude, which “was no virtue among Forsytes, who, competitive, and full of common-sense, had no occasion for it” (Galsworthy 70). As Young Jolyon puts it, each generation has its characteristics:

The first Jolyon Forsyte .. dwelt in the land of Dorset, being by profession an ῾agriculturalist‟… - farmer, in fact… we might suppose him thick and sturdy, standing for England as it was before the Industrial Era began. The second Jolyon Forsyte .. built houses.. and migrated to London. We may suppose him representing the England of Napoleon‟s wars, and general unrest”. (Galsworthy 446)

He had ten children – the “old” Forsytes featuring in the novel. These “may be said to have represented Victorian England, with its principles of trade and individualism… Their day is passing, and their type, not altogether for the advantage of the country” (Galsworthy 446). Young Jolyon himself represents “the end of the century, unearned income, amateurism, and individual liberty” (Galsworthy 446). Victorian Forsytes can be identified by their sense of property, and their grip of it – “whether it be wives, houses, money, or reputation” (Galsworthy 194). A Forsyte is “hereditably disposed of myopia, he recognises only the persons and habitats of his own species, amongst which he passes an existence of competitive tranquillity” (Galsworthy 194). As Young Jolyon explains to Bossiney, a Forsyte “is not an uncommon animal”, in fact they are “half England” (Galsworthy 193-194). Because a Forsyte is very practical, his view of things is based fundamentally on a sense of property and if he cannot rely on a definite value of a thing, “his compass is amiss; he is adrift upon bitter waters without a helm” (Galsworthy 217). This property instinct is the main theme of the novel. Sometimes, it is expressed at a rather funny level, such as when James is lying in the deathbed, thinking about the mistake he

11 had done by choosing such a young wife, because “she would live fifteen or twenty years after he was gone, and might spend a lot of money” (Galsworthy 379). On the other hand, James‟s granddaughter Fleur and her lover Jon, twenty years after James‟s death, agree on the fact that “the last generation thought of nothing but property; and that‟s why there was the [First World] War” (Galsworthy 674). Fleur‟s suitor Michael Mont, a socialist, is convinced that “there‟s going to be a big change” and that “the possessive principle has got its shutters up” (Galsworthy 807). Soames, the main character, is presented as the prototype of an upper-middle class man in all aspects of his character and serves in the novel as the personification of Victorianism. He is a solicitor:

He had a distinct reputation for sound advice .. and he prized this reputation highly. His natural taciturnity was in his favour; nothing could be more calculated to give people, especially people with property (Soames had no other clients), the impression that he was a safe man. And he was safe. Tradition, habit, education, inherited aptitude, native caution, all joined to form a solid professional honesty, superior to temptation from the very fact that it was built on an innate avoidance of risk. (Galsworthy 144)

Soames “had always been afraid to enjoy to-day for fear he might not enjoy tomorrow so much,” (Galsworthy 640) and thus does not approve of his daughter‟s generation‟s way of life. He is “saturated with all the prejudices and beliefs of his class” (Galsworthy 196), an example of which can be his secret belief that women are not equal to men. Nothing annoys Soames more than cheerfulness because his soul abhors “excessive display of feeling” (Galsworthy 353) and restraints and reserve are “qualities to him more dear almost than life” (Galsworthy 525). Soames also collects and sells paintings and his ability to anticipate their future price brings him more money than he has ever gained as a solicitor. His character is underlined by the indispensable property instinct which leads to all his marital troubles. Soames is convinced that “a man‟s life was what he possessed and sought to possess. Only fools thought otherwise – fools, and socialists, and libertines!” (Galsworthy 549). Even while watching the tiny body of his just born daughter, he thinks “by God! this – this thing was his!” (Galsworthy 593). Both Jolyons represent a deviation from the classical Forsytism. Old Jolyon, the patriarch of the family, detests humbug, is just, calm, fair and full of life even at the age of

12 eighty: “youth, like a flame, burned ever in his breast” (Galsworthy 86). Although he is a great representative of moderation, order and love of property, he is very often being described as “alone among Forsytes” (Galsworthy 309) for his moments of “un-Forsytean philosophy that ever intruded his soul” (Galsworthy 302). Even though he had followed the Society‟s rules and condemned his son for breaking the marriage tie, he has suffered from the decision for long fifteen years. Throughout this time, his beloved granddaughter June kept him company, but after her engagement he realizes his loneliness and how much he misses Jolyon. So he decides to contact him again and restore their relationship. Apart from this act, he has enough strength to overcome the prejudice of not leaving money or property to people outside the family. At first, he is convinced that by such giving he would betray the “individualistic convictions and actions of his life, of all his enterprise, his labour, and his moderation” (Galsworthy 248), and the proud fact that he had always, like other Forsytes, made and held his own in the world. But eventually he leaves Irene a generous sum in his will and dies a few days later. He is the first one to have a house in the country and to be buried outside the family tomb at Highgate. As opposed to his father, Young Jolyon has infamous history, by which he had “forfeited his right” (Galsworthy 25) to attend June‟s engagement party. Moreover, he is a painter, which is not truly a Forsytean occupation. Nevertheless, after having adopted a new style, his paintings fetch high prices and he becomes a rich man. As he is approximately of the same age as Soames, they are natural counterparts. While planning the house in Robin Hill, Soames feels like “the pioneer-leader of the great Forsyte army advancing to the civilization of this wilderness” (Galsworthy 66). He is the first one to have a house in the country, but when Irene leaves him, he stays in London and June persuades Old Jolyon to buy the house for himself and his son‟s family. And thus the house, intended to save Soames‟s marriage, first serves to bring Irene a lover and then is inherited by her second husband. It is a coincidence, however, again it marks the difference among characters who live in the country permanently (Jolyons, June, Irene, and Holly with Val) and those city bound, “true” Forsytes. Critical attitudes of both father and son are reflected in Jolyon‟s offspring. June remains single and becomes a benefactress of modern art – she supports art, as opposed to Soames, who only uses it to gain wealth. Jolly dies of typhoid in Transvaal. Holly marries her cousin Val, they found a horse farm in South Africa and continue living as farmers even after their return to Britain. And also Jon wants to be a farmer; as if the time was circular, bringing the youngest generations back to the way their ancestors had lived.

13 2. Victorian England

„.. an age of flashing eyes and curling lips, more easily touched, more easily shocked, more ready to spurn, to flaunt, to admire, and, above all, to preach.“ (Young 14)

The nineteenth century is of a great significance not only to the British, but also the world history. Although Queen Victoria succeeded to the throne in 1837, the whole century is remembered as the Victorian era and Queen‟s death in 1901 symbolically marks its end. Despite all the changes Britain has undergone, it managed to remain stable and became the world power. It was an era of rise of the middle class, reforms and inventions. With the Industrial Revolution starting in the second half of 18th century, the structure of society was changing rapidly. There has always been a middle class in Britain – it consisted of merchants, traders and small farmers. Later this was increased by numbers of industrialists, factory owners and people who gained their wealth from trade. The Forsytes are people mainly concerned with trade or services: Old Jolyon is a “tea merchant and chairman of companies” (Galsworthy 446), Soames and his father James are solicitors, Swithin is an auctioneer, Timothy gains his income from giltedged securities and Young Jolyon is an underwriter at Lloyd‟s and a painter. As McDowall puts it, the middle classes were the real “creators of the wealth” (140). Young Jolyon explains to Bossiney, that “it‟s their [Forsytes‟] wealth and security that makes everything possible; makes [his] art possible, makes literature, science, even religion, possible” (Galsworthy 194). The middle classes were seen as “the backbone of the nation against revolutionary and radical excesses … as well as the antidote to a corrupt and parasitic aristocracy” (Gunn 34). According to Gunn, one of the strengths of the middle classes was the fact the term had a “chameleon quality” (34), thus could fit into various social entities according to context or need of the situation. Thanks to their wealth, the middle classes received good education, wore quality clothes, kept carriages and showed other characteristics of the upper classes. Soames recapitulizes in 1901 the ending era as “sixty-four years that favoured property, and had made the upper middle class; buttressed, chiselled, polished it, till it was almost indistinguishable in manners, morals, speech, appearance, habit, and soul from the nobility” (Galsworthy 567). But at the beginnings of the nineteenth century, political parties were still filled with aristocrats and only the most well-to-do farmers or landowners had the right to vote. Thus the middle classes enjoyed no effective political power or social importance. But as they were gaining strength, they also started to demand their rights. In 1832 the first Reform Act was

14 passed, giving the vote to small independent farmers and other inhabitants, who paid a year rental of ₤10 or more. So the control of Parliament was shifted from the aristocracy to the middle classes, nevertheless, the working classes and women were still excluded. The working classes formed themselves into various instable movements (such as Chartism) or into trade unions. In 1867, another Reform Bill was passed, ensuring the right to vote to almost all men in towns and to farming and landowning classes. The reform was completed in 1884 and 1885, when majority of adult men got the right. Also women were claiming their (not necessarily voting) rights, and new words such as suffragettes and feminists came into use. Women were given the voting right in 1918. Britain enjoyed the wealth coming from its trading and financial activities around the world, and the living standards were steadily increasing during the whole century. In 1815 the population was 13 million, doubled by 1871 and was over 40 million by 1914 (McDowall 131). As Gunn points out in his essay, the middle classes “gained social meaning from its identification with the urban, especially with the fast-growing towns and cities of the early nineteenth century” (35). The nineteenth century has seen many revolutionary inventions: the underground, bicycles, motor taxicabs, the telephone, electric lightning, disc record players and many other “minor innovations [that] contributed to the change of lifestyle, easing and simplifying the daily round” (Bédarida 33). The Victorians are, according to Young, “generation that takes inventions for granted” (10). The Great Exhibition in 1851 demonstrated Britain‟s advance in technology, and showed its strength to the world. Crystal Palace itself represented the mastery of man over the machine and nature. But these years of peace and prosperation were interrupted by Boer Wars. It was a conflict between the British Empire and two independent South African states Transvaal and Orange Free State. The first one, taking place during 1880 – 1881 was a revolt against British annexation. The second one was a result of an ultimatum, which stated that British troops should be withdrawn from the borders. It was a question of Britian‟s suzerainty over the Boers. Because the Forsytes are very catious, Val‟s and Jolly‟s decision (both from diametrically opposed reasons) to fight in the war is a shocking act to them. Jolly dies in the service of his country. He represents Britain and his death marks the sneaking decline of the Empire. The opinions of the conflict tell a lot about characters in the book. Soames‟ property instinct embraces even South Africa and like-minded characters consider Boers “a lousy lot” (443), on the other hand, Jolyon and his children rather admire their claims for freedom.

15 2.1 Victorian virtues

In 1859, Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution in his book On the Origin of Species, which shocked the society and lead some changes in perception of religion. As Himmelfarb puts it, “morality became, in a sense, a surrogate for religion. For many Victorians, the loss of religious faith inspired a renewed and heightened moral zeal” (26-27). Among Victorian virtues belonged hard work, self-reliance, honesty, conformity, patriotism, cleanliness, regularity, devotion to family and all together were summed up in the idea of respectability. A respectable person was respected by himself and others in his community. On the other hand, it is said about the Forsytes that they cherish carefully these illusions and principles only because of their practical purposes, but they never really believe in them. Only when they grow old and “break through the barriers of reserve” (Galsworthy 203), they say or do things they would not dare otherwise. This, together with quite usual extramarital relationships or the double standard, discussed more in subsequent chapters, are examples of the Victorian hypocrisy. However, if the unwritten rules of respectability were infringed, an individual faced a strict social disapproval. As Gunn points out, these were usually women who were responsible for “the act of snubbing (or alternatively recognizing) others in public” (38). This system of social disapproval is metaphorically compared to the actual corset. Wearing a corset itself may seem, from today‟s point of view, as another example of Victorian hypocrisy – an isolated vice that managed to sneak into the army of Victorian virtues. Women were hiding their real proportions (probably together with their real self) to look better in public. But because “comfort was not a motive in 19th century dressing; genteel respectability was” (Taylor), appearing on the outside as good as one could was essential. Authors argue about this aspect. Soames himself states that it was “an era which had canonised hypocrisy, so that to seem to be respectable was to be” (Galsworthy 567). Bédarida agrees with Soames: “an incredible degree of prudery and hypocrisy was attained” (160). On the other hand, Himmelfarb states that

They did not take sin lightly … If they were censorious of others, they were also guilt-ridden about themselves. … they were not hypocrites in the sense of pretending to be more virtuous than they were. On the contrary, they deliberately, even obsessively, confessed to their sins. .. They affirmed, in

16 effect, the principles of morality even if they could not always act in accordance with those principles. (26)

2.2 A decline?

A sort of a decline is perceived both on social and economical level. Because most of the thesis deals with the morals, this subchapter is dedicated to the economical aspect only. In the middle of the century, Britain‟s industrial domination reached its top: it produced half the world‟s coal, iron and cotton goods and almost half its steel (Gamble xvii). London was the centre of the new capitalist world (and the Forsytes owned a big part of it). But as Gamble explains, “since 1850 Britain‟s position in the world economy has been precarious” (52) because of the first world capitalist boom, which was a result of industrialization on world scale. According to Bédarida, Britain‟s glorious past and advance on her rivals worked against her – “routine took over, growth slowed down for lack of innovation, and stagnation set in” (100). By 1880s a new balance of power was emerging and Britain‟s ability to maintain its leading position became vulnerable. The First World War “marks the beginning of the collapse of British military, financial and industrial power” (Gamble 134). But according to Gamble, the period of “decline” was actually a period of the greatest economic growth, because – paradoxically – the decline of Britain as a world power was accompanied by rising material wealth.

British economy has steadily improved as the [twentieth] century has gone on. The annual rate of growth increased from 1 per cent between 1900 and 1913 to 2.3 per cent between 1922 and 1938 to 3.2 per cent between 1957 and 1965. The annual productivity increase in the same three periods was 0 per cent, 1.1 per cent and 2.4 per cent. (14)

But the general atmosphere in society was changed. Moreover, the age of property instinct was vanishing to give way to democracy and socialist ideas. Apart from Reform Acts, there were other political changes, which directly affected the middle classes and their ownership. As it is not in the scope of this thesis to deal with all of them, the recurrent complaints about the democratization of the country can be used to summarize them all. “The Age was passing! What with this Trade Unionism, and Labour fellows in the House of

17 Commons, with Continental fiction, and something in the general feel of everything, not to be expressed in words, things were very different” (Galsworthy 568). Generally, most upper- middle class people, whose characters are underpinned by their property instinct, resented the idea that anyone else should benefit from their money. “It is high time a stand was made against this sentimental humanitarianism. The country is eaten up with it. I object to my money being paid to … people of whom I know nothing, who have done nothing to earn it” (Galsworthy 149). Towards the end of the novel, the fear of spreading democratic and socialist ideas (buttressed with the Labour party getting into House of Commons) is being expressed often. The Forsytes are even convinced that “one of these days we shall have to fight these chaps, they‟re getting so damned cheeky – all radicals and socialists. They want out goods” (Galsworthy 525). They feel uncertain, because the most fundamental principles of their lives, and even their privacy, were threatened by the democratic principle, which has made the whole England “dishevelled, hurried, noisy, and seemingly without an apex” (Galsworthy 622).

18 3. Family

Family is the basis of Victorian society and Himmelfarb states that England in general is a domestic country, where the “home is revered and the hearth sacred” (55). In perfect cases, a Victorian household consists of a husband, his wife – the “angel in the house”, as Coventry Patmore puts it in his famous poem – and children. Home is the place where a man can escape from “the harsh world of moneymaking” (Himmelfarb 54) to a loving wife. That is why Soames feels like he has never had a genuine home – because he has never had a loving wife. As Himmelfarb states, “the home was both a place of worship and an object of worship” (56). Middle-class women (unlike many working class women) were usually kept from the outer space to stay at home, give orders to numerous domestic staff and look after the children, usually with a help of a governess. The home was women‟s realm and as Himmelfarb points out, to some Victorian women this seemed “oppressive and degrading” because it “consigns women to a single role and a single place, thus depriving them of the essential human attributes of liberty and equality” (60). This was changing rapidly with newly gained freedom of movement for women, which is dealt more with in another chapter. In The Forsyte Saga can be found many examples of the importance of family to its members. Sometimes it is even described as “exaggeration of family importance” (Galsworthy 16). To Aunt Ann (born in 1799 and never married), the family is “her property, her delight, her life” (Galsworthy 25). Destroying a home by divorce or any other means is “at the best a dangerous experiment, and selfish into the bargain” (Galsworthy 197), and in the bottoms of their hearts the Forsytes even believe that Bosinney‟s death was “an intervention of Providence, a retribution”, because he had “endangered their two most priceless possessions, the pocket and the hearth” (Galsworthy 292). The old Forsytes put a great emphasis on their children‟s well-being: Old Jolyon is keen to have a good relationship with Young Jolyon again and wants his family to live in better conditions; to James, who is described as “the perfect specimen of a Forsyte” (Galsworthy 194), the idea that his children would ever be “exposed to the treatment of the world, in money, health, or reputation” is “a nightmare” (Galsworthy 78). That is also why he pays all debts for Winifred‟s husband Dartie – to save the scandal. Saving the scandal is crucial, because respectability goes first! As Meacham states, “respectability became a family enterprise, its achievement depended upon cooperation from the entire membership and an understanding that collective reputation took precedence over personal preference“ (qtd. in Himmelfarb 36). Even Old Jolyon, a rather free-thinking

19 Forsyte, is convinced that June “ought to mind what people thought!” (Galsworthy 282). On the other hand, June is not bound by the ties of society that much as her father, nor as her cousin Soames. Not even Irene is, she does not care about family name and runs away from Soames, although her reasons do not seem sufficient to the family.

There was no reason why they should not jog along, even if they hated each other. It would not matter if they went their own ways a little so long as the decencies were observed – the sanctity of the marriage tie, of the common home, respected. Half the marriages of the upper classes were conducted on these lines. (Galsworthy 197)

Himmelfarb agrees that “irregularities” such as extramarital relationships, or long- standing but discreet affairs were quite often. Such people “tried, as far as humanly possible, to domesticate and normalize it,” although according to her, they “agonized over it in secret” (24). Bédarida explains that this went to the creation of “two separate worlds: in one, chastity and family life; in the other, pleasure and the gratification of the instincts” (160). A man was perfectly free to combine both requirements at a time and even Soames “had tasted of the sordid side of sex during those long years of forced celibacy, secretively, and always with disgust, for he was fastidious, and his sense of law and order innate” (Galsworthy 354). However, the sanctity of the marriage tie and home has to remain respected – and as Mary Wollstonecraft argues, a wife, whether she “be loved or neglected, her first wish should be to make herself respectable” (qtd. in Mason 219). James is inexplicably terrified by the fact that his family name and the name of his son (and later even his daughter Winifred) should be dragged through the gutter of press because of their divorce proceedings. James “had done so much for the family name – so that it was almost a byword for solid, wealthy respectability” (Galsworthy 555) and now, at his last gasp should have to see it in all newspapers. Equally important as the hearth itself is the “Forsyte ‟Change”, the information exchange stock at Timothy‟s house, where he and his sisters (“old aunts”) Ann, Hester and Juley live, and where all the family come to discuss family issues. “Much kindness lay at the bottom of the gossip .. The great class to which they have risen, and now belonged, demanded a certain candour..” (Galsworthy 131). On the other hand, they never spoke about family matters with people outside the family (Galsworthy 233). The decline of the family in The Forsyte Saga is expressed at several levels. Firstly it is the fact that the old Forsytes die – in June 1886 “no Forsyte had as yet died; they did not

20 die; death being contrary to their principles” (Galsworthy 16), but in September of that year, the matriarch Aunt Ann dies. “She had seen it [the family] young, and growing, she had seen in strong and grown, and before her old eyes had time or strength to see any more, she died” (Galsworthy 104). This is kind of a shock to the family, for “they had not thought somehow, that Forsytes could die” (Galsworthy 105). Her funeral is described as the “last proud pageant before they fell” (Galsworthy 104). Later on in the story, various members of the family slowly come to realize that the family (just like the Empire) is breaking up. Secondly, it is dispersion of the family. Young Jolyon violated the rules and abandoned his wife, Irene and Soames got separated, Dartie leaves Winifred, Holly and Val live far away in South Africa, at the end of the novel, Irene and Jon leave for Canada. In the end of the novel one more type of dispersion is mentioned when Soames realizes that his wife would not wait for him until he comes home and “was always out when she was in Town, and his daughter would flibberty-gibbet all over the place like most young women since the [First World] war“ (620). And because “many of the younger Forsytes felt … and would openly declare, that they did not want their affairs pried into,” (Galsworthy 131) when all the aunts die, there is no “clearing-house for news” (Galsworthy 629) and no gathering place, which leads to even greater separation of the family. Later in the novel, the characters occasionally meet after years – something unheard-of in the times of Timothy‟s “‟Change”. There are neither “At Home” celebrations: the trilogy opens with a description of a perfect Victorian at home celebration of June‟s engagement. But then, in 1901, “dinner parties were not now given at James‟s in Park Lane” (Galsworthy 494) – to Emily‟s regret and imaginative memories of “the glory of the past” (Galsworthy 495). And thirdly it is the fact that there are not that many Forsytes being born.

Of the third generation there were not very many… of the ten old Forsytes twenty-one young Forsytes had been born; but of the twenty-one young Forsytes there were as yet only seventeen descendants; and it already seemed unlikely that there would be more than a further unconsidered trifle or so. (Galsworthy 351)

This can be attributed to general steady drop in birth rate in the second half of the nineteenth century (Bédarida 114), for which there are two main reasons. The first one is birth control. Although the practice was nothing new, it widely spread around 1875 – 1880, thanks to the spread of contraceptive techniques, although Bédarida

21 argues that the main method used was coitus interruptus, thus being a male prerogative (116). Bédarida states that even though it affected all classes, it was “the upper classes who were the first to restrain their fertility” (115). According to him, “this process had already started .. at the beginning of the nineteenth century, in the aristocracy” (113). The issue of birth control is not even touched in The Forsyte Saga. However, it could be supposed that Irene used some contraceptive techniques, because her marriage is sure to have been consumed: Soames reflects on his marriage realizing that “she had given him, for three long years, all he had wanted – except, indeed, her heart” (Galsworthy 373). Not even she becomes pregnant during her fling with Bossiney, but delivers a son to Jolyon. Nevertheless, this could be attributed to the author‟s intent. Instead of birth control, Galsworthy gives another reason: “the birth rate had varied in accordance with the rate of interest for your money” (351), which was higher when the old Forsytes were born, and is very low in the modern days. This explanation nicely corresponds with the property instinct. The second reason for this “mild reproduction” (Galsworthy 351), is the character of younger generations. Bédarida describes them as “generations of heirs who succeed generation of pioneers,” who are “less hardened, less inventive, less aggressive, less hard- working and more concerned to enjoy their possessions” (100). This is exactly what Galsworthy expresses:

A distrust of their earning powers, natural where a sufficiency is guaranteed, together with knowledge that their fathers did not die [this means there is no heritage yet], kept them cautious. .. Sooner in fact than own children, they preferred to concentrate on the ownership of themselves… In this way, little risk was run, and one would be able to have a motor-car. (352)

This is so different from James‟s point of view, mentioned above. A change in family and times goes hand in hand with change in relationships. June has to visit her fiancé‟s flat “under the chaperonage of his aunt. He was believed to have a bedroom at the back” (Galsworthy 91). But then they go to theatre chaperone-less, which is something “undreamed of at Stanhope Gate” (Galsworthy 117) where Old Jolyon lives. This is in 1886. Later on, just before the end of the century, Val and Holly go out for horse rides without chaperone and no surprise is expressed. Also their courting time is much shorter than that of Soames and Irene (however, this might be caused by her reluctance), or of Irene and Young Jolyon.

22 Even the Forsytean “undemonstrativenes” was changing. The relationship between James and his son Soames is “marked by a lack of sentiment .. but for all that the two were by no means unattached. .. They have never .. revealed in each other‟s presence the existence of any deep feeling” (Galsworthy 77). When Winifred, Soames‟ sister, tells her son Val about his father‟s desertion, he shows some emotion, but “they both felt that they had gone quite far enough in the expression of feeling” (Galsworthy 408). And then, when leaving for South Africa, Val “risks the emotional” and tells his mother how awfully sorry he is to leave her (Galsworthy 499). Winifred and Soames, discussing their divorces, have “heart[s] full of feeling, but they could give it no expression” (Galsworthy 519). Not even mother and daughter relationships were exorbitantly warm. When Winifred‟s mother Emily hears about Monty‟s desertion, it is “impossible [for her] to go up and give her daughter a good hug” (Galsworthy 520). On the other hand, apparently not all emotions were taboo. Because the Victorian society glorified death (Bédarida 158), deep mourning was acceptable and James was thus perfectly free to cry at his sister‟s funeral: “tears rolled down the parallel furrows of his thin face” (Galsworthy 100). But Jolyons and June are different in this aspect. June often hugs her father, and snuggles against her beloved grandfather: “having clasped her hands on his knees, rubbed her chin against him, making a sound like a purring cat” (Galsworthy 33). Fleur, representative of the youngest generation, also often touches her father, holds his hand and addresses him as “my dear”. As wives, daughters and sisters have changed, the whole family has changed, resulting in the final change of the home itself. Family has been on of the pillars of Victorianism, and decline in its importance and unity is one of the most evident signs of the modern era.

23 4. Divorce

Many considerable changes, in regard to divorce, took place during the nineteenth century. Infants and Custody Act from 1839 allowed separated or divorced women, that have not been proven adulterous, to get into custody children under seven. All the divorce proceedings were extremely expensive, and thus only few of the rich were able to obtain a divorce, which was changed in 1857 by The Matrimonial Act. For a man it was enough to prove his wife‟s adultery, but for a woman this was not the case. Apart from adultery, she had to prove other misdemeanours, such as cruelty, desertion, rape or incest, which makes it a shining example of the double standard discussed more in the next chapter. In 1884, Matrimonial Causes Act ruled that a wife deserted by an adulterer could request for divorce immediately and did not have to wait for two years as before. Concerning the property of women, two key Acts were passed: Married Women‟s Property Act from 1870 and 1882. The first one allowed women to keep their earnings, inherit personal property and small amount of money, but anything else, regardless whether acquired before of after marriage, belonged to the husband. The second one ensured women the right to regain full possession of their property, acquired before and after marriage. As Bédarida puts it, “legal guardianship by the husband was replaced by the separation of property. … so the wife ceased to be the property of her husband” (122). But although the legal status of women changed, the Forsytean male ideology has not. Soames “could never leave off longing for what he once owned!” (Galsworthy 399). But this is not caused by his property instinct only, his feelings for Irene have always been too strong to overcome easily. However, “divorces, even after the liberalization of the divorce laws, were so few as to be of no account in the lives of the vast majority of the people” (Himmelfarb 42). It is evident that the social judgment was rather a harsh one. Before the court trial itself, Soames is very nervous, because it is only “four hours until he became public property!” (Galsworthy 562). And after it he buys on his way home “the most gentlemanly of the evening papers” (Galsworthy 563) to read about himself. The title says “Well-known solicitor‟s divorce. Cousin co-respondent. Damages given to the blind” (Galsworthy 563) and Soames is asking himself, whether the people he passes by on the street know his terrible secret. Long before it, he had planned his retirement, because he would not stand his clients knowing about the divorce. He retires, lives privately and goes on selling and buying pictures. On the other hand, the family free-thinker Young Jolyon is loaded in favour of “the matrimonial suits of women trying to be free of men they loathed” (Galsworthy 513), not only

24 because of his own experience, but because he – even before falling in love with Irene – does not approve of “domination over peoples or women! Attempts to master and possess those who did not want you!” (Galsworthy 513). The reasons for divorce in The Forsyte Saga are of a very different character. Young Jolyon deserted his wife for June‟s governess Helene approximately in 1870, but they did not get divorced. Jolyon waited until his wife‟s death to marry Helene. It is known by the family that “Irene regretted her marriage. Her regret was disapproved of” (Galsworthy 55) also because “most people would consider such a marriage as that of Soames and Irene quite fairly successful; he had money, she had beauty; it was a case for compromise” (Galsworthy 197). But Irene has no affection for her husband and one night in 1886 reminds him of his promise: “before we were married you promised to let me go if our marriage was not a success” (Galsworthy 199). But Soames does not realize seriousness of the situation and replies it would be a success if she behaved herself properly. Irene even wishes a separate bedroom and locks it. Soames thinks that “would console himself with other women”, however “his hunger could be only appeased by his wife” (Galsworthy 220). Moreover, he is sure she is having an affair with Bossiney: “Irene still met him, he was certain; where, or how, he neither knew, nor asked, deterred by a vague and secret dread of too much knowledge” (Galsworthy 225). One day he watches her coming home (most likely from a date) and he hardly recognizes her – “she seemed on fire, so deep and rich the colour of her cheeks, her eyes, her lips…” (Galsworthy 222), that woman is so different from the cool, silent and gloomy Irene he knows. Soames is desperate, because he is unable to find any reason why she hates him: “I don‟t know in what way I was to blame – I‟ve never known,” (Galsworthy 403) because “so far as he could tell there was no feature of him which need inspire dislike” (Galsworthy 450) – for he did not drink or bet, was not violent, loved her deeply and would give her anything she wished. One night he loses patience and rapes Irene. She deserts him, leaving a short notice in her jewels drawer: “I think I have taken nothing that you or your people have given me” (Galsworthy 276). Never before “did the thought of separating from his wife seriously enter his head” (Galsworthy 227), and the word divorce “was paralyzing, so utterly at variance with all the principles that had hitherto guided his life” (Galsworthy 269). None of them takes steps to get divorced, although it would be very easy now; even though Bossiney is dead, Soames would easily prove her adultery. They live in separation for twelve long years, before he unsuccessfully attempts to revive their marriage - Irene keeps on refusing him again and again, declaring she “would rather die” (Galsworthy 455) and finding shelter at Young Jolyon. Soames hires spies to

25 discover if she has a lover, but the only one she is seen with is Young Jolyon. Soames finally admits divorce is unavoidable: he needs a son and is attracted to a young French girl Annette, who would marry him, although he is twenty-five years older. Jolyon and Irene are accused of having an affair. Although Irene “has never had one since” (Galsworthy 400), she asserts Soames it is true so that they can finally be divorced. This assertion leads to actual affair between her and Jolyon, culminating by their marriage and the birth of a son Jon. Soames marries Annette, although their mutual feelings are again based on the practical. They do not love each other, but Soames needs an heir and can offer her a comfortable life. She gives a birth not to a son, but to a girl Fleur. In the end, Annette is conducting (not a really discreet) affair with a family friend Prosper Profond, and after Fleur‟s marriage, Soames is left all alone. Soames‟ sister Winifred married Montague Dartie, “a thorough man of the world”, in 1879. Because he himself never had any money, living on what he would beg or borrow from Winifred, the family was financially dependent on James. Although Monty has always “despised the Forsytes with their investing habits, … [he was] careful to make such use of them as he could” (Galsworthy 358). He has always been a burden to his wife, who paid his debts over and over, he has been often drunk, abused and threatened her. Winifred, “a woman of character .. kept him because he was the father of her children” (Galsworthy 358). But then one night in 1899 Monty comes home very drunk, depressed by midlife crisis and another betting loss, takes a revolver, threatens Winifred with killing himself and twists her arm. She calls him “the limit” and in the morning discovers that he has left her, leaving for Buenos Aires with some dancer and Winifred‟s pearl necklace to give to her. Although Winifred is not decided yet if she does miss him or not – even though he was the limit, “he was yet her property” (Galsworthy 362), Soames makes her take steps for a divorce as soon as possible. Apart from his apparent adultery, they need another evidence and find it easily: “failing cruelty, there‟s desertion” (Galsworthy 372). The court needs a solid evidence for that his desertion is permanent, and thus Winifred sends Monty a letter, in which she begs him to come back. He answers that it is not possible and the proceedings may start. Here the Forsytean property instinct comes into fundamental contradiction: James and Soames want a divorce to save their money and property from Montague, they even send him money to stay in Buenos Aires. On the other hand, to Winifred, Monty himself is her property, thus does not want let him go. Nevertheless, he comes back and at first Winifred thinks it would not be “right, not decent to take him back!” (Galsworthy 518), but then her property instinct wins and she retains her husband.

26 Views of the divorce do not vary that much. Irene does not care about her reputation: “you needn‟t mind my name, I have none to lose” (Galsworthy 419) but Soames asks himself “.. why should he take the scandal on himself with his whole career as a pillar of the law at stake?” (Galsworthy 423). To Young Jolyon, “the brutality and hypocritical censoriousness of the whole process .. was hideous...” (Galsworthy 547). Winifred, coming from the court wonders “why should I have to expose my misfortune to the public like this? Why have to employ spies to peer into my private troubles? They were not of my making” (Galsworthy 469). When she explains the situation to Val, the idea that his name, and of his sisters, would be “tarnished in the sight of his schoolfellows and of Crum, of the men at Oxford, of – Holly!” is absolutely unbearable. And when courting to Holly, he admits that “divorce suits are beastly” (Galsworthy 491). The whole process is summed up by James: simply a scandal. In conclusion, it can be said that the mere fact of need of obtaining a divorce is contradictory to Society‟s ideals. Winifred and Soames are driven by their property instinct but Soames is not given the chance to exercise it again. Their instinct, together with obedience to the Victorian stereotype, wins over Winifred in the end. Jolyon and Irene are seen as “rebels from Victorian ideal” (Galsworthy 568).

27 5. Fashion

The whole nineteenth century‟s fashion is represented by wearing a corset. As the industrious middle class was gaining money, social position and leisure, their first aim was not to relax; they wanted to live and dress “with all the grandeur and all the limitations of aristocrats” (Taylor). Ordinary women became “ladies” and a tight corset was their permit to the Society. Corsets could reduce the rib cage area by three to seven inches, resulting in unnaturally small waist (Taylor). Even fashion historians wonder whether it was ever possible for a human skeleton to fit in a circle of 16 to 17 inches – but such corsets were sold (Taylor). However, this does not indicate the real waist measurements of the wearers. And it should not be supposed that people were more slender then they are nowadays. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, radically simpler and lighter materials came to use, as opposed to the fashion of eighteenth century. But during the following decades, the clothing and skirts were again becoming wider, heavier, more structured and less comfortable. Around 1855, the cage called crinoline entered the scene, expanding skirts to their maximum size. Emily was born in 1831, and when James was courting to her, she was “decorously shielded by a cage of really stupendous circumference” (Galsworthy 133). Women were happy to wear it, because it meant relief from all the heavy petticoats worn before. As the skirts further developed, first bustle appeared around 1868. Then the 1880s was a “decade of severely tight and restrictive corsetry that was worn (or endured) under dresses with long boned bodices, tight sleeves and high necks. On the surface a very modest and even prudish look” (Vintagefashionguild). Although, morally, a woman was transformed into a “sexless figure” (Bédarida 160), her shape in such clothes “could hardly go unnoticed.” (Vintagefashionguild). Even though she could hardly influence that, Irene‟s body was “so charmingly proportioned, so balanced, and so well clothed” (Galsworthy 141) and she was so “capable of inspiring affection. They [Soames and her] could not go anywhere without his seeing how all the men were attracted by her; their looks, manners, voices, betrayed it; her behaviour under this attention had been beyond reproach” (Galsworthy 59-60). Even Old Jolyon notices that “she was not a flirt, not even a coquette” (Galsworthy 205). Silhouette slimmed and elongated in 1897, skirts were slim over the hips. Around the end of the century, skirts formed a train at the back and evening dresses became more daring and were worn off the shoulder, with or even without sleeves (Vintagefashionguild). But then, in the first decade of the twentieth century, French designer Paul Poiret presented

28 revolutionarily slim, straight skirts, fewer undergarments and loose corsets. Shape and silhouette were still changing, bringing the fashion of hobble or lampshade skirts. Then walking was made easier because the skirt hem rose to the ankle. During the First World War, skirt rose even higher – above the ankle. Because of spreading automobile use, special driving clothes were introduced to protect clothes and face against dust. After World War I, waist were dropped to hip levels and dresses became unfitted. Soames comments on this fashion with a complaint that “the modern woman had no built, no chest, no anything!” (Galsworthy 775). On the other hand, Irene‟s figure reminds men of a heathen goddess, or “Venus emerging from the shell of the past century” (Galsworthy 541), thus at least in one aspect she complies the Victorian requirements. Skirt hems were steadily rising and by 1926 reached knee, which was a shocking height to some. In 1920, Soames reflects on young girls by saying they are “dreadful young creatures” (Galsworthy 640). According to him, if one took the trouble, girls could be visible “up to their knees and down to their waist”, which is “agreeable to the satyr within each Forsyte but hardly to his idea of a lady”. With love Soames remembers his old aunts who at least “had manners, and a standard, and reverence for past and future,” even though they “never opened their minds, their eyes, or very much their windows” (Galsworthy 652). Another great change took place in the haircut sphere. Women did not wear short hair until the end of the war, and June is the only one in The Saga to be mentioned wearing short hair. There is not much said about men fashion. Nevertheless, by 1920, Soames “had given up top hats”, because it was “no use attracting attention to wealth” anymore (Galsworthy 621). He does not approve of beard and wonders “what on earth were young men about, deliberately lowering their class with these tooth-brushes, or little slug whiskers?” (Galsworthy 681). To him, they are “affected young idiots” (Galsworthy 681). Maybe because no Forsyte, but Young Jolyon, has ever worn beard.

29 6. Freedom of movement and the New women

The importance of the presence of an upper-middle class woman at home has already been sketched in the chapter dealing with family. As aforementioned, such arrangement deprived women of essential human liberties, such as walking in public: by being in public, a woman was entering an immoral space “where one risked losing virtue, dirtying oneself, being swept into a ῾disorderly and heady swirl‟” (qtd. Sennet in Walkowitz 46). Apart from the society‟s view and the threat of a rape, there were other limitations: “women‟s clothes and bodily confinements – high heels, tight or fragile shoes, corsets and girdles, very full or narrow skirts, easily damaged fabrics, veils that obscure vision” (Solnit 234) and the weight of it (as Fashionguild states, “dresses [in 1890s] could weight 15 – 20 pounds”) also handicapped women and limited their ability to walk where and when they wished. Moreover, one can easily encounter examples of sexualization of women‟s gait – it is seen as a “performance rather than transport, with the implication that women walk not to see but to be seen” (Solnit 234). Indeed, Irene‟s gait and her fine clothes (apparently finer than those of other women in the novel) are very often been alluded to: „her figure swayed faintly, like the best kind of French figures“ (Galsworthy 307). On the other hand, men‟s wanderings were seen as heroic deeds – Solnit points out fascination with travellers, discoverers, missionaries, etc. (Holly Forsyte even wishes to be a gipsy, so that she could go everywhere – this is in 1899.) Solnit also highlights how this view is embedded in the English language itself: “streetwalker”, “woman of the streets”, “woman of the town” are all euphemisms for a prostitute. But being “streetwise” or “a man of the streets” has a rather positive connotation (Solnit 232). Montague Dartie himself is called, although a bit ironically, “a man of the world”. And because walking is perfect for courting – it is free and gives the lovers a semiprivate space, the phrase “walking out together” sometimes can mean something explicitly sexual (Solnit 232). Since the second half of the nineteenth century, many important changes, regarding women‟s freedom and the ability “to be at home in the city” (Walkowitz 63), have taken place. One of them is the change in fashion. Another one is a newly emerged and exclusively female activity – shopping. The first department store, Whiteley‟s, was opened in 1863 in London. Women “legitimized their presence [in the city] by shopping” (Solnit 237), which gave women the freedom to meet their friends, have a tea, and to look at goods without the necessity to buy. Women represented their husband‟s or family‟s wealth (Walkowitz 47). Shopping is expressed in The Saga, too: Irene is seen by Euphemia at “the Stores”, talking to

30 Bossiney, an act which unites the three activities into one: walking, courting, and shopping. “Dozens of young women striking deportment and peculiar gait paraded before Winifred and Imogen” at Skyward‟s in 1899 (Galsworthy 515). From this one line it is evident, how widespread activity shopping was. Another important change is the development of transportation. Apart from the public transport, represented by omnibuses and the newly opened underground – which was very fashionable: “everyone to-day went Underground” (Galsworthy 254) – there were constantly more “motor-cars and cabs, of which he [Young Jolyon] disapproved aesthetically. He counted these vehicles from his hansom, and made the proportion of them one in twenty“ (Galsworthy 399) in 1899. (Nonetheless, his daughter Holly has one, and can drive it better than her husband.) But the greatest change for women in this regard was brought by a simple invention – a bicycle. According to Himmelfarb, “bicycles liberated more women than did the ῾advanced‟ ideas of the new women or even the reforms achieved by the feminists. .. cycling was responsible for ῾.. a dawn of emancipation‟” (Himmelfarb 188). Women could go cycling without a chaperon and although it was a sociable activity, it was absolutely independent. The young Forsyte girls Cicely, Rachel, Imogen, and “all the young people – they all rode those bicycles now, and went off goodness knew where“ (Galsworthy 379). And also Mrs. MacAnder, a middle-aged family friend, goes out for rides. Together with bicycles, a new expression came into use in the 1890s: a “new woman”. She “dominated the 1890s” (Bédarida 116) but was not a feminist, although the two terms were used interchangeably. As Himmelfarb explains, feminists had a cause: the suffrage, education, work, birth control – although Mason states that “the birth control .. was consistently ignored or deplored by feminists of the day” (216) – or anything else related to womanhood (189). As Bédarida highlights, “feminism did not start in the factories .. but in middle-class Victorian drawing rooms” (117). Working class women hardly had any time to think about their liberties. The only allusion to feminism in The Saga is made in connection to Mrs. MacAnder, who “belonged to a Woman‟s Club, but was by no means the neurotic and dismal type of member who was always thinking of her rights. She took her rights unconsciously, they came natural to her, and she knew exactly how to make most of them..” (228-229). Unlike feminists, the new women had no particular cause, they only wished “social and sexual liberation” (Himmelfarb 189). Nevertheless, both terms were applied to a wide spectrum of women: those who rode bicycles, played tennis or golf or smoked in public (Himmelfarb 189).

31 And third new kind of a woman were the Glorified spinsters – “self-supporting or financially independent single middle-class women, who began to define a new urban female style of being at home in the city” (Walkowitz 63). Not only shop assistants, nurses, governesses or teachers were glorified spinsters. Into this class belonged also many upper and middle class women who went into the slums of London “in search of adventure, self- discovery, and meaningful work” (Walkowitz 55) to help “the homeless, rootless, and handicapped” (Walkowitz 53-54). Among other motives is the fact that “some wanted to convince men they could do as well” (Dally qtd. in Mason 220). Apart from Young Jolyon, who considers himself being a feminist, there is none in The Forsyte Saga. But many women in the novel have characteristics of these new, independent women. Some of them have been forced into these roles by unforeseen circumstances. Irene took her destiny into her own hands, left Soames and since has lived alone under her maiden name in a small flat in Chelsea, gaining some little money from teaching music. She “made her dresses, shopped, visited a hospital, played at piano, translated from French” (Galsworthy 433) and was “trying to help women who‟ve come to grief … assisting the Magdalenes of London!” (Galsworthy 308). This very last activity and her zero sexual life make her a glorified spinster. However, Irene was forced into this position by the character of her marriage. In the end, she is a good wife to Jolyon a perfect mother to Jon. Had she married the right man right at the beginning, she would probably not be in this position at all. Obstinate June, after the death of her fiancé, enjoys her freedom and dedicates her whole “resolute tenacity” (Galsworthy 277) to helping her “lame ducks” – “budding geniuses of the artistic world” (Galsworthy 457) who have not been recognized by the society yet. She supports them financially, promotes them and eventually buys her own art gallery. Although she is reliant on her ancestors‟ money, she is rather independent and creative, as opposed to her spinster aunts, who spent their (probably whole) lives living at their brother‟s house receiving visitors and patiently waiting for death. During the Boer War, June and Holly go to South Africa to work as Red Cross nurses. Holly herself was “beginning to have opinions of her own,” which was seen by the elders as “so unnecessary” (Galsworthy 473). In an argument with Soames, June declares that “we shouldn‟t like anyone‟s suzerainty over us” (Galsworthy 428). Her sexual life is not examined in the book, nonetheless, it can be assumed that she – spending most of her life in the company of artists, and taking care of soldiers in Africa – could pride herself on “being liberated from the moral and sexual conventions”

32 (Himmelfarb 188-189) of her time just like the new women did. June did not get married, however, it does not have to mean that she was a spinster. Frances Forsyte, “emancipated from God – she frankly avowed atheism” (Galsworthy 648), composes songs – she “made a pretty little pot of pin-money” (Galsworthy 164) and would “much rather deal with a man that a woman”, because “women are so sharp!” (Galsworthy 166). Her cousin Euphemia shocks the elders by claiming that “people have a right to their own bodies, even when they‟re dead” (Galsworthy 350) and Francie is convinced it was a “jolly good thing to stop all that stuffy Highgate business“ (Galsworthy 350), when Old Jolyon is buried at Robin Hill, instead of the family tomb at Highgate. By such statements, they go straight against the traditions of elders and the property instinct, so dear to the family. Fleur, the representative of the youngest generation, is “frighteningly self-willed, and full of life, and determined to enjoy it” (Galsworthy 640). Instead of her ancestors‟ ‟Change, she visits her cousins, where they “keep .. smoking cigarettes and gossiping” (Galsworthy 627). Just like her father, Fleur is a slave of the property instinct and she “instinctively conjugated the verb „to have‟ always with the pronoun „I‟” (Galsworthy 809). Paradoxically, she is able to overcome her father‟s history in order to live her own life and freedom, as opposed to Jon, although it is him who is offspring of the rebels from Victorian ideal. Despite her free will, Fleur gets married too young to Michael Mont, whom she does not love, and thus repeats Irene‟s mistake. On the other hand, Michael Mont‟s view of marriage must differ fundamentally from Fleur‟s and her father‟s, for he is a socialist and the possessive principle is just a hangover from the old times to him. Nevertheless, when Fleur raises her eyelids at the wedding ceremony, “the restless glint of those clear whites remained on Holly‟s vision as might the flutter of a caged bird‟s wings” (Galsworthy 835).

33 7. Decline and sentiment

Preceding chapters deal with particular, clearly defined topics about features that contributed to the general decline of Victorianism and Forsytism. This one has no specific topic, but comments on various marks of the decline, mostly in connection to characteristics of the youngest generations. Generally, characters in the book agree that “the War was bad for the manners” (Galsworthy 726) and that after it, “money was extraordinarily tight; and morality extraordinarily loose!” (Galsworthy 738). Forsytean youngsters are very different from their ancestors in many aspects. No wonder, they are the creators of the society that “had abolished sin” (Galsworthy 834). Apart from divorce laws and bicycles, there was something in the air, inexpressible with words. In accordance with the fin de siècle philosophy, many young people felt that enjoying their lives was the priority. “Nobody thought of anything but spending money in these days, and racing about, and having what they called “a good time” .. people in such a hurry that they couldn‟t even care for style” (Galsworthy 380). Even Fleur was “restless as any of these modern young women” (Galsworthy 662), and she thoughtlessly hasted even her marriage. Even the manner of speech changed and speaking quickly became fashionable. But Winifred and her peers were raised in times when “drawl was all the vogue” (Galsworthy 836). This drawl may be seen as a symbol of the calm Victorian circumspection, and its change as an expression of the general features of the hasty modern life, which made the young people speak quickly, live quickly and spend inherited money even faster. As if there was no future: their motto “Spend, to-morrow we shall be poor!” (Galsworthy 662) is resented by the elders, who have dedicated their lives to careful accumulation and protection of wealth. No wonder the elders are terrified by the image of their grandchildren throwing the money recklessly away until there is nothing left. James is obsessed with money: he cannot think about anything else not even at his deathbed, where ghastly visions of his wife and grandchildren, spending too much money, frighten him. Moreover, even worse was the fact that youngsters did not earn anything themselves. As aforementioned, they cared more about themselves and their own comfort.

[Soames] sometimes felt as if the family bolt was shot, their possessive instinct dying out. They seemed unable to make money – this fourth generation; they were going into art, literature, farming, or the army; or just living on what was left to them – they had no push and no tenacity. (Galsworthy 848)

34 Apart from money issues, there were other topics. Respect to forefathers, rooted deeply in the Victorian family togetherness, was vanishing with the youngsters‟ newly gained independence. They were beginning to want their own future and “prided themselves on going their own ways and paying no attention to any sort of decent prejudice” (Galsworthy 635). This approach enabled Christopher to go to the stage or Jon to become a farmer. As it seems to Soames, “the third and the fourth generations … laughed at everything” (Galsworthy 805), they did not take Victorian virtues as seriously as their parents did, did not thrive on hard work nor attempted to keep a low profile. The Forsytean undemonstrativeness became an object of derision as young people started to show emotions on public, such as while wild celebrations of decisive victory at Mafeking in 1900. Their behaviour is seen as hysterical and thus fundamentally contradictory to the Victorian ideal. Young people did not want anonymous, peaceful and monotonous respectability anymore. They wanted excitement and experiences: Winifred‟s daughter Imogen explains to her Aunties she does not want to marry a good man, because they are dull. Even Irene, although she is already old, moves to another continent to start a new life in a new environment. This is different from her trips around Europe, because it is permanent. Her departure is thus seen as final liberation from Victorian restrictions that are symbolized in her life by Soames. Another interesting feature of Victorianism, that has passed, is the glorification of death – as Bédarida explains, they chose to “hush up sex and glorify death, which is exactly the opposite of what prevails in Britain nowadays” (158). This shift is touched in the novel only once, in connection to Fleur‟s wedding: “the way they had flocked to Fleur‟s wedding and abstained from Timothy‟s funeral, seemed to show some vital change” (Galsworthy 842). As wedding is usually seen as the entrance to sexual life, this can be interpreted as the foundation of today‟s standard and of the tendencies to show positive emotions rather than the negative ones, which were the only acceptable in Victorian times. The old Forsytes did not speak about personal matters outside the family – but youngsters would probably yell it out! During the divorce proceedings, it was “whispered among the old, discussed among the young” (Galsworthy 558) that family pride must soon receive a blow. The wave of women emancipation brought into centre of concern also the question of women‟s sexuality (Bédarida 162). Such issues were no more a taboo, the atmosphere was relaxed and these topics were discussed openly, without restraints and without reproach. Women themselves became more visible – not only in the public space, but

35 also their bodies were barer than ever before. The metaphorical corset, together with the actual one, were loosened and women could finally take a deep breath of freedom.

7.1 Sentiment

Disgruntled elders inclined to condemn the morals and manners of modern youth would do well to remember that their cry for reform is nothing new. Youth has its fling in any period; and somehow the fling is never quite the same as that which their forefathers permitted themselves. (Perugini 86)

Throughout the novel, there are many examples of nostalgic reminiscence of the glorious past. Right at the beginning of the novel, Old Jolyon complains about the quality of cigars: “you couldn‟t get a good cigar nowadays” (Galsworthy 34) and even about the weather: “there was no weather now” (Galsworthy 34). People grow sentimental as they grow old and tend to idealize the past, when they were fresh and everything was new. They are incapable of doing many things they used to before, such as giving at home celebrations. As Galsworthy explains, “to every house the moment comes when master or mistress is no longer „up to it‟, no more can nine courses be served to twenty mouths above twenty white expanses” (494), which does not mean there are no at home celebrations at all. Modern life seems hasty to them, because they cannot maintain the pace with it. “As modern life became faster, looser, younger, Soames was becoming older, slower, tighter, more and more in thought and language like his father James before him” (Galsworthy 819). They are also naturally doubtful about the future: “there went the past! If only there were a joyful future to look forward to!” (Galsworthy 503). On the other hand, there are people who did not follow the society‟s rules perfectly - Young Jolyon and Prosper Profond. And even though they are getting old too, they believe that the times had not changed that much. “Jolyon perceived that under slightly different surfaces the era was precisely what it had been. Mankind was still divided into two species: The few who had „speculation‟ in their souls, and the many who had none, with a belt of hybrids like himself in the middle” (Galsworthy 642). To Jolyon, the principle has not changed at all, moreover, he feels that “half the people nowadays who believe they‟re extreme are really very moderate” (Galsworthy 714). Apparently because there was no strict social disapproval, rebellion became much easier. Profond comments on behaviour and fashion of young women in 1920s by saying that

36

Young girls are much the same as they always were – there‟s very small difference. … It was inside before, not it‟s outside; that‟s all … [they are] just as moral as they ever were … but they‟ve got more opportunity … we all want pleasure, and we always did. (Galsworthy 776-777)

Because their lives were driven by other than necessarily the Victorian values, their perception of modern life has to be fundamentally different, maybe even more appealing to them. For his opinions, occupation and relationships, Young Jolyon represents a point of connection with the modern era.

37 Conclusion

A certain change in morality is evident. But it does not necessarily have to be to the worse, but seen though the eyes of the elders in the novel, it is described as a decline. We have to bear in mind that the first generation of Forsytes, that features in the novel, were born around 1800 – 1810, so they grew up during the years of national confidence and extremely tight morality. They grew up in a society that glorified family, chastity and asceticism, where social disapproval was “a force which the boldest sinner might fear” (Young 4) and their children were raised in the lingering atmosphere of Victorian virtues. Fading of the national ideal is mirrored in the dissolution of the family, as it is becoming divided, less numerous and geographically spread, and in the shift of women roles. An apparent decline in some of the Victorian virtues is expressed by a new fashion and faster, louder manner of speech, greater openness and sincerity while discussing personal or sexual matters, and greater tolerance. This is summed up in the idea of a loosened corset: social disapproval became less severe, possessive instinct less widespread, and actual corsets were replaced by unfitted, loose dresses. Irene functions as a personification of all the gradual changes that culminate in 1920s. In fact, she has been under pressure of the metaphorical corset, symbolizing Victorian restraints that are represented by Soames, since 1881, when he started courting her. After four years he finally achieved his goal and married her. But Irene‟s refusal to be a property to her husband started the general revolt against ownership of anything, as it seems to Soames, and thus symbolizes loosening of the corset until its final discarding. During separation, Irene enjoys her freedom and is capable of taking care of herself financially, and Soames‟ desperate attempts to bring her back can be interpreted as his desire to bring back the glorious times of women dependency, decent ownership, respectability, and certainty. Her final and total emancipation from corsetry comes with her departure to Canada in 1920s, which is the result of the looseness of the post-war atmosphere. The establishment of peace between them when Irene shows her forgiveness, can be interpreted as final reconciliation with the past on Irene‟s part, and with all the changes on Soames‟. Because most of the social changes deal with women, what changes (apart from financial and political changes that affected property and legal ownership) were there for men? I believe that the main change was the change of women. The Victorian ideal of a frail, feeble and submissive blushing maiden, whose only occupation would be maternity and the home, was suddenly transformed into self-confident, free-willed and independent girls and

38 women, who were going into professions and “squealing and squawking and showing their legs!” (Galsworthy 639). This change made men uncertain and shook their expectations and deep-rooted beliefs: James, as the representative of the oldest generation, claims that “we never had any trouble with our wives. Women had changed – everything had changed!” (Galsworthy 570). In general, men were left uncertain, because everything they used to count on was gone: “the Forsyte age and way of life, when a man owned his soul, his investments, and his woman, without check or question. And now the State had, or would have, his investments, his woman had herself, and God knew who had his soul” (Galsworthy 849).

39 Bibliography

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