Fundamentals of Pollination Ecology

Amanda M. Ellis, PhD

N. Evelyn http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_15/22_62.GIF A perfect flower contains both stamens (male parts) and pistil (female parts). An imperfect flower contains only male or female parts. Inflorescence- an Floret – one flower arrangement of flowers on a stem TypesTypes ofof fruitsfruits •• BerryBerry-- fleshyfleshy outerouter wallwall surroundingsurrounding oneone oror moremore fairlyfairly smallsmall seedsseeds

•• PomePome-- fleshyfleshy outerouter wallwall surroundingsurrounding aa toughtough corecore withwith seedsseeds

•• DrupeDrupe (stone)(stone)-- fleshyfleshy outerouter wallwall surroundingsurrounding oneone stonystony seedseed

•• AggregrateAggregrate-- manymany pistilspistils developdevelop togethertogether asas aa singlesingle massmass MonoeciousMonoecious –– plantsplants thatthat havehave bothboth malemale andand femalefemale flowersflowers onon thethe samesame plantplant

DioeciousDioecious –– plantsplants thatthat havehave onlyonly oneone sexsex ofof flowerflower onon thethe samesame plantplant

planthttp://www.tarleton.edu/~range/Sanderson%20Pictures/0207 3%20harvest%20persimmon.jpg www.texasbeyondhistory.net PollinationPollination –– thethe transfertransfer ofof pollenpollen fromfrom thethe anthersanthers ofof aa flowerflower toto thethe stigmastigma ofof thethe samesame oror differentdifferent flowerflower FertilizationFertilization-- whenwhen malemale geneticgenetic materialmaterial passespasses downdown thethe pollenpollen tubetube andand reachesreaches anan ovuleovule

Mark Rieger, www.uga.edu/fruit FlowerFlower receptivity:receptivity: 11 dayday July 20

July 19 77 daysdays FruitFruit SetSet

•• MayMay requirerequire multiplemultiple pollinationpollination eventsevents •• Example:Example: ItIt takestakes 2424 beebee visitsvisits toto sufficientlysufficiently pollinatepollinate aa seedlessseedless watermelonwatermelon flowerflower andand formform qualityquality fruit.fruit. HowHow doesdoes pollinationpollination occur?occur?

••WindWind

••MechanicalMechanical transfertransfer (usually(usually insects)insects) WindWind PollinatedPollinated PlantsPlants

•• ProduceProduce manymany smallsmall pollenpollen grainsgrains •• DonDon’’tt dispersedisperse well,well, occuroccur inin standsstands •• AdvantageAdvantage –– doesdoes notnot requirerequire aa pollinatorpollinator

http://www.cees.iupui.edu http://www.korculainfo.com MechanicalMechanical TransferTransfer TypesTypes ofof Pollinators:Pollinators: BirdsBirds InsectsInsects BeesBees ButterfliesButterflies

www.fws.gov www.everythingabout.net

BatsBats BeetlesBeetles www.laspilitas.com

www.oznet.ksu.edu FliesFlies BugsBugs

www.everythingabout.net www.garden.org http://faculty.pittstate.edu InsectInsect PollinatedPollinated PlantsPlants

•• MutualisticMutualistic relationshiprelationship betweenbetween thethe plantplant andand thethe pollinatorpollinator–– produceproduce rewardsrewards •• HaveHave nectariesnectaries •• ProduceProduce lessless pollenpollen andand •• havehave largerlarger pollenpollen grainsgrains InsectInsect PollinatedPollinated PlantsPlants

•• PollenPollen –– lipid,lipid, starch,starch, oror proteinsproteins •• NectarNectar –– sugarsugar solutionsolution

•• BOTTOMBOTTOM LINE:LINE: TheThe plantplant mustmust provideprovide adequateadequate rewardsrewards toto promotepromote foragingforaging byby thethe pollinatorspollinators butbut notnot soso largelarge aa rewardreward thatthat itit discouragesdiscourages movementmovement toto otherother flowers.flowers. WhyWhy seekseek rewards?rewards?

ForagingForaging EnergeticsEnergetics intakeintake energyenergy –– outputoutput energyenergy == NetNet energyenergy gaingain OutputOutput EnergyEnergy •• Distance,Distance, DiscriminationDiscrimination Time,Time, andand HandlingHandling TimeTime A B IntakeIntake EnergyEnergy •• QualityQuality ofof rewardsrewards

B AA ““goodgood”” pollinatorpollinator Delaplane and Mayer 2000 •• CarriesCarries aa highhigh percentagepercentage ofof donordonor pollen.pollen. •• VisitsVisits aa highhigh percentagepercentage ofof receptivereceptive stigmas.stigmas. •• VisitsVisits pollenpollen--donordonor andand pollenpollen--receiverreceiver flowersflowers successively.successively. •• CoversCovers stigmaticstigmatic surfaces.surfaces. •• WorksWorks rapidly.rapidly. •• WorksWorks longlong hours.hours. WhyWhy areare honeyhoney beesbees goodgood pollinators?pollinators? •• LargeLarge numbersnumbers •• GeneralistsGeneralists

www.titusmill.com MinimumMinimum hivehive strengthstrength standardsstandards

•• BeesBees blanketblanket topstops ofof 66--1010 frames.frames. •• BroodBrood fillsfills 44--66 frames,frames, preferablypreferably youngyoung brood.brood. •• QueenrightQueenright •• NoNo uncontrolleduncontrolled diseasesdiseases oror parasitesparasites PlantPlant TermsTerms

•• SelfSelf--sterilitysterility –– plantsplants thatthat requirerequire pollenpollen fromfrom aa differentdifferent plantplant oror eveneven aa differentdifferent varietyvariety •• CrossCross--pollinationpollination –– thethe transfertransfer ofof pollenpollen fromfrom flowersflowers ofof oneone plantplant toto thethe flowersflowers ofof aa differentdifferent plantplant oror differentdifferent varietyvariety •• PollenizerPollenizer –– varietyvariety interplantedinterplanted withinwithin mainmain varietyvariety toto provideprovide crosscross-- pollinationpollination CrossCross PollinationPollination BenefitsBenefits

•• HigherHigher %% FruitFruit SetSet

% fruit-set

•• LargerLarger FruitFruit ChoosingChoosing VarietiesVarieties

•• DoDo youryour homework!homework! •• ChooseChoose varietiesvarieties thatthat willwill bloombloom atat thethe samesame timetime •• Examples:Examples: BlueberriesBlueberries ––PremierPremier andand Climax;Climax; SeedlessSeedless WatermelonsWatermelons –– SugarSugar HeartHeart andand CrimsonCrimson SweetSweet EveryEvery otherother treetree isis aa pollenizerpollenizer

Main Variety Pollenizer EveryEvery thirdthird treetree inin everyevery thirdthird rowrow isis aa pollenizerpollenizer

Main Variety Pollenizer PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP P T T T T P ThinkP T aboutT hivePP placementT T P PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP PP TT TT PP TT TT PP Hive Placement

• Have hives as close as possible to the crop of interest – Higher number of bees visiting the crop – Larger amount of pollen collected – Increased crop yield • Orientate hives so they are exposed to early morning sun • Place hives on high ground • Protect hives from strong winds • Locate hives away from farm workers, pedestrians, livestock, dwellings, and irrigation valves RememberRemember foragingforaging energeticsenergetics!!

300 Ft. 500 Ft. CompetitionCompetition increasesincreases coveragecoverage Timing:Timing: 1)1) HoneyHoney beesbees thatthat areare inexperiencedinexperienced atat foragingforaging inin anan areaarea generallygenerally performperform best.best. 2)2) MoveMove hiveshives intointo thethe cropcrop afterafter itit hashas alreadyalready begunbegun floweringflowering aa little.little. Recommended Bee Densities:

• Factors to consider: – The attractiveness of the crop – The population density of non-managed bees – The abundance of competing natural nectar sources – Strength and location of bee hives – Weather – The grower’s experience Stocking Recommendations:

• Goal is to use the minimum hive density that provides a maximum crop yield.

- K. S. Delaplane and D. F. Mayer. 2000. Crop Pollination by Bees. - J. B. Free. 1993. Insect Pollination of Crops. - S. E. McGregor. 1976. Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. Agriculture Handbook No. 496. USDA Example Stocking Rates: Literature Averages (hives per acres)

• Almond – 2.5 • Blueberry – 3 • Cantaloupe – 1.8 • Cranberry – 3 • Cucumber – 2.2 • Squash, Pumpkin, & Gourd – 1.5 • Watermelon – 1.8 Honey Bee Attractants:

• Products designed to increase bee visitation – Pheromones – Sugar-based solutions • Most have had a doubtful performance record