Volume 5, Issue 7(3), July 2016 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
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Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of Education Department of English North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Francesco Massoni Nanjing University of Science and Department of Public Health Sciences Technology University of Sapienza, Rome People’s Republic of China Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Dr.Merina Islam Al-Mustansiriyah University Department of Philosophy College of Education Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Dr. Bipasha Sinha Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Department of Mathematics University of Calcutta, Calcutta University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Librarian Dravidian University, Kuppam Kalasalingam University Andhra Pradesh Krishnankovil Tamilnadu
Dr. K. John Babu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Assistant Professor Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. Volume 5 Issue 7(3) July 2016
S. Page
No No 1. Physical Fitness Components as Predicrtors of Kabaddi 1 Performance D. Reddi Bhaskara, Shaik Nafeez Umar and D.Krishna Murthy 2. Good Governance in An Urban Government: A Study in 10 Hubli-Dharwad Corporation Kamalaxi G. Tadasad and Jayaramiah 3. Development Perspective of West Bengal with Special 22 Reference to Industrial Development in North Bengal Subrata Ghosh,Santana Guha and Amrita Banerjee 4. Academic Stress and Adjustment Levels of Intermediate 39 Students S.Ramu 5. General well-being among indoor and outdoor Sports 53 players Mr.Bheemappa. E. Arakera 6. Educating Young Adults: Walter Dean Myers’ Fast Sam, 62 Cool Clyde and Stuff and the Young Landlords Rajeep Kumar Tirkey and Jap Preet Kaur Bhangu 7. Public Policy on the Threshold of Faith and History 75 Suraj Narayan n 8. The History of Vedic Period 85 M. Venu Gopal 9. Why Did Ambedkar Convert to Buddhism? 98 Y Ramachandra Reddy 10. MGNREGS - Role of Women in Andhra Pradesh 106 C.Malleeswramma and M.Chandraiah 11. Effectiveness of H.R. Services At NTPC(VSTPS) 113 Abdul Hakim and Bharti Bairagi 12. Reviews on Biomechanical Application in Discuss 120 throwing Techniques for Right-Handed Thrower Mequanent Shikabaw Chekol 13. Tribal Parents Attitude towards their Daughters 145 Education G. Balaji 14. A Review on Economics of Vegetable Cultivation in 154 India D. Kiruthiga and T. Paulraj 15. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment 166 Guarantee Act - Social Protection for Rural Workers G.Sivasankar 16. Relation Between I.Q. and Self Concept Regarding 178 Performance in Mathematics at Secondary Level of Students of Birbhum (W.B.) Sudipa Chakrabarty Biswas and Tuhin Kumar Samanta 17. Masulipatam Municipality – Administrative Setup 194 M. Suseela Rao 18. Political Participation of Women in India 211 V.Sreenivas 19. Reproductive Health Care Among Slum Women(A Study 235 in Andhra Pradesh) T.R.Thirumalesha Babu 20. Relevance Characteristic of Financial Information in 247 Modern Banking( An Analysis with Reference to Banking Industry in Kerala) Fazlollah Pornour 21. Comparative study on self confidence among Cricket 258 players Syedali
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
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Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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PHYSICAL FITNESS COMPONENTS AS PREDICRTORS OF KABADDI PERFORMANCE
D. Reddi Bhaskara Dr. Shaik Nafeez Umar Research Scholar Assistant Professor Sri Venkateswara University Dept. of Statistics and Mathematics Tirupati A.N.G.R.A. University, Bapatla
Dr.D.Krishna Murthy Deputy Director Department of Physical Education Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati
Abstract
The purpose of the present research was to analyze the relationship between physical fitness components and kabaddi performance as predictors. Ninty (N=90) male kabaddi layers were selected as a subjects , their age was between 18and25 years they are studying in various degree colleges affiliated to Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Chittoor Dt. Andhra Pradesh. Independent variables are Speed, Strength, power, Agility, Flexibility, and Cardio respiratory endurance. Speed was measured by 50 mts Sprint, abdominal muscle strength was measured by bent knee sit ups, Power was measured by standing broad jump, Flexibility was measured by forward bend and reach test, Agility was measured by 30 mts shuttle run and Cardio vascular endurance was measured by Harvard step test. The playing ability (dependent variables) was measured depending up on execution of their performance. The Pearson product movement ‘r’ was used to determine the inter correlation among them, and the multiple linear regression was applied to predict the playing ability of
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kabaddi which is significant at 0.05 level of confident and ‘F’ ratio was found significant.
Results; Cant (r=0.77), raiding ability (r=0.89), reaction ability (r=0.84), hand touch reach ability(r=0.81), toe touch reach ability(r=0.75), absorb results physical fitness components are significantly related to the kabaddi skill performance. The analysis of data indicates the results are highly correlated to the independent and dependent variables.
Key words: Physical Fitness, Kabaddi Performance, College Boys.
Introduction
Competition is one of the out growths of modern life. It is a natural human activity which is inevitable in life and the education process should adjust with the preparation of individuals for the “battle life”. Competition provides the means by which one can show one’s worth by competing with their successfully.
Physical Education and sports, being integral parts of education. In third scientific age humans are trying to achieve higher and higher performances in games and sports through critical thinking, scientific training and coaching.
Sports have always occupied an important place in any culture. It is an undisputed fact that national character expresses itself not only in folk music literature and art but also in typical form of sports. Frequently, the twin images conjured up but the name of the nation and its favorite game are so closely linked that they almost merge.
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The American Association of Health, physical Education and Recreation (1967) defines physical fitness as “…..” that state which characteristics the degree to which a person is able to function efficiently. Fitness is an individual matter. It implies the agility of each person to live most effectively within less potentialities ability to function depends upon the physical, moral, emotional, social and spiritual components of fitness all these are related to each other and is mutually dependent. People often think of physical fitness when the term fitness is used, but this encompasses only a part of person’s makeup. It implies that one should view physical fitness as only a part of total fitness. We can now see that a person is considered to fit a particular task or activity when he can accomplish it with a reasonable degree of efficiency, without undue fatigue and ability to recover from the effects of exertion.
The physical fitness may be classified as general physical fitness and specific physical fitness. The general fitness is the prerequisite for all the sports, which include strength, speed, endurance, agility, flexibility, balance and power, whereas specific fitness varies from sports to sport. In certain sports, the strength component of fitness is a dominating factor whereas in other sports, endurance, speed and agility may be required for achieving better results.
The sport kabaddi has a long history, dating back to prehistoric times. It was probably invented to ward off group attacks by individuals and vice versa. The game was very popular in the southern part of Asia. It’s a dramatized version of the great Indian Epic, The ‘’Maharashtra’’, which has made an analogy of the game to a light situation faced by Abhimaneu, the heir of the pandava kings when he is surrounded on all sides by the enemy. Buddhist literature speaks of GOWTHAM Buddha playing a kabaddi for recreation. History also reveals that princes used to play kabaddi to display their strength and win their brides.
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Methods and procedure:
Selection of subjects: For the study of present research the collected data is on (N=90) male kabaddi players of the age group between 18and25 years, who are studying in various degree colleges of S.V.U , Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
Selection of variables: To measure the Fitness variables(independent variables) such as speed is measured by 50mts sprint. The purpose of this test is to measure speed performance in running. To measure the explosive strength of abdominal muscles of subjects, bent knee sit up‘s test was applied and to measure the speed and agility of the subjects shuttle run was conducted. Explosive leg strength was measured by standing broad jump, forward bend and reach test was conducted to measure the maximum range of forward flexibility and stretch ability of the hamstring muscles of subjects. Harvard step test was to conducted measure the cardiovascular endurance of subjects.
The relationship between the Independent (Fitness variables) and dependent variables (performance variables)
Table 1
** Significant at 0.01 level
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Results observed in table 1 indicate the Pearson Product movement Correlation was significantly related to speed (r=0.72),strength (r=0.68), power (r=0.48), flexibility (r=0.51), agility(r=0.63),and cardio respiratory endurance (r=0.60).There is highly correlated between the Cant ability and independent variables. The Multiple linear regression is (r=0.77), which is significant at 0.01 levels and ‘F’ value is 18.00,which is also significant at 0.01 levels.
Table-2
** Significant at 0.01 levels
Results observed in table 2 indicate the Pearson Product movement Correlation was significantly related to speed (r=0.83), strength (r=0.62), power (r=0.62), flexibility (r=0.83), agility(r=0.88), and cardio respiratory endurance (r=0.87), there is highly correlated between the Raiding ability and independent variables. The Multiple linear regression is (r=0.89), which is significant at 0.01 levels and ‘F’ value is 115.03, which is also significant at 0.01 levels.
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Table-3
** Significant at 0.01 levels
Results observed in table 3 indicate the Pearson Product movement Correlation was significantly related to speed (r=0.77),strength (r=0.72), power (r=0.84), flexibility (r=0.85), agility(r=0.79),and cardio respiratory endurance (r=0.83). There is highly correlated between the Reaction ability and independent variables. The Multiple linear regression is (r=0.84), which is significant at 0.01 levels and ‘F’ value is 73.78,which is also significant at 0.01 levels.
Table-4
** Significant at 0.01 levels
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Results observed in table 4 indicate the Pearson Product movement was Correlated significantly related to speed(r=0.74), strength (r=0.70), power(r=0.51), flexibility(r=0.80), agility(r=0.82), and cardio respiratory endurance (r=0.84), there is highly correlated between the hand touch reach ability and independent variables. Multiple linear regression is (r=0.81), which is significant at 0.01 levels and ‘F’ value is 61.46, which is also significant at 0.01 levels.
Table-5
** Significant at 0.01 levels
Results observed in table 5 indicate the Pearson Product movement Correlation was significantly related to speed (r=0.64),strength (r=0.76), power (r=0.58), flexibility (r=0.79), agility(r=0.66),and cardio respiratory endurance (r=0.72).There is highly correlated between the Toe touch reaching ability and independent variables. The Multiple linear regression is (r=0.75 levels and ‘F’ value is 42.26,which is also significant at 0.01 levels.), which is significant at 0.01
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Conclusion:
1. 1. The result was indicated that components of physical fitness were related to the kabaddi skill performance. 2. Physical fitness components were highly correlated to the kabaddi performance. 3. The multiple linear regression equation was significant to the kabaddi skill performance.
References: 1. Beneryl Sedial and Mathew Reick, Physical Education, An Overveiw. (Ontario: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1974), P.45. 2. Charles A Bucher, Foundations of Physical Education (Saint Louis: The C.V. Mosby Co., 1974), P.45. 3. Steven N. Blair, “A New Physical Fitness Test”, The Physician and Sports Medicine 11:4 (April, 1983): 90. 4. Rex Hazldine, Fitness or Sports (Marlborough: The Crowoo Press, 1985), P.4. 5. Carl. E. Klafs and Daniel. D. Arukein, Modern Principles of Athletic Training 2nd Ed. (Saint Louis: The C.V. Mosby Co., 1969), P.50. 6. Frank I. Katch and Victor L. Katch, : Measurement and Prediction Errors in Body Composition Assessment and the Search for the Prefect Prediction Equation” Research Quarterly 51 (March 1980): 249 – 60. 7. Johnson and Buskirk, Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports, P.278 – 279. 8. Ted A. Baumgartner and Andrew S. Jackson. Measurement for Evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise Science. 3rd Ed. (Dubeque, Lowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1987), P.11. 9. H. Harrison Clarke and David H. Clarke, Application of Measurement in Physical Education, 6th Ed., (N.J: Prentice Hall Inc., 1987), P.154. 10. Allen J. Ryan and Fred L. Allman, Sports Medicine (New York: Academic Press, 1974), P.31.
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11. Kinnet L. Jones; Louis W. Shainburg and Curtis O’ Byer, Total Fitness (San Francisco: Harper and Row Publishers, Inc., 1972), P.47. 12. Morehouse and Miller, Physiology of Exercise, P.225. 13. Jana Parizkova Body Composition and Exercise during Growth and Development in G. Lawrence Rarick Ed. Physical Activity, Human Growth and Development (New York: Academic Press, 1973), P.101. 14. Muscular Power:- Donald K. Mathews and Ed Ward L. Fox., the Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics (Philadelphia: W. B. Sounders Company, 1976), P. 545. 15. F. Robert and Mc David, “Predicting Potential in Football Players”, Research Quarterly 48 (March 1977): 78. 16. Jack Dume Ellema, “Relation of Physiological Factors to Football Performance”, Completed Research in Health, Physical Education and Recreation 2 (1960): 26. 17. Joyner, Albert and Barry, “Descriptive and Predictive Discriminate Analysis of the Golf Ability of College Males”, Dissertation Abstracts International 53 (1993): 2291. 18. Jusice M. Boseworth, “Relationship Between the Vertical Jump Performance of College Women and Selected Anthropometric Measurements and Strength Variable”, Completed Research in Health Physical Education and Recreation 7 (1965): 93. 19. Throsen A. Margaret, “Body Structure and Design Factors in the Motor Performance of College Women”, Research Quarterly 35 (May 1964): 418. 20. Book Walter and W. Karl, “The Relationship of Body Size and Shape to Physical Performance”, Research Quarterly 23 (October 1952): 271 – 279.
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GOOD GOVERNANCE IN AN URBAN GOVERNMENT: A STUDY IN HUBLI-DHARWAD CORPORATION
Kamalaxi G. Tadasad Jayaramiah Associate Professor Associate Professor of Political Science Department of Political Science SECAB’s ARS Inamdar Arts Rani Channamma University Science and Commerce College for Belgavi Women Vijayapura
Introduction
Governance has been around ever since humans began to organize themselves. However, the word "governance" has only made its way into common usage since about 1990. Essentially, it refers to the process whereby decisions are taken on issues importance to the organization in a transparent and orderly way placing accountability an emphasis while oversight is exercised in matters of its management and finances. Governance in other words determines how key relationships are maintained in an organisation in order to upkeep the health of the organization to ensure its performance to achieve the goals set.
The concept itself is simple, but there are many different ways in which governance may be carried out. Moreover, since governance determines who has power and how power has to be exercised in a manner that is acceptable to those stakeholders involved at times makes it a contentious issue. Governance has thus become a key concept in the national and international development debates over the last one and half decades. It marks an intriguing transformation in focus from micro to macro issues. It also poses fresh challenges to those interested in relating socio-economic outcomes to macro interventions.
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After one and half decades of efforts to make sense of governance in development one finds many of these basic challenges remain.
What is the relationship between governance and development? What does governance really refer to? How can the concept be best put into analytical usage? What analytical advantages does it have? Etc. This paper is an attempt to look in to those questions in the chosen area of studies i.e. Hubli-Dharwad which is a twin city.
The study concentrates on understanding the responses of the citizens in these limited areas of inquiry viz., Civil Society – the way citizens raise and become aware of public issues, Political Society – the way issues are combined into policy by political institutions, Government – the way policies are made by government institutions, Bureaucracy – the way policies are administered and implemented by public servants in this city. While doing so this study which is basically discussing only the oral details in this paper which otherwise was collected for the doctoral work keeps in its basic framework of analysis the following concepts as the foundation for this study. This includes participation: the degree of involvement of (affected) stakeholders, decency: the degree to which the formation and stewardship of rules are undertaken keeping the good intentions of helping the people, fairness: the degrees to which rules apply equally to everyone in society regardless of social positions and accountability: to which public officials and elected councilors are responsible in terms of their actions and responses to public including their ability to do things transparently and efficiently
Discussion
India as a nation has had one of the most complete historical journeys without ever being a conquering race while we have been able
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to conquer hearts of many in matters of public life. However in the recent past there have been many incidences where we have lost a lot of sheen over the issues of corruption, nepotism, impropriety and crony capitalism keeping intact somehow our core values inherited by us. Time and again we have tried our best to project that our public life is still better due to the personal and religious preferences of those who perform in these corridors of power by indulging in the acts purification by bowing before the law of the land and emerging like phoenix thus, demonstrating to the world that we are resilient and capable of introspection even in matters of public life. However, with the increasing stress on commercial and material life there are constant debates in the Indian society and administration that this fall in the standards of public life is due to the loss of spirituality among certain sections of the society who are at the helm of affairs in Indian public life and they are swayed by their love for the luxuries of material life resulting in the division between ones public life and private life. The contradictions of which are now seen in the increased need to employ external mechanisms like the measures of governance to keep clean the Indian public life. The impact of this is the need for such micro studies to understand these realities and to find ways to resolve them with indigenous methods if possible.
India may not be a young country forever, especially so in terms of its commercial trade in inviting the kind of investments that is expected of good growth pegged at 8.5 percent growth as China may. Reasons for this obviously are our democracy, it’s functioning and our politics that has no structure, growing bankruptcy in our ideologies, and the failure to produce a leadership that is keen on providing a moral leadership with astute acumen for politics and administration. This failure to produce a model has left the relatively young India unable to script the growth story for this nation. We must know that
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nation is bigger than the people and all policies and initiatives undertaken by any government is for the people. It should be as if the governments are there as facilitators and matter little as to who governs or who is at the helm? The prima facie task of any government is governance, ‘good governance’ and very few governments over the years seem to understood it or have practiced it.
In this scheme of things we must understand that good governance has to be a relative term rather than being absolute. The global definition of good governance may not fit into the scenario of every country since the demand side of governance may differ from one country to another. The UNDP definition of “good governance” encompasses three key words: transparency, accountability and participatory. These three words form a key part of any governance model which may be deemed ‘good’. There are models of governance prevalent in each country as the one that existed in India, which may be different from the one propagated by the UNDP, but if they fail do not deliver there is always a threat to bring in reforms and to force governments to fall in line with the prescribed uniformities. In India, if one wishes to categorize states into models of governance, one may have to narrow it down to party based governance models: The BJP model, the Congress model, the regional party model and the Left model. How a state is governed is largely based on who is at command which is most unfortunate since even after six decades and more we have failed to place a system in place. As a result of this today we find ourselves in the quicksand of mega scams since discretions and loose laws leaving more space for interpretations have made India an advocate’s paradise. It’s high time we step aside these abused paths of governance and move in a direction that gives us the moral high ground to state that there is a system in place that ensures good governance covering the issues of social justice, equal opportunities, fair justice and
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no discretions. Administration must ensure rule of law and accountability to the fullest extent. It is against this background that this study is undertaken.
It is thus the purpose of this study to see how the urban government in a more closely knit society is operating to ensure these simple principles of good governance is delivering on these universal principles and values that govern humanity.
Profile of Dharwad District: the study area
Dharwad District is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India. Dharwad is the cultural headquarters of North Karnataka. Before 1997 the district had an area of 13738 km. In 1997, the new districts of Gadag and Haveri were created out of Dharwad's former territory, and a portion of Dharwad district was combined with lands formerly part of three other districts to create the new district of Davanagere. After India's independence in 1947, the Bombay Presidency was reconstituted as India's Bombay State. In 1956 the southern, Kannada-speaking districts of Bombay State, including Dharwad, were added to Mysore and renamed Karnataka in 1972. In 1941, Dharwad had a population of 47,992. In 1961, the town merged with the adjacent town of Hubli to become a single municipality, Hubli- Dharwad. The population of the twin cities is the second-largest in Karnataka, after Bangalore. Hubli-Dharwad's population increased 22.99% between 1981 and 1991, from 527,108 to 648,298, and by 21.2% between 1991 and 2001. In the year 2008, a Circuit bench of the High Court of Karnataka was established in Dharwad. The circuit bench at Dharwad caters to the Mumbai – Karnataka region. Hubli is an important industrial centre, with more than 1000 allied small and medium industries already established. There are machine tools industries, electrical, steel furniture, food products, rubber and leather
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industries and tanning industries. IT Park Hubli – situated in the heart of the city and is promoted by the Government of Karnataka IT Department and KEONICS acts as the model agency for maintaining and marketing of IT Park Hubli. According to the 2011 census Dharwad district has a population of 1,846,993, roughly equal to the nation of Kosovo or the US state of West Virginia. This gives it a ranking of 256th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 434 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,120/sq mi) . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 15.13%. Dharwad has a sex ratio of 967 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 80.3%.Dharwad District is divided into five talukas: Dharwad, Hubli, Kalghatgi, Kundgol and Navalgund. There are fifty panchayat villages under the talukas, each of which manages several villages.
Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation (HDMC) was constituted in the year 1962 by combining two cities separated by a distance of 20 kilometers. This is a unique experiment in urban development history. The area of this Corporation is 181.66 kms spread over 45 revenue villages. The population of the city as per the 1991 Census was 7 Lacs. The present population is around 15 Lacs. Under the Government of India Act of 1850, the Hubli-Municipal council was established on 15 August 1855. The Dharwad Municipal Council first came into existence on 1 January 1856. The first non-official President of the Council was S.K. Rodda in 1907, and Shri S.V. Mensinkai, was nominated in the following year. But the credit of being the first elected President goes to Shri S.G. Karigudari, who took office in 1920.
Hubli is well known as a commercial as well as industrial centre, whereas Dharwad is seat of learning. The twin-city Corporation occupies unique place in Karnataka State. After the capital city of Bangalore, this is the largest city Corporation in the State. Off late,
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HDMC has seen numerous positive changes. The administration has become more transparent and public-friendly. The processes have been streamlined and developmental projects have been taken up on all fronts. With all the standards and policies set, HDMC has been awarded with ISO certification practicing good governance among the Urban Governments.
Thus this city which is also popularly known as the cultural capital of Karnataka is a part of the North Karnataka which fought for the unification of Karnataka but sadly suffers from backwardness in many of its districts especially recognised as the Hydrabad Karnataka and Mumbai Karnataka as per the High-Power Committee for Redressal of Regional Imbalances (HPCRRI) headed by the late D.M. Nanjundappa. It is with this background that we move on to understand the issues of governance in this study.
Good Governance in Hubli-Dharwad
As cities in developing world are under demographic transition and the forces of economic liberalization taking grip over them, they are engulfed by a number of problems. The pressures of globalization, however, demand these cities to be more competitive and their governance responsive to promote economic growth. Unfortunately, most cities are not well equipped to tackle some of these problems, which led to the failure of local government institutions in the provision of public goods and services in an efficient and effective manner. There are a host of challenges that face local government in the 21st century: delivering services; lack of finance; managing staff; engaging citizens; forming new partnerships; and, rapidly evolving technologies and socio-economic demographics.
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So when we talk of good governance in the Indian context, we must ask a basic question to ourselves: is good governance largely based on public perception or is based on just performance numbers? In case we choose to speak of good governance on performance numbers and leave public perception alone then we will have to look at the numbers either from an absolute sense or from a relative one? (Indian Express, June 23, 2015) If we go by the 2013 legal structure and security index values, released by the Cato Institute, Karnataka is not one of the best performing states; it is 9th in the list. Which in other words mean that there may be islands of excellence where there is horizontal deployment of good governance techniques but unfortunately that is not replicated elsewhere? It is here the will of the political parties is seen in play mood. They take or seek advantage over the issue of good governance claiming that there little steps in this directions are the leaps forward while they fail to acknowledge the other state’s accomplishments in the same area. Andhra Pradesh Society for Social Audit, Accountability and Transparency (SSAAT) is a model for study across the world. It has been able to curb a lot of ground-level corruption in MGNREGA across the state. However the other states do not wish to replicate it and accept it as one of the best models of accountability and transparency. Secrete however is the resistance within the parties in power to bestow upon this institution the needed autonomy both in matters of administration and finance. As of June 2014, 12 out of 29 states did not even have a social audit unit, let alone implementation. Under such a choking atmosphere defining good governance becomes a challenge if not impossible. One of the dimensions which have gained prominence in the discourse of good governance is time. So keeping these preliminary discussions if move further to read the situation in the chosen study area it is interesting to understand how the civil society responds to it. The Civil Society where we were looking in to the perceptional issue of the way citizens raise and become aware of public
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issues we found it to be sadly apathetic. Most of the time there is hardly any difference between the ordinary people and the civil society in these matters. They do not see this as their responsibility. Why have we elected the councilors? Is it not their duty to attend to these? If we had to do it why they are there are normal responses. Except in cases where they are the direct beneficiaries, you find the people careless about politics and the concerns of governance. As a Political Society they detach themselves from the political process after elections. They show limited interest in the way issues are combined into policy by political institutions. In fact ordinarily they get to know of the policy as and when they come close to it for reasons of personal benefits or when their family or friends interests prevail. In most of the cases they express these in the form of problems before their councilors or MLAs and over ride the systemic difficulties through a bye way means. It is because of this that often corruption thrives as against good governance. Among those interviewed there is hardly any interest in the way policies are made by government institutions. For tem it is unimportant while if there are problems they want those hurdles to be overlooked or removed by means that are or may be other than legal. This kind of an attitude for the bureaucracy is in a way helpful for they can simply overlook the way policies are administered and implemented by public servants in this city and make their hey while this self interests of the citizen perpetuates.
So in our brief study for this paper when we put to test the issues like participation which covered the degree of involvement of (affected) stakeholders in the matters of governance we found it discouraging. There is rarely any room for decency in matters of the formation and stewardship of rules undertaken keeping the good intentions of helping the people. The people know how to overcome hurdles and this partnership of the rulers and the ruled is the greatest
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threat to a thriving democracy and the ideas like good governance. In all earnestness it must be agreed that fairness is a free for all kind of an idea where the degrees of rule application depends on how good the client is in converting them to his advantage. The rules apart from this extra ordinary clause are applied to everyone equally in society regardless of social positions. So the issue of accountability to which public officials and elected councilors are responsible in terms of their actions and responses to public including their ability to do things transparently and efficiently depends on how popular you are getting the works done to a client than working on the side of the government to follow rules, to formulate legislations, to be fair and apply systemic approach to resolve an issue. If one is asked to follow the rules that representative is left out and will be made unpopular while other individuals and parties thrive on such reputation to further their cause.
Gone are those days when only the delivery of services was important. What is important now is how quickly is a service delivered to the beneficiary and how efficiently using one’s discrete or discretion? The extent of use of technology by a government can be estimated by the number of e-services offered. How well have the people taken up to e-services can be estimated by the number of e-transactions per 1000 people. In this context Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are the only two states who have managed to touch the five-figure mark. Bihar stands as the second lowest state with just 138.4 e-transactions recorded per 1000 people. In the case of Hubli-Dharwad it is the routine things that have the e-governance applications like the Khata (document of ownership) the copy of which can be obtained any time. The rest are slowly taking shape like the e- transactions with an aim of paperless society. At this moment the talks on good governance in Hubli- Dharwad is a semi-rhetoric unless this model of governance comes out
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of the party politics and looks at identifying good policies for the betterment of the society at large.
So where will we be in 2020? Will we continue to see an erosion of councilors’ authority, capacity and service delivery? Will markets prove capable of filling the gaps? Or, will we see a reassertion of the importance of local government, with new models for regional integration, public finance and services that emphasize a public role? Are questions that need deeper study? In spite of the bold rush toward privatization of public goods and services, the profit-driven model will prove insufficient to tackle the complexity of problems and services required. The needs of citizens and communities will require to co- ordinate the efforts of government with education to the people regarding the advantages of good governance. Perhaps we need a stronger role of local governments in telling the states that in the post 73rd and 74th amendment the third tire of federalism is a reality and the eventual need to rebuild its capacity lies with citizens living under its jurisdiction.
Conclusion
In Hubli-Dharwad the public goods and services delivery system has to perform better both in terms of quality and quantity. The city has lost the capacity to deliver services either for negligence or lack of financial and physical resources. Owing to the focus on short- term planning to meet imminent requirements by political parties controlling its administration, it has ignored possible long-term challenges and neglected the function of deploying resources to improve services. Likewise, resource generation is fraught with inefficiency and corruption, resulting in declining management capacities. This has enhanced the perception that Hubli-Dharwad Corporation is in overall decline. With the advent of globalisation, international investments
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flow toward efficient and cost-effective locations. While several developing - country cities offer cost - effective factor inputs like land and labor, provision of quality of living is becoming an important contributory factor. Without this, this twin city may not achieve its “vision” of a world city. The political leadership and the citizens of this twin city must understand the roles that are to be played both here with an unwritten understanding between them to act in the larger public interest.
References
1. Asmermom, K. Borgman and R. Hoppe, ‘Good Governance, Decentralization and Democratization in Post Colonial State’, IJPA, Vol.41, No.4(Oct-Dec), 1995. 2. Frederickson, George, ‘Ethics and Public Administration’, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 1993. 3. Human Development in South Asia, ‘The Crisis of Governance’, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1999. 4. Joseph, Sarah, ‘Democratic Good Governance: New Agenda for Change’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 12 (March) 2001. 5. Mishra, Suresh and Rajivir S. Dhaka(Eds) ‘Humanizing Development Trends in Public Administration’, Sustainable Development Foundation, New Delhi, 2001. 6. Sahni, Pradeep and E. Vayunandan, ‘Administrative Responsiveness in India: Perceptions, Analysis and Model Building’, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1992. 7. Stove, Kenneth, ‘Good Piano Won’t Bad Music: Administration Reforms and Good Governance’, Public Administration, Vol.70, No.1, 1992 8. Mishra Anil Dutta, ‘Good Governance-A Conceptual Analysis’, in Dhameja Alka(Ed), Contemporary Debates in Public Administration, Prentice Hall, New Delhi, 2003
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DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE OF WEST BENGAL WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH BENGAL
Subrata Ghosh Santana Guha Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Dept. of Business Administration Dept. of Business Administration Siliguri Institute of Technology Siliguri Institute of Technology
Amrita Banerjee Assistant Professor Dept. of Business Administration Siliguri Institute of Technology
Abstract: North Bengal, the northern part of West Bengal, well known for its high population growth, agriculture base, tourist destinations and industrial backwardness of states. Despite several initiatives taken by the newly formed North Bengal Developed Department under the aegis of state government to promote region’s economic development, performance of the region in terms of industry, trade and commerce remains far cry as compared to the other counterpart of the state. Further, the region is endowed with plenty of natural resources, untapped human resources but these resources could not be utilized for the development of industry. Though existing economic literatures established the linkages between agriculture and industry, agriculture failed to be the backbone of industrial as well as economic development of the region. The study also focuses on the availability of rich natural resources, untapped human resources and explores the potential for the growth and expansion of the industries which will benefit of the various stakeholders and the livelihood of the people of the region. Against this backdrop, the present paper makes an attempt to throw light upon the
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issues relating to industrial scenario and other parameters of economic development of the region.
Key Words: North Bengal, Agriculture, Industry Economic development
1. Introduction
West Bengal is one of the twenty nine states in India and situated in the eastern part of the country. With a total area of 88,752 sq. km., the state occupies 2.77 percent of India’s land area. It considers being the sixth largest state economy contributing about 7 percent to India’s economy. In recent years it has emerged as the services driven economy though agriculture is the main occupation of the majority of the people of the state. During the financial year 2012-13, its services sector contributed nearly 65 percent of the state’s economy and the contribution of agricultural and industrial sectors to Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) were 13 percent and 19 percent respectively.1 However, districts of West Bengal are divided into two parts, such as Southern and Northern part.2 Malda district serves as the north-south divide for the state. Northern districts are together recognized as North Bengal (NB). The region is characterized by magnificent mountain vista and wild life at Dooars.3, 4, 5 The region is also well known for its rich cultural heritage, well diversified natural beauty, industrial backwardness, high population growth etc. Subsistence agriculture, livestock, forestry, plantations and allied activities are the major activity of the people of this region. Despite having agriculture base, economy of the region has no significant contribution from agro based industries. Only some small and semi small industry are located. Large and medium scale industries are almost negligible in the region. Thus, it is imperative to study the industrial growth and opportunities as well as the obstacles to the road
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way of promotion of the industry which the region is experiencing over the years. However, state is south-centric, more specifically, Kolkata- centric, in its industrial development. On the contrary, North Bengal districts have received little attention by policy makers, politicians and others, though there is much potential for the economic development.7 NB region has remained as a ‘No-Industry Zone except Tea and tourism’.8 However, with the objective of economic development, particularly, infrastructure development and tourism promotion in NB region, North Bengal Development Department (NBDD) was constituted in 2011 under the aegis of state government with a sanctioned amount of Rupees 200 crore during 2012-13 financial year. But there is no such visible infrastructure development for promoting industrial growth has been taken place in that way.
2. Location of the study
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North Bengal region spreads over an area of 21855 sq.km which is 24 percent of the total land area of West Bengal, the region lies between 240 45’ and 270 0’ North latitude and 87 045’ and 89 050’ East longitude. The area stretches from Eastern Himalayan region to the lower Gangetic plain. As per the agro-climatic regional classification, the districts of North Bengal (such as Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar, Alipurduar) fall under the Eastern Himalayan Region and rest of the districts (such as Malda, Uttar Dinajpur and Dakshin Dinajpur) fall under the Lower Gangetic Plain. The region is bordered by three countries such as Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh and the states such as Bihar and North Eastern states including Sikkim. The region mainly constitutes the Jalpaiguri Division which comprises of seven districts, namely, Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda district together. 6
3. Brief Demographic Profile of North Bengal
Table 1 reveals the demographic profile of North Bengal. After bifurcation of Jalpaiguri district, a new district, namely, Alipurduar has been formed in June, 2014, 6 so the separate district-level data for the Alipurduar district is not available, therefore, combined Jalpaiguri district data will be considered. The table shows that during 2011, North Bengal has recorded a population of 17.20 million with majority of the persons (i.e.81.39 percent) living in rural areas and the urban areas recorded only 18.61 percent population. Cooch Behar district is recorded with highest number of rural population (i.e. 89.75 percent) and Darjeeling district is recorded with highest number of urban population (i.e. 38.99 percent). All the districts, except Darjeeling district, have recorded higher percentage of rural population compared to the state average, indicating the region is predominantly rural based and primarily depend on rural livelihood. Further, literacy rate in the region is below than the state average, except for Darjeeling district.
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Table 1: Demographic Profile of North Bengal
District Population 2011 Percentage of Percentage of Literacy rural urban Rate population population (percent) (Excluding 0- Total Rural Urban 6 age group) 2011 Darjeeling 1842034 1123859 718175 61.01 38.99 79.92 Jalpaiguri 3869675 2825001 1044674 73.00 27.00 75.49 Cooch Behar 2822780 2533480 289300 89.75 10.25 73.79 Malda 3997970 3446056 551914 86.19 13.80 62.71 Uttar 3000849 2638662 362187 87.93 12.07 60.13 Dinajpur Dakshin 1670931 1434856 236075 85.87 14.13 72.8 Dinajpur North 17204239 14001914 3202325 81.39 18.61 69.78* Bengal (Average ) West Bengal 91347736 62213676 29134060 68.11 31.89 76.26 Source: Census of India, 2011
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4. Brief resource endowment and potential of different districts of North Bengal
Darjeeling
Darjeeling district is the northern most district of West Bengal. Economic development and environment are interrelated to play a major role in conditioning the livelihood of the people in Darjeeling Himalaya.9 Subsistence agriculture, livestock, forestry, plantations and allied activities are the major activity of the people of this region. The farmers are still practicing the traditional method cultivating traditional crops like ginger, millet, local varieties of paddy, maize and vegetables. Further, fruits such as orange, papaya, peaches, plumbs and even mangoes are grown in the valleys while in the plain area good amount of other fruits such as banana, pineapple and guava are grown. However, paradigm shift occurred in the process of cultivation, considerable numbers of farmers have now engaged themselves in floriculture, horticulture activities. Beside these, Darjeeling hills produce finest quality tea in the world contributing around three percent of India’s GDP. In addition, tourism is an important economic activity of hill areas of the district generating incomes and employment to the local people but rural people are very less involved in it.10 As the district has strong base on cinchona and other medicinal plants, the region has great potential in ayurvedic medicine.
Jalpaiguri
Jalpaiguri is the divisional headquarter of North Bengal. The district is well known for its forest, hills, tea gardens and scenic beauty. The economy of the district is mainly agrarian. The main agricultural products are jute and tobacco. Social forestry has become popular in the region. There is a significant deposit of dolomite and other minerals
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like limestone, stone etc. which makes the district prospective for resource based industries like pre-cast building blocks and also demand based industries like mosaic tiles, terracotta pottery, cane and wooden furniture. Climate and the topographical features are favorable for the flourishing of mushroom production, especially, “button mushroom” which has tremendous demand in the international market. Taking into consideration supply side factors such as resource endowments, existing infrastructure and the general framework of the district, the region has enormous potential for developing food processing industry as the district is considered as large producer of vegetables, tea, potatoes etc.
Cooch Behar
The district occupies 12th position in the state in respect of its size 11 and ranks 11th in terms of Human Development Index (Human Development Report, 2004). The work participation rate is 38.99 percent and the female work participation rate is 21.22 percent.12 The adequate supply of water and the favorable kind of soil have brought about the rapid growth of agriculture. Beside these food crops, jute & tobacco are also cultivated. Pulse is one of the principal cereals which accounts for a large quantity of export. The district is also famous for the production of the hybrid crops- tomato, fruits and green chilly.13 Several handicrafts or the cottage industry in the rural areas can be the support for the rural economy. As the district is primarily agrarian, the agro-based industries are in the first priority. Food processing industries like the producing jam, jelly, sauce & chips have a good potential in the district. Due to the presence of barren land and distinct climatic environment, the area has a scope for producing bio-diesel. Since the area is endowed with suitable raw materials for jute based products, other manufacturing units can be set up for jute yarn dying
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and bleaching, jute mat and jute diversified products, jute particle board. But the district does not have a strong industrial base, most of them are micro Enterprises and engaged in production of food products, wood products and metal products including plywood and veneer.14 However, agricultural marketing needs to be developed by appropriate infrastructure development.
Uttar Dinajpur
The district falls in the industrially backward category but has a strong agrarian base with fertile soil. Most of the people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture. Small Industry is developing gradually as the new entrepreneurs are coming forward to set up an industrial unit in the region. Large and medium scale industries are mostly inconspicuous in the district. But few small agro based and other industries such as puffed rice and chira mill , jute diversified products including jute particle board, packaging of famous tulai panji rice etc are seen here.15 In addition, mustard oil is only cluster available in the district. The major problems of the existing industrial units are lack of modern technology, industrial accommodation, adequate power, smooth credit etc. There is huge potential for the development of ancillary industries if more large scale industries are set up considering the local resources, but the district is constrained from the point of view of transport, political will and connectivity with the other parts of the state and country.
Dakshin Dinajpur
A number of North-South flowing rivers (such as Atreyee, Purnabhaba, Tangon and Brahmani) flow through the district, which have given rise to a sizeable but unorganized fishing community. Dakshin Dinajpur is considered to be a "Non Industry" district16. The
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cottage and small scale industries and the handloom sectors have little presence in this region. The district does not have any significant strength with respect to production of any goods except for rice. Set up of a new maize processing unit can have possibility in the district.16
Malda
Malda district is situated to the southern part of the North Bengal.There is a despondent condition in industrial sector. There is no such heavy industry. Only some small and semi small industry are located. Traditional agro-based units like rice milling, oil mill, pulse- grinding mill, flour mill, bakery and biscuit manufacturing, silk twisting, silk reeling and weaving, fruit processing etc are found.17 However, the wetlands of the district, specially ,Chatra beel of English bazar block can be used for the tourism purpose. Since the horticulture production is rich, establishment of food park can be a big opportunity for the Malda town. In the manufacturing sector, the district has honey processing units with a turnover of Rs 3.21 crores.18 As the district is popular for its mango cultivation and sericulture, there is also huge potential of food processing and other allied industries.
5. Industrial Scenario of different districts of North Bengal
The industrial scenario of the different districts reveals that it is predominantly dependent on small and medium scale industries with a total of 1207 registered units. The industrial area for bringing up new industrial project is mainly concentrated in Jalpaiguri district with a total of five. The contribution of Dakshin dinajpur in the revenue generation through small scale industries is 327.79 million which is the highest compared to the other districts and lowest in Malda district. As per the figures there is no significant record of employment in industries which implies people are more involved in agriculture for
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their source of income. Moreover, due to lack of industrialization in the region the urbanization process have been very low except for few towns. Although the region is qualitatively endowed in terms of traditional skills it has not been properly exploited. The turnover from industries reveals that Dakshin Dinajpur, Coochbehar has been very promising but the same is not with Malda. It shows that the North Bengal has the culture of people working in small scale industries. Large and medium scale industries are almost negligible in the region. But this advantage of land with abundance of resources has still not been utilized for industrialization by the various policy makers for the economic development and generation of employment for the natives. Thus, the availability of knowledge based human resource is also available.
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Table 2: Distribution of Registered Industrial Unit among different districts of NB
District Registe Total Register Estimat Employ No. of Turnov Turnove red Industrial ed ed Avg. ment in Industria er Of r of Indust Unit Medium No. Of Large l Area Small Medium rial & Large Daily And Scale & Large Unit Unit Worker Medium Industri Scale Employ Industri es (In Industri ed In es Lacs) es Small (In Scale Lakcs) Industri es Darjeeling 302 - - 208 14965 - 104000 - Jalpaiguri 528 - - 2923 29345 5 - NA Cooch 116121 43 NA 892 2624 NA 1 NA Behar 154 Uttar 164 - - - 6120 - - - Dinajpur Dakshin 327796 104 - - 540 6120 - - Dinajpur 026 Malda 66 - - 1232 2559 2 801.14 NA Total 1207 - - - 8 Source: Extract from District Statistical Handbook of BAES & Economic Review, 2011-12, Govt.of W.B
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North Bengal is undoubtedly agriculture based economy but have no significant contribution from agro based industries. Jalpaiguri has 12 cotton textile units which is not present in any other districts. The production of mill made fabrics can be expanded to other regions of North Bengal. There are 17 paper and paper product units in Dakshin Dinajpur. The Indian paper industry has diversified in specialized field which can be also utilized to produce paper products in other districts specially in Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. Jalpaiguri leads in textile and downstream industries. Uttar Dinajpur and Jalpaiguri should increase its production towards the export of leather in the country. Chemical and Petro-chemical industry have huge potential in this area. It can create employment opportunities as well as investment in the districts. There are 34 chemical units in Jalpaiguri and 30 units in Cooch Behar. Engineering industry is one of the traditional industries of the state. However, there are no engineering units in this region. Jalpaiguri has 18 mineral based units which can also be extended to other districts of North Bengal. From the above table we see that the prevalence of small enterprise unit is maximum in Jalpaiguri but Jalpaiguri district cannot boast being in a favorable position as far as proper infrastructures, regulatory process, and tamed workforce are concerned.
Table 3: Details of Existing Micro & Small Enterprises and Artisan Units in the District
NIC Type of Industry Number of Units Code
No.
Darjeeli ng Jalpaigu ri Cooch Behar Uttar Dinajpu Dakshin Dinajpu Malda NB Total Agro based( NIC 20 ------Code-10) Soda watere (NIC 22 ------Code -11)
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Cotton textile(NIC 23 - 12 - - - - 12 Code -14) Woolen, silk & artificial Thread 24 - 6 - - - - 6 based clothes. (NIC Code -14) Jute & jute based 25 - 1 - - - - 1 (NIC Code -13) Ready-made garments & 26 - 5 - - - - - embroidery (NIC Code -14) Wood/wooden 27 based furniture - - - 1 1 - 2 (NIC Code -16) Paper & Paper 28 products (NIC - 10 1 17 4 - 32 Code -17) Leather based 29 7 96 46 60 22 - 231 (NIC Code -15) Chemical/Chemical 31 based (NIC Code - 4 34 30 10 10 - 88 20) Rubber, Plastic & 30 petro based (NIC 1 6 1 8 8 - 24 Code -22) Mineral based 32 - 18 8 1 1 - 28 (NIC Code -24) Metal based (Steel 33 Fab.) (NIC Code - - 13 2 2 2 - 19 25) Engineering units (NIC Code – Not 35 ------elsewhere classified) Electrical machinery and 36 1 34 - 1 1 - 37 transport equipment (NIC
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Code -27 & 29) Repairing & 97 servicing (NIC ------Code -95) Others (NIC Code 1 ------99) Kachori Making ------(NIC Code -10)
Source: Extract from District Statistical Handbook of BAES & Economic Review, 2011-12, Govt.of W.B
As per the latest report available with Govt. of West Bengal that there were two new industrial projects with 6.16 crore investment was made in Darjeeling district during 2010, while in Jalpaiguri district this number reached at twenty one with 92.19 crore investment .On the other hand, in two districts , namely, Cooch Behar and Uttar Dinajpur one project implemented during 2010, with investment costs 5.21 crore and 1.66 crore respectively. But in Malda district, there are four new projects have been implemented with expected investment 7.21 core during the same year. Surprisingly, though Dakshin Dinajpur is considered as no industry zone , during 2010, about 13.02 core investment was made in two project while Malda recorded with 7.21 crore investment in four projects. The figure indicates that over the years, number of industrial units as well as the amount of investment have not been increased for all districts , rather , in some districts number of industrial units as well as the amount of investment have drastically fallen reason may be political, institutional , lack of initiative and others. Thus, growth trend does not indicate any possibility of growing industrial project in the coming years.
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Table 4: Growth Trend of Industrial projects implemented in the districts of North Bengal
District /Year 2008 2009 2010
No. of No. of Invt. (In No. of Invt. (In Units Invt. (In Cr.) Units Cr.) Units Cr.)
Darjeeling - - 10 8.07 2 6.16
Jalpaiguri 1 0.6 58 99.19 21 92.19
Cooch Behar - - - - 1 5.21
Uttar Dinajpur 2 4.64 6 85.33 1 1.66
Dakshin Dinajpur 1 6.11 - - 2 13.02
Malda - - 2 6.49 4 7.21
Source: Economic Review, 2011-12, West Bengal
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6. Conclusion
With the other part of the country, North Bengal is passing through the phase of demographic and cultural transition, but these transitions did not lead to change in socio-economic condition of the people in that way though the resources and large market etc are present in the region. Though due to strategic location and good connectivity of Siliguri city with the other parts of the country, socio-economic condition of the people is better at the plains of Darjeeling district than the other areas, but no such big industry could be set up so far. The inadequate flow of investment and lack of initiative by state government towards industrialization may be the reason for this. More specifically, agriculture products remained as consumption goods only to meet the local demands of the people, but these could not be utilized as the raw materials for agro-based industry. Other industries such as food processing, dairy products and handicraft industry also have huge potential if proper infrastructural facilities are extended with positive attitude from the local administration and state government. Further, surplus agricultural labourers could be provided with proper training to make them productive and skilled labour force for the industry. Co- operative farming in hills area as well as in the plains area could be a better option for industrial development. Finally, strong political will, government initiative, setting up of research and development institution, policy implications, changing of step motherly attitude by the state government etc may be recommended for the growth of the industrial units in the region.
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References:
1. State Update: West Bengal, Economics Division of Credit Analysis & Research Limited [CARE], August, 1, 2013. 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bengalaccessed on 19.01.2016. 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_West_Bengal accessed on 19.01.2016. 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bengal_plains accessed on 19.01.16. 5. http://www.roughguides.com/destinations/asia/india/kolkata-west- bengal/darjeeling-north-b 6. The Times of India, 25 June 2014 available at http://time sofin dia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Alipurduar-a-new-district-on- June25/articleshow/36916065.cms (accessed on 25th June 2014). 7. http://www.icsin.org/uploads/2015/05/15/4ad957ab3fbf98f35615fd7 cdd1a26c9.pdf (accessed on 25th January, 2015) 8. https://aitmc.org/in_conver4.php (accessed on 12th June 2014). 9. http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v3(7)/Version-2/H0372042047.pdf (accessed on 28.01.2016) 10. Refer to http://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/1-darjilin g.ht ml(accessed on 25.01.2016) 11. http://dcmsme.gov.in/dips/COOCHBEHAR_wb.pdf (accessed on 28.01.2016) 12. http://www.icssr.org/coochbehar_mcd_report_final.pdf (accessed on 24.01.2016) 13. http://coochbehar.gov.in/HTMfiles/scope_industry.html#chakchak a (accessed on 26.01.2016) 14. http://coochbehar.nic.in/htmfiles/cob_agro_industries.html (acc es se d on 24.01.2016) 15. Refer to http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/dips/UTTAR DINAJPUR.pdf (accessed on 27.01.2016) 16. Refer to http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/di ps/DAKSHI N_DIN AJP U R.pdf (accessed on 23.01.2016) 17. Refer to http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/dips/MALDA.pdf (accessed on 28. 06 .2016) 18. See Economic Review, 2011-12, West Bengal
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ACADEMIC STRESS AND ADJUSTMENT LEVELS OF INTERMEDIATE STUDENTS S.Ramu Research Scholar Dept. of Education S.V.University, Tirupati Abstract
Stress is one of the most insidious phenomena of our time and it affects human beings in all walks of life. Stress implies pressure and causes tension of worry resulting in problems. Some amount of stress is necessary and is always withus. Depending on the situation, in the same person or person to person, it varies in its intensity. Stress acquires importance because or its consequences. Through stress causes both positive and negative effects, excessive stress produces not only psychological disturbances but also several harmful effects on the bio-system. Stress is a consequence of a general response to an action or situation that places special physical or psychological demands, or both on an individual. As such, stress involves an interaction of the individual and the environment.It is observed that stress among the adolescents is a universal phenomena and is the prime concern for all the people. Stress is a situation which is so difficult to avoid. Academic stress is a cause for great concern among adolescents. Adolescents face a life full of stress in the past mechanized and competitive world of today.
Keywords – Academic Stress, Adjustment Level
Introduction
The effect of education is discernible in each area of human activity. It is generally agreed that the main function of education is to
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promote a balanced development of the physical, mental, emotional, social, moral and spiritual aspect of the personality of the educed. It is only those citizens with a well balanced personality can strive to promote social welfare and national interests. Education, in the context of dynamic changes, that have been taking place in our country, is not only to impart information and development. The educational institutions should act as training centers for making better personality.
Learners are ambitious naturally. They may have so many aspirations and desires to be fulfilled. Despite their best planning and efforts they may not get the desired success. At times they find themselves in the state of utter confusion and bewilderment. All the paths for going ahead seem to be blocked. This sort of affair along with the repeated failure in the attempts puts students into a state that can be termed as “Student Stress”. This holds good even for prospective teachers.
Now a day everyone seems to be talking about stress. There is truth in every formulation of stress because all demands upon our adaptability to evoke the stress phenomenon.
Types of Stress
a). Neu Stress – brain responds neutrally to internal and external demands. But the person moves along with the impact from these demands in one way or other.
b). Distress – when arousal is too high or low, distress ensues.
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c). Positive Stress / e-u-stress – It is important for pursing one’s limits and widening that limits is essential for one’s own personal development.
Operational Definitions
Academic stress of the students in this study is confined only to the stressful situation felt by the student related to the academic aspects or study.
Adjustment level is considered as the level of adaptation or coping behaviour of the student related to various situations in connection with the studies without tension in an ideal manner.
Review of Related Literature
Archer and Lamnin (1995) in their survey of college students identified, tests, grade competition and lack of time as primary causes of academic stressors, while intimate relationships, parent relationships and finances ranked as causes of highest as personal stressor.
Arulmani (1999) conducted study on adolescents aged 16 to 17 years from a college in a slum, it was found that the family had an important role to play in the development of a competent adolescent. The competent adolescents had better adjustment in all the areas of home, health, and peers and had better ego-identity unlike the disturbed adolescents.
Bhattacharji (1989) in this study in the past three years reported that a number of college children from English medium in the
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age 16 – 18 years, lot their mental balance due to their inability to cope with the syllabi prescribed and the expectation of their parents.
Dryfoos (1999) opined that adolescence is a time of normative developmental stress, but for students living in urban environments and attending inner –city colleges, the developmental challenges of adolescence can be complicated by multiple stressors.
Statement of the Problem
“A study of Academic Stress and Adjustment level of Intermediate Students in Nellore District”.
Objectives of the Study
1. To study the impact of medium of study on academic stress of Intermediate students.
2. To study the impact of medium of study on adjustment level of intermediate students.
3. To study the impact of locality on academic stress of Intermediate students.
4. To study the impact of locality on adjustment level of intermediate students.
5. To study the impact of years of study on academic stress of intermediate 1st and intermediate 2nd year students.
6. To study the impact of years of study on adjustment level of intermediate 1st and intermediate 2nd year students.
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Hypotheses of the Study
1. There is no significant difference between Telugu and English medium students regarding their academic stress.
2. There is no significant difference between Telugu and English medium students regarding their adjustment level.
3. There is no significant difference between urban and rural area students regarding their academic stress.
4. There is no significant difference between urban and rural area students regarding their adjustment level.
st 5. There is no significant difference between Intermediate 1 year and Intermediate 2nd Year students regarding their academic stress.
st 6. There is no significant difference between Intermediate 1 year and Intermediate 2nd Year students regarding their adjustment level.
Sample of the Study
The sample selected for this investigation consisted of a total 480 students studying from Intermediate 1st year and Intermediate 2nd year students selected by following stratified random sampling technique.
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Collection of Data
The researcher personally went to the colleges to instruct the students towards responding to the tools. They were given sufficient time to complete their marking for all items of the tools. After completion, the investigator has collected the data for further analysis purpose. Since the investigator considered the survey method is more appropriate to adopt in this study. In all respects the same used in this study.
Design of the Study
The researcher has developed three tools in term of namely personal data from, academic stress scale and adjustment level scale by consulting the students, teachers and experts in the field of education. All most all have common consensus about the item of the tools. Wherever suggestions were received, modifications have been incorporated accordingly and modified all the three tools.
In the preliminary form, there are 80 items in academic stress scale and 60 items were framed in adjustment level scale. After pilot study only 70 items in the final forms were retained in the academic stress scale and 50 items were retained in the adjustment level scale. Survey method of research was adopted to conduct the present investigation.
Statistical techniques used for the study
In order to test the hypotheses formulated for the study the following statistical techniques were employed.
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1. Mean and Standard Deviation
2. T-test and F-ratio
3. Pearson’s product moment correlation
4. Regression analysis
Interpretation of Data
Hypothesis – 1
Significance of the difference between academic stress means between Telugu and English Medium of Instruction
Table-1
S.No. Medium of Sample Mean SD t-value Instruction Size
1 Telugu 240 79.55 19.240 4.569** 2 English 240 87.25 17.671
Note: ** Significant at 0.01 level
In the above table the mean value on stress of Telugu and English medium students were found 79.55 and 87.25 respectively. From the observation of above mean values it can be understand that English medium students are having more stress than Telugu medium students comparatively. The obtained ‘t’ value 4.569 is significant at
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0.01 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis is “There is no significant difference between Telugu and English medium students regarding their stress” is rejected. This shows that there is significant difference between Telugu and English Medium students in their stress at 0.01 level of confidence.
Hypothesis – 2
Significance of the difference between adjustment level of students between Telugu and English Medium students
Table – 2
S.No. Medium of Sample Mean SD t-value Instruction Size
1 Telugu 240 54.49 11.968 3.558** 2 English 240 58.23 11.080
Note: ** Significant at 0.01 level
In the above table the mean value on adjustment level of Telugu and English medium students were found 54.49 and 58.23 respectively. From the observation of above mean values it can be understood that English medium students are more than Telugu medium students in adjustment. The obtained ‘t’ value 3.558 is significant at 0.01 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis “There is no significant difference between Telugu and English medium students regarding their adjustment level” is rejected. This shows that there is significant
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difference between Telugu and English medium students in their adjustment level at 0.01 level of confidence.
Hypothesis – 3
Significance of the difference between academic stress means of Urban and Rural students
Table-3
S.No. Locality Sample Mean SD t-value Size
1 Urban 300 91.97 15.178 15.765** 2 Rural 180 69.13 15.477
Note: ** Significant at 0.01 level
In the above table the mean values on stress of urban and rural students were found as 91.97 and 69.13 respectively. From the observation of above mean values it can be understood that urban students are having more stress than rural students comparatively. The obtained ‘t’ value 15.765 is significant at 0.01 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis “There is no significant different between urban and rural area students regarding their stress” is rejected. This shows that there is significant difference between urban and rural students in their stress at 0.01 level of confidence.
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Hypothesis – 4
Significance of the difference between adjustment level means of urban and rural students
Table-4
S.No. Locality Sample Mean SD t-value Size
1 Urban 300 63.16 7.958 25.462** 2 Rural 180 45.03 7.294
Note: ** Significant at 0.01 level
In the above table the mean values on adjustment level of urban and rural students were found as 63.16 and 45.03 respectively. From the observation of above mean values it can be understood that urban students are having high score. The obtained ‘t’ value 25.462 is significant at 0.01 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis “There is no significant difference between urban and rural area students regarding their adjustment level” is rejected. This shows that there is significant difference between urban and rural students in their adjustment level at 0.01 level of confidence.
Hypothesis – 5
Significance of difference between academic stress means of intermediate 1st year and Intermediate 2nd year students
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Table-5
S.No. Year Sample Mean SD t-value Size
1 Intermediate 1st 120 81.16 17.697 Year
0.163@ 2 Intermediate 120 81.54 18.813
2nd Year
Note: @ Not significant at 0.05 level
In the above table the mean value of stress of Intermediate 1st Year and Intermediate 2nd Year students were found as 81.16 and 81.54 respectively. The significance of the difference between two means (81.54 – 81.16) 0.38 was examined by using ‘t’ test. The obtained ‘t’ value 0.163 is not significant at 0.05 and 0.01 level. Since the tabled ‘t’ value 1t 0.05 level is 1.96 and 0.01 level is 2.59. the obtained ‘t’ value is less than the tabled ‘t’ value at 0.01 and 0.05 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis “There is no significant difference between Intermediate 1st Year and Intermediate 2nd Year Students regarding their stress”.
Hypothesis – 6
Significance of the difference between adjustment level means of Intermediate 1st Year and Intermediate 2nd Year students
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Table-6
S.No. Year Sample Mean SD t-value Size
1 Intermediate 1st 120 53.33 11.431 Year
2.670** 2 Intermediate 120 57.38 12.013
2nd Year
Note: ** Significant at 0.01 level
In the above table the mean values on adjustment level of students belonging to intermediate 1st year and intermediate 2nd year students were found as 53.33 and 57.38 respectively. From the above observation of mean values. It can be understood that intermediate 2nd year students are greater than intermediate 1st year students comparatively. The significant difference between two means (57.38 – 53.33) 4.04 was examined by using ‘t’ test. The obtained ‘t’ value 2.670 is significant at 0.01 level. Since the tabled ‘t’ value at 0.05 level is 1.96 and 0.01 level is 2.58. The obtained ‘t’ value is greater than the tabled ‘t’ value at 0.05 level. Hence the formulated hypothesis “There is no significant difference between intermediate 1st year and intermediate 2nd year students regarding their adjustment level” is rejected.
Findings of the Study
1. The mean of academic stress score of English medium students was 87.25 and Telugu medium students was 79.55. The
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difference between these two means was tested and found that there is a significant difference between English and Telugu medium students.
2. The mean adjustment level score of Telugu medium was 54.49 and English medium as 58.23. The difference between these two means was tested and found that there is a significant difference between English medium students are more adjusted when compared to Telugu medium students.
3. The mean on academic stress score of urban students was 91.97 rural area students were 69.13. The difference between these two was tested and found that there is a significant difference. Urban area students have less stress when compared to rural area students.
4. The mean adjustment level score of urban students was 63.16 and rural area students was 45.03. The difference between these two means was tested and found that there is a significant difference. Urban area students are more adjusted when compared to rural area students.
st 5. The mean value on academic stress score of Intermediate 1 year was 81.16 and Intermediate 2nd year was 81.54. The difference between these two means was tested and found that there is no significant difference. Hence it can be assumed that there is no impact of class of study on academic achievement of the students.
st 6. The mean value on adjustment level score of intermediate 1 year was 53.33 and intermediate 2nd year was 57.38. The
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difference between these two means was tested and found that there is a significant difference. Intermediate 2nd year students are more adjustment when compared to intermediate 1st year students.
References:
1. Agarwal et.al., (2007) “Stressful life events among adolescents”, 102, 240-247.
2. Ainslie (1999) “Mediators of adolescents stress in college preparatory environment”, 70(3), 310-324.
3. Archer, James, Jr.Lamnin Alisa (1995) “An investigation of personal and Academic stressors of college campuses”, Journal of college student personal; 26(3), 210-215.
4. Fuhrman, T and Holmbeck.G.N (1995) “A contextual moderator of emotional autonomy and adjustment in adolescence” child development, 3, 793.
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GENERAL WELL-BEING AMONG INDOOR AND OUTDOOR SPORTS PLAYERS
Mr.Bheemappa. E. Arakera Lecturer Shree H.S.Patil College of Physical Education Talikoti, Vijayapur, District
Abstract
Well-being, wellbeing, welfare or wellness is a general term for the condition of an individual or group, for example their social, economic, psychological, spiritual or medical state; a high level of well-being means in some sense the individual or group's condition is positive, while low well-being is associated with negative happenings. In this present study the researcher tried to find the level of well being in sports player and also tried to find out the significance difference among in Indoor and outdoor sports players,. One hundred sports players chosen from Vijayapur district, Karnataka. Sample consisted fifty players from indoor games both male female players and fifty players from outdoor games both male female players, all respondents were selected by using simple random sampling technique, General Well-being scale was developed by Dr.Anita Deswal was used for data collection .The data was subjected to statistical treatment by using Mean, Standard Deviation, and t-value. The research hypothesis was proved by the investigator the male sports players have higher General Well-being than female sports players and the outdoor players have the higher general well being than the indoor players . the study reveals that the research hypothesis was proved by the statistical tools like, mean, sd, t test, were used in the present study.
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Key words – General Well-being, Gender Differences, Indoor, Outdoor Games
Introduction
According to McNulty (2012).positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences”. Well-being is an important factor in this subjective experience, as well as contentment, satisfaction with the past, optimism for the future and happiness in the present. People are more likely to experience positive psychology if they take in the good things in each experience or situation. Even with regard to the past, if a person only focuses on the negative the brain will only be able to recognize the negative. The more the brain has access to the negative, the easier it becomes, because that is what is more memorable.
It takes more effort for the brain to remember the positive experiences because typically it is the smaller actions and experiences that are the positive ones. James McNulty's (2012) research examines this idea further. He argues that, “...well-being is not determined solely by people’s psychological characteristics but instead is determined jointly by the interplay between those characteristics and qualities of people's social environments”. When people experience well-being, they are experiencing a sense of emotional freedom – there is nothing negative that is holding them back from experiencing positive emotions. This is true if a person is in a certain setting, because it has been demonstrated in previous research that particular environments can hold a lot of memories for an individual just because of what was shared there and the meaning of it source.
Therefore, “well-being is often equated with the experience of pleasure and the absence of pain over time” The less psychological pain an individual is experiencing the more he or she is going to experience well-being.
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When someone is experiencing well-being they are also experiencing several other things. It involves a sense of self-fulfillment, which is the feeling of being happy and satisfied because one is doing something that fully uses one's abilities and talents (Merriam-Webster). The feeling of having a purpose in life and connection with others are also contributors to the idea of well-being. When people feel as though they have a purpose in the world, they feel like they belong. They feel like they matter.
The tripartite model of mental well-being is one of the most comprehensive models of well-being in psychology. This model views mental well-being as having three components of hedonic (or subjective), psychological, and social well-being. Hedonic well-being concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning. The tripartite model of mental well-being has received extensive empirical support across cultures
Sports
According to Bloodworth and McNamee sports and physical activities are a key contributor to the development of people's well-being. The influence of sports on well-being is conceptualized within a framework which includes impermanence, its hedonistic shallowness and its epistemological inadequacy. Researching the effect of sport on well- being is difficult as some societies are unable to access sports, a deficiency in studying this phenomenon
Popular use of the term ‘well-being’ usually relates to health. A doctor's surgery may run a ‘Women's Well-being Clinic’, for example. Philosophical use is broader, but related, and amounts to the notion of how well a person's life is going for that person. A person's well-being is what is ‘good for’ them. Health, then, might be said to be a constituent of my well-being, but it is not plausibly taken to be all that matters for
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my well-being. One correlate term worth noting here is ‘self-interest’: my self-interest is what is in the interest of myself and not others. The philosophical use of the term also tends to encompass the ‘negative’ aspects of how a person's life goes for them. So we may speak of the well-being of someone who is, and will remain in, the most terrible agony: their well-being is negative, and such that their life is worse for them than no life at all. The same is true of closely allied terms, such as ‘welfare’, which covers how a person is faring as a whole, whether well or badly, or ‘happiness’, which can be
‘Happiness’ is often used, in ordinary life, to refer to a short-lived state of a person, frequently a feeling of contentment: ‘you look happy today’, ‘I'm very happy for you’. Philosophically, its scope is more often wider, encompassing a whole life. And in philosophy it is possible to speak of the happiness of a person's life, or of their happy life, even if that person was in fact usually pretty miserable. The point is that some good things in their life made it a happy one, even though they lacked contentment. But this usage is uncommon, and may cause confusion.
Over the last few decades, so-called ‘positive psychology’ has hugely increased the attention paid by psychologists and other scientists to the notion of ‘happiness’. Such happiness is usually understood in terms of contentment or ‘life-satisfaction’, and is measured by means such as self-reports or daily questionnaires. Is positive psychology about well- being? As yet, conceptual distinctions are not sufficiently clear within the discipline. But it is probably fair to say that many of those involved, as researchers or as subjects, are assuming that one's life goes well to the extent that one is contented with it—that is, that some kind of hedonistic account of well-being is correct. Some positive psychologists, however, explicitly reject hedonistic theories in preference to Aristotelian or ‘eudaemonist’ accounts of well-being, which are a version of the ‘objective list’ theory of well-being discussed below. A leader in the field, Martin Seligman, for example, has recently
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suggested that, rather than happiness, positive psychology should concern itself with positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment (‘Perma’) (Seligman 2011). Well-being is a kind of value, sometimes called ‘prudential value’, to be distinguished from, for example, aesthetic value or moral value. What marks it out is the notion of ‘good for’. The serenity of a Vermeer painting, for example, is a kind of goodness, but it is not ‘good for’ the painting. It may be good for us to contemplate such serenity, but contemplating serenity is not the same as the serenity itself. Likewise, my giving money to a development charity may have moral value, that is, be morally good. And the effects of my donation may be good for others. But it remains an open question whether my being morally good is good for me; and, if it is, it’s being good for me is still conceptually distinct from its being morally good
."Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research and Practice promotes a multidisciplinary approach to the study of well-being with the view to providing rigorous, in-depth and cutting edge development from leading scholars and practitioners. An exciting feature will be the exploration of mechanisms which offer insight into the processes underlying well- being. The journal also serves to stimulate discussion and debate which will progress theory, research and practice. The ultimate aim of the journal is to translate this knowledge into practice.
Statement of the problem:
The research study needs to assess the effect of general well being on the difference between the indoor and outdoor players and also consider their gender basis. Which effect on all sports players and their personality or behavior in sports conditions.
To measure the difference of General well-being among sports players due to their playing conditions like indoor and outdoor games and gender basis.
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Objectives:
To find the General Well-being level of sports players. To find out and compare the General Well-being among sports players of indoor and outdoor. To know the effect of playing conditions on the general well being. To the influence of gender on the general wellbeing Hypothesis:
There is significant difference between indoor and outdoor sports players in their General well-being There is significantly difference in General well-being among male and female sports players There is significant difference in general well being among due to their gender and playing conditions.
Research method:
The present study to assess the well being among indoor and outdoor sports players and also assess the due to gender difference among the sample groups from Vijayapur District, Karnataka state, India.
Sampling procedure:
The sample of the study - Fifty male and fifty female sports players were selected by using simple random sampling the indoor and outdoor sports players were the sample of the study. The sample were Administrated the scale of general well being and the data was collected for research study.
Tools
The standardized research tool, General well-being scale (GWBS) developed Ms.Anita Deswal, was used for data collection. The Statistical techniques used: Information gathered was put to suitable statistical treatment by using Mean, SD and t- test.
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Results and interpretation
The data was subjected to statistical analysis. The t-test was applied and results proved that there is a significant difference among sports players o their gender, and playing conditions basis, the objectives of the study to find out the significance difference among male and female, indoor and outdoor players in their general well being level.
Table No.1.Mean.SD.t-Value of Well Being among male and female, Indoor and Outdoor sports players
Groups Mean N Std. t Value Deviation
Male players 227.84 25 16.99 Female 14.96** 155.80 25 16.67 Player Outdoor 229.12 25 11.63 Player 15.92* Indoor Player 173.60 25 10.57
Significant level at 0.05*
250 227.84 229.6 200 173.6 155.8 150 Mean 100 SD 50 16.99 16.67 11.63 10.57 0 Male players Female Player Outdoor Player Indoor Player
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The present table No – 1 showing the significance difference between the male and fenmale sports players in their general wellbeing with the significant at the 0.05 level, the male sports players having the higher mean score 227.84 and female sports players score is 155.80 respectively in the general well being. The outdoor sports players having the higher mean score 229.12 and the counterpart indoor sports players score is 173.60,the t values showing the significant difference between male and female, Outdoor and Indoor sports players of Vijayapur District, Karnataka, India.
Conclusion
The table indicates that the male sports players are have the high level of the general well being than the female sports players of Vijayapur district Karnataka. The table also indicates that Outdoor players having the higher general well being that the Indoor players of Vijayapur district Karnataka. The study shows that gender and nature of game factors having the effect on general well being of sports players.
Reference
1. As in Journal of Economic Literature Health, education, and welfare JEL: I Subcategories at JEL: I3 - Welfare and Poverty.
2. "Henry J. Bruton, On the Search for Well Being, and Yujiro Hayami, Development Economics: From the Poverty to the Wealth of Nations," Economic Development and Cultural Change," 48(1), pp. 209-214.
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3. Guttman, Levy, Louis, Shlomit (February 1982). "On the definition and varieties of attitude and Well-being". Social Indicators Research 10 (2): 159–174.
4. Partha Dasgupta, 1993. An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution. Description and review.
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EDUCATING YOUNG ADULTS: WALTER DEAN MYERS’ FAST SAM, COOL CLYDE AND STUFF AND THE YOUNG LANDLORDS
Rajeep Kumar Tirkey Jap Preet Kaur Bhangu Research Scholar Professor Department of Management & Humanities Department of Management & Humanities Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology and Technology Longowal, Punjab, India Longowal, Punjab, India
Abstract:
The purpose of the present paper is to evaluate how through literature a conscious attempt is made to inculcate a positive self image among African American young adults. The paper examines the interplay between what is termed as the “authentic” black identity and the stereotypical roles thrust upon African Americans in a racially polarised society. Stereotypes indicate not only how blacks are perceived in the western society but also how they themselves deploy these for self-defence.
Every stereotyped persona becomes a mask put on as a strategy to cope with racism even as it is also out of compulsion, a screen behind which the true self is kept well hidden. Walter Dean Myers, one of the most acclaimed writers of African American young adult fiction recreates black urban experience to capture the humour as well as the pain, and above all, the spirit of survival among young blacks growing up in the black community. The present paper focuses on the strategies employed to educate and inculcate positive images of black adolescents in works such as Fast Sam, Cool Clyde & Stuff (1975), and The Young
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Landlords (1979). The paper also brings out, the connotations of the model image with which the stereotypical images are contested and replaced.
Walter Dean Myers began his literary career with the picture books such as Where Does The Day Go? (1969) and The Dancer (1972). At a time when a lot of books about African Americans depicted fatherless families and peerless groups, these picture books not only presented positive interactions between black fathers and sons but also the importance of peer groups. Myers deals with these themes more elaborately in his young adult novels. Rudine Sims Bishop in her work Presenting Walter Dean Myers (1990) classifies Myers’s first few young adult novels as ‘love and laughter novels’. In these novels Myers portrays truthful and positive images of black adolescents who are generally caricatured and stereotyped in mainstream children’s literature. Through his works, Myers conveys the message to his readers that black children are as good as their white counterparts and they too have a right to share the American dream.
Fast Sam, Cool Clyde & Stuff (1975), developed from short stories into a book length work, is Myers’s first young adult novel which also won the Coretta Scott King Award. The novel has been described in the School Library Journal as “alternately funny and sad, but always very natural and appealing” and praised in the Kirkus Review for portraying “a sense of enviable group rapport with an easy mix of nostalgia and humour.” In the novel, Myers reproduces his own experiences to capture, as Rudine Sims Bishop aptly terms it, “the rhetoric, the humour, the pain, and the playfulness of young blacks growing up in a Harlem of a more innocent time” (18). Myers’ work however transcends boundaries of race as he uses the narrative as a
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human support system for all young adults regardless of their cultural or ethnic background.
Fast Sam…is a story of an eighteen year old black boy, Stuff and his nostalgic reminiscences of the times he and his friends experienced after he moved to 116th Street in Harlem at the age of twelve and a half. Myers, drawing the story considerably from his own personal experiences, picks up those issues which have traditionally been used to portray negative images of black and replaces them with positive and authentic images. The caricatured and stereotyped characters are replaced with morally strong individuals and “cool looking groups” (10). Hence instead of using an angry tone, Myers uses humour as the medium to develop the sense of community and the sense of oneness among the young adults.
Myers brings out the age old prejudice of white people towards the black children in the very first episode “Miracles of Modern Science”. In a fight over a girl, Robin, a boy from 118th Street, bites off part of the ear of Binky, a boy form 116th Street. Clyde who remembers reading in the New York Times about the reattachment of a severed finger by doctors, tells the same to others. Fast Sam, the fastest runner of the block, takes off to the hospital with Kleenex-wrapped ear in his pocket. The children follow him into the hospital emergency room. All children, in excitement, start talking at the same time about how Binky got his ear bit off by Robin which creates a chaos in the emergency room. The police arrive and arrest all children for “disturbing the peace, rioting, and everything else they could think about” (24). Beneath the humour of the episode, Myers masterfully reveals the void that exists between the police and the African American community. The incident is also used to ridicule the tendency of non-blacks to assume that a group of black adolescents means trouble. When several
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noisy, excited, but unarmed black children get into the hospital emergency room, the doctors and the police automatically assume that they are looking for drugs. “The police” Stuff says, “started cracking heads and dragging us out of there. The next thing you know, there we are, in jail… they made us roll up our sleeves and stuff to check out whether we were junkies or anything” (24). The incident described in humour nevertheless emphasizes the undercurrents of alarm and anxiety, any set of youngsters would experience in such situations.
A similar incident is found in the episode “There’s People and Then There’s People,” in which the three boys, Clyde, Sam and Stuff are accused of snatching a lady’s pocketbook when in reality they were the ones who chased off the thieves and recovered the lady’s pocketbook. The police presume that the boys are guilty. To the boys’ surprise, even the purse owner mistakenly identifies them as the thieves. She later says, the thieves “looked just like” (93) the boys, a reference to the general tendency of some whites to declare that all blacks look alike. The police officers also handle the boys roughly. They do not listen to their story, and make no attempt to call their parents. In this case the boys are rescued by witnesses who saw their false arrest and were willing to take the time to travel to the police station. Stuff recognizes the irony in the situation: “so the second thing that got me in jail, besides modern science, was helping people. You get into jail for some very funny things” (93). Through it all however, Stuff, and presumably Myers, continues to be positive and optimistic towards life.
Both these incidents are based on the traditional misconceptions associated with blacks in the American society. “Miracles of Modern Science” and “There’s People and Then There’s People” give an opportunity to Myers to delve into history and examine the stereotypical roles which whites have carefully nurtured and imposed
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on blacks. W.E.B. DuBois in his classic The Souls of Black Folk (first published in 1903) wrote of the “double consciousness, this sense of always looking at oneself through the eyes of the others.” Dubois poignantly noted that “the history of the American negro is the history of this strife, -this longing to attain self conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self” (45). For Myers however, the positive identity is the one having a feeling of friendship and kinship within the community.
The value of friendship thus is another important theme which Myers depicts in the novel. Historically, black children have not been given any special place in the mainstream children’s literature. Black characters are portrayed as stereotyped individuals helping to make white characters look like saviours. Reading such stories, it becomes unimaginable to think about a group of black children with positive traits, acting like ‘heroes’. Fast Sam…as the very title suggests, is about a group of black boys who share their experiences as a group. This theme is best expressed in various incidents of the novel such as Clyde’s father, Mr. Jones’ accidental death, Mr. Chisholm, Gloria’s father, abandoning his family due to unemployment and leaving Gloria withdrawn and depressed, etc. Remembering the support Clyde had received from Sam and Stuff when his father died, Clyde suggests that they should form a club. Thus “the 116th Street Good People” (77) is formed to “protect each other, not from fighting and that kind of thing, but just from being alone when things get messed up” (74).
The group thus comes to function as a community for all the members of the group. “The 116th Street Good People” help Clyde overcome his depression when he is discouraged about his inability to succeed in college. The group encourages and motivates him. The group also helps Clyde’s sister Kitty cope with her distress over her mother’s
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dating. The group even tries to rescue Carnation Charley from his own drug addiction and the almost inevitable consequences. All these efforts made by the 116th Street Good Group, bring them closer and make their friendship priceless. Through such descriptions thus Myers emphasizes the role community can play in the life on an individual.
Myers also deals with another important issue related to African America young adults –sex. Black children are often accused of being over-sexed. Myers dedicates an entire chapter to discuss this matter. The subject is discussed by the curious young characters themselves. Sex is understood differently by different characters. For Chalky, sex is “getting some” (117) and for Maria, “I don’t think people should have sex before they’re married” (129). “If a guy wants me to be with him in sex he’ll find me important enough to think about it real hard. That’s just the way I feel” (131), said Gloria. Clyde said, “I wouldn’t want to get a girl pregnant if I didn’t want to marry her. I wouldn’t want to catch a disease either” (131). Myers leaves the discussion on without giving any final judgement. However, he is clear about the consequence of such irresponsible actions as Maria says, “If you get a baby of something, everybody looking at you like you’re dirt” (129). Myers thus leaves subtle hints for young readers to pick, examine and learn from.
Following the discussion on sex, Myers also highlights the misuse of drugs by the black adolescents, one of the major issues of concern for the black youth. Many black adolescents are drawn to drugs due to negative peer pressure. Myers tells the side effects of drug use. Carnation Charley a young promising dancing talent becomes a drug addict and is shot dead by the police while attempting a robbery. Sam’s father’s fear is right, “You mess with dope you’re going to die. You never see no old dope fiend, do you?” (166). Myers does not deal with
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the subject extensively in this novel, but in his later works such as Dope Sick (2009), he is much more forthright and articulate.
Another theme that becomes an important theme in Myers’ works, is that of father-son relationship. Myers deals with the issue step by step in his works. In the ‘love and laughter’ works, he presents positive images while in his realistic work such as It Ain’t All For Nothin’ (1978), he portrays the brutal reality without any sugar- coating. In Fast Sam…Myers presents a patriarchal family, a reality generally missing in the black community for centuries. Myers redefines it however by portraying responsible and caring black males. Through this usage Myers attempts to present an alternative model of black family. Thus he introduces young adults to positive roles which can be taken up by them in the future.
Stuff’s father, lectures him and keeps reminding him about his difficult past. He is determined to see his son, brought up well and make something of himself. However, he is also not always expressive about his feelings. Stuff realizes the love of his father only when he is being taken to the police station. He remembers, “all the way down to the police station his father had his arm around him” (169). Stuff’s father is Myers’ prototype. He is not perfect. He does not always say right things and his lecturing may also be ineffective. But unlike black fathers in many urban novels of the seventies, Stuff’s father has not abandoned his family. He works hard to support his family. He cares about what his son is doing. He is always there to provide support and guidance to him. Through the depiction of black fathers, Myers offers some glimpses into what it means to become a black man who is also a responsible and loving parent.
Through portrayal of these incidents, Myers projects a positive image of Harlem. Prior to Fast Sam.. as Rudine Sims Bishop points out,
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Harlem was presented, – “as hell, nearly devoid of any love or laughter or the small daily joys and sorrows common to people everywhere” (7 ). Such a depressing image of the place was making them feel pessimistic and gloomy. Myers instead recreates a balanced picture of Harlem. Don Latham in “The Reader in the Closet: Literacy and Masculinity in Walter Dean Myers’s Bad Boy: A Memoir” says, “violence, drugs, and crime existed, but there also existed basketball and dancing and Bible school at the church”. (72-86). Myers thus chooses to present a picture of Harlem which offers opportunities to black boys to renegotiate their own identity development.
Fast Sam…thus, carries a much needed lesson for young black adults regarding the ways they may deploy to grow up to be healthy, positive nemeses of the black community, contributing a theme he continues with in his next work The Young Landlords as well.
Myers’ The Young Landlords published in 1979, also won Coretta Scott King Award in 1980. In this novel also Myers presents a blend of realism and comedy and gives a message, how black children growing up in the inner city can also have all the fun youngsters normally have anywhere. According to Myers kids will be kids having fun anyway, sharing with their friends the same emotions and concerns as everywhere. The Young Landlords is the story of a group of young black adolescents aged around fifteen. Paul is the narrator of the story and like his earlier novel Fast Sam, Cool Clyde and Stuff, the story revolves around a group, called the “Action Group” (7). The story is based on the knowledge that the members of the group gain at the end of the novel, “To accept the idea that answers were a lot easier to come by when you stood across the street from the problem. What was harder to accept was that there weren’t good answers to every problem, and when there weren’t good answers you had to make do the best you
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could” (196). In the novel, Myers does not give any readymade solutions to the problems but through his strong and determined characters, he shows the ways to overcome the problems with strong willpower.
The poor relationship between the tenants and the landlords has been a common feature of Harlem. In this novel also, the poor black people are forced to live in inhuman conditions in buildings like 356, a “dirty, filthy place” (10), more of an eye sore and an insult to the entire neighbourhood. A group of young black adolescents decide to do something about this building, owned by Mr. Joseph Harley by forming an “Action Group” (7). The purpose of this Action Group was – “world peace, cleaning up the empty lot near the corner and to do something about the building 356” (7-8). They postpone the idea of world peace and cleaning the empty lot and settle on doing something about the building 356, known as The Joint. The whole story revolves around this building and the new young landlords.
The Action Group confronts Mr. Harley with strong words, “You are oppressing my people. You are making them live under conditions under which a dog should not live. And we are here to see that justice is done” (10). Mr. Harley, taken aback at this sudden accusation by the young black adolescents, decides to transfer the power and responsibility of the building to them. He sells the building 356 to Paul for one dollar. Thus, the Action Group becomes the Young Landlords. Myers reverses the power and responsibility. As soon as the new landlords take up the charge, the real problems surface one by one. Myers beautifully expresses this through Gloria, “Every person who has a house like this has the same problem and half the people want to walk away from it or just take what little they can. We have to at least try to do better. May be we can do something about the people messing up the place” (70). The young landlords do not shy away from the
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responsibility. They accept the challenge and tackle the problems in a positive manner. Myers thus puts up positive role models for the young adults to emulate. He not only inspires them but also skilfully replaces the negative stereotypes prevalent in the society.
Myers also touches upon some other serious issues prevalent in the black community through these young landlords. As the Action Group tries to find solutions to the difficulties of running the building, many of their problems and much of the humour of the novel, come from the eccentricities of the tenants. One of the funniest is Askia Ben Kenobi, a mystic who wears a hooded robe and uses karate to intimidate the landlords. Miss Robinson throws the cheese dip at him in a party and ruins the party. Petey Darden, an elderly woman, believes that Jack Johnson, the first Black man to become heavyweight boxing champion, lives in her apartment. Although Johnson died in 1946, he dies again about once a month, and Mrs. Brown has to be consoled. Apparently he is always resurrected or she is unable to remember his death, so the landlords are periodically called in to sit with her while she mourns. The young people are unfailingly compassionate. Mr. Pender is another eccentric character who is hired by the landlords as their accountant. Mr. Pender, who is very short and very neat, looks like an “ad for tea, or a Black Charlie Chaplin” (55). He also has an investment firm called Financial Banana and takes his leave with a “Peerio! Chip, chip, Peerio!” (57) that Gloria, Paul, and Bubba find extremely funny.
Mr. Pender is a capable accountant who gives good advice, and does not take his salary. However, not all the tenants provide opportunities for laughs. When Ella Fox, the mother of a small child, falls four months behind on her rent, Paul wants to play business man and evict her because the landlords’ finances are in poor condition.
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Gloria angrily argues for compassion and reminds him saying, “We’re supposed to be some kind of action group to do something for people, and here you are talking about the same kind of things everybody else is!” (82-83). Through these portrayals, Myers attempts to bring to life a genuine black community diverse yet similar in sensibility.
The Young Landlords has a subplot that involves one of the boys, Chris who is accused of stealing stereo equipment from the shop where he works. Members of the group believe in his innocence, and they have quite a few adventures, including being shot at, as they try to find the real culprits. In another touch of reality, when the case is resolved, Chris is not completely innocent, even though he has not stolen the stereo equipments. The conclusion finds the landlords surviving winter fuel bills and managing a second building owned by the Captain, the numbers runner who lectured them at the barbecue.
Myers also carries forward the theme of father son relationship in this novel, but readers hardly find any difference in the role of fathers in Fast Sam, Cool Clyde and Stuff and The Young Landlords. Paul’s father, like Stuff’s father, lectures him and keeps reminding him about his difficult past. He is determined to see his son brought up well and make something of himself. However, he is also not always expressive about his feelings. Paul understands his father’s feelings only when he accompanies him to Martinsburg, West Virginia for the funeral of his uncle. Myers thus brings to life quite believable black characters with whom the young readers can easily identify.
Myers’s depiction of black middle class families in this novel thus continues in this novel too. His works are accessible to a broad range of readers. Urban black youth have an opportunity to see themselves and their experiences reflected in positive, upbeat ways
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while other readers are offered an opportunity to share experiences that reflect such vital aspects of black life and culture.
To sum up, with these works Myers thus creates a parallel body of work for black young adults as compared to what works such as The Famous Five, Nancy Drew series, etc., have always done for British/American children. Myers early works of fiction are both light and serious. These novels, written on the principles given by Dubois, are entertaining and educative. Myers treats the black community with humour and sympathy. Fast Sam, Cool Clyde and Stuff and The Young Landlords point out stereotyped images of black adolescents in order to ridicule the false perceptions prevalent in a racist society. Myers instead creates images of real black individuals who are portrayed as heroes in control of destiny. The setting of the novels is Harlem neighbourhood but that does not automatically equate with images of being the downtrodden and impoverished. Within that environment, children are portrayed as mostly having fun and sharing the same emotions and concerns as children would in any other community. Myers also places a high value on peer groups and the support they can provide to its members. He depicts these groups like small communities where black adolescents find strength and a sense of belongingness. Myers creates likable groups of boys and girls who are warm, affectionate, and supportive of one another.
Rudine Sims Bishop in her work Presenting Walter Dean Myers (1990) rightly affirms that “Myers combines memory and imagination to produce vivid portraits of ordinary people living in sometimes desperate circumstances and celebrates the human spirit and the spirit and strength of a people whose survival has been achieved at a great cost.” (66). Myers may not have fully succeeded to replace the stereotypes of black adolescents with positive images, but he surely
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points out ways through which they may shape their identity and transform their lives.
References
1. Bishop, Rudine Sims, Presenting Walter Dean Myers, Boston: Twayne Publishers,1990.
2. DuBois, W.E.B. The Souls Of Black Folk, (first published in 1903), New York: Penguin, 1969.
3. https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/walter-dean- myers/fast-sam-cool-clyde-and-stuff/
4. http://penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/320889/fast-sam-cool- clyde-and-stuff#9780140326130
5. Latham, Don. “The Reader in the Closet: Literacy and Masculinity in Walter Dean Myers’s Bad Boy: A Memoir,” Children’s Literature Association, 2010.
6. Myers, Walter Dean. Fast Sam, Cool Clyde, and Stuff, Puffin Books: New York, 1975.
7. ………………. The Young Landlords, , Puffin Books: New York, 1979.
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PUBLIC POLICY ON THE THRESHOLD OF FAITH AND HISTORY Suraj Narayan Research Scholar Department of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology Panjab University, Chandigarh
Prajasukhesukhamrajyahaprajanam ca hitehitam,
Natmapriyyamhitamrajanahaprajanam cha hitam priyam.1
This Sanskrit shlokafromKautilya’sArthshastrasays much about the pattern of policies made by states for public. Public policy is the principled guide to action taken by the administrative executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner consistent with law and institutional customs.2 The foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations.3Believes, faiths, assumptions have been constant companion of the man in his journey of civilization. There have been tussles, conflicts, unrests and wars on the edge of ideologies and faiths. However in this process there has been always an invisible bridge among the far looking islands of the faith. A society like India divided on different parameters often needs some mediators who could take it to universalism and towards equality.
Bhagvad Gita is equally controversial and knowledge epitome which qualifies this on many parameters. Innumerable commentaries have been written on it and innumerable explanations can be found on it. There are people who hate it, some worship it, some idolise it, and some take inspiration from it. It has been inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi and also for NathuramGodse. Some people says itisbrahmanic, anti -shudra and propagates casteism and inequality4 and some find it
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anti-women which propagates gender inequality.5Some says it propagates war and some says it teaches peace. Bhagvad Gita maintaining a distance from all kind of sectarian views, propagate the ethics and the philosophy of Karma or performing one’s own duty. In the same manner duties and functions of the state and rulers have also been a matter of concern. The present paper will look into the parameters of the policies adopted by the state regarding the different sections of the society, in the light of ShrimadBhagvad Gita. As it is said, “Vastuyathatmyaj nanavarak amvipa ryaya jna najana kam ta m ah” ;under the spell of ignorance one cannot understand the thing as it is. Mahatama Gandhi said,“When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to Bhagavad-Gita and find a verse to comfort me”. The Gita’s philosophy is considered as a compendium of the prevalent philosophical theories of the time, a kind of Cliff’s Notes for Indian Philosophy. Gandhi insisted. “It does not favour any sectarian point of view. It teaches nothing but pure ethics.”6The Bhagavad Gita, propagate different ways of performing one’s duties it integrates many different Hindu schools of thought: yoga, bhakti, samkhya, vedanta and others.7
Rule of Law: The first lesson Gita gives to rule of law, that every person has equal protection of law irrespective of caste, class or gender. Vedanta Sutra2/1/34 saysVaishamyanairghrinyenasapeksatvat, meansthe lord neither hates nor likes anyone. That is the main concept of Fundamental rights in the third chapter of Indian Constitution. Article 14-15-16 -17 provides right to equality, equal opportunity, and right against any kind of discrimination.8
samo 'ham sarva-bhutesu, na me dvesyo 'stinapriyah9.29
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I do not Carrie any prejudice, nor am I partial to anyone. I am equal to all. In case of any instability appropriates actions must be taken by the authorities of the state. So does Gita, when Krishna says;
yadayada hi dharmasya , glanirbhavatibharata abhyutthanamadharmasya, tadatmanamsrjamyaham 4.7
Whenever and wherever there is a decline in religious practice, O descendant of Bharata, and a predominant rise of irreligion--at that time I descend myself.For the reason of;
paritranayasadhunam, vinasaya ca duskrtam dharma-samsthapanarthaya , sambhavamiyugeyuge 4.8
The motto of Maharashtra police is ‘Sadrakshnaya, khalnigrahanaya, as said by Gita, In order to deliver the pious and to annihilate the miscreants, as well as to re-establish the principles of religion or rule of law, I advent myself millennium after millennium.
Prasharasamriti, says that, it is the responsibility of the authorities to protect its citizens from all kinds of difficulties,“kshatriyo hi prajaraksan”, and for that reason he has to apply violence in suitable cases for law and order, “Shashtrapanipradndayan,” Therefor he has to conquer the soldiers of the inimical kings and thus with religious principles, he should rule over the world; “nirjitya para-saiyadi, kshitimdharmayenpalayet”
Social equality and social welfare:Equality among all the creatures is one of the basic principles advocated. One of the main accusations on Bhagwad Gita is that it advocate inequality and caste system in the society. But when one looks closely the truth is exactly opposite to it.
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13th verse of the 4th chapter i.e. janana yoga or Transcendental Knowledge says;
catur-varnyammayasrstam, guna-karma-vibhagasah tasyakartaramapi mam, viddhyakartaramavyayam
I am the creator of four varnas of the society and had divided them on the basis of Gunaand Karmas i.e., qualities and acts. And, although I am the creator of this system, you should know that I am yet the non- doer, being unchangeable. Here Bhagwad Gita is found against the privileges based on the birth advocated by Jatiand there is a fundamental difference between Jatiand varna. Vedanta Sutra2/1/34 Vaishamyanairghrinyenasapeksatvattatha hi darsyati, the lord neither hates nor likes anyone though he appears to. Chapter 4, verse 6 says that I am the lord of all living entities. Chapter 5, verse 18 says, The humble sages by virtue of true knowledge, see with equal vision a learned and gentle Brahmana, a cow , an elephant, a dog and a dog- eater( outcaste).VidhyaVinayasampannebrahamnegavihastini,
shunichaivshvapakechpanditah sam-darsinah.5.18 what more can be harmonious than this.
Gender Equality: Concerning the gender equality another very controversial verse is verse 32, chapter 9,
mam hi parthavyapasritya , ye 'pi syuh papa-yonayah striyovaisyastathasudras, te 'pi yantiparamgatim
O Partha, those who take shelter in me, though they be of lower birth-- women, vaisyas, as well assudras, can approach the supreme destination. Prof.RomilaThapar translates it as all women,vaisyas and shudras as originated from Papayoniand said it is against women as it consider them as of lower birth. However it can also be translated as all
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persons including children of degraded women, vaisyas and shudra are equal in the eyes of supreme and they also can get salvation.
Hierarchy and Accountability: In administration and different units of the state is a compulsory condition for public policy. Police, judiciary, general administration institutes are expected to look into the actions and functions of their subordinates and expected to present examples before them.9
Yaddadacaritshresthastatdevetarojanah,
sayatpramanmkurutelokas tad anuvartate.3.21
Says that people sitting on higher authorities must acts appropriately. Whatever action a great men perform common man follows. And whatever standards he sets with his exemplary acts, all the world pursues. If some fails to perform his prescribed job, becomes a matter of concern.
Akirtimcapibhutani, kathayishyantitevyayam,
Sambhavitsyacakirtirmaranadatiricyate. 2.34
People will always speak of your infamy, and for a respectable person, dishonour is worse than death. loka-sang ra ham eva pi, samp a sya n k artum arhasi3.20Therefore, just for the sake of educating the people in general, you should perform your work.
yadihyahamnavarteyam, jatukarmanyatandritah mama vartmanuvartante, manusyahparthasarvasah 3.23
For, if I did not engage in work, O Partha, certainly all men would follow my path.
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klaibyam ma smagamahpartha, naitattvayyupapadyate ksudramhrdaya-daurbalyam. tyaktvottisthaparantapa 2.3
O son of Prtha, do not yield to this degrading impotence. It does not become you. Give up such petty weakness of heart and arise, O chastiser of the enemy
sva-dharmamapicaveksya, navikampitumarhasi dharmyaddhiyuddhacchreyo 'nyat, ksatriyasyanavidyate 2.31.
Considering your specific duty as a ksatriya, you should know that there is no better engagement for you than fighting on religious principles; and so there is no need for hesitation.
athacettvam imam dharmyam, sangramamnakarisyasi tatahsva-dharmamkirtim ca, hitvapapamavapsyasi 2.33
If, however, you do not fight this religious war, then you will certainly incur sins for neglecting your duties and thus lose your reputation as a fighter.
yoga-sthahkurukarmani, sangamtyaktvadhananjaya 2.48
Be steadfast in yoga, O Arjuna. Perform your duty and abandon all attachment to success or failure.
niyatamkuru karma tvam, karma jyayohyakarmanah sarira-yatrapi ca te, naprasiddhyedakarmanah 3.8
Perform your prescribed duty, for action is better than inaction. A man cannot even maintain his physical body without work.
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yajnarthatkarmano 'nyatra, loko 'yam karma-bandhanah tad-artham karma kaunteya, mukta-sangahsamacara 3.9
Work done as a sacrifice for Vishnu has to be performed, otherwise work binds one to this material world. Therefore, O son of Kunti, perform your prescribed duties for His satisfaction, and in that way you will always remain unattached and free from bondage
istanbhogan hi vo deva, dasyanteyajna-bhavitah tairdattanapradayaibhyo, yobhunktestenaevasah 3.12
In charge of the various necessities of life, the demigods, being satisfied by the performance of yajna [sacrifice], supply all necessities to man. But he who enjoys these gifts, without offering them to the demigods in return, is certainly a thief.
annadbhavantibhutani, parjanyadanna-sambhavah yajnadbhavatiparjanyo, yajnah karma-samudbhavah 3.14
All living bodies subsist on food grains, which are produced from rains. Rains are produced by performance of yajna[sacrifice], and yajnais born of prescribed duties.
apicedasipapebhyah, sarvebhyah papa-krttamah sarvamjnana-plavenaiva, vrjinamsantarisyasi 4.36
Even if you are considered to be the most sinful of all sinners, when you are situated in the boat of transcendental knowledge, you will be able to cross over the ocean of miseries.
Uddharedatmanatmanamnatmanamavsadyet,
atmaivahyatmanobandhuratmaivaripuratmanah, 5.6
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One must deliver himself with the help of his mind and not degrade himself. The mind is the friend of the conditioned soul and his enemy as well.
Bandhuratmatmanastasyayenatmaivatmanajitah;
anatmanstushatrutvevartetatmaivashtru-vat 6.6,
For him who has conquered the mind the mind is the best of friends, but for one who has failed to do so, his mind will remain the greatest enemy.
bhayadranaduparatam, mamsyantetvammaha-rathah yesam ca tvambahu-mato, bhutvayasyasilaghavam 2.35
The great generals who have highly esteemed your name and fame will think that you have left the battlefield out of fear only, and thus they will consider you a coward.The paying of regular taxes, which are like lifelines of any national state and accountability of the people involved in administration has much importance. Leaves can be taken from Gita in this regard without having any sectarian viewpoint.
Protection of flora and fauna: Protection and conservation of natural resources is a major responsibility of all the nations. The eighth fundamental duty included in the constitution of India in article 51A is protection of Natural Resources.10 In the part IV of constitution under directive principles of state policy, Article 48A provides that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.11In these provisions along with economic and ecological aspects, the deep rooted principle of non-violence and compassion towards all the living beings is also reflected. Here Krishna in Gita says;
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advestasarva-bhutanam,maitrahkarunaeva ca
nirmamonirahankarah 12.13
One who is not envious but who is a kind friend to all living entities, who does not think himself a proprietor, who is free from false ego, is very dear to me.A true yogi observes me in all the beings and also sees every being in me. 5.18 Indeed the self -realised person sees me, the supreme lord everywhere. 6.29
yathakasa-sthitonityam, vayuhsarvatra-go mahan tathasarvanibhutani, mat-sthanityupadharaya6.9
Understand that as the mighty wind blowing everywhere, rests always in the sky, all created beings rest in me.ahamatmagudakesa, sarva- bhutasaya-sthitah 10.20
I am the Self, O Gudakesa, seated in the hearts of all creatures. bhuta-bhartr ca tajjneyam, grasisnuprabhavisnu ca. Chapter 13, Verse17
Gita is looked upon as a religious literature, though it does not propagate or advocate any religious point of view. Literature being a part of history writing is as important as other sources are. As a source of History, there is a controversy regarding the time and locale of the happenings. Gita propagates a philosophy of universalism, humanism, liberalism, gender and ecological harmony. It gives a model code of conduct, which can be used by the modern states and policy makers in framing and implementing the policies. Though critics may go on criticizing it on different parameters.
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Foot Notes and Bibliography
1. RadhaKumudMookerji, “ChandraGuptaMaurya and His times”, Pg. 239 MotilalBanarsiDass, Delhi, 1988. 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy 3. Ibid., 4. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, “Riddles in Hinduism”Createspace Independent Pub, 2008. 5. KalavaiVenkat, “A Critical Review of RomilaThapar’s Early India- From The Origins to AD 1300”, Page 14. 6. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/12/04/war-and-peace- bhagavad-gita/ 7. Ibid., 8. Dr.Durga Das Basu, “Introduction to the constitution of India”,Pg, 142, Delhi, 2010. 9. M. Laxmikant, “Public Administration” Pg. 2.3, Tata McGraw- Hill, 2006. 10. Dr.Durga Das Basu, Opcit.,Pg, 142. 11. Ibid., 155.
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THE HISTORY OF VEDIC PERIOD
M. Venu Gopal S.G. Teacher M.P.P.S. Sri Haripuram(V) Ramagiri(M) Anantapuramu(Dist), A.P INTRODUCTION
The Vedic period (or Vedic age) was a period in history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.[1] The end of the period is commonly estimated to have occurred about 500 BCE, and 150 BCE has been suggested as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature.[2]
Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone,[3] and a literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times. Despite the difficulties in dating the period, the Vedas can safely be assumed to be several thousands of years old. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilisation, was probably centred early on in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, and spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges Plain.[4][5] Around the beginning of the Common Era it was one of the main constituents of the so-called "Hindu synthesis"[6]
After the end of the Vedic period, the Mahajanapadas period in turn gave way to the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age of classical Sanskrit literature.
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History
Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)
After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended ca. 1900 BCE,[7][8] groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into North-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley.[9] They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices.[10] The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda- samhita,[11] which was composed between ca. 1500-1200 BCE. [12][13]
These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who already inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. The Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, many modern scholars connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo–Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.[14][15]
Internecine military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin.[16] Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours, lived along
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the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north–west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab.[17] Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.[16] The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.[18] Purukutsa, the chief of Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war.[17]
Later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE)
After the 12th century BCE, as the Rig Veda had taken its final form, the Vedic society transitioned from semi–nomadic life to settled agriculture. Vedic culture extended into the western Ganges Plain.[19] The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to settle at the western Gangetic plains.[20] Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.[21]
The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super- tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Srauta rituals.[22] The most famous of new religious sacrifices that arose in this period was the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter–state relations in this era.[23] This period saw also the
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beginning of the social stratification by the use of Varna, the division of Vedic society in Kshatriya, Brahmins, Vaishya and Shudra.[22]
By the sixth century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanization had begun in these kingdoms and commerce and travel, even over regions separated by large distances became easy.[24] Anga, door step of modern day West Bengal, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha, formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture.[25] Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits.[26][27] The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.[28]
Second urbainsation
The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit.[29] The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks.[30]
Political organisation
Vedic aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn Basham, a noted
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historian and indologist, theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs of septs (gramani). The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies).[31] Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.[32]
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into little kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.[33] Rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and game of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). Rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory, however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with increasing power of king, their influence declined.[34] By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchical states (gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had emerged in India.[34]
Economy
Economy in the Rig Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralism and agriculture.[35] There are references, in the Rig Veda, to leveling of field, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars.
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War booty was also a major source of wealth.[36] Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (bali) and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rig Veda, but the word ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas. Some scholars believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer to iron– welders.[37]
Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but the evidence for this is slim.[17] Professions of warriors, priests, cattle–rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot–making, cart–making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of Rig Veda. Some of these might have needed full–time specialists.[37] There are references to boats and oceans. The book X of the Rig Veda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a result of non– payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production–related activities.[36]
The transition of Vedic society from semi–nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age lead to an increase in trade and competition for resources.[38] Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period.[39] Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (krishna– ayas or shyama–ayas, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. New crafts and
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occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and vintnery arose.[40] Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.[41]
Culture
Society
Rig Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio–economic classes or castes was absent.[42][36] However, political hierarchy was determined by rank, where rajan stood at the top and dasi at the bottom.[36] The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rig Veda, but they are not associated with the term varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of the Rig Veda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:[14]
O, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma, would you impart to me endless wealth.
The Vedic household was patriarchal and patrilineal. The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. However, hymns attributable to female sages are few and female gods were not as important as male ones. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.[36] While the wife enjoyed a respectable position, she was subordinate to her husband.[35] People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned, however, cows are labelled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.[36] Soma and
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sura were popular drinks in the Rig Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute (vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals, and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used.[35] Dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular pastimes.[36]
The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age, led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups— Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production–related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas. The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha sukta visualized the four varnas as hierarchical, but inter–related parts of an organic whole.[43] Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rig Veda IX.112, suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."[44][45]
Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Rig Vedic era gave way to an idealized household
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which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishphala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.[46] Patrick Olivelle, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period."[47]
Religion
The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism.[48] Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas.
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śrauta means "what is heard").
The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (Yajna) which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (Yajus). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)
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in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).[49] An essential element was the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. Vedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda.[50] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[51]
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra–Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[52] Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[53] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment.
Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting
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the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition.
Literature
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text- internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:
1. Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries or millennia.
2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE.
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3. Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges.
4. Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS).
5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political centre is established.
Bibliography
1. Basham, A. L. (2008), The Wonder That Was India: A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims, Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan, ISBN 978-1-59740-599-7 2. Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press 3. Flood, Gavin (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1-4051-3251-5 4. Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011), Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4443- 5968-8 5. Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971), The Religion of the Ṛigveda, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0745-7
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6. Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge 7. Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4 8. Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998), A History of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0 9. Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upanis̥ads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-283576-5 10. Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), Indian History, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN 978-0-07-132923-1 11. Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press 12. Sen, S. N. (1999), Ancient Indian History And Civilization, New Age International, ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0 13. Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0 14. Staal, Frits (2008), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-14-309986-4 15. Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa (1981), A history of Indian literature: Introduction, Veda, epics, purānas and tantras, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3 16. Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State.", Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) 1-4 (1995) pp.(1–26)
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WHY DID AMBEDKAR CONVERT TO BUDDHISM? Dr. Y Ramachandra Reddy Professor Department of History SKU - Anantapur Introduction
In 1935 at Nasik district, Maharashtra, Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar had declared his firm resolve to change his religion. He had declared that he was born as a Hindu but will not die as Hindu. About a year later, a massive Mahar conference was held on May 30 and 31, 1936, in Mumbai, to access the impact of that declaration on Mahar masses. In his address to the conference, Dr.Ambedkar expressed his views on conversion in an elaborate, well- prepared and written speech in Marathi. Here is an English translation of that speech by Mr.Vasant Moon, OSD to the committee of Govt. of Maharashtra for publication of Writings & speeches of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
Conversion is not a game of children. It is not a subject of entertainment. It deals with how to make man's life successful. Just as a boatman has to make all necessary preparations before he starts for voyage, so also we have to make preparations. Unless I get an idea as to how many persons are willing to leave the Hindu fold, I cannot start preparations for conversion. For a common man this subject of conversion is very important but also very difficult to understand.
From the point of view of philosophy of religion, the most important event in Ambedkar’s life was his renunciation of Hinduism. He renounced Hinduism and embraced Buddhism towards the end of his life. What were his reasons for doing so? A detailed answer to this question can be obtained by studying his The Buddha and his Dhamma, Annihilation of Caste, Philosophy of Hinduism, Riddles in Hinduism etc. However, some of his articles, speeches and interviews
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before and after his conversion to Buddhism throw some light on this question.
Ambedkar’s statement in 1935 at Yeola Conference is quite instructive in this regard. Ambedkar believed that the untouchables occupied a “weak and lowly status” only because they were a part of the Hindu society. When attempts to gain equal status and “ordinary rights as human beings” within the Hindu society started failing, Ambedkar thought it was essential to embrace a religion which will give “equal status, equal rights and fair treatment” to untouchables. He clearly says to his supporters “select only that religion in which you will get equal status, equal opportunity and equal treatment …”
Evidently, after a comparative study of different religions, Ambedkar concluded that Buddhism was the best religion from his point of view. In his article “Buddha and the Future of his Religion” published in 1950 in the Mahabodhi Society Journal, Ambedkar has summarized his views on religion and on Buddhism in the following manner:
1. The society must have either the sanction of law or the sanction of morality to hold it together. Without either, the society is sure to go to pieces.
2. Religion, if it is to survive, must be in consonance with reason, which is another name for science.
3. It is not enough for religion to consist of moral code, but its moral code must recognize the fundamental tenets of liberty, equality and fraternity.
4. Religion must not sanctify or make a virtue out of poverty.
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According to Ambedkar, Buddhism fulfilled these requirements and so among the existing religions it was the only suitable religion for the world. He felt that the propagation of Buddhism needed a Bible. Apparently, Ambedkar wrote The Buddha and His Dhamma to fulfill this need.
In the same article, Ambedkar has enumerated the evils of Hinduism in the following manner:
1. It has deprived moral life of freedom.
2. It has only emphasized conformity to commands.
3. The laws are iniquitous because they are not the same for one class as of another. Besides, the code is treated as final.
According to Ambedkar, “what is called religion by Hindus is nothing but a multitude of commands and prohibitions”.
In the same year, Ambedkar delivered a speech on Buddha Jayanti day in Delhi, in which he attacked Hindu gods and goddess and praised Buddhism because it was a religion based on moral principles. Besides, he pointed out, unlike the founders of other religions who considered themselves emissaries of God; the Buddha regarded himself only as a guide and gave a revolutionary meaning to the concept of religion. He said that if Hinduism stood for inequality, Buddhism stood for equality.
In May 1956, a talk by Ambedkar titled “Why I like Buddhism and how it is useful to the world in its present circumstances” was broadcast from the British Broadcasting Corporation, London. In his talk Ambedkar said: I prefer Buddhism because it gives three principles
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in combination, which no other religion does. Buddhism teaches prajna (understanding as against superstition and supernaturalism), karuna (love), and samata (equality). This is what man wants for a good and happy life. Neither god nor soul can save society. (Emphasis mine)
In his last speech delivered in Bombay in May 24 1956, in which he declared his resolve to embrace Buddhism, Ambedkar observed: Hinduism believes in God. Buddhism has no God. Hinduism believes in soul. According to Buddhism, there is no soul. Hinduism believes in Chaturvarnya and the caste system. Buddhism has no place for the caste system and Chaturvarnya.
It is obvious that Ambedkar regarded Buddhism as a much more rational religion compared to Hinduism, rather the most rational religion. His main objection to Hinduism was that it sanctified inequality and untouchability through its doctrine of Chaturvarnya. Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected Chaturvarnya and supported equality. He commends Buddhism for rejecting God and soul and for emphasizing morality. According to him, prajna (understanding as against superstition and supernaturalism), karuna (love), and samata (equality), which Buddhism alone teaches, is all that human beings need for a “good and happy life”.
RATIONALISM
Ambedkar has tried to interpret religion in a rationalist manner. In his article “Buddha and the Future of his Religion” published in 1950 in the Mahabodhi Society Journal, he clearly says that religion, if it is to survive, must be in consonance with reason, which is another name for science.
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Ambedkar’s final religious act was to embrace Buddhism. His work The Buddha and His Dhamma contains his own understanding and interpretation of Buddhism. We may say that Buddhism as expounded in this book is what Ambedkar embraced and recommended. Therefore, we may turn to this work for Ambedkar’s final views on rationalism, God, soul, rebirth, karma, nibbana, varna-vyavastha and religion, etc.
In his book, Ambedkar has pointed out that Buddha rejected the doctrine of infallibility of the Vedas. He denied that the Vedas were sacred, final and infallible. He did not regard anything, including Vedas, as infallible. Everything, he said, must be subject to examination and re-examination. On the other hand, Buddha accepted the law of cause and effect with its corollaries. According to Ambedkar, Buddha maintained that every event has a cause, and the cause is the result of some human action or natural law. Buddha, says Ambedkar, rejected supernaturalism. It may be that a man is not able to discover the real cause of the occurrence of an event. Nevertheless, if he has intelligence he is bound to discover it one day. In Ambedkar’s view, Buddha had three objects in repudiating supernaturalism:
His first object was to lead man to the path of rationalism. His second object was to give liberty to human beings in search of truth. His third object was to remove the most potent source of superstition, the result of which is to kill the spirit of inquiry. According to Ambedkar, the law of Karma or causation is the most central doctrine in Buddhism. It preaches rationalism and Buddhism is nothing if not rationalism.
While discussing the place of Buddha in his Dharma, Ambedkar compares and contrasts Buddha with Christ and Mohammed. He points out that Christ claimed that he was the “son of god”, and he
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further maintained that no one could attain salvation unless he accepted him as such. Similarly, Mohammed claimed that he was the prophet “sent by god”. He further declared that the seeker of salvation in Islam must accept that the Mohammed is the prophet of God and the last prophet. In contrast, Buddha made no such claim. He only claimed being the natural son of Suddhodana and Mahamaya. He did not lay down any conditions regarding himself for salvation as Jesus and Mohammed did.
Ambedkar points out that most religions are described as revelations. However, the Buddha’s religion is not a revelation. He never claimed that he was a prophet or a messenger of God. He repudiated any such description. His religion is a discovery in the sense that it is the result of inquiry and investigation into the conditions of human life on earth and understanding of the working of human instincts. All prophets, says Ambedkar, have promised salvation. Buddha is the one teacher who did not make any such promise. He made a sharp distinction between moksha data and a marga data, one who gives salvation and one who only shows the way. He was only a marga data. Salvation must be sought by each for himself and by his own effort.
Every founder of religion, according to Ambedkar, has either claimed divinity for himself or for his teachings. Moses, although he did not claim for himself any divine origin, did claim divine origin for his teachings. Jesus claimed divinity for himself and his teachings. Krishna said that he was God himself and that Gita was his own word. The Buddha made no such claim either for himself or for his teachings. He claimed that he was one of the many human beings and his message to the people was a message of a human being to human being. He never claimed infallibility for his message. The only claim that he made was that his message was the only true way for salvation, as he understood
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it. It was based on universal human experience of life in the world. He said that it was open to anyone to question it, test it and to find out what truth it contained. No founder, says Ambedkar, has so fully thrown open his religion to such a challenge. Thus, it is more than obvious that Ambedkar has tried to bring forward the rational elements in Buddhism and tried to interpret it in a rationalistic manner.
On 24 May 1956, Ambedkar formally announced on the day of Buddha Jayanti that he would embrace Buddhism in October 1956. The actual conversion took place in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism along with his wife and lakhs of his supporters. After his conversion Ambedkar declared: “By discarding my ancient religion which stood for inequality and oppression today I am reborn. I have no faith in the philosophy of incarnation: and it is wrong and mischievous to say that Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu. I am no more a devotee of any Hindu god or goddess. I will not perform Shraddha. I will strictly follow the eight-fold path of Buddha. Buddhism is a true religion and I will lead a life guided by three principles of knowledge, right path and compassion”. On 15 November 1956, Ambedkar went to Katmandu to attend the World Buddhist Conference. He delivered a lecture on “Buddha and Marx”. In less than two months after his conversion to Buddhism Ambedkar died at his Delhi residence on 6 December 1956.
Bibliography
1. Aloysius, G. (2004). "Transcendence in Modern Tamil Buddhism: A Note on the Liberative in Popular Religious Perceptions". In S. Jondhale and J. Beltz (Eds.) Reconstructing the World: B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhism in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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2. B.R. Ambedkar, Annihilation of Caste, 1937
3. B.R. Ambedkar, The Untouchables, Bheem Patrika Publications- India- First edition-1948
4. Ambedkar, B. (1987-) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writing and Speeches [BAWS] (Vol. I-XVIII) Mumbai: Education Department, Government of Maharastra.
5. Brazier, D. (2001), The New Buddhism. London: Constable Robinson.
6. Sangharakshita. (1986). Ambedkar and Buddhism. Glasgow: Windhorse Publications
7. Sponberg, A. (1996). "TBMSG: A Dhamma Revolution in Contemporary India". In C. Queen & S. King (Eds.), Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia (pp. 73-120). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
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MGNREGS - ROLE OF WOMEN IN ANDHRA PRADESH
C.Malleeswramma Prof M.Chandraiah Research Scholar Department of Commerce Department of Commerce Vikram Simhapuri University Vikram Simhapuri University PG Centre, Kavali PG Centre, Kavali
MGNREGS is a beacon for the development of rural people in terms of employment and women empowerment also. It gives immense opportunities to the women for their economic sustainability. There was inequality and vulnerability of women in all sphere of the society. Those days were gone away. They are now empowered in all walks of life. As the women population constitute half of the population there is a need for active participation of women in all aspects. Women should aware about their constitutional rights in respect of economic security, quality health care and access to education and political power. Mahatma Gandhi firmly states that the status of women would not change merely by bringing legislations; it must be supported by change in the women’s social circumstances and situations and also man’s exist attitude towards women. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which entitles rural households to 100 days of casual employment on public works at the statutory minimum wage, contains special provisions to ensure full participation of women.
Empowerment is a process aimed at changing the nature and direction of systematic forces, which marginalize women and other downtrodden sections . A large segment of Indian womanhood still suffers deprivation and discriminatory attitudes. It is necessary to mobilize the vast women power, if the country has to progress in all sphere of development. Empowerment of women is a long and difficult
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process which is to be promoted with full public support and this could be successful only when those women living at the lower start a who have been suppressed by the male dominated society taking undue advantage of their lack of education and poverty can rise up to claim their rightful place in their own society. In spite of the draw backs in the implementation of the legislation, significant benefits have already started accruing to women through better access to local employment, at minimum wages, with relatively decent and safe work conditions.
Gender is the inevitable push factor for growth and development of a nation like India. In India women constitute a major share of chronically poor population. The Government has Framed and implemented many programmes/schemes to uplift the women from poverty and vulnerability of life. One of that is Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) which was enacted in 2005.MGNREGA has provided a unique opportunity to people from rural India to earn their own income without any discrimination of caste or gender. Most remarkable feature of NREGA is that it plays women the same as men, something that was virtually unimaginable in rural India. However, some States have registered high percentage of women workers getting enrolled in the scheme whereas others have registered a very low percentage of women availing benefit under MGNREGA.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To present the brief information about the participation of women in various schemes To study the women participation through MGNREGS To identify the Issues and Challenges faced by the women in the wake of MGNREGS To study the role of women under MGNREGA in Andra Pradesh
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WOMEN PARTICIPATION THROUGH MGNREGS
MGNREGS plays a significant role to meet the practical as well as strategic needs of women’s participation. It has become a beacon of light in the empowerment of the rural women and contributed substantially for the increased living and economic conditions by creating equal wages to male and female workers. By income- consumption effects we mean an increase in income of women workers and as a result, their ability to choose their consumption baskets. MGNREGA empowers women by giving them a scope of independent earning and spend some amount for their own needs.
ISSUES RELATED TO WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN MGNREGS
Lack of Awareness regarding their economic opportunities
In many states women participation is low because lack of awareness about the process and entitlements of the programme.
Non-availability of Child Care Facilities
One of the major shortcomings of the Act is non-availability of proper crèche facilities at the work site even though the Act includes this provision. Different studies show that women remained worried about their children while they are working at MGNREGA worksite even some women do not accept the job facilities of MGNREGA because of non-availability of proper child care facilities.
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Nature of Work
Most of the studies reveal that nature of work is also not helpful for women workers. In most of the projects selected being related to rural connectivity and renovation of local water bodies involving earth work requiring application of physical force, male workers were preferred to women workers.
Poor Worksite Facilities
MGNREGA funds have been allocated for the provision of safe drinking water, resting place and first aid. But most of the studies reported that except drinking water facility all other facilities are generally absent.
Delay in Payments
Delay in payments is also responsible for poor participation of women particularly in case of single women if they are the main earners in the family. Because the Banks are far from the village, it becomes difficult for the women to open Bank Account and draw cash which discourage women participation.
WOMEN PARTICIPATION UNDER MGNREGS IN ANDRA PRADESH STATE
An important objective of MGNREGS has been to encourage women’s effective participation, both as workers and as administrators. For instance, according to MGNREGS guidelines, at least one-third of the beneficiaries shall be women who have registered and requested for work under the programme. Further, since employment is provided within 5 km radius of the village, it has the potential to bolster women’s participation. But how far has MGNREGS been successful in
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fulfilling this objective. This blog provides some insights into the implementation of the scheme in terms of providing equitable and easy access to work to rural women.
68th round of NSSO data shows that between 2004-05 and 2011-12, there has been a negative trend in women’s labour force participation rate (LFPR or the proportion of labour force to total population) in rural India. Rural female participation fell from nearly 25% in 2004-05 to 21% in 2009-10 and then even lower to around 17% in 2011-12. However, a study by Mehtabul Azam using nationally representative National Sample Surveys (NSS) data found that MGNREGS has helped mitigate the situation. The study exploited the phase-wise expansion of the MGNREGS and found that the decline in labour force participation in MGNREGS districts has been lower than the decline observed in non-MGNREGS districts. This effect is found to be more pronounced in the case of female labour participation. Significantly, female share of works under MGNREGS is greater than their share of work in the casual wage labour market across all states. Women are participating in the scheme much more actively than they participated in other forms of recorded work.
Table :1 Year Women participation in Percentage MGNREGS 2006-07 96500 40 2007-08 1,03,000 44 2008-09 1,12,540 48 2009-10 1,12,540 48 2010-11 1,12,870 48 2011-12 1,12,960 48 2012-13 1,18,642 51 2013-14 1,20,340 53 2014-15 1,24,210 55
Source : www.upvan.org/d_nrega.html
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MGNREGS’s own official data shows that women’s participation in MGNREGS has been on the rise in Andhra Pradesh , it increased from 40% in 2006-07 to 55% in 2014-15. However,
women's participation in MGNREGS Percentage(%) 60 53 55 50 48 48 48 48 51 44 40 40 30 20 10 0
Source : MGNREGS website
The interstate variations in women participation can be attributed to a host of factors ranging from socio-cultural norms around female participation in labour force, mobility and intra household allocation of roles and responsibilities.
CONCLUSION
MGNREGS has positive impact on employment pattern of women. Women have benefited both as individual and community. It is an evident that women are able to earn independently, spend some money for their own needs, contribute in family expenditure etc. The gained benefits of women as community can be understood by increased
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presence in the Gram Sabha, increasing number of women in speaking out in the meetings, increasing capacity of interaction etc. Therefore the programme is helpful at all the rural people and women especially. Overall, it brings women empowerment to a greater extent compared to earlier schemes and programmes introduced by the central and state government in India.
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EFFECTIVENESS OF H.R. SERVICES AT NTPC (VSTPS)
Dr. Abdul Hakim Bharti Bairagi Retired Prof. of Commerce & Research Scholar Ex. Chairman, Board of Study MBA, Research Center A.P.S. University, Rewa (M.P.) A.P.S. University, Rewa (M.P.)
Abstract:-
NTPC-VSTPS’S HR department is one of several departments which are vying for input of the strategic level at the decision making process within organization and it subscribes to the belief that efficiency, effectiveness and success of the organization depends largely on the skills, abilities and commitment of the employees who constitute the most important asset of the organization. Here it is responsible for proper regulation of policies, employee’s development, and maintenance of data and records of employees, providing them ample benefits so that the best employees can be retained with them and ensures High performance. And also strives to make the organization world’s largest power company
INTRODUCTION:-
NTPC subscribes to the belief that efficiency, effectiveness and success of the organization depends largely on the skills, abilities and commitment of the employees who constitute the most important asset of the organization. Human Resource Services means the services which are provided by HR department to its internal customers meant by employees of the organization and to other departments as HR department is administrative as well as a service department. Human resource department is one of several departments which are vying for input of the strategic level at the decision making process within organization. HR function includes managing their approach to
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employee benefits and compensation, employee records and personnel policies. HR function also includes a variety of activities, and key among them is deciding what staffing needs they have and whether to use independent contractors or hire employees to fill these needs, recruiting and training the best employees, ensuring they are high performers, dealing with performance issues, and ensuring their personnel and management practices conform to various regulations.
OBJECTIVES: – The objective of the study are:-
1. To understand the basic needs and wants of employee from Services of HR.
2. To measure internal customer's satisfaction with service effectiveness of various service function.
3. To study the functions related to make HR services more effective.
4. To measure HR service effectiveness on more than one parameter to arrive at comparative ranking.
5. To know the interest of Govt. towards organization that it work well or not for the effectiveness of their HR service. HYPOTHESIS :-
1. There is not sufficient level to fulfill the basic needs and wants of employee from Services of HR.
2. There is not sufficient internal customer’s satisfaction with service effectiveness of various service functions.
3. There is not HR service effectiveness on more than one parameter to arrive at comparative ranking.
4. Employees are not satisfied with their HR service effectiveness.
5. The Govt. also not forced to organization to work well towards effectiveness of their HR service.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:- Data collection has done from two sources which are given below :
Primary Data
Personal Investigation
Observation Method
Information from superiors of the organization.
Secondary Data
Published Sources such as Journals, Government Reports, Newspapers and Magazines etc.
Unpublished Sources such as Company Internal reports prepare by them given to their analyst & trainees for investigation.
Websites like NTPC official site, some other sites are also searched to find data.
DATA ANALYSIS & DISCRIPTIONS :-
A deep analysis about effectiveness of HR Service at NTPC- VSTPS, it is find that :-
o Services of HR are of High Quality.
o HR executives are well trained and competent in doing their work.
o HR services are available as and when required.
o HR executives treat friendly and as equal with all employees.
o Policies and rules are uniformly applied to all.
o HR executives patiently clarify their doubts and queries, and In case some problem cannot be solved at their end, they guide the right person or explain the alternate procedure to be followed.
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o HR executives regularly take customer feedback and suggestions & they are open to receiving both positive and negative feedback and they act upon customer feedback and suggestions.
CHART NO- 1
Statement of overall satisfaction with the Effectiveness of HR service at NTPC-VSTPS.
68 80 60 40 4 8 8 12 20 Series1 0 Strongly disagree Neither agree strongly disagree disagree agree nor agree Source- Personal investigation, survey & Questionnaire
The above chart is evident that Overall satisfactions level of HR service at NTPC-VSTPS is good.
PROBLEMS AND OUTCOMINGS:-
PROBLEMS:-
o Problems are as follows-
o The sample was confined to 150 respondents. So this study cannot be regarded as “full -proof” one.
o Some respondents hesitated to give the actual situation; they feared that management would take any action against them.
o There was a fear of reprisal among the employees to reveal their personal feelings and the result may not reflect the actual satisfactions.
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o The findings and conclusions are based on knowledge and experience of the respondents sometime may subject to bias.
OUT COMINGS:- Study will usually produce a number of important benefits, to the organization in future. It is very important to understand the importance of Human Resource Management's functions and its services in a big public sector organization. The nature of job and the information obtained would help to relate data and find efficiency and correlation about sharing best practices. This would help to identify the privilege and shortcoming that may be existent in the organization. This study would also help in knowing the expectations and problems of employee with reference of HR Services and also help to enhance the effectiveness of HR Services and to improve them by going through the suggestions of employees.
CUNCLUSION: -
EFFECTIVENESS OF HR SERVICES after going through the responses given by the employees and their analysis the following is concluded-
o Nature of work of HR Department is satisfactory at VSTPS.
o Behavior of HR employees is friendly and they have patience in dealing with employee and in clarifying their doubts and queries and helping as far they can.
o They are competent and well trained in performing their duties.
o They extend their help to other department of NTPC in an unbiased way and treating all employees as equal.
o They take regular feedback and conduct surveys to know about employees’ needs and problems to overcome with them.
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SUGGESTIONS:-
o The Job Satisfaction at NTPC is very good but it can be made more effective by maintaining following:- HR Executives should try to be more friendly with the employees of other department so that they can have a better mutual relationship with them and also enable employees to let know the Responsibilities & Challenges of their job. It would also be very beneficial to develop a positive attitude of employees towards HR Department.
o Communication meeting at departmental level should be done on regular basis in the presence of HR representative for sharing company's information etc.
o HR Department may take employees suggestions if required in order to make their services more effective & to improve their weak areas.
o More positive alterations in future will make HR Services more effective.
o They should always ensure that employees have -- and are aware of -- personnel policies which conform to current regulations. These policies are often in the form of employee manuals, which all employees have.
References :-
1. Concerned Websites
2. www.ntpc.co.in
3. www.google.co.in
4. www.businessworld.com
5. www.managementhelp.com
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6. Magazines & journals.
7. Human Resource Management : country Experience by: “V.S.RAO”
8. Company profile
9. Company Report
10. Company Organizational Manual
11. Primary Data.
12. Interaction with company respondents.
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REVIEWS ON BIOMECHANICAL APPLICATION IN DISCUSS THROWING TECHNIQUES FOR RIGHT-HANDED THROWER
Mequanent Shikabaw Chekol Sport Science Department Hawassa University Hawassa, SNNPRS, Ethiopia
Abstract: The main objective of the study is to assess the techniques of discus throw in biomechanical point of view; and to recommend the possible improvement solutions of discus throw or athlete’s performance. Here in the review the methodology used for assess discuss throwing application are reviewing materials and facilities in discuss throwing; techniques of applying discuss throw; factors affecting good achievements of discus throw; biomechanical applications in discuss throw and possibilities to improve the distance. Finally; in the distance of discus throw the following factors are represented: projection speed, projection angel and projection point height. And quite simply, the distance covered by any projectile is a function of five factors: The implement’s speed at release; the angle of release; the height of the implement at release; the angle of attack; Gravitational force. For the better horizontal displacement the faster it flies and the longer it is in the air, the farther it will go. The higher the release from the ground, the longer the projectile will be airborne. The athlete can focus more power horizontally than vertically.
Key words: Athlete, Biomechanics, Discuss, displacement, Gravitational force, projection.
1. Introduction
Sport Biomechanics is the interesting subject of analysis in the physics of different sport activities. Mechanical principles of physics can be applied to different sports. By using principles and guides, athletes can achieve excellent technique to gain the greatest mechanical advantage to reach higher performance levels with prevention and minimize of injuries.
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The study of biomechanics is relevant to professional practice in many kinesiology professions. The physical educator or coach who is teaching movement technique and the athletic trainer or physical therapist treating an injury use biomechanics to qualitatively analyze movement. Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned with the description of motion and how forces create motion. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools that are necessary for understanding how living things move and how kinesiology professionals might improve movement or make movement safer [5].
Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement of living things using the science of mechanics [5].
Athletics is one of sporting activities which organizes with in different events; running, throwing, jumping and etc [9].
Track and field is a sporting arena in which athletes demonstrate both their physical and competitive skill. [9].
Throwing competition is considered one of the field events in athletics, where the competitors aim is to achieve the greatest horizontal distance. Each stage of the movement stages has great importance in achieving the motor outcome. The athletics international regulation verifies that the throwing circle diameter for discuss throw is 2.50 meters, where the player performs a turn and a half [11].
Discus throwing is one of the four throwing events in track and field. Complicated and three dimensional complex movements performed at high speed in a limited space make the discus throw technically and physically very demanding [6].
Complicated movements performed at high speed in a limited space make the discus throw technically and physically very demanding. Thus, the discus throw requires thorough biomechanical analysis to have a good understanding of the techniques and training of elite discus throwers.
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1.1 Objectives
To asses the techniques of discus throw in biomechanical point of view. To recommend the possible improvement of discus techniques or athletes performance: To coordinate the rhythms of the techniques. To fly the discus for a long time. To reach a peak height of the discus. To be displaced the discus horizontally as far as possible. 2. Materials and facilities in discuss throwing
[13] A wide range of materials are used to make athletic discus. Generally a metal rim and a metal core are used to gain the weight. The main materials in use are:
2.1. Discuss
Plastic Discus Aluminum Discus Wooden Discus Rubber Discus
Figure 1: Athletic discuss
2.1.1. Weight & Diameter of the Discuss
The athletic discus has different weight and diameter for men and women.
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Table 1: Dimensions of Athletic discuss
Discus Diameter Weight
Men 220mm (8.66 inches) 2kg (4lb 7oz)
Women 182mm (7.17 inches) 1kg (2lb 3oz)
2.2. The Computation Area
Discus throw is a throwing event where athletes throw a 1 or 2kg plate like implement from a 2.5m circle. The discus is launched after the thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one-and-a-half turns. The facility for discus throw includes a throwing circle, protective cage and landing sector [13].
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Fig: 2. Athletic Discus throw field
The throwing circle is made of bank iron, steel or other suitable material. The inside diameter of the circle measures 2.5m (±5mm) and the rim at least 6mm in thickness, 70mm to 80mm deep and painted white.
The interior of the circle is constructed of concrete, asphalt or some other firm but not slippery material. The surface must be level and 1.4cm-2.6cm lower than the upper edge of the rim of the circle [13].
All discus throws are made from an enclosure or cage to ensure safety of spectators, officials and athletes. The cage is designed, manufactured and maintained to be capable of stopping a 2kg discus moving at a speed of up to 25m per second. There must be no danger of the discus ricocheting or rebounding back towards the athlete or over the top of the cage. The cage is U-shaped. The width of the mouth is 6m, positioned 7m in front of the centre of the throwing circle. The end points of the 6m wide mouth are the inner edge of the cage netting. The height of the netting panels or draped netting at their lowest point is 4m. Provision must be made in the design of the cage to prevent a discus forcing its way through any joints in the cage or the netting or underneath the netting panels [13].
The surface of the landing sector must allow for the discus making a mark upon landing. It is made of natural grass or other suitable material. The landing sector is laid from the middle of the circle with an angle of 34.92° and marked by 50mm wide white lines, the inside edges of which form the boundary of the sector. The length of the sector is 80m. The angle of 34.92° is attained if the two sector lines at a distance of 80m are spaced 48m apart [13].
The maximum allowance for the overall downward inclination of the landing sector, in the throwing direction, shall not exceed 0.1 percent [13].
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3. Techniques of Applying discuss throw
In the discus throw, the athlete will complete one-and-a-half rotations in the ring, yet the thrower actually moves forward in approximately a straight line, from the back of the ring to the front. Proper footwork is vital to produce the speed necessary for a strong throw. Beginning throwers should start by performing standing-throw drills before attempting full throws.
The following movement phases are described in detail:
a. Initial stance and preliminary swings, b. Double support starting phase, c. Single support starting phase, d. Flight (no support) phase, e. Single support delivery phase, 7 f. Double support delivery phase [ ]. 1. Initial stance and preliminary swings,
The hold
Place the left hand under the discus for support
Place the right hand on top of the discus
Spread the fingers evenly but not stretched
The first joint of the fingers curling over the rim of the discus
Do not to grip the discus
Allow the discus to rest on the first joint of the fingers with the tips of the fingers over the rim [13].
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Figure 3: Athletic discuss holding technique
Figure 4: Starting phase of Athletic discuss throw
2. Double support starting phase (1&2),
st nd The 1 & 2
o Adopt a shoulder width stance and perform preliminary swings
o Keep everything very long to provide maximum possible radius on the discus
o Body weight in the middle of the stance
13 o Aim for chin over knee over toe on the left leg [ ].
3. Single support starting phase (3),
rd The 3
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o As the right foot leaves the ground the weight must be over the left leg
o Discus kept high and relaxed, trailing behind the hips
o Swing the right foot wide of the left foot into the centre of the circle [13].
4. Flight (no support) phase (4&5)
th th The 4 & 5
o On grounding the right foot pivots on the ball of the foot
13 o Keep the left foot low and fast [ ].
5. Single support delivery phase (6),
th The 6
o Discus held high and back
o Keep the shoulders level and balanced
o As the right foot lands aim for a chin over knee over toe on the right leg
13 o Keep the left foot low and fast [ ].
Figure 5: Delivery Phase of Athletic discuss throw
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6. Double support delivery phase (7, 8 & 9)
th The 7 o Real power position is at the moment the left foot makes contact with the ground o Left arm points in direction of the throw o Right foot pivots o Left side of the body is braced o Drive the right hip forward th The 8 o Right hip has been driven forward - note the "bow" position o The right arm is long and relaxed ready to strike o Left side kept firm and braced th The 9 o The right arm comes through fast and last o The release angle (angle between the horizontal and the right arm) for the discus has to take into consideration aerodynamic lift and drag. The optimum angle for the discus is about 35 degrees. o Left foot is kept grounded until well after the discus is released 13 o Check right thumb is pointing forward and in line with the arm [ ]. 3.1. Factors Affecting good achievements of Discus Throw
The following factors are represented in projection speed, projection angel and projection point height. And quite simply, the distance covered by any projectile is a function of five factors:
1. The implement’s speed at release
2. The angle of release
3. The height of the implement at release (relative to the landing area)
4. The angle of attack (the difference b/n the angle of release and the discus’ horizontal axis)
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5. Gravitational force (Gravity is a force that is always present. It is the magnetic force of the earth which pulls objects vertically downwards to the centre of the earth.) [11].
Atmospheric conditions (including humidity, wind, temperature etc); Difficulty to control upper body movements after flight; Poor hip- shoulder and shoulder-arm separations after the flight; and difficulty to gain speed during delivery are additional factors for coordinating the techniques and displacing of the discus.
The most influential of these factors for most throwers is “speed of release”. The angle of release is easily adjusted by the thrower. The height of release is largely limited by the stature of the athlete and may vary only a few inches. The angle of attack is critical to discus throwers, but throwing a “flat” discus (and not a “full moon”) is quite easily corrected, even in beginning throwers. And, finally, atmospheric conditions are completely out of the control of the thrower, so that is not as much of a concern as a coaching point.
4. Biomechanical Applications in Discuss throw and Possibilities to improve the distance
Athletes that apply bio-mechanical principles will perform better than their counterparts that do not apply bio-mechanical principles. Athletes applying bio-mechanical principles have much less disruption in their training programs because they have the advantage of more injury free training time, and create more effective techniques.
A discus thrower, while rotating about a vertical axis, can transfer momentum to the throwing arm by stopping the rotation of the opposite arm and shoulder (blocking), thereby adding speed to the discus release. The total angular momentum doesn’t change (counter clockwise when viewed from above), but by stopping the rotation of the left side, additional counter clockwise angular momentum is added to the right side. The result is that speed is added to the throwers right arm and consequently to the discus. For all throwing events, this blocking action of the left side of the body (right handed throwers) is an absolute necessity and should be one of the first movements taught to the beginning thrower [2].
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4.1. Dimensions of discus throw
Any particles in the space can be described as three dimensions are: X, Y, & Z
Figure 6: Three dimensions of discuss throw [15]
4.2. Forces, Linear Momentum and Rotary Momentum
Force = Mass x Acceleration. Force is the strength of the muscle push or pull required to move the body mass (load). As long as the force applied on the muscle is equal to the load of the body, the body will not move and will be in equilibrium (state of rest) [12].
In the course of a throw, the feet make forces on the ground. By reaction, the ground makes equal and opposite forces on the feet.
⎯ ↓ ↑ ⎯ Figure 7: Equilibrium question
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According to Newton’s 3rd low of motion these two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, mathematically: _ ⎯ = Eq. (1)
These reaction forces give linear momentum to the combined thrower-plus-discus system. This can be written as: Where, → = ( ) → M - is the combined mass of thrower-plus-discus. Eq. (2)
Forward linear momentum is generated in the early stages of the throw. It makes the system translate horizontally across the throwing circle.
*The linear momentum makes the thrower-plus-discus throwing platform translate forward and upward at the instant of release. That way, it contributes to increase the horizontal and vertical speeds of the discus and, therefore, the distance of the throw.
*The ground reaction forces also give rotary momentum to the thrower-plus-discus system.
This rotator momentum also defined as: → = → x → Where, is the radial distance from the center of rotational axis. → = is linear momentum. Eq. (3) → = There is rotary momentum in two independent directions:
1. “Z” rotary momentum, about the vertical axis, visible as a counterclockwise rotation
2. “Y” rotary momentum, about a horizontal axis aligned with the midline of the throwing sector.
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*A transfer of “Z” rotary momentum from the thrower to the discus imparts horizontal speed to the discus; it also tends to slow down the thrower’s counterclockwise rotation in the view from overhead.
*Transfer of “Y” rotary momentum from the thrower to the discus imparts vertical speed to the discus; it also tends to slow down the thrower’s counter-clockwise rotation in the view from the back of the circle [8].
4.3. Rotational Force -Torque
A force that produces a rotating or twisting motion is known as torque. Torque is also sometimes known as rotational force. Torque causes an object to rotate. Torque is the force applied against an athlete’s body away from the rotational axis of the athlete. The torque caused by this force in a different direction from the athlete’s movement will create a rotation away from the direction of the force. This rotation will cause the body of the athlete to rotate about the longitudinal axis of the athlete (through the body) when the athlete leaves the ground. Conservation of angular momentum again prevails [9].
Figure 8: Swinging actions of the Athlete
In the discus, the athlete will initiate the turn at the back of the circle by sweeping the opposite arm out and then across the direction that the thrower is moving (towards the front of the circle). When the thrower leaves the ground, he/she will rotate in the direction of the arm sweep [9].
In the rotation discuss event, the thrower will create rotation by sweeping the free leg out to the side and then across the direction of
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movement of the thrower. When the thrower leaves the ground, he will rotate the lower body in the direction of the leg sweep as the torso slows its rotation.
The amount of torque (T) produced depends on:
• The amount of force used (F)
• The distance from the centre of the object that the force is applied (d).
T = Fd
T = → x → Where, → = M →
→ = → →
= M (→ →)
T = M (→ →).→
2 T = (Mr ). →
2 = I . → Where, I = mr ---- is the moment of inertia
→ ---- Angular acceleration Eq. (4) More torque, and a greater rotation or twisting movement, will be generated when more force is applied further from the centre of an object [2].
4.4. Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia is the property that determines the characteristics of the rotational motion of the body [12].
Mathematically it can be defined as: I = mr2
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The moment of inertia of a leg or arm is proportional to the mass times the square of the radius (rotating about a joint). When muscles move arms or legs, they are exerting a torque (force times radius) against the moment of inertia of the arm or leg. The smaller the moment of inertia, the less force is needed or the faster the arm or leg can be accelerated. The decrease in the Moment of inertia will cause an increase in angular velocity. Therefore, a bent (folded) leg will move faster than an extended (straight) leg [2].
From the above information one of the most biomechanical application in discuss throw is the transfer of energy. In which the gravitational potential energy of the thrower transfer in to the combined kinetic energy of the discus.
GPE KE + KE → rot translat
Where, GPE= Mgh
Where, M - is the combined mass of the thrower and the discus.
KErot – The rotational kinetic energy of the discus after release.
KErot = Where, I = is moment of inertia of the discus.
ω = is the angular velocity of the discus.
KEtranslat – The translational kinetic energy of the discus after release.
KEtran = Where, v is the linear velocity of the discus.
M = is the mass of the discus [2]. Eq. (5)
Energy is the capacity to do work. There are 2 types of energy:
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Potential energy – When the body is standing still (equilibrium) no energy is used, but the potential for it to move is always there.
Kinetic energy is created when the forces applied on the body causes the body to move [12].
The force applied to stop the body will equal the energy used to move. The more force is applied, the faster the body will move and the more kinetic energy the body will have [12].
4.5. Balance and Stability
Balance is the ability of a person to control human body or to maintain equilibrium under static and dynamic condition [12].
Every athlete must be able to maintain balance and stability. Athletes’ loss of stability can have an adverse effect on their ability to perform the skills of the given sport with control. A loss of control can affect factors such as force production and accuracy. The base of support is the area by which the body is supported. For example, when you stand with your legs apart during discus throw, the area under and between your feet is your base of support. The larger the area of the base of support is, the greater the stability.
The two types of balance are:
• Static balance, which is balance when the body is at rest (not moving)
• Dynamic balance, which is balance when the body is moving. It is one of the important balancing types for discus throwers.
Both static and dynamic balance needs for the athlete to throw discus properly and effectively. All people and objects have a centre of gravity, which can shift depending on the position or movement of the person or object. A centre of gravity is an imaginary point (within or outside the body or object) around which the body or object is balanced.
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Individual body parts, such as limbs, also have their own centers of gravity.
The height of the centre of gravity relative to the base of support can affect stability. An athlete with a low centre of gravity will tend to be more stable than one with a high centre of gravity [2].
4.6. Centripetal and Centrifugal force
According to Newton’s third law of motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When an object is rotating around a fixed axis in a circular path, two opposing forces are at work: centripetal force and centrifugal force.
• Centripetal force is the force that causes rotating objects to move towards the centre, or axis, of rotation. It is the force pulling inwards during rotation (The force pulling in the shoulder while delivering a discus).
Mathematically it can be written as: → = , but v = ωr
2 → = Mω r Where, ω = is angular velocity Eq. (6)
• Centrifugal force is the force that causes rotating objects to move away from the centre, or axis, of rotation. It is the force pulling outwards during rotation (The discus pulling in the hand during rotation).
Both forces working together ensure that an object will remain on a circular path while rotating around a fixed point. For example, when a ball is attached to a line and spun around in a circular path, the line exerts a centripetal force on the ball, keeping the ball moving in its orbit. To keep the line taut to allow this circular path, the ball exerts a centrifugal force on the line.
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Centripetal force is needed by the athletes who throw the discus to maintain their grip. In discus throw if the rotational momentum is too great, the centrifugal force could cause the athlete to lose their grip and send the bat flying off into the distance [10].
4.7. Coordination and Rhythm
Coordination is the ability to integrate hand and/or foot movements with the input of the senses to achieved effective movements [12].
It is necessary to mention the importance of the proper rhythm of the whole discus throw. Rhythm, undoubtedly, plays an important part in the success or failure of the throw. The final technique phase is often negatively influenced by a bad rhythm. High speed both at the beginning of the turn and during the turn itself results in the thrower being unable to perform the final phase correctly. So, slow down the turn and make the best effort to improve the final action and, after perfecting it, try to perform the perfect final phase after a slightly faster turn [2].
4.8. Velocity
Once the force applied on the body (muscle contraction), is bigger than the load (body mass), the body will start moving (positive acceleration). The speed per second that the body change position in a given direction = velocity [12].
Velocity = Speed + direction Eq. (7)
The velocity at the maximum distance from the axis of rotation is directly proportional to the radius of rotation. In the throwing events, the farther the implement is from the axis of rotation, the faster will be its’ linear velocity (and its’ eventual release velocity). This will be proportional to the radius (distance) from the vertical axis of rotation through the thrower’s body to the implement.
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ω = v.r Where, ω – is angular velocity, r- is radius, and v- is linear velocity. Eq. (8)
The thrower must release the implement as far from the body as possible. This action is obvious for the discus and hammer, as these events use a vertical axis of rotation but it holds true also for the javelin and the glide shot put where the axis of rotation is more horizontal. For the discus thrower in-particular, the athlete with the longest arms has a distinct advantage over the athlete with shorter arms [1].
5. Projectile motion and Flight of the Discuss
Projectile motion is a special case of two dimensional motion with constant acceleration. Here, force due to gravity moderates linear motion of an object thrown at certain angle to the vertical direction. The resulting acceleration is a constant, which is always directed in vertically downward direction [14].
Flight of Discus is example of projectile motion. In these cases, the projectile is projected with certain force at certain angle to vertical direction. The force that initiates motion is a contact force. Once the motion of the discus is initiated, the role of contact force is over. It does not subsequently affect or change the velocity of the discus as the contact is lost [14].
5.1. Factors affecting projection of the Discus and consideration for distance improvements
There are three main factors that affect the trajectory of an object or body in flight: the projection angle, magnitude of projection velocity and height of projection [10].
5.1.1. Projection angle
The projection angle, i.e. the angle between the initial trajectory and the horizontal, determines the shape of the parabola described in flight by the object or body. More generally they are between 0 and 90° to the horizontal and as a consequence will produce a parabolic shape, but the
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steepness or shallowness of the curve will depend on the angle of projection, with angles greater than 45° producing steeper curves and angles less than 45° producing shallower curves. Ignoring air resistance and with the point of release at the same height as the point of landing the optimum angle for maximum horizontal distance of flight is 45°, but there are factors in sport which mean that 45° is rarely the optimum for maximum horizontal distance. The primary mechanical purpose will affect the optimum angle of projection [15].
Figure 9: projectile angle [15]
5.1.2. Magnitude of projection velocity
For a given angle of projection the magnitude of the velocity at release will determine both the height and the horizontal distance of the trajectory of the object or body. Initial conditions for projectiles are therefore normally summarized by the measurement of the angle of projection (α) and the magnitude of the velocity (V), the two components of the vector quantity which is the resultant projection velocity. The initial conditions for projection defined by the projection velocity resultant vector, having magnitude V and direction specified by α the vertical component is given by Vsin α and the horizontal component by Vcos α.
The vertical and horizontal component vectors derived from the resultant projection velocity vector are important and should be considered separately as they define the height and the horizontal distance of the trajectory, all other things remaining equal. After release the vertical velocity Vsin α is reduced by the effects of gravity 9.81m.s-2 for every second of vertical flight time. Vertical velocity will
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therefore reduce due to the constant acceleration due to gravity of 9.81m.s-2, which is acting vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth causing a deceleration. This reduction will continue until zero velocity at the top of the flight trajectory, which is sometimes referred to as the apex of the trajectory, after which it will accelerate at 9.81m.s- 2, gaining velocity as it now falls back towards the earth’s centre.
The time it takes to get to zero vertical velocity is given by:
-2 Time to apex = vertical velocity/gravity = V sin α/9.81 m.s Eq. (9)
If the object or body lands at the same height it was projected from then the total flight time is double the time to the apex:
-2 Flight time = 2 × (V sin α/9.81 m.s ) or 2 × (V sin α/g) Eq. (10)
In contrast, because to ignore air resistance, the horizontal velocity Vcos α remains constant throughout flight. Since we know that displacement = velocity × time, the horizontal displacement of the projectile when it lands, called the range, will be given by:
Range = V cos α × (2 × V sin α/g) = (2 V2 sin α cos α)/g
Range = (V sin 2 )/g (because 2 sin cos = sin 2 ) 2 α α α α
Maximum range = maximum value of (V sin 2 )/g 2 α
Maximum value of sin 2α is sin 90° = 1, therefore α = 45° Assumption, and
Maximum range = V2/g and the theoretical maximum range for projecting an object or body on a horizontal surface is produced by a projection angle of 45°, as mentioned before. Because projectiles are an example of uniform acceleration due to gravity, the regular equations for uniform acceleration can be used to calculate variables in projectile
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motion. These equations are: v = u + at, s = ut + ½ at2 and v2 = u2 + 2as where v = final velocity (m.s-2), u = initial velocity (m.s-2), a = acceleration (m.s-2), t = time (s). Eq. (11)
5.1.3. Height of projection
The third factor that affects the trajectory of a projectile in sport is the height of the point of projection or release in relation to the landing surface of the object or body. There are examples from sport where the height of projection is both above and below the landing surface. For example in the discus the optimum angle is less than 45° because the point of release is well above the land surface. In hitting a golf ball up a slope the optimum angle of projection will be greater than 45°, a ball struck at 45° will simply hit the uphill slope prematurely.
6. Conclusion and Recommendation
Discus Throw is regarded as a strength event. The Discus Thrower is required to throw a saucer shaped implement called a discus as far as possible. Depending on the age and gender of the athlete the weight of the implement will vary between 1kg and 2kg in the fixed competition area.
The study of biomechanics is relevant to professional practice in many kinesiology professions. The relationship between bio-mechanics and performance of discus throw is far from straightforward.
In the distance of discuss throw the following factors are represented: projection speed, projection angel and projection point height. And quite simply, the distance covered by any projectile is a function of five factors:
1. The implement’s speed at release
2. The angle of release
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3. The height of the implement at release (relative to the landing area)
4. The angle of attack (the difference b/n the angle of release and the discus’ horizontal axis)
5. Gravitational force (Gravity is a force that is always present. It is the magnetic force of the earth which pulls objects vertically downwards to the centre of the earth.)
By applying bio-mechanical principles, it is possible to analyze the performance of the athlete and create more effective techniques.
[1] With the help of biomechanics in throwing discus to maximize release speed by:
Appropriate temporal rhythm
Powerful left leg block with full hip and knee extensions
Appropriate ground contact
Rhythm
Duration of flight is not the shorter for the better.
Optimum duration of flight.
Get appropriate body position to start the single support in the middle to minimize the loss momentum before the power position.
Large hip shoulder and shoulder arm separations at the power position are critical for gaining discus speed during delivery.
Good separations before the flight are helpful for large separations at the power position.
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Considered the recommended arm tilt angle at release between 0 and 10 degrees between degrees [1].
Increase Horizontal Displacement
[3] Horizontal displacement is a function of horizontal velocity and time. Where: x= horizontal displacement, v = velocity and t = time
The faster it flies and the longer it is in the air, the farther it will go. Horizontal displacement of a thrown object is a function of initial horizontal velocity and initial height. The higher the release from the ground, the longer the projectile will be airborne.
The athlete can focus more power horizontally than vertically, so the angle of release may be less that 45°. The optimal angle of release for an object that is minimally subject to the effect of air resistance approximates, but is less than 45°. Example: Discus 33 - 380, Javelin 27 - 350 and Shot 32 - 400 [3].
Acknowledgments
Thanks to the Almighty God for every accomplishment of my work. My heartfelt thanks go to my advisor Dr. Abebe Fanta; my families, and friends.
7. References
1. Bing Yu. The Biomechanics of Throwing Discus center for Human Movement Science, Division of Physical Therapy the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009.
2. Biomechanics Concept for Athletics (unknown, n.d) (Accessed on, Feb. 11, 2012)
3. Bob Szyman (n.d), Biomechanical Principles in the Throws (Accessed on, Feb. 11, 2012)
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4. BrianMAC Sports Coach, (http://www.brian mac.co.uk/ discus /in dex.htm) (Accessed on, Feb. 7, 2012)
nd 5. Duane K. Fundamentals of Biomechanics, 2 ed.; 2007.
6. Evan T. et al,. Technical Characteristics of elite male and female Discus Throwers Biomechanics Symposia / University of San Francisco; 2001.
7. Tidow G. Model Technique Analysis Sheets for the Throws Part IX: The Discus Throw. 2004.
8. Jesus Dapena (n.d). New Insights on Discus Throwing, Indiana University (Accessed on, Feb. 11, 2012)
9. John A., B. Don, B. Bob, and B. Michele. Foundation Track and Field Coaching Manual, LA84; 2008.
10. Kirk et al. Key concepts in sport and Exercise sciences, Biomechanics. Part I, 02-3173; 2008.
11. Moustafa A and G. Mohamed. Effect of Using a Contemporary Method to Some Biomechanical Variables and Record Level in the Discus Throw, 2011; World J. Sport Sci., 4 (1): 31-36.
12. Richard Stander. Basic Bio-Mechanics (Human Movement) From the Athletics Omnibus, South Africa; 2000.
13. Sporting Good Industry, http://www.sporting-goods-industry.co m/a thl etic-equipment/discus.html (Accessed on, Feb. 11, 2012)
14. Sunil K.S. Projectile motion, Version 1.12: Connexions module: 2008; m13837.
15. www. Google image.com (Accessed on, Feb. 24, 2012)
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TRIBAL PARENTS ATTITUDE TOWARDS THEIR DAUGHTERS EDUCATION
G. Balaji Junior Research Fellow Department of Education Osmania University Hyderabad, Telangana Abstract
The paper aimed to investigate the parent’s attitudes toward their daughters education in tribal areas of Khammam district. To achieve the objectives four-research questions were established. Focus of the questions was to examine the significance of girls’ education for tribal parents. Existing and expected role of tribal parents as well as contribution from government and community for girl’s education also aimed to explore in research questions. Sample comprised thirty parents and five teachers. The data was collected through semi- structured interviews and was analyzed using content analysis approach. The findings disclosed the parents’ positive perceptions toward their daughters’ education but at the same time, severe scarcity of human and physical infrastructure for girls’ education was also presented in the area. The paper recommended several empirical steps to overcome these problems including provision of new school locations and ensuring the availability of school buildings, supporting infrastructure and teachers for already functioning schools in the area. Financial aid for poor students was also proposed in the study.
Introduction
India is the second populous country in the world with 6.77 crores of tribal population. Most of the tribal people are poor, illiterate and inhibited in inaccessible forests and hilly areas. They lag behind in
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all spheres of life in comparison with other sections of the population. The government of India has launched a number of schemes for the promotion of education and welfare among the tribes in general and different new initiatives for the women section in particular. In spite of these efforts, the rate of literacy has not improved. In case of the primitive tribes, it is very poor and among women, it is very low. Literacy is the key for socio-economic development of any section or region, and this is the reason that the tribal community all over India have subjected to various forms of deprivation such as alienation from land and other resources. Especially the tribal women though they are away from the main stream of national life, but they are not kept away from the impact of socio – economic changes effecting the society in general.
Need of the Study
Gender disparity is remained an unsolved issue from decades in Tribal. Data presented in Telangana Social and Living Standards Measurement (TSLM) surveys revealed high gender disparity in the favor of boys in primary and elementary education in tribal districts of the state. Various studies investigate the situation of girls’ education in different areas of the state and conclude the pathetic position of girls’ education in rural and tribal areas of the state.
Telangana Social and Living Standards Measurement (TSLM) surveys claim low literacy and enrollment rates of girls in Telangana. Simultaneously, some studies reveals high dropout rate of girls in tribal areas. Data for the years of 2013-14 reveals the Gender Parity Index (GPI) with lower Net Enrollment Rate (NER) of girls in all levels of education across the state.
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Research Questions
The research purpose of exploring parents’ attitudes has vast grounds. It was necessary to focus the study on research objectives and concentrate to get the understanding of parents in this regard. To get the comprehension of attitudes of tribal parents toward their daughters’ education, the study attempted to answer the following research questions.
1. How do tribal parents define the significance of girls’ education?
2. What type of role, tribal parents wish to contribute for their daughters’ education?
3. What type of role, tribal parents are contributing for their daughters’ education?
4. What could be possible measures to enhance tribal parents’ role for their daughters’ education?
Methodology
Research purpose as well as research questions of the present study demand a deep exploration of parental attitudes either they send their daughters to schools or not. Creswell (2003) and Bernard (2000) recommend qualitative method of inquiry to achieve such type of purposes when the task is to investigate the behaviors rather than count down.
Sample
In this study five educational teachers and thirty parents of Tribal agency area in Khammam District, Telangana state.
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Data Collection
To enhance the richness and accuracy of the findings, the data was gathered from total five agency areas of Khammam District. Two sources of data including parents, and educational teachers of the agency area were accessed. To create unity in the findings, the data from the area was analyzed in its own (tribal) cultural and educational context.
Data Analysis
Data gathered through interviews was written in transcripts. Data was analyzed using relational analysis, which was a type of content analysis approach. Qualitative inquiry to focus on both explicit and implicit concepts available in the data. Different concepts were derived from the data and were analyzed exploring their roots and relationships. Local school teachers were a better source to discuss the findings to maintain reliability. Following this approach, the findings and important points were discussed with local educationists of the agency area and was crystallized and finalized. It provided opportunity to create association among different opinions and interpret the data according to local context. Conclusions were drawn and verified looking at all previous stages of data collection and analysis. Finally recommendations were provided to better the parents’ attitudes as well as girls’ education situation in the area.
Delimitations of the Study
The major limitation of the study was generalizability of its conclusions. Emerging themes from the research accept the relevancy with only the contexts of tribal agency areas of Khammam district. Boundaries of the study were firmed for research, which were limited to
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the exploration of parents’ attitudes toward their daughters’ education in the area. Self-selected participants were strong point for the study to get relevant and significant data however to ease the critiques any volunteer participant (If he/she was willing) was welcomed. . Self- selected participants were strong point for the study to get relevant and significant data however to ease the critiques any volunteer participant (If he/she was willing) was welcomed. It was tried to access equally mothers and fathers of girls in the area however due to the constraints of tribal customs and traditions only males could be accessed. Consequently, the study based on only fathers’ opinions toward their daughters’ education in the area.
Significance of Daughters’ Education
There were no major differences among the opinions of tribal parents regarding the significance of their daughters’ education. Education for girls was described as a source of awareness and tribal knowledge. “Though girls’ education has financial benefits but I prefer to educate my daughters only for the sake of knowledge, a tribal man of 40 years age.But at the same time the parents having other financial backgrounds like labor, business, farming, and jobs argue in the favor of their daughter education. The viewpoints expressed by majority of tribal men lead to a positive trend toward girls’ education in the tribal agency areas.
Expected Role of Tribal Parents for their Daughters’ Education
The parents who want to educate their daughters at any cost. Some of these families migrated to urban areas to make their children (well) educated. The families who did not have resources to migrate are settled in the tribal areas but have desire to educate their children. A
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tribal person of age 30 who has a small shop in tribal area at 60 kilometers distance from nearest urban city Khammam stated that there was a girls primary school in his area but with no proper building and only one female teacher who often remained absent from the duty. The tribal shop keeper showed his commitment for his daughters’ education and opined that if the government provided transportation he was agreed to educate her daughters in Khammam. Lack of resources is proved reluctance for many parents who had desire of daughters’ education but could not educate them due to absence of school buildings, unavailability of teachers and transport facilities. Some parents prefer private schools which exist in the areas in very short numbers but there provided standard of education is also low with high cost, generally, unaffordable for common tribal man.
Existing Role of Tribal Parents for their Daughters’ Education
Parents who have desire to educate their daughters and are striving for their daughters’ education. Some of them have resources like tribal chiefs, government servants, businessmen etc. They migrated to urban areas which had adequate education facilities. The people who do not have resources for migration are settled in the tribal areas with a hope for better future of their daughters’ education. They have enrolled their daughters in Public schools; the schools without buildings and other facilities like electricity, drinking water, sanitation, boundary walls etc and with insufficient numbers of teachers and their weak management and monitoring system.
Possible Measures for Improvement
All the parents who were aware of the importance of education were agreed on the demand of educational opportunities for girls including their daughters. When a Primary School Teacher working in
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the agency area was asked about the behaviors of some people who totally denied the girls’ general education on the basis of their traditions, he described the ignorance as sole cause of such behaviors. According to him if adequate educational facilities will be provided for girls in the areas than majority parents will start their daughters’ education and consequently the behaviors of such people, who were fewer in numbers and opposed girls’ education, will be changed. This time, majority tribal parents are unaware of the personal, domestic, social, and financial benefits of girls’ education. According to parents’ opinions, less numbers of girls’ schools, distance of schools from homes, insufficient numbers of female teachers, absence of school buildings, electricity, toilets, boundary walls etc are the problems, which demand immediate solutions.
Conclusion and Recommendations
It was observed that, generally, tribal parents had soft corner for their daughters’ education. They were aware of the significance of daughters’ education. But the scarcity of resources has compelled them not to engage their daughters in education. If there were some weak voices against girls’ general education, these were based on ignorance of parents. The important thing in all scenarios is that people in tribal agency area of Khammam want to educate their daughters. The major problem for majority of them is the absence of Schools and school related human and physical infrastructure. The problems of transportation, drinking water, electricity, school buildings and boundary walls are severe in tribal agency areas than settled areas. Special efforts are recommended to refine girls’ schools infrastructure on priority basis. Quality infrastructure ensures quality education and quality education ensures masses participation in education programs.
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Since the population in the tribal area is scattered, the paper recommends wide provision of girls’ schools and school related infrastructure in the area. To ensure the attendance of teachers, special administrative and managerial arrangements should be taken. Providing transport facility to female teachers and special incentives for the teachers serving in remote tribal areas can be proved helpful in this regard. Teachers should be assigned task to motivate parents to enroll their daughters in schools especially the parents who are reluctant to do so due to unawareness and ignorance. Up gradation of girls’ schools, which are, functioning, to some extent, better is also recommended. The availability of elementary and secondary schools will not only support the further education of already enrolled girls but work as a motive for many other girls in the areas who wish education.
To reduce the impacts of poverty on daughter’ education, giving stipend to enrolled girls is a good solution. The study revealed that the people who have resources are migrated to developed areas for their children education or personally made alternate arrangements for their children education like personal transportation or enrollment in boarding schools of settled areas. Majority of residents of tribal agency areas is poor having minimum resources for their living including children education. Stipends and financial assistance will promote their efforts for daughters’ education.
Since there is not found any strong barrier in parents’ attitudes for their daughters’ education, the study promotes the idea of providing a mechanism of quality and easy accessible education for girls in the areas. The steps will helpful to create an educational environment in the areas as well as broaden the mindset of tribal parents.
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References
1. Bernard, H. R. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
2. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mix method approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
3. Flick, U. (2006). An introduction to qualitative research (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications.
4. Huckin, T. (2008). Content analysis: What texts talk about what. In C. Bazerman, & P. A. Prior (Eds.), Writing does and how it does it. New York: Routledge.
5. Qureshi, S. (2003). Pakistan: education and gender policy; girl’s education: A lifeline to development. Budapest: Center for Policy Studies, Central European University.
6. Qureshi, R. (2007). Gender and education in Pakistan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7. Richards, D. (2005). Handling qualitative data: A practical guide. London: Sage Publications.
8. Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction (2nd Ed.). London: Sage Publications.
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A REVIEW ON ECONOMICS OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION IN INDIA
D. Kiruthiga Dr. T. Paulraj Research Scholar Assistant Professor and Head Department of Economics Department of Economics Government Arts College Government Arts College Udhagamandalam Udhagamandalam
Abstract
The present study makes a review of recent literatures on vegetable production. Production of vegetable through organic farming is generally recognized by practitioners as a method of production that uses, practices or substances which are biologically enhancing to the soil, plant life, animal and human consumers, and growers. Organic farming has good scope for vegetable cultivation, which the paper finds the gap from the above reviews. The principles of organic agriculture include: replenishing and maintaining long-term fertility by providing optimal conditions for biological activity; producing viable quantities of high quality, nutritious food and feed; reducing the use of fossil fuels in agriculture and pollution that may result from farming; encouraging “closed cycle” farming systems that use local resources and recycled nutrients; enhancing ecological cycles within the food production system; maintaining genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including protection of plant and wildlife habitats; ensuring decent and non-exploitative treatment of farm workers; creating conditions for farm livestock that ensures them a life free of undue stress, pain, and suffering; maximizing the farmers’ return and satisfaction for their work; sustaining the land in a healthy condition for future generations; and optimizing multiple use capacity of the land.
Keywords: Vegetable, Cultivation, Organic, Marketing
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Introduction
Vegetables are one of the important aspects of the horticulture sector of India in particular and of the agricultural sector of India in general. Various factors have led to the rise in the area under production of vegetables in India. The productivity of vegetables in India has been rising from last many years. All this has been happening because of the factors like increasing per capita income, urbanization, increasing health consciousness, increasing working women, shifting of farmers in growing higher value vegetables due to higher returns and increasing annual growth rate of vegetables in India. Favourable income-elasticity of demand has also helped in rising trend of vegetables production in India. Due to the short duration, high yield, nutritional richness and economic viability, vegetables become an integral part of the Indian agriculture. Vegetables provide a safe and secure nutritional net to the people of India. The rich and varied climate and geographical diversity, India has been blessed with different varieties of horticultural crops. India has been the second largest producer of horticultural products in the world.
The importance of vegetables in providing balanced diet and nutritional security has been realised world over. Vegetables are now recognized as health food globally and play important role in overcoming micronutrient deficiencies and providing opportunities of higher farm income. The worldwide production of vegetables has tremendously gone up during the last two decades and the value of global trade in vegetables now exceeds that of cereals. Hence, more emphasis is being given in the developing countries like India to promote cultivation of vegetables. Development of hybrid varieties, integrated insect-pest and diseases management practices, integrated nutrient management and standardizing improved agro techniques including organic farming have changed the scenario of vegetables production in the country. In short, productivity, quality and post-
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harvest management of vegetables will have to be improved to remain competitive in the next decades. Given this backdrop, the present study makes a review of recent literatures on vegetable production thereby to find issues in vegetable production and suggest some measures to overcome the same.
Literature Review
Vasant P. Gandhi and N. V. Namboodiri (2004) explains the marketing of fruits and vegetables in India. There has been concern in recent years regarding the efficiency of marketing of fruits and vegetables, and that this is leading to high and fluctuating consumer prices and only a small share of the consumer rupee reaching the farmers. Marketing of horticultural crops is complex especially because of perishability, seasonality and bulkiness. The study seeks to examine different aspects of their marketing, focusing particularly, on the wholesale markets for fruits and vegetables which have been established to overcome deficiencies and improve the marketing efficiency. Results indicate that in Ahmedabad the direct contact between commission agents and farmers is very low. For vegetables this is 50 percent and for fruits only 31 percent. Further, in the system of transaction, secret bidding and simple transaction dominate and open auction is relatively rare. In KFWVM, Chennai, the wholesalers act as commission agents and receive consignments directly from producing centers through agents or producers. By and large the system of transaction remains traditional and open auction is rarely seen. This is one major reason for poor efficiency. However, in the small AUS market in Chennai, the farmers sell directly to consumers. The share of farmers in the consumer rupee in Ahmedabad was 41.1 to 69.3 percent for vegetables and 25.5 to 53.2 percent for fruits. In Chennai KFWVM, the farmers' share was 40.4 to 61.4 percent for vegetables and, 40.7 to 67.6 percent for fruits. The direct participation of farmers should be increased. Market infrastructure should be improved through storage
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(go-down) facilities, cold storages, loading and weighing facilities. Improvement in the road network, and cold-chain facilities are also of substantial importance. Greater transparency of the operations through supervision and systems can also help substantially. The market integration and efficiency can also be improved by making up- to-date market information available to all participants through various means, including a good market information systems, internet and good telecommunications facilities at the markets.
Singla, et al. (2006) has carried out a study on green peas (Pisum sativum L.) IN Punjab. They have talked about the tremendous economic potentials of production of vegetables in the national economy of India. Their study has talked about the importance of growing green peas for the horticulture sector of Punjab. They have found out that the productivity of green peas in Punjab has been more on small farms than medium and large farms. Thus the cultivation of green peas help the small farmer to earn a good level of farm income.
Sudha, et al., (2006) examined that the use of hybrid seeds in the cultivation of vegetables has a huge impact over the farm incomes of the farmers growing vegetables by the use of commercial hybrid seeds. In their study, they have talked about the cultivation of tomato and okra with the use of commercial hybrid seeds. And as a result, the production of tomato and okra has tremendously increased. This has helped the farmers to increase their farm incomes up to a great margin.
Chengappa, et al., (2007) points out that Andhara Pradesh was the second largest state to produce horticulture crops in the year 2006- 07. In their study, they have carried out the growth in area, production and productivity of horticulture sector of the state in all the districts from 1998-99 to 2005-06. They have found out that there has been a significant growth in area, production and productivity of almost all the
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important horticulture crops in the state during the period of their study, i.e. 1998-99 to 2005-06.
Murthy, et al. (2009) has carried out a study on tomatoes production in the state of Karnataka. Technical and scale efficiencies have been helpful in rise in production of tomatoes in Karnataka. They have applied the Data Envelope Analysis (DEA).Proper utilization of chemical fertilizers have been helpful in raising the production of tomatoes across different groups of farmers in Karnataka.
Reddy, et al. (2010) has talked about the value chains and retailing of fresh vegetables and fruits in Andhara Pradesh. They have laid emphasis over the success of the new retailing market emerging in the present times. It has been offering greater opportunities to the farmers who are the growers of vegetables and fruits in Andhara Pradesh. These farmers can reap larger chunks of financial and economic benefits out of the cultivation of vegetables and fruits.
Kumar, et al. (2011) has examined about the potential of economic benefits of the cultivation of brinjal in India. In their study, they have found out that with the adoption of BT brinjal, the yield gains have increase by 37% and on the other hand the total insecticide use has been reduced by around 42% as compared to the non BT brinjal crop in India. They further claim that the gap in vegetables production can work as a stimulator for substantial increase in the production of the same.
Datta. S. (2013) analysed the impact of climate change in Indian horticulture. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world (ranks next to China) and accounts for about 15% of the world’s production of vegetables. The current production level is over 90 MT and the total area under vegetable cultivation is around 6.2 million hectares which is about 3% of the total area under cultivation in the country. Environmental stress is the primary cause of crop losses
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worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crops by more than 50%. Climatic changes will influence the severity of environmental stress imposed on vegetable crops. The response of plants to environmental stresses depends on the plant developmental stage and the length and severity of the stress. Plants may respond similarly to avoid one or more stresses through morphological or biochemical mechanisms. Environmental interactions may make the stress response of plants more complex or influence the degree of impact of climate change.
Poly Saha (2013) examined the concept on organic vegetable production. Production of vegetable through organic farming is generally recognized by practitioners. Concept on Organic Vegetable Production As a method of production that uses, practices or substances which are biologically enhancing to the soil, plant life, animal and human consumers, and growers. The principles of organic agriculture include: replenishing and maintaining long-term fertility by providing optimal conditions for biological activity; producing viable quantities of high quality, nutritious food and feed; reducing the use of fossil fuels in agriculture and pollution that may result from farming; encouraging “closed cycle” farming systems that use local resources and recycled nutrients; enhancing ecological cycles within the food production system; maintaining genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including protection of plant and wildlife habitats; ensuring decent and non-exploitative treatment of farm workers; creating conditions for farm livestock that ensures them a life free of undue stress, pain, and suffering; maximizing the farmers’ return and satisfaction for their work; sustaining the land in a healthy condition for future generations; and optimizing multiple use capacity of the land. Vegetables are the crop which has the capability to give high return per unit area and per unit time than the normally grown cereals. Under the right circumstances, the market returns from
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organic vegetable production can potentially contribute to local food security by increasing family income.
Koundinya V and P Pradeep Kumar (2014) analysed the status and challenges of Indian vegetable seeds industry. Seed is the first and foremost important commodity for successful vegetable cultivation. Indian vegetable seed industry is going enormously annually. The policies of Govt. of India since independence liberalized and encouraged the seed trade in India. Several private seed firms with multinational base are actively involving in vegetable seed production in India making the public sector much lagging behind. Expanding areas under vegetable cultivation, varied agro-climatic conditions, availability of huge and cheap human resource are creating titanic scope for development of vegetable seed industry in India. Vegetable seed industry has positive influence on Indian economy in terms of income and employment generation and earning foreign exchange in international market. There are few constraints like high cost of seed production, technical problems and stringent laws set break to the vegetable seed industry in India. It can be concluded that vegetable seed business will ever have huge scope to success and will play an important role in economy in countries like India where the occupation of majority of the people is agriculture. There is a greater need to make available quality seeds to the farmers in time and in sufficient quantity at reasonable prices. Seed laws are to be implemented strictly to ensure supply of quality seeds and to protect the farmers from spurious seeds. Government has to reduce precincts on import and export of quality seeds and planting materials. Policy making and implementations shall be free from political motivations. Strengthening of public sector in R&D is needed to compete with private seed companies so as to provide good quality seeds to the farmers at cheaper rates. The collaboration of both public and private sector may obviously help in quality vegetable seed production in India. There should be exchange of germplasm and
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other inputs between public and private sectors as per some pre made agreements. The mammoth seed companies may not be interested in such deals as these companies are having established R&D wings and their own technical staff. Nascent seed firms with moderate level of establishment and technical staff may find better option by such covenant.
Kamini Choudhary and Rahul Kundal (2015) studied the area, production and yield of tomatoes in India from 2002 to 2011. The world has witnessed a rising trend in the area, production and yield of crops in the horticulture sector. The present paper has tried to carry on a research on the trends in the area, production and yield of tomatoes in the horticulture sector of India from the year 2002 to 2011. It has also envisaged on finding out the annual compound growth rates (ACGR) of area, production and yield of tomatoes in India for a period of ten years i.e. from the year 2002 to the year 2011 The present study finds out that there exist a rising trend in terms of area, production and yield in India with respect to tomatoes cultivation. The rise in the area, production and yield of tomatoes during the time period of the study in India has been remarkable. Such a rise assures a bright future of the horticulture sector of India in the coming times. The null hypothesis of the study has not been rejected while the alternative hypothesis of the study is rejected.
Mallikarjunarao. K., Rojalin Pradhan and Ranjit Kumar Das (2015) analysed the dry land techniques for vegetable production in India. Dry farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than 750 mm. Dry land farming techniques includes Water conservation, increase Water absorption, reducing the loss of soil moisture, bunding and terracing, contour bunding, mulching, intercropping, precision agriculture, use of drip irrigation facilities and use of growth regulators and chemicals. Choice of varieties is important. Varieties which have proven excellent in irrigated areas are
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generally unsuited for dry land conditions. Many attempts at dry land farming have failed, largely due to lack of recognition of the requirements for the variety selection. Variety requirements for dry farming are short-stemmed varieties with limited leaf surface minimize transpiration, deep, prolific root systems enhance moisture utilization and quick-maturing varieties are important in order that the crop may develop prior to the hottest and driest part of the year and mature before moisture supplies are completely exhausted. Even after utilizing all the available water resources, about 50% of the cultivable area will still depends on rains. Therefore, the agricultural scientists, policy makers and farmers should appropriately realize the magnitude of role that rainfed agriculture or dry land farming can play. Vegetable cultivation under rainfed condition is not much popular while comparing to other systems of cultivation. However, it solves the problem of rural poverty and malnutrition. Therefore, much concentration should be given for dry land rainfed vegetable farming by efficient adoption of techniques.
Saurav Negi and and Neeraj Anand (2015) discussed the issues and challenges in the supply chain of fruits and vegetables sector in India. The entire supply chain of Fruits and Vegetables in India is laden with various issues and challenges. The supply chain of Fruits and Vegetables sector has been explained and attempt has been made towards identifying the issues affecting the supply chain of the sector. The present study undertakes a thorough review of basic and contemporary literature available and tries to explain the factors affecting the supply chain of Fruits and Vegetables sector in India. The literature has been divided into various themes according to the issues in the supply chain and an investigation has been attempted to identify various factors affecting the supply chain. The study found that Cold Chain Facilities; Fragmented Supply Chain; Linkages and Integration between the partners; Taxation Issue; Infrastructure Facilities; Cost of
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Packaging Material; Technology and Techniques; Farmer's Knowledge and Awareness; Quality and Safety standards; Processing and Value Addition; Supply Chain inefficiency; Farmers income; Supply chain losses and wastage of fresh produce; Transportation facilities; Demand and market information etc. are the factors which constitutes serious challenges for Fruits and Vegetables sector and are affecting the overall growth of the agricultural development of India. The authors have focuses only on Fruits and Vegetables sector, authors may look at other sector like food processing unit, cold chain and other perishable items such as meat, dairy industry, chocolate, beverages etc.
Conclusion
Production of vegetable through organic farming is generally recognized by practitioners as a method of production that uses, practices or substances which are biologically enhancing to the soil, plant life, animal and human consumers, and growers. Organic farming has good scope for vegetable cultivation, which the paper finds the gap from the above reviews. The principles of organic agriculture include: replenishing and maintaining long-term fertility by providing optimal conditions for biological activity; producing viable quantities of high quality, nutritious food and feed; reducing the use of fossil fuels in agriculture and pollution that may result from farming; encouraging “closed cycle” farming systems that use local resources and recycled nutrients; enhancing ecological cycles within the food production system; maintaining genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including protection of plant and wildlife habitats; ensuring decent and non-exploitative treatment of farm workers; creating conditions for farm livestock that ensures them a life free of undue stress, pain, and suffering; maximizing the farmers’ return and satisfaction for their work; sustaining the land in a healthy condition for future generations; and optimizing multiple use capacity of the land.
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References
1. Chengappa, P.G., Kareemulla, K. Rao, C.A.R. and Dixit, S. (2007), “Growth of Horticulture Sector in Andhara Pradesh: An Aggregate and District Level Analysis”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 20.2.
2. Kamini Choudhary and Rahul Kundal. 2015. A Study on Area, Production and Yield of Tomatoes in India from 2002 to 2011, International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and Management Studies, Volume 3, Issue 7.
3. Koundinya V and P Pradeep Kumar. 2014. Indian Vegetable Seeds Industry: Status And Challenges, International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences, http://www.rroij.com/open-access/indian-vegetable-seeds- industry-status-and-challenges-62-69.pdf.php?aid=40045
4. Kumar, S., Prasanna, P.A.L. and Wankhade, S. (2011), “Potential Benefits of BT Brinjal in India: An Economic Assessment”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 24, Jan-Jun., pp. 82-99.
5. Mittal, S. (2007), “Can Horticulture be a Success Story for India?”, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, Working Paper No. 1976.
6. Murthy, D.S., Sudha, M., Hegde, M.R. and Dakshinamoorthy, V. (2009), “Technical Efficiency and its Determinants in Karnataka, India: Data Enveloping Analysi s (DEA) Approach”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 22, Jul.-Dec., pp. 215-224.
7. Poly Saha. 2013. Concept on Organic Vegetable Production. Odisha Review, 75-84
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8. Reddy, G.P., Murthy, M.R.K. and Meena, P.C.(2010); “Value Chains and Retailing of Fresh Vegetables and Fruits , Andhara Pradesh”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 23, pp. 455-460.
9. Saurav Negi and and Neeraj Anand. 2015. Issues and Challenges in the Supply Chain of fruits and Vegetables Sector in India: A Review. International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) Vol. 6, No. 2.
10. Singla, R., Chahal, S.S. and Kataria, P. (2006), “Economic Production of Green Pea (Pisum sativum L) in Punjab”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 19, Jul.-Dec., pp. 237-250.
11. Sudha, M., Gajanana, T.M. and Murthy, D.S. (2006), “Economic Impact of Commercial Hybrid Seed Production in Vegetables in Farm Income, Employment and farm Welfare-A Case of Tomato and Okra in Karnataka”, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 19, Jul.-Dec., pp. 251-268.
12. Vasant P. Gandhi and N. V. Namboodiri. 2004. Marketing of Fruits and Vegetables in India: A Study Covering the Ahmedabad, Chennai and Kolkata Markets. http://www.iimah d.ernet. in/publications/data/2004-06-09vpgandhi.pdf
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MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT - SOCIAL PROTECTION FOR RURAL WORKERS
G.Sivasankar Research Scholar Dept. of Political Science and Public Administration Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati, A.P.India
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) has received attention for its rights-based approach to providing social protection. It is a public employment guarantee scheme designed to provide employment and basic income security to the rural working-age population in India, as well as improve their livelihoods through the development of durable assets. MGNREGA combines rights-based entitlements with demand-driven employment and citizen- centred planning and monitoring in its design. With regards to the central principles of R202, the innovative policy framework of MGNREGA pings nearly all of them: universality of protection, entitlement to benefits prescribed by national law, inclusion of informal economy workers, and respect for the rights and dignity of people covered by the scheme. Yet, despite the inclusion of these principles in formulating policy, the implementation process demonstrates the many challenges of realizing a rights-based approach.
MGNREGA:
Objectives: MGNREGA, which is the largest work guarantee programme in the world, was enacted in 2005 with the primary objective of guaranteeing 100 days of wage employment per year to rural households. Secondly, it aims at addressing causes of chronic poverty through the ‘works’ (projects) that are undertaken, and thus
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ensuring sustainable development. Finally, there is an emphasis on strengthening the process of decentralisation through giving a significant role to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in planning and implementing these works.
Key features:
Legal right to work: Unlike earlier employment guarantee schemes, the Act provides a legal right to employment for adult members of rural households. At least one third beneficiaries have to be women. Wages must be paid according to the wages specified for agricultural labourers in the state under the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, unless the central government notifies a wage rate (this should not be less than Rs 60 per day). At present, wage rates are determined by the central government but vary across states, ranging from Rs 135 per day to Rs 214 per day.
Time bound guarantee of work and unemployment allowance: Employment must be provided with 15 days of being demanded failing which an ‘unemployment allowance’ must be given.
Decentralised planning: Gram sabhas must recommend the works that are to be undertaken and at least 50% of the works must be executed by them. PRIs are primarily responsible for planning, implementation and monitoring of the works that are undertaken.
Work site facilities: All work sites should have facilities such as crèches, drinking water and first aid.
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Transparency and accountability: There are provisions for proactive disclosure through wall writings, citizen information boards, Management Information Systems and social audits. Social audits are conducted by gram sabhas to enable the community to monitor the implementation of the scheme.
Funding: Funding is shared between the centre and the states. There are three major items of expenditure – wages (for unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled labour), material and administrative costs. The central government bears 100% of the cost of unskilled labour, 75% of the cost of semi-skilled and skilled labour, 75% of the cost of materials and 6% of the administrative costs.
MGNREGA was implemented in phases, starting from February 2006, and at present it covers all districts of the country with the exception of those that have a 100% urban population. The Act provides a list of works that can be undertaken to generate employment related to water conservation, drought proofing, land development, and flood control and protection works. Table 1 provides information regarding employment generation and expenditure under MGNREGA.
MGNREGA
Average number Number of households of person days of Total provided employment work per Expenditure Year (in crore) household (in lakh)
2006-07 2.10 43 8823.35
2007-08 3.39 42 15856.88
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2008-09 4.51 48 27250.10
2009-10 5.25 54 37905.23
2010-11 5.49 47 39377.27
2011-12* 4.99 43 38034.69
2012-13** 4.25 36 28073.51
Source: Standing Committee on Rural Development; PRS. Note: *Provisional ** As on 31.01.2013
Findings and Recommendations of the Standing Committee on Rural Development
A. Achievements: The Standing Committee highlighted several achievements of MGNREGA in the seven years of its implementation, especially:
Ensuring livelihood for people in rural areas.
Large scale participation of women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs/STs) and other traditionally marginalised sections of society. SCs/STs account for 51% of the total person- days generated and women account for 47% of the total person- days generated.
Increasing the wage rate in rural areas and strengthening the rural economy through the creation of infrastructure assets.
Facilitating sustainable development, and
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Strengthening PRIs by involving them in the planning and monitoring of the scheme.
Challenges: However, the Committee found several issues with the implementation of the scheme. As Table 1 (above) shows, the average number of days of employment provided to households has been lower than the mandated 100 days, and has been decreasing since 2010-11.
Key issues that the Committee raised include
Fabrication of job cards: While as many as 12.5 crore households have been issued job cards out of an estimated 13.8 crore rural households ( as per the 2001 census), there are several issues related to existence of fake job cards, inclusion of fictitious names, missing entries and delays in making entries in job cards.
Delay in payment of wages: Most states have failed to disburse wages within 15 days as mandated by MGNREGA. In addition, workers are not compensated for a delay in payment of wages.
Non payment of unemployment allowances: Most states do not pay an unemployment allowance when work is not given on demand. The non-issuance of dated receipts of demanded work prevents workers from claiming an unemployment allowance.
Large number of incomplete works: There has been a delay in the completion of works under MGNREGA and inspection of projects has been irregular. Implementing agencies were able to complete only 98 lakh works out of 296 lakh works. As Table 2 shows, a large percentage of works remain incomplete under
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MGNREGA and the work completion rate appears to be decreasing in recent years.
Work completion rate
Year Work completion rate (%)
2006-07 46.34
2007-08 45.99
2008-09 43.76
2009-10 48.94
2010-11 50.86
2011-12* 20.25
2012-13* 15.02
Total 33.22
Source: Standing Committee on Rural Development. Note: * As on 30.01.2013
Other key challenges include poor quality of assets created, several instances of corruption in the implementation of MGNREGA, and insufficient involvement of PRIs. Recommendations: The Committee made the following recommendations, based on its findings:
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Regulation of job cards: Offences such as not recording employment related information in job cards and unlawful possession of job cards with elected PRI representatives and MGNREGA functionaries should be made punishable under the Act.
Participation of women: Since the income of female workers typically raises the standard of living of their households to a greater extent than their male counterparts, the participation of women must be increased through raising awareness about MGNREGA.
Participation of people with disabilities: Special works (projects) must be identified for people with disabilities; and special job cards must be issued and personnel must be employed to ensure their participation.
Utilisation of funds: The Committee found that a large amount of funds allocated for MGNREGA have remained unutilised. For example, in 2010-11, 27.31% of the funds remained unutilised. The Committee recommends that the Department of Rural Development should analyse reasons for poor utilisation of funds and take steps to improve the same. In addition, it should initiate action against officers found guilty of misappropriating funds under MGNREGA.
Context specific projects and convergence: Since states are at various stages of socio-economic development, they have varied requirements for development. Therefore, state governments should be allowed to undertake works that are pertinent to their context. There should be more emphasis on skilled and semi-skilled work under MGNREGA. In addition,
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the Committee recommends a greater emphasis on convergence with other schemes such as the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, National Rural Health Mission, etc.
Payment of unemployment allowance: Dated receipts for demanded work should be issued so that workers can claim unemployment allowance. Funds for unemployment allowance should be met by the central government.
Regular monitoring: National Level Monitors (NLMs) are deployed by the Ministry of Rural Development for regular and special monitoring of MGNREGA and to enquire into complaints regarding mis-utilisation of funds, etc. The Committee recommends that the frequency of monitoring by NLMs should increase and appropriate measures should be taken by states based on their recommendations. Additionally, social audits must mandatorily be held every six months. The Committee observes that the performance of MGNREGA is better in states with effective social audit mechanisms.
Training of functionaries: Training and capacity building of elected representatives and other functionaries of PRIs must be done regularly as it will facilitate their involvement in the implementation of MGNREGA.
The Right to Employment in Rural Settings
Under MGNREGA, entitlement to benefits is prescribed by national law: every adult member of a rural household that volunteers to do unskilled manual labour is entitled to employment which is paid according to a defined wage schedule and is in reasonable proximity to
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his or her home within two weeks, and this guarantee is backed by an unemployment allowance, in case no employment can be provided.
MGNREGA benefits are universal and inclusive: they take into account the special needs of historically and economically disadvantaged groups such as indigenous and outcaste groups and women. Hence, equality of access and non-discrimination are part of the scheme, as is the adequacy and predictability of benefits.
Meaningful and Effective Participation: Focusing on the rural worker in planning and monitoring
MGNREGA considers rural workers in need of work and income as rights-holders, while the administration is the duty-bearer with the obligation to deliver. In order to realize their entitlement to employment, citizens need to state their demand to local officials, who are then responsible for opening a public works project. The workers’ rights and dignity are further strengthened by their involvement in planning, implementation and monitoring processes. Ideally, MGNREGA public work projects are requested by the village assembly and are approved by the local and district administrations. Additionally, the Act requires regular social audits, meaning that all MGNREGA documents must be in the public domain and open to inquiry by citizens through public audits, fulfilling the requirement of ensuring transparency and access to information outlined in the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ General Comment 19. These audits serve a dual function of monitoring the scheme’s implementation and holding local administrations accountable. Besides the effect of verifying expenditure and providing a mechanism to discover potentially misappropriated funds, social audits also raise awareness and improve villagers’ confidence to approach local officials
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and not accept arbitrary charges from institutions or individuals involved in programme delivery.
Notable Achievements in Advancing Human Rights
During its first 10 years of implementation, MGNREGA had some major achievements. Where the scheme works, where employment and wages are provided regularly and reliably, where the infrastructure built is useful and sustainable, MGNREGA has transformed the lives of those living in rural areas. Even when only some of the Act’s provisions are in place, rights-holders have reported positive changes in their lives, such as reduced dependence on moneylenders or a reduction in distress migration. These changes, big and small, are evidence in favour of continuing to invest resources into the scheme and improving its delivery. In adhering to several R202 principles, MGNREGA provides an example from which other countries can learn.
Remaining Challenges and Ways Forward
While the programme has had transformative effects in people’s lives, there are still challenges. Most of MGNREGA’s remaining bottlenecks are in implementation, where its elaborate rights-based framework poses some obstacles. Observers frequently note, for example, failure to register demands for work and subsequently provide employment or unemployment allowances, delays in payment, corruption in registration, lack of institutional capacity, inadequate labour protection at worksites, insufficient maintenance of assets, unreliable monitoring and auditing processes, and lack of public awareness.
Perhaps most crucially, much of the rights-based character of the scheme depends on the provision of employment as demanded. When this demand is not properly recorded by the local administration, work
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is not provided when needed, but rather when local administrators make work available. The failure to move from supply-driven to demand-based employment provision also means that the conceptual transformation of seeing worker as rights-holders and local administrations as duty-bearers, is incomplete. In many instances this is a challenge for both sides. For the part of the worker the often mentioned “awareness” may be insufficient to realize their rights – members of the administration may not easily recognize these rights even when they are claimed. For the administration, this process may require a massive shift in the perception of their own role, such as admitting when they are unable to provide employment after a resident submitted a claim.
The supply-driven implementation in previous schemes often meant that employment was unavailable when needed, and thus was unpredictable. However, predictability is central to shifting the focus of people living in poverty from immediate survival to sustainable improvements in their standard of living. Reliability is therefore central to bolstering rights-holders’ agency to challenge an administration that fails to recognize their rights — a point which is recognized and codified in R202 as the principle of adequate and predictable benefits.
Overall, the implementing process needs further investment and reform to strengthen the rights-based character of MGNREGA and to maintain its vivid “potential to transform the face of rural India”.
References
1. Official MGNREGA website
2. Ministry of Rural Development (2012). MGNREGA Sameeksa. An Anthology of research studies on the MGNREGA (2006-2012)
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available from http://nrega.nic .in/netnrega/writere addata/Cir cular s/MGNREGA_SAMEEKSHA.pdf
3. Ellen Ehmke (2015). National experiences in building social protection floors: India’s Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. International Labour Office, Social Protection Department: Geneva. Extension of Social Security Paper No.49 Available at http://www.social- protection.org/gimi/ges s/Ressou rceP DF.action?re ssource .resso urceId=53326
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RELATION BETWEEN I.Q. AND SELF CONCEPT REGARDING PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS AT SECONDARY LEVEL OF STUDENTS OF BIRBHUM (W.B.)
Sudipa Chakrabarty Biswas Tuhin Kumar Samanta Assistant Professor Professor Santiniketan Boniad B.Ed. Training Institute Department of Education Rabindra Palli, Santiniketan The University of Burdwan, Birbhum Golapbag,,Burdwan
Abstract
Performance in Mathematics was studied in relation to I.O. and Self Concept of the students of standard viii of 10 Bengali Medium schools (4 Boys, 4 co-ed.,2 Girls) under west Bengal Board of Secondary Education. The present study showed that there is a positive correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q., Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept, I.Q. and Self Concept. There is a significant gender wise difference in Self Concept at .05 level but not significant at .01 level. Gender wise difference can not be generalised. There is a significant effect of I.Q. and Self Concept on Achievement in Mathematics and there is a significant difference between the mean score of Achievement in Mathematics of the group having high and low Self Concept and vice-versa.
Key Words: Performance in Mathematics,Relation to I.Q., Correlation Between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q. ,Effect of Self Concept.
INTRODUCTION:
I.Q. is a well known phenomenon which has a strong relation with the Achievement in Education as well as mathematics. Whenever we analyse the result of the secondary students, we come to know that they are very poor in Mathematics. Lots of researches had been done in this area. But a new question has been aroused before us, whether the students know themselves. Do they set their goal before doing their
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educational tusks? A term Self Concept is introduced as a new component in the area of Achievement in Education.
What is Self Concept? The child’s perception or view of himself is called self concept. Some important definitions of Self Concept are as follows: “ The self concept includes only those perceptions about self which seems most vital or important to the individual himself.” ( R.C.Wylie). “Self Concept is the cluster of the most personal stable meanings a person attributes to the self.” (C.D.Kehas) “Self Concept is the composite of ideas, feelings and attitudes people have about themselves.” (Atkinson, 1979). “Self Concept is, if people evaluate themselves positively” (Pintrich & Schunk ,2002) “The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that differentiate us from other individual (for example, introvert). The relational self is defined by our relationships with significant others ( for example, sister). Finally the collective self reflect our membership in social groups (for example, British). ( Crisp, R.J. &Turner, R.N. 2007).
“A self Concept is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature unique qualities, and typical behaviour. Your self concept is your mental picture of yourself. It is a collection of self perceptions. For example, a self concept might include such belief as “I” am easy going or “ I “ am pretty or “ I “ am hardworking.” ( Pastorino & Doyle- Portillo,2013).
Humanist Psychologist Carl Rogers believed that there were three different parts of self concept.
1. Self image or how you see yourself.
2. Self esteem or how much you value your self.
3. Ideal self or how you wish you could be.
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According to a theory, known as social identity theory, self concept is composed of two key parts : personal identity and social identity.
Brocken (1992) suggested that there are six specific domain related to self concept.
1. Social – the ability to interact with others.
2. Competence – ability to meet basic needs.
3. Affect – awareness of emotional states.
4. Physical --- feelings about looks, health, physical conditions and overall appearance.
5. Academic --- Success or failure in School.
6. Family --- how well one functions within the family unit.
Self concept is the image that we have of ourselves. This image is a number of ways but is particularly influenced by our interactions with important people in our lives.
What is I.Q.?
The well known phenomena “Intelligent Quotient” i.e. “I.Q.”, which is the measurement of intelligence. According to Miles,
“ Intelligence is the open concept, because the number of activities legitimately characterised as indicators has never been listed...... ”
A comprehensive definition of intelligence:
Stoddard (1943) and Wechsler (1944) have defined intelligence in the following words:
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“Intelligence is the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal with the environment effectively”.
Stoddard further elaborated that intelligence is the capacity of a person to undertake such activities which are (i) difficult (ii) complex, (iii) abstract (iv) economical (v) goal directed (vi) value from social view points (vii) original. These activities demand concentration of energy and a resistance to emotional forces.
Intelligence could be measured through Intelligence test. The concept of mental age was introduced by Binet and Simon for the first time in the history of mental testing and with the help of this concept we could assess the intellectual ability of a person. The first scale of Binet-Simon was published in 1905. Then the scale was revised several times. L.M.Terman of Stanford university revised this scale 1916 to adapt to American situation. He introduced one new concept which was intelligence quotient (I.Q.) in his revision. I.Q is also based on the concept of mental age. It is the ratio of mental age to the chronological age multiplied by 100.
I.Q. = (M.A./C.A.).100
Different standardised I.Q. tests are now available for calculation of I.Q. Catell’s Culture Fair Test is such an intelligent test which was developed by R.B. Cattel in 1961. The test has three scales and can be administered on children and adults both. In the present study scale II (meant for 8-15 years) was administered on the students of class viii.
There is a positive correlation between I.Q. and achievement in education. So, there may be a positive correlation between I.Q. and achievement in Mathematics.
Since, each and every work of mankind depends on intelligence, so, there may be a positive correlation between I.Q. and Self Concept.
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Knowing self may have a positive effect on the achievement of the students, so, there may be a positive correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept.
The purpose of the present study is to find the correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q., Self Concept and I.Q., Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept. Also the purpose of this study is to find out the impact of I.Q. and Self Concept on the Achievement of Mathematics and if there is a gender wise discrimination in the self concept.
OBJECTIVES:
1. To find out the relation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q
2. To find out the relation between Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept.
3. To find out the relation between Self concept and I.Q.
4. To find out the effect of I.Q. and Self Concept on Achievement in Mathematics.
5. To find out the gender wise difference, if any in Self Concept.
6. To test the significance of the difference between the mean score of Achievement in Mathematics of the groups having high and low Self Concept and vice versa.
Hypotheses:
H1: There would be a significant correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q. for the students of standard viii.
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H2: There would be a significant correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept for the students of standard viii.
H3: There would be a significant correlation between Self Concept and I.Q. for the students of standard viii.
H4: There is a significant effect of Self Concept and I.Q. on Achievement in Mathematics for the students of standard viii.
H5: There is a significant gender wise difference in Self Concept for the students of standard viii.
H6: There is a significant difference between the Mean Achievement scores in Mathematics of the groups having high and low Self Concept for the students of standard viii.
H7: There is a significant difference between the mean scores of Self Concept of the groups having high and low score in Mathematics.
METHODOLOGY:
300 students of class viii composing 150 boys and150 girls from four boys school, four co-ed. School and two girls school were selected as sample for the present study. These schools constitute mixed groups of students regarding their socio cultural, educational and economical background. The marks in Mathematics obtained by these students in the past annual examination were taken as their Achievement in Mathematics.
The questionnaire of the Self Concept for class viii, made by the investigator, were standardised by the Experts of the Burdwan University and Kalyani University. All the questions of Self Concept were made on the bases of the six specific domains, suggested by Brocken (1992). Six domains are: Social, competence, Affect, Physical, Academic and Family. 20questions were selected for the questionnaire.
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To measure I.Q., investigator used standardised I.Q. test, Culture Fair Tests, developed on the bases of the theory Cattle, R.B. Then the raw scores collected from the tests were converted to I .Q. score using the table 5.1 “Normalised Standard score I.Q.’s For Total Scores (form A+ Form B) on scale-2”
Statistical analysis of various data, were done in order to find out the impact, if any of the Self Concept and I.Q. on the Achievement in Mathematics of the students and to find out the relation between I.Q. and Self Concept. It is also to find out whether there exists any gender wise difference in Self Concept of the students of standard viii.
The coefficient of correlation (r) between I.Q. and Achievement in Mathematics was obtained through Scatter gram. In order to test H1, the obtained r-value is subjected to t-test.
To test H2, the coefficient of correlation between Self Concept and Achievement in Mathematics was obtained through Scatter gram and the obtained r-value was subjected to t-test.
Again, the coefficient of correlation (r) between I.Q. and Self Concept was obtained through Scatter Gram. To test H3, the obtained r-value was subjected to t-test.
To test H4, multiple correlation has to be found using the formula R1.23 = (r2 + r2 – 2r r r )/ (1- r2 ) √ 12 13 12 13 23 23
And then its significance is found out using Standard Error of Multiple Coefficient of Correlation R.
To test H5, ANOVA had been done between the mean of the scores of Self Concept of girl students and boy students.
To test the hypothesis H6, the high and low scoring Self Concept groups were determined by taking Median ± Q as their respective cutting points. Similarly, for hypothesis H7, the high and low scoring Achievement in Mathematics groups were determined. The students
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belonging to each of the categories in Self Concept and Achievement in Mathematics were identified and their corresponding scores in Mathematics and Self Concept were tabulated respectively and subjected to t-test. Correlation graphs were used to prominent the relation between couple of variables.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:
First purpose of present study was to find out the relation between I.Q. and Achievement in Mathematics of the students of standard viii.
The coefficient of correlation between I.Q. Achievement in Mathematics is 0.75.
2 Here t = r× √ (n-2)/(1-r ) =19.56 >2.58.
So, t-value is significant at .01 level, as such hypothesis H1 is retained, showing a positive correlation between I.Q. and Achievement in Mathematics.
Second purpose of this study was to find out the relation between Self Concept and Achievement in Mathematics of the students of standard viii.
The coefficient of correlation between Self Concept and Achievement in Mathematics is 0.70.
t-value for this r is 16.91, which is significant at .01 level, as such, the hypothesis H2 is retained showing a strongly positive correlation between Self concept and Achievement in Mathematics.
Third purpose of this study was to find out the relation between I.Q. and Self Concept.
The coefficient of correlation between Self Concept and I.Q. is 0.67.
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t-value for this ‘r’ is 15.57 which is significant at 0.01 level, as such, H3 is retained showing positive correlation between the scores in self concept and I.Q.
Fourth purpose of this study was to find out the effect of self concept and I.Q. on Achievement in Mathematics for the students of standard VIII.
Multiple Correlation, R1.23 = (r2 + r2 -2r r r )/(1-r2 ) √ 12 13 12 13 23 23
Where, r12= 0.75, (Coefficient of correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q.),
R13= 0.79, (Coefficient of correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept),
R23=0.67, (Coefficient of correlation between I.Q. and Self Concept).
R1.23=0.84
S = (1-R2)/( N-m), N=Total number of students=300, m= No. Of ER √ variables= 3.
=0.02
At 0.99 confidence interval for the population R is 0.84 ± 2.58×0.02 or from 0.79 to0.89.
A short interval is there. So, R is highly significant at 0.01 level as such, the hypothesis H4 is retained i.e. there is a significant effect of I.Q. and Self Concept on the Achievement in Mathematics.
Fifth purpose of this study was to find out the gender wise difference, if any, in Self Concept of the students for standard viii.
ANOVA is used to determine the difference.
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No. Of students Mean s.d. 150 boys 24.6 2.79 150 girls 24.35 2.28
Table No. 1. Mean and Standard deviation on the scores of Self Concept
Of boys and girls students.
df s.s. M.V. B.M. 1 37.5 37.5 W.G. 298 1934.37 6.49 Table no. 2.
F= 5.78> 3.87 but <6.72
So, F is significant at 0.05 level but not significant at 0.01 level as such, the hypothesis H5 is retained only at 0.05 level showing that gender wise difference in Self Concept is significant at 0.05 level but not significant at 0.01 level.
Sixth purpose of this study was to find out the difference between the Mean Achievement scores in Mathematics of the groups of having high and low self concept for class viii.
To determine the groups having high and low self concept, at first Median ± Q is calculated.
Median= 24.36 and Q= 2.7. So, Median ± Q = from 22 to 27.
Therefore, the students, who score below 22 have low self concept and the students, who score above 27 have high self concept.
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Mean score of S.d. Mathematics
High Self concept M1= 60 14.58 group
Low Self Concept M2= 24 6.85 group Table No. 3. Table of Mean and Standard deviation of high and low Self Concept groups.
Combined standard deviation= 2.58. t= (M1 – M2)/ 2.58 =12.63 > 2.58.
So, t is significant at .01 level, as such hypothesis H6 is retained showing significant difference between the Mean Achievement in Mathematics of the groups having high and low self concept for class viii.
Seventh purpose of this study was to find out the difference between the Mean scores of Self Concept of the groups having high and low score in Mathematics.
Here Median = 36.58 and Q = 16.5.
So, Median ± Q = from 20 to 53.
Mean score of Self S.d. Concept
High Achievement in M1 = 27 4.18 Mathematics
Low Achievement in M2 = 22 3.15 Mathematics Table No. 4. Table of Mean and Standard deviation of high and low achievement in Mathematics groups.
Combined Standard deviation = 0.47, t = 10.64 > 2.58.
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So, t value is significant at .01 level as such the hypothesis H7 is retained showing that the difference between Mean scores of Self Concept of the groups having high and low score in Mathematics for the class viii.
To show the correlation between three pairs of variables three Graphic representations are given.
I.Q 75- 81- 87- 93- 99- 105- 111 117 121 fy Row /Math 80 86 92 98 10 110 - - - Mea 4 116 122 128 n
80-89 1 ° 7 1 9 118. × 8
70-79 0 2 °13 15 118. 7
60-69 12 6 23 °5 117. × 7
50-59 10 17 30 ° °3 106. × 1
40-49 4 9 °23 8 8 2 54 103. × 1
30-39 6 14 6 2 4 68 98.2 °14 22 × ×
20-29 7 18 22 °18 9 6 2 82 92.2 × × ×
10-19 3 5 ° 5 1 3 2 19 90.1
fx 10 29 45 42 67 52 23 31 1 30 0
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Colum 21. 24. 28. 31. 30. 48.5 51 68 84. n 5 2 3 9 3 4 5 Mean
Table No: 5. Graphic representation of the Correlation between I.Q. and achievement in Mathematics.
S.C/Math 20- 22- 24- 26- 28- 30- 32- fy Row 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 Means
80-89 3 ° 4 1 8 28
70-79 1 5 ° 6 3 1 28.3 16
60-69 3 9 ° 4 5 1 27.8 × 22
50-59 1 6 26.6 ° 7 1 12 × × 27 ×
40-49 6 23 9 2 25.7 ° 15 55
30-39 6 9 1 2 23.8 27 ° × 27 72 ×
20-29 22 6 1 23 18 ° × 33 80
10-19 9 ° 8 2 1 22 20
fx 33 75 84 32 5 60 300
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Column Means 23.6 29.1 37.1 51 58.9 52.5
Table No: 6 Graphic representation of the correlation between Mathematics and Self Concept.
S.C/I.Q. 20- 22- 24- 26-27 28-29 30-31 32-33 fy Row 21 23 25 Mean
120-129 1 2 2 ° 9 3 × 17 27.8
110-119 1 5 3 ° 4 2 1 16 × × 32 26.9
100-109 9 13 1 ° 2 34 27 × 86 25.4
90-99 10 2 24 ° 4 26 30 72 × ×
80-89 2 1 ° 28 41 18 90 22.4 ×
70-79 1 ° 2 3 21.1
fx 57 29 6 3 37 79 89 300
Column Mean 87 90.9 98.1 105.6 110.7 119.5 111.1
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Table No. 7. Graphic representation of the Coefficient of Correlation between I.Q. and Self Concept.
FINDINGS:
The present study was conducted by the Investigator to reveal the relationship among three variables, Achievement in Mathematics, I.Q. and Self Concept. The findings of the study showed that there is a positive significant correlation between Achievement in Mathematics and I.Q., Achievement in Mathematics and Self Concept, I.Q. and Self Concept. Also, there is a positive significant effect of I.Q. and Self Concept on Achievement in Mathematics. Gender wise discrimination in Self Concept is significant at .05 level but insignificant at .01 level i.e. boys show better Self Concept than their counterpart but it cannot be generalised, since it is not significant at .01 level.
This is evident from these findings that high scoring groups of students in Self Concept has better achievement in Mathematics than their corresponding counterparts and vice versa.
Conversely, low scoring groups of students in self concept has lesser achievement in Mathematics and vice-versa. Therefore, it can be said that Self Concept has a positive effect on Achievement in Mathematics. Graphic representation of the Coefficient of correlation between two variables shows how the two variables are related. So, it would be justified to conclude that there is a positive significant effect of I.Q. and Self Concept on performance in Mathematics and all three variables are positively and significantly related to each other. But gender wise difference in Self Concept can not be generalised.
References:
1. Braken, B.A. (1992). Examiner’s Manual for the Multidimensional Self-esteem scale. Austine, TX; Pro- Ed.
2. Crisp, R.J & Turner, R.N.(2002). Essential Social Psychology London: Sage Publications.
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3. Pastorino, E.E. & Doyle-Portillo, S.M. (2013) What is Psychology? Essentials, Belmot, CA: Wadsworth.
4. Rogers.C (1959) A theory of Therapy Personality and Interpersonal relationships as developed in the client centred Framework. In (ed.), S.Koch, Psychology: A study of a science. Vol 3: Formulations of person and the social context. New york: MC Graw Hill.
5. Weiten, W.Dunn, D.S. & Hammer E.Y. (2012) Psychology applied to Modern Life: Adjustments in the 21st century. Belmot, C.A.: Wadsworth.
6. 6 . Garret, E.S.Henry (1981): Statistics in Psychology and Education, Vakils Ferrer and Simons Ltd, Bombay, Edition vi.
7. Gupta and Kapoor (2005) Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics. New Delhi Pub. Sultan chand and sons.
8. Joshy, Shobhna and Srivastava R, (2009) Self –esteem and Academic Achievement of Adolescents, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, vol. 35, 33-39.
9. 9.Pandey, S.N. and Ahmad, Md. Faiz (2008) Significance of difference between Male and Female Adolescents on Academic Performances, Achievement Motivation, Intelligence and SES. Journal of Community, guidance and Research, 25(1), pp 34-39.
10. 10. Reddy M.S. and Maddini, R(2010) Achievement in Mathematics of Secondary School Students in Selective variables EDUTRACKS vol 9 no 6 pp 38-43.
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MASULIPATAM MUNICIPALITY – ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP
M. Suseela Rao Lecturer in History SRR & CVR Govt. Degree College Vijayawada Abstract
Masulipatam known as Bandar is one of the earliest Municipality in the Madras presidency established in the year 1866 AD. Masulipatam was the head quarters of the Krishna district and the name of the district was derived from river Krishna. Telugu is the predominant language, Urdu is next important language, spoken by 10% of the Population. Masulipatam originally consisted of three villages, Masulipatam town, Bandar fort and the villages of Valandapalem and Gilakaladindi. The Portuguese and Dutch were the first to setup trading companies. In 1610 A.D., East India Company of England established its first factory at Masulipatam in the coramandal coast. Masulipatam region mentioned as ‘Maisolia’ by Ptolymy and Periplus of the Erythrean Sea as ‘Masalia’ . Masulipatam famous for ‘Kalamkari’ and ‘Addakam’. The system of municipal administration in British India is an Exotic institution. The history of Municipal Administration can broadly be divided into three periods. 1) First period is from 1850 – 1882. 2) Second period is from 1882 – 1919. 3) Third period since 1919. The local government are under the supervision and control of Governor General in Council and Governor in Council. The Government is empowered to impose house tax and other taxes through the Acts of Xth of 1801 and Xth of 1810.
Towns improvement Act of 1850 made provision for indirect taxation and authorised to provide civic amenities like water supply, lighting and sanitation etc. Through town improvement act of 1865
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municipality was constituted in Masulipatam town. Mayo’s resolution in 1870 and Rippon’s resolutions in 1882 were the important improvements in Municipal administration. The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy.
Masulipatam constituted with 12 wards and 28 councillors in 1921. The duration or term period was one year. Chairman and Vice- Chairman will be elected from the councillors. Municipal council should convene atleast 12 times in a year. In 1930 eight seats were reserved for down trodden and minority sections out of 28 strength of councillors. Nearly twenty five chairmen’s worked during the year 1866 to 1947. On average Municipal Council conducted 40 to 45 meetings and attendance was 50% in a year. Some prominent men rendered their service in Municipal council were P. Venkatappaiah Pantulu, P. Nageswara Rao Pantulu and Bogaraju Pattabi Sitaramaiah. The growth of the population of the Masulipatam municipality was 35,056 in the year 1872and in the year 1950 it was increased to 77,933. It was the first town became Municipality in Krishna District. In the beginning collector was acted as ex-officio president in the office of Municipal Council. Commissioner was acted as the head of the municipality through the act of 1935. Municipal Commissioner was vested executive powers.
Introduction
Towns form the dividing line between civilization and barbarism and emergence of towns was a revolution in the history of mankind. Masulipatam known as Bandar is one of the earliest municipalities in the Madras presidency established in the year 1866 A.D., near mouth of the river Krishna*. Masulipatam was the head quarters of Krishna
* Krishna – means black in colour in Sanskrit language.
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district and the name of the district was derived and closely associated with river Krishna – occupying a major portion of the fertile delta area of Krishna delta which was a part of the northern circars of Madras presidency†. Krishna district is the district of Madras presidency situated on the coast of Bay of Bengal on the Coromandel Coast of Southern peninsula of India.
Masulipatam originally consisted three villages namely Masulipatam town, Bandar Fort and the villages Valandapalem‡ and Gilakaladindi. It is a seaport town go back to the ancient days of the Greeks and Romans, as well as foreign trade relations with South-East Asia1.
The Portuguese and Dutch were the first to set up trading companies in the Masulipatam. In 1610 A.D., East India Company was established its first factory in the Coromandel coast. French East India company started a factory at Masulipatam in the year 1721. At the end of the 3rd Carnataka war English captured Masulipatam in 1759 and gained northern circars2.
Topography :
Masulipatam town located on latitudes 160.14’ North and 810.10’ east longitude and the town extents over an area of about 24.50 square kilometers. Masulipatam situated on the coromandel coast, it is in a distance of 665 miles south of Calcutta, 196 miles south of Visakhapatnam, 215 miles north of Madras city3.
Masulipatam Under Europeans:
† Madras – Madras was officially known as presidency of St.George. ‡ Valandapalem – means Hollandar town (Dutch settlement)
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The English company dispatched a ship called ‘Globe’ under the command of Hippon to engage in trade in India. Globe arrived at Masulipatam in the month of January, 1611. The English opened their first factory in the south India at Masulipatam. Abdullah Qutb Shah, a Qutb Shahi king issued ‘The Golden Firman’ or Royal edict granting trade privileges to the East India company of England in 1634. Masulipatam trading factory was under a president and council4.
Seaport – Foreign Trade:-
Masulipatam popularly known as Bandar had extensive trade and commercial contacts with European countries as well as south Asian countries. The growth of material prosperity led to trade and commerce in the country and was the development of maritime traffic and overseas trade. Where there is a town, there must be a market, without a market a town is inconceivable. No town is without its market and there can be no regional or national market without towns. Towns are the doors to the rest of the world. There would be no international trade without towns.
Masulipatam was an important seaport during Satavahana period. Seaports acts as windows of certain countries. Towns are the turning points and water sheds of human history.
Meluhha has been identified as the lands constituting the Harappan civilization. India Maritime tradition goes back to the 3000 B.C. Harappan people had an active sea trade with Mesopatamia. The ships carries timber, stone, cereals, textile and ivory from Meluhha. On their return voyage, the ships brought woolen and copper from Mesopotamia. Rigveds cited regarding sea trade in India. Andhra Satvahanas had trade contacts with Rome and the ladies of the city took pride in dressing themselves with Indian silk and other textiles.
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In 73 A.D. pliny spoke very highly of the superior excellence of the Indian muslin. The name muslin originated from the name Maisolos as mentioned by Ptolemy5.
Satavahanas had trade contacts with Rome and the ladies of the city took pride in dressing themselves with Indian silks and other textiles. In 73 A.D., pliny spoke very highly of the superior excellence of the Masulin. Pliny at one point mentions a drain of 55 million sesterce to India in the form of gold and silver. Substantial Roman coins finds occur in Andhra region particularly in and around Krishna valley coins hoards from the region around Krishna valley contain high value points.
Municipal Government in Ancient period:-
Towns form the dividing line between civilization and barbarism and emergence of towns was a revolution in the history of mankind. Towns are the turning points, water sheds of human history. It is indisputable that traditional form of local self-government had existed in India from ancient times. Ancient India famous for its village republics also a land of big and well administered cities and towns. The Nagara was the term used for both the town and town assembly. There were ample and vivid references in our ancient works to a well developed system of urban administration in India. The cities of Mohanjadaro in the lower Indus and Harappa in the Montgomery district of Punjab now formed in part of Pakistan proves that early Indian of Indus valley civilization way back to 3000 B.C. People lived in planned streets and magnificent system of drains, brick-built cities, houses had bath rooms, water supply and good drainage system, reflect the vigilance of some regular Municipal Government. Its authority was strong enough to secure the observance of approved lines of streets6.
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During post vedic period to pre-mauryan period, each town had an officer known as ‘Sarvarthachintaka’ who was expected to attend in all the aspects. The officer is also mentioned in Manu who was in- charge of all matters relating to the city. The Greek ambassador Magesthenese in the court of Chandra Gupta Maurya gives an account of the Municipal administration of the Mauryan capital city Pataliputra. Pataliputra the city was founded by Ajathasatru on the banks of the river Ganges in the fifth century B.C. The city became one of the most famous capital city in the world7.
Mgesthenese mentions, the city was divided into six bodies consisting five members in each. The members of the first body look after into industrial arts, second body attended to entertainment of foreigners. The third body consists to register births and deaths. The 4th class superintendent trade and commerce also have charge of weights and measures. The fifth class supervise manufactured articles. The sixth body consists of those who collect the taxes8.
Nagarika was the chief officer of the city, responsible to the central government for the conduct of the civil administration and discharges several duties. He was assisted by a body of two officials called ‘Gopa’ and ‘Sthanika’. Mauryas introduced a typical system of appointing specific committees to look after specific functions. Kautilya’s Arthasastra which describes the structure and functions of city administration of the Maurya period. The Arthasastra bears testimony to the highly evolved conditions of Municipal Government. Inscriptions of Ashoka mentions about construction of roads, hospitals, rest houses, educational institutions, medicinal plants and herbs received attention of Mauryan city administration9.
In Gupta period local administration was for all practical purposes independent of the Center. Gupta’s administration was
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different from that of Mauryan administration. Gupta’s followed de- centralized policy whereas Maurya’s administration was centralized. The town administration was usually entrusted to an official of the Central Government called ‘Purapala’ or ‘Nagara Rakshaka’. There is also reference to Purapala Uparika and it is pointed out that he controlled the heads of the various cities. The head of Purapala was called Dasapurapala means head of ten cities. The city was governed by a parishad. Avasthika was a special officer who acted as the superintendent of Dharmasalas10.
Municipal Government in Medieval period : Delhi Sultanate and Mughal.
In the medieval period during Delhi Sultanate and Mugal dynasties, Municipal Administration was governed by an officer, namely Kotwal, who was the supreme authority in police, fiscal, and magisterial functions. His functions were very comprehensive. He should maintained law and order, control of markets, prevention of crime and social abuse, regulation of burial and slaughter houses, maintained register of the people, disposal of heirless property and espionage system. To administer the city / town he was assisted by several administrative personnel. He was assisted by Mushrif in his official duty. Thus he occupied prominent place in the town administration and Government11.
The Mughals gave importance to the town administration. The cities and towns of the Mughal empire was governed by Kotwal, appointed by Central government who wielded autocratic powers. The Kotwal had multi furious duties. Abul-Fazal described the duties of the Kotwal in his book, Ain-i-Akbari. According to Abul-Fazal, Kotwal should maintain a register of houses and roads, kept a small army of spies and detectives to catch thieves and discover stolen goods,
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maintain law and order. He fixed prices and examined weights and measures, thus controlled the market12.
Origin of Municipal Administration in British Period:
Madras presidency with the early lead in introducing local self government in due course. The system of municipal administration in British India is an exotic institution. In the year 1687 James II gave consent to establish a corporation and mayors court in Madras. The corporation consisted of a mayor, alder-man and Burgess and had the authority to levy taxes for improving roads and undertaking lighting, conservancy and similar services. The corporation was separated in 1726 but the Mayo’s court continued with judicial power to trail petty cases and its power over civic affairs were removed. The Madras corporation consisted a mayor, twelve alder-man and sixty burgesses13.
The history of municipal administration can broadly be divided into three periods. They are 1.First period 1850-1882, 2.Second period 1882-1919, 3.Third period since 1919. The local governments are under the supervision and control of the Governor General in council. They must obey the orders of the Governor General and in-turn they should communicate the proceedings of the province.
Administrative Setup
Administration is defined as the art and science of management applied to the affairs of the state. The role of the state is the responsibility for the development and maintenance of the vast administrative structures now called governments. The fundamentals of administration are not merely the performance of law and order, administration must tend to look after the welfare of the people of the state14.
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The local governments are under the supervision and control of the governor general in council and governor in council. The passing of India Act of 1850 authorised the government to constitute any town into a municipality in case its inhabitants were desirous of making better provisions for public health and other amenities. The executive authority vested in commissions consisting of the magistrate and a certain number of persons appointed by Governor-in-council. The government contributed a sum equal to raised amount by the inhabitants for this purpose15.
The principal feature characterized British administration in India during last half of the 18th century has been gradual introduction of the principles of self government in local affairs.
Influential Merchants, Europeans and Indians of Masulipatam became the members of the local committee of which the collector and some senior government officials were ex-officio members. Subscriptions were raised and certain cesses were voted. Government granted aid equal to the amount collected and used it to improve sanitation. Government at that time regarded this movement with satisfaction looking at it more as a promising symptom of local self government than the adoption of the Municipal Act, as merely permissive. It lasted only till 1865 when it was merged into the general scheme involved in the Municipal Act was passed. There was at first time some opposition to the application of this act but when its objects were explained and the consultation of municipal councils was followed in a judicious manner, the interest of the Masulipatam people became aroused16.
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Establishment of Masulipatam Municipality:-
Masulipatam was the first town in the district to be constituted into a municipality in 1866. It comprises Masulipatam town, Bandar Fort, and the villagers of Valandapalem and gilakaladindi. The total area of the municipality was 24.50 sq.kms. Masulipatam was one of the municipalities established under the first regular municipal act X of 1865. In the year 1871, Machavaram and Chilakapudi villages were included, raising his area 24.86 sq.kmts. Masulipatam Municipality intended to provide for the police, conservancy and the general improvement of the town under Madras Act. III of 1871. Municipalities have been relieved from contribution to the maintenance of police17.
Masulipatam was popular and densely populated, sea-borne trade centre with several nations around the globe. When the foreign traders were settle down in the town, which the areas were called by their company names, since 17th century. Before the advent of European companies the town was ruled by Nawab of Masulipatam. Some of the officials worked under the Nawab established wands or peta’s in their names.
According to Collin Mackenzie, Surveyor General of India, who arrived to Andhra in 1790, compiled the Grama Kaifiyat of Krishna District. It narrates the position and composition of the town, Masulipatam and its division of wards or peta’s with the name bearing its founder or settlers.
1) Khajalli, Muslim by religion, established a ‘Khajallipeta’ in his name is 1538 AD.
2) Malki Bharai, also a Muslim founded a peta in his name called as Malkipatam in 1548 AD.
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3) Aniskhan founded a peta in his name was called as ‘Anispeta in 1558 AD.
4) Musta khan established a peta in his name was called ‘Mustakhanpeta’ in 1563 AD.
5) ‘Rusthum Badapeta was founded by Rusthum Khan by his name is 1648 AD.
6) Perapragada Butchu, by caste a Brahmin established ‘Butchupeta’ in his name in 1648 AD.
7) ‘Khalekhanpatam’ was founded by Khale Khan by his name in 1658 AD.
8) ‘Kanukallu Ramana established a peta in his name was called as ‘Patha ramannapeta’ in 1688 AD.
9) Dutch merchants constructed, Vallanda-palem, (Hollander’s own) with the old Dutch grave yard in 1605 AD.
10) The merchants of East India company of England, founded ‘English palem’ where they settled down in the town 1695 AD.
11) The merchant of French East India Company settled in the town and founded a peta was called ‘French peta’ in 1753 AD.
12) ‘Robertsenpeta’ was named after Robert son who was worked as collector in to town in 1815 AD.
13) The town was called as ‘Drunuguduru’ by natives but when the Arab merchants settled in the town it was called as ‘Masuli Bandar’.
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Masulipatam falls under Nizam’s domain, until the occupation by English people in 1767 AD. 18
Masulipatam Municipality Was Divided Into Twelve Wards .
FIRST WARD
North - Tunnel swamp
East - Lane between Devangi hamlet and Nawab’s compound up to the public well, to Dasiga garden along the main road, follows the lane to Gaddi Bazaar and thence to Vinnakota Street to the swamp.
South - Kristna canal swamp
West - Sivaganga swamp
SECOND WARD
North - Desiyapeta swap
East - Fattullabada drain from Jalalpeta up to Sadal road, to the lane on the right of Kopalli buildings to Yelisetti street and proceeds to the west to Amudala. Thota and joins with the continuation of the Inuguduru road.
South - Basin canal swamp
West - The eastern boundary of the first ward
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THIRD WARD
North - Rajupeta swap
East - Koti road to the swamp.
South - Sadak road.
West - Half of the eastern boundary of the second ward.
FOURTH WARD
North - Godugapeta swamp
East - Hyderabad road up to the municipal limits
South - Sadak road to the square
West - Eastern boundary of the third ward
FIFTH WARD
North - Balaramunipeta swamp
East - Siva temple road and Nizam peta rubbish depot road
South - Cantonment road from the square to the Valluri buildings
West - The eastern boundary of the fourth ward
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SIXTH WARD
North - Nizampeta and Edpalli swamps
East - New Bank road, church road and Anandapet road up to the swamp
South - Cantonment road from Vallari buildings to the new bank road
West - Eastern boundary of the fifth ward
SEVENTH WARD
North - The southern boundary of the third ward
East - Vankamamidi lane, Saroa street, Haveli street, crosses main road, follows the vale road up to tekka tank, then Ayyanki road and joins with the Sadak road.
South - Jalalpeta Street to timber yards and timber yard road to
Chinchinada garden
West - Fattulabada drain from Sadak road down to Jalalpeta.
EIGHTH WARD
North - The southern boundary of fourth ward
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East - Fort road up to the reservoir
South - The municipal limit in the basin canal swamp
West - The eastern boundary of the seventh ward
NINTH WARD
North - The Cantonment road
East - Lane between the college and the Boarding odmpound, the Noble road to the hospital, the Ramanayudupeta road up to Mr. Yegneswarudu house, then the main road up to the C.M.S building then the Rail road to Valluru buildings.
South - Railway swamp
West - The eastern boundary of eighth ward
TENTH WARD
North - The cantonment road up to Valluru buildings.
East - Street to Kara, Frenohpeta road, the new bank road up to the cantonment road.
South - The swamp beyond the Noble road.
West - The eastern boundary of ninth ward.
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ELEVENTH WARD
North - The Municipal limits
East - The Municipal limits
South - The Municipal limits
West - The Anandapet road, Church road, New Bank road
Head Quarters road, Frenchpeta road and joins the donka to Kara.
THELETH WARD - Consists of Bandar Fort and Gilakaladindi.
From 1866 to 1947 A.D. nearly 25 chairmans worked in the council. District Collector G. Thornill Hill was acted as first ex-officio president in the municipal council. According to Madras district municipality act of 1930 chairman should be elected with in its members in the council. From the year 1934, commissioner became the executive authority appointed by the government as an official. Municipal council was met regularly and committee and sub-committee system was existed for better administration.
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Reference
1 op.Citt. P.134. 2 Benerjee A.C., The New History of Modern India 1707-1947, New Delh,. 1983, P.97. 3 Raja Gopal M.V. op.Citt. P.178. 4 Ibid – P.556. 5 Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007, P.313.| Brandel.F, Civilization and capitalism, 15-18 centuries, London, 1985, P.479. 6 Thapar Romila, A History of India, VolI, London, 1966, P.24. 7 Panikkar.K.M., A Survey of Indian History, Bombay, 1947, P.38. 8 The Imperial Gagetteer of India, Vol.IV, Oxford, the Clarendan Press, 1907, P.282. 9 Nilakanta Sastry;K.A., Age of Nandas and Mauryas. Ed. Banara, 1952, P.181. Puri.B.N. History of Indian Administration, Ancient period, Vol.I., Bombay, 1968, P.138. 10 Puri.B.N. History of Indian Administration, Ancient period, Vol.I., Bombay, 1968, P.139. 11 Ibid, Puri.B.N., P.205, 206. 12 Nilakanta Sastry.K.A., and G.Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, Madras, 1970, P.530. 13 The imperial Gazetteer of India, op.cit. P.285. Official Hand Book, City of Madras, 14Ibid 15 Dr. Ramesen. N. Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteer, Godavari. Hyd.1979. P.215. 16 Venkatarao. V. and Niru Hazarika, Local self government in India, New Delhi, 1980. P.23. Raja Gopal.A.P.District Gazetteer, Krishna, Hyd, 1977, P.170. 17 Ibid, P.178. Report of the administration of Madras presidency 1871-72, P.28. 18 Gramaifiyat. Krishna District, Collen Meckenzie. Pub. By AP State Archives Hyd, 1975. Krishna District Mannual, Gundur mackeyie.
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POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA
Dr. V.Sreenivas Guest faculty (Asst. Professor) Center for the Rural Development Studies Gnannabharathi, Bangalore University Bangalore
Introduction Women’s participation in mainstream political activity has important implications for the broader arena of governance in any country. Governance relates to a set of rules, institutions, and values that are involved in the management of state and society. Governance institutions and processes include political parties, parliaments, government and their interactions with society. Although governance is a generic term which could mean good government or management, the governance values, types of government, the nature of political processes, the political parties and organizations, which/whose interests are represented and protected, and the extent of power that the masses have to challenge the state or in suggesting alternatives in methods of governance etc. may vary in different political systems. Liberal democracy is founded on reason, law, and freedom of choice but the position of different social groups in the social and political space where power is located is not always equal in practice. This is particularly so in the case of women. The nature of society or state has a decisive impact on the extent and effectiveness of women’s political presence and participation. Notions of democracy, governance and the state are often not gender neutral constructs but result from both historical factors and experiences. The state and its organizational entities reflect the same social forces as other social organizations. It is thus necessary to examine the gender balance in women’s participation in the political process, decision making and policy formulation. The limited nature of female participation and representation in national decision making institutions has important consequences for women and for the legitimacy of the institutions. Where women constitute half the population in a political system which supports equality and where both women and men are legally eligible for political office, women’s participation should be equal to that of men. If
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this is not the case, it signifies deep flaws within the political system. Representation is not only a means of ensuring individual participation. It is also the responsibility of the representatives to act on behalf of the constituents, including women, who elected them and reflect their ideas and aspirations. Women’s disproportionate absence from the political process would mean that the concerns of half the population cannot be sufficiently attended to or acted upon as it denies their viewpoints sufficient opportunity to be integrated in the political system.1 While the Indian democratic state is committed to the protection of individual rights within the context of citizenship, a closer look at how it operates for the women reveals that these rights are not accessible in the public and private spheres in their full potential to all the women in India. There are historical, social and cultural factors that have limited women’s capacity and chances to exercise their freedom to participate in the political processes. The evolution of Indian democracy through the 14 general elections so far has reflected a low representation of women in Parliament, State legislatures, in political parties and other decision-making bodies. The under representation of women in the political sphere is inextricably linked with the low and inferior status of women in society in India especially in the context of the declining sex ratio, increasing violence and crimes against women and their marginalized status in employment, education and health sectors The comparative position of gender-related development index (GDI) reveals that among 177 countries, India ranks 113th, indicating its very low gender-equity status.2 Although the gap between male and female literacy rates has been narrowing, there is still very large disparity in this regard. While male literacy rate in India is 75.3 per cent, female literacy rate is only 53.7 per cent. It is even worse among Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). Among, the SC 50 per cent males are literate, while only 24 per cent females can read and write and among ST, 41 per cent males and only 18 per cent females are literate.3 An average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health. More women are illiterates compared to men and more women drop out of school. There are fewer women in the paid workforce than men. Women’s work is undervalued and
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unrecognized. Women work longer hours than men and carry the major share of household and community work which is unpaid and invisible. Women and men earn unequal wages. Women are legally discriminated against in land and property rights. Women face violence inside and outside the family throughout their lives. Most women in India have very little say in decisions affecting their own lives. The cumulative effect of all this is that women tend to lack the self-confidence and skills needed to function effectively in the public sphere. The under representation of women and absence of women from positions of power and decision-making reinforces their exploitation and deprivation. It is in this context that women’s greater political representation becomes all the more necessary. Political Participation and Representation of women in India Women in India raised the issue of representation in politics first in 1917. At that time it was basically a demand for universal adult franchise and political participation. By 1930 women had gained the Right to vote, which initially benefited women from elite families. Women’s involvement in struggles for political and civil rights in India were however sought to be linked to nationalist movements in alliance with males against the common foreign enemy. In any case women’s involvement in nationalist struggles changed their lives in that even though they were denied equal opportunities to shape the new state, they gained constitutional and legal rights. But even after the right to vote became a reality for all women, their representation in the parliament, political parties and other decision making bodies remained low even after independence, and after the Indian Constitution came into force in 1950. A few women no doubt attained positions as members of parliament and state legislatures and as leaders of opposition, etc. mostly through family dynasties or through male political patronage. However, the percentage of women in legislatures and decision making positions always remained low. Women do not share the power of decision- making and are not involved in policy making in Indian democracy in proportion to their numerical strength. Thus there is a gap between the formal idea of women’s participation and their meaningful use of power. The quest for greater political representation of women is, therefore, still relevant.4 Women in India have lesser opportunities of public influence or for entering politics. Women also lack opportunities to move within the
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hierarchies without patronage of male leaders or mentors. The women’s wings of political parties may have given visibility to women in the form of a platform for participation rather than integrating them into central power structures. Women do not have necessary resources to enter and compete in contemporary political arena. Thus improved social indicators in development graphs may not automatically ease women’s access to political power or improve political participation and representation. They do not necessarily translate into collective gains nor sustained political power. Of course the scope for women’s public activism varies across class, caste and region in India. The effectiveness of women’s participation also depends on the local configuration of power and cultural environment apart from problems of poverty, illiteracy, lack of economic resources, negative social and legal environments, family and household pressures, male dominated bureaucracy and politicians that the women face.5 The case for women’s wider participation and representation Women in India constitute nearly half the population of the country, but they are poorly represented in the various governance and decision making bodies. The position depicted through the 14 general elections so far reflects a low representation of women in Parliament, State legislatures, in political parties and other decision-making bodies. Less than 8per cent of Parliamentary seats, less than 6per cent Cabinet positions, less than 4per cent of seats in High Courts and the Supreme Court, have been occupied by women. Less than 3per cent of the administrators and managers are women. The average percentage of women’s representation in the Parliament, Assemblies and Council of Ministers taken together has been around 10per cent. 6 The Indian Constitution guarantees to all women the fundamental right to equality (Article 14) and equal voting rights and political participation to both men and women. As reflected in the Preamble, the Indian Constitution is firmly grounded in the principles of liberty, fraternity, equality and justice and contains a number of provisions for the empowerment of women. Women’s right to equality and nondiscrimination are defined as justiciable fundamental rights (Article 15) and there is enough room for affirmative action programmes for women. Equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State is a fundamental right (Article 16). The Directive Principles of State Policy
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stress on the right to an adequate means of livelihood for both men and women equally (Article 39a), equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article 39d), provision for just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief (Article 39e). Directives for promoting harmony and renouncing practices derogatory to the dignity of women are also provided for in the Indian Constitution. The political rights of women are recognized without any discrimination, or distinction and they have the right to participate in decision making at all levels equally with men. The right to constitutional equality has been supplemented by legal equality by the passage of a number of Acts through which the traditional inequalities in respect of marriage, divorce and property rights are sought to be eliminated. However, in spite of these constitutional and legal provisions, the ground reality is that women have not obtained adequate and proportionate representation in the legislative and other decision-making bodies. There is certainly a need for women’s more effective role in decision-making processes for the democratic and constitutional assurances of equal citizenship and rights in the Indian Constitution to become a reality at the operational level. Citizenship is linked to political participation and representation. Lack of ability and opportunity to participate in the political system implies a lack of full membership in the system. For true equality to become a reality for women, the sharing of power on equal terms with men is essential. But the reality is that women continue to be marginally represented even in areas where the various policies have a direct impact on them. There is still a great gap between constitutional guarantees and the actual representation of women in the political system in India.7 Political Mobilization and Participation Historically many women have been active in the informal political sphere in terms of political mobilization and they have participated in large numbers in political demonstrations and mass agitations as well as in the activities of nationalist and political bodies and organizations. The political mobilization and participation of women has been impressive in the Indian National Movement, in revolutionary Left movements, anti-price rise stirs, on legislation on rape, against the practice of widow immolation, in the anti-liquor movements and movements against deforestation etc. During the National Movement against colonialism women were mobilized actively
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particularly under Gandhi’s leadership and women’s organizations within the political parties participated actively in the cause against colonialism for instance in the Civil Disobedience Movements and Salt Satyagraha etc. But once freedom was won, the women’s wings were more or less marginalized and assigned areas that primarily dealt with women and children or other ‘welfare’ activities and women’s organizations ended up playing a secondary and supportive role to the male leadership in power. The leaders of such organizations were seldom women with independent political careers unless they were from political families with the backing of male political activists. It is worth noting that the political mobilization of women and their participation in elections has steadily increased since the first General Elections of 1952. There were many more outstanding women leaders and workers in the Congress Party at all levels during the freedom movement than there are at present in all parties put together. In states like Maharashtra and Gujarat, virtually every neighbourhood and most villages could boast of at least one effective woman leader, even into the 1950s. But as politics became more centralised as well as criminalised, thus undermining all other institutions of civil society, women were pushed out of leadership positions to function on the margins, at best relegated to the domain of social work at the local level. Even that tradition eroded from the 1970s onward.8
The set back to women’s participation is even more severe at the state level than in the Lok Sabha (Tables 4.1 and 4.2). This is clearly evident in Bihar, which had 14 women elected to the Vidhan Sabha in 1952, 31 women in 1957, and 26 women in 1962. But in the 1967 elections, women won only 11 seats. Their number declined to 4 in 1969. Thereafter, it reached a plateau, leveling at a mere 13 during the last state assembly elections.
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Table -4.1 Women’s representation in Indian Parliament Year Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha Seats Women per cent of Seats Women per cent of MPs Women MPs Women MPs MPs 1952 499 22 4.41 219 16 07.31 1957 500 27 5.40 237 18 07.59 1962 503 34 6.76 238 18 07.56 1967 523 31 5.93 240 20 08.33 1971 521 22 4.22 243 17 07.00 1977 544 19 3.49 244 25 10.25 1980 544 28 5.15 244 24 09.84 1984 544 44 8.09 244 28 11.48 1989 517 27 5.22 245 24 09.80 1991 544 39 7.17 245 38 15.51 1996 543 39 7.18 223 19 08.52 1998 543 43 7.92 245 15 06.12 1999 543 49 9.02 245 19 07.76 2004 543 45 8.28 245 NA NA 2009 543 58 10.68 245 22 8.98 Average 530 35 6.59 240 21.00 9.00 Source: CSDS Data Unit.
Table 4.1 noticed that the representation of women in the Lok Sabha has basically remained stagnant. It reached a “high” of 15.51 per cent in 1991. This figure has not been crossed since then. Thereafter, it has showed some decline rather than register an increase. This despite the fact that all major national parties in recent years have declared through their manifestos that they would implement a 33 per cent reservation for women in all legislatures. Between 1952 -1980 for instance, women’s participation increased by 12per cent against the turnout of men which increased by only 6per cent. In the general elections of 2004, the all India percentage of women voter turnout was 48per cent. As regards women voters’ turnout, from 37.1 per cent in the first general elections in 1952 it increased gradually over the years to 55.6 by 1999. Notably, the gap between female and male voters was 15.9 per cent in 1952, but it
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decreased slowly over successive elections and came down to 8.4 per cent in 1996. It has remained at 8.3 per cent in 2004 general elections. This per centage increase in the turnout of women in elections has however not translated into a larger number of women being represented in the legislative bodies. Competitive elections and democracy has not necessarily led to better political representation of women in Indian politics. The candidates fielded by the various political parties are still predominantly male and women account for only five to ten per cent of all candidates across parties and regions. As reflected in Table 6, the per centage of representation of women in the Lok Sabha varies from 4.4 in 1952 to 8.1 in 1984, declining to 5.2 in 1989, rising to 7.9 in 1998 and 9.02 in 1999 and again declining to 8.1 in 2004. In Rajya Sabha, proportion of female members started with 7.3 per cent in 1952 and rose to 15.5 per cent in 1991, but again declined to 6 per cent in 1998 and rose to 10.3 per cent in 2005, again slightly declining to 9.9 per cent in 2006. On the whole the representation of women in Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and the State Assemblies remains low. Thus despite the increase in electoral participation of women, their representation in the formal political structures has not changed much.
Though voting is an important indicator of political participation and mobilization, it is not necessarily indicative of representation. Voting is a tool of political equality and it mobilizes women but voting by itself does not result in the desired end of equality. Almost all parties vie with each other in appealing to women’s votes at the time of elections but very few women get to contest in the elections. Almost all parties hesitate to field women candidates. Hence the number of women candidates fielded by various political parties has always been very low as compared to their numbers in the population. Though a large number of women participate in voting, their low numbers in decision making bodies including those of political parties in India is notable. Among women who manage to rise in the political echelons, in spite of their ability in administration and the art of political articulation, very few women reach the level of cabinet ministers. Mostly they remain deputy ministers or ministers of state. When women reach the few ministerial positions, they are generally assigned portfolios in the social service sectors of Health, Education, Social Welfare, Women and Child Development etc.9
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Table -4. 2 Declining Representation of Woman in State Legislatures 1952 - 1999 (per cent of Women MLAs) State 1952 1957 1960 1967 1970 1977 1979 1984 1989 1993 1998 2000 2005 State -65 -69 -75 -78 -83 -88 -92 -97 -99 2004 2009 Avg Andhra Pradesh 2.9 3.7 3.3 3.89 13.4 4.1 3.4 3.7 2.7 9.5 4.6 8.84 11.66 5.38 Arunachal kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk kkkk 0 3.3 6.7 3.3 3.3 1.7 0 NA 2.61 Pradesh k Assam 0.5 4.6 3.8 4 7 0.8 0.8 4 4 4.8 NA 7.31 10.3 4.37 Bihar 3.6 9.4 7.9 2.2 3.8 4 3.7 4.6 2.8 3.4 NA 5.76* NA 4.54 Chattisgarh kickic kkkk kkkk kkk kkkk kkk kkk kkk kkk kkk NA 5.55 12.32 8.88 k k k k k k Goa kkkk kkkk kkkk 6.7 3.3 3.3 0 0 5 10 5 2.5 2.5 3.83 Gujarat kkkk kkkk 8.4 4.8 3.2 NA 2.7 8.8 2.2 1.1 2.2 6.59 8.79 4.87 Haryana kkkk kkkk kkkk 7.4* 6.2 4.4 7.8 5.6 6.7 4.4 NA 4.44 12.22 6.47 Himachal Pradesh 0 kkkk kkkk 0 5.9 1.5 4.4 4.4 5.9 4.4 8.8 5.88 7.35 4.41 Jharkand kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk kkkk kkk kkk kkk kkk kkk kkkk kkkk 3.7 3.7 k k k k k k Jammu & kkkk kkkk 0 0 5.3 1.3 0 1.3 NA 2.3 NA 2.29 3.44 1.77 Kashmir Karnataka 2 8.7 8.7 3.2 5.1 4 0.9 3.6 4.5 3.1 2.3 2.67 1.33 3.85 Kerala 0 4.8 3.9 0.8 1.5 0.7 3.2 5.7 5.7 9.3 NA 5.71 5 3.85 Madhya Pradesh 2.1 10.8 4.9 3.4 5.4 3.1 5.6 9.7 3.4 3.8 8.1 8.26 10.72 5.91 Maharashtra 1.9 6.3 4.9 3.3 9.3 2.8 6.6 5.6 2.1 3.8 4.2 4.16 NA 4.6 Manipur kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk 0.0* kkk 0 0 1.7 0 NA 1.66 0 0.3 k k Meghalaya kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk 1.7 1.7 0 3.3 NA 1.7 5 3.33 1.66 2.2 k
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Mizoram kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk 0 3.3 3.3 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 1.2 k Nagaland kkkk kkkk kkkk 0 kkkk kkk 0 1.7 NA 0 NA 0 0 0.5 k Orissa 9.6 3.6 1.4 3.6 1.4* 4.8 3.4 6.1 4.8 5.4 NA 7.48 4.76 4 Punjab 2.2 5.8 5.2 1.0* 5.8 2.6 5.1 3.4 5.1 6 NA 6.38 6.03 4 Rajasthan 0 5.1 4.5 3.3 7.1 4 5 8 5.5 4.5 7 6 14 5 Sikkim kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk kkkk kkk 0 0 6.3 3.1 3.1 9.37 12.5 2.5 k k Tamil Nadu 0.3 5.9 3.9 1.7 2.1 0.9 2.1 3.4 9 3.8 NA 10.7 9.4 3.6 Tripura kkkk kkkk kkkk 0 3.3 1.7 6.7 3.3 NA 1.7 NA 3.33 5 3 Uttarakhand kkkk kkkk kkkk kkk kkkk kkk kkk kkk kkk kkk NA 5.71 5.7 5.71 k k k k k k Uttar Pradesh 1.2 5.8 4.4 2.8* 5.9 2.6 5.6 7.3 3.3* 4.0* NA 6.45 5.7 4.1 West Bengal 0.8 3.6 4.8 2.9* 1.6 1.4 2.4 4.4 7.1 6.8 NA 9.52 12.9 3.4 Delhi 4.2 NA NA NA 7.1 7.1 7.1 NA NA 4.3 12.9 10 4.28 7.3 Pondicharry NA NA 6.7 3.3 0 0 3.3 3.3 1.7 3.3 NA 0 0 2.6 Period Average 2 6 4.7 2.5 4.5 2.6 3.2 4.2 4.3 3.7 5.4 5.1 6.3 3.9 Notes: Table entry stands for per cent of women MLAs elected to state legislature in the relevant elections (****) States did not exist/ no elections held in that year/ period; (*) Two elections held during this period. The figure given here is an average of the two; the figures given here are based on name recognition and hence liable to under - reporting of women representatives. Kkkk: States not formed. Source:CSDS Data Unit
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It is noticed from table 4.2 that one of the most puzzling features of this depressed level of women’s political representation in our legislative bodies is that it seems to have no direct correlation with literacy and other apparently related indicators. A comparison between the states of Kerala and Rajasthan, whose literacy rates are at opposite ends of the spectrum, demonstrates this clearly. In Kerala, the overall literacy rate is reportedly 90 per cent, with 86 per cent female literacy. By contrast, in Rajasthan, female literacy is a mere 20 per cent and only 12 per cent of females are literate in rural areas. Kerala has a matrilineal tradition in which women have a much larger measure of autonomy and freedom of movement. Kerala’s women also tend to marry at a much later age compared to women in other states. Most women in Rajasthan live far more restricted lives in aggressively patriarchal communities that still practice purdah and perform child marriages. But the cultural and educational advantage that women in Kerala have, does not translate into higher political participation as compared to Rajasthan. The per centage of women in the legislative assemblies of both states is low. In Kerala it rose from less than one per cent in 1967 to six per cent in 1991. However, in Rajasthan, the representation of women was four per cent in 1967 and reached eight per cent in 1985-90, slightly more than in Kerala, but not significantly greater. Since then it has been going down.10
Similarly, the State of Manipur, with its tradition of women playing the dominant role in both the family and the community (again due to a matrilineal heritage), has elected its first legislator only as late as 1990. Nagaland and other North-eastern states which have less repressive cultures for women have similarly low levels of women’s representation. By contrast, take the proportion of women in politics in UP, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh. Though these states are known for their low education levels and repressive cultural norms for women, they have not only sent a relatively larger proportion of women to the Lok Sabha than those from the North-East, but have also elected relatively more women MLAs.
In independent India, pervasive gender discrimination has resulted in sidelining even veteran women politicians. It is difficult for women to establish a foothold without patronage from powerful men in the party - that too through close personal relations, as wives,
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daughters and sisters. This is indeed a matter for serious concern because the level of political participation among women in any society acts as a reliable barometer of the health of its democracy.11 It is significant that stagnation and/or decline in the rate of women’s political participation runs contrary to trends in many other fields.
Women in India have made major inroads in various male- dominated professions, including the governmental bureaucracy. In the fields of business, medicine, engineering, law, art, and culture, women who were given opportunities to acquire the necessary skills and education have proven themselves capable of holding their own, without availing of any special measures to facilitate their entry. But they have failed to gain ground in the field of politics. Moreover, the agenda of women’s empowerment seems to have lost the kind of moral and political legitimacy it enjoyed during the freedom movement, as was evident from the ugly scenes in the aftermath of tabling the Women’s Reservation Bill in Parliament. Such a response would have been inconceivable in the India of the 1920s to the 1940s.
All these trends indicate that women’s representation in politics requires special consideration, and cannot be left to the forces that presently dominate our parties and government. Today, even the best of our female parliamentarians feel sidelined and powerless within their respective parties. The few women in leadership positions have not been able to encourage the entry of greater numbers of women in electoral and party politics, and are an ineffective minority within their own respective political groupings.
The very same male party leaders who compete with each other in announcing their support of special reservations for women have shown little willingness to include women in party decision-making, or even to help create a conducive atmosphere for women’s participation in their own organisations. In fact, women’s marginalisation is even more pronounced in the day-to- day functioning of almost all political parties than in the Lok Sabha. Therefore, it is urgently required that we take special measures to enhance women’s political participation in ways that help them influence decision making at all levels of our society and polity. Our democracy will remain seriously flawed it if fails to yield adequate space to women.12
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Given this worrisome scenario, the national debate and efforts to provide constitutional and legal mechanisms to enhance women’s participation in legislatures are welcome and long-overdue.
Representation
By the 1980s, issues raised by the women’s movements in India led to political parties realizing the importance of female voters and women’s wings became active. Mainstream political parties became conscious of women as a constituency and this was reflected in their election manifestoes and their considering women as candidates with potential votes. By the ninth Lok Sabha elections in 1989, one could find a conscious focus on women’s issues in the manifestoes of political parties. However, this did not translate into more seats for women in the political bodies and most parties resorted to tokenism and symbolism when it came to representation of women. Women issues were not taken up by parties in a serious manner nor translated into programmes, policies and legislation nor were they mandated specifically to address issues of women. Almost all political parties set up a women’s cell or wing but they worked as ancillary bodies. Very few women were able to capture seats of power. The number of women in the legislatures remained very small. Very few women reached the position of party president or leader of legislative party. 13
More recently major political parties have indeed made a conscious effort to induct more women into the various levels of the party organization. The CPM has made an effort to induct more women into its district committees and state level bodies. The membership of women in the party however remains below 10per cent. But the membership of women in mass organizations as the Kisan Sabha and the CITU has shown an improvement. The CPM changed its stance on gender-based reservation only after 1988.The BJP had the highest per centage of women in decision-making bodies from the Parliamentary Board and the Election Committee down to the ward level. Traditionally, the Congress Party has fielded the largest number of women candidates and has had the largest number of women members in Parliament though the Congress working Committee has a rather low level of representation of women.
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In spite of the efforts of political parties to induct more women, the extent of representation of women has not changed much. The number of women candidates in the 1998 parliamentary elections was not even half the number of women in the 1996 elections. In 1998 there were only 274 women candidates as against 599 in the 1996 elections. In the general elections in 1999, the same proportion of women was put up for elections by both the parties favoring the 84th Amendment Bill on the reservation for women in Parliament and the parties which were opposed to it. The Congress Party led by a woman had only 10 per cent of women among the candidates. The BJP and the CPM had 7 per cent of women among the candidates. The idea of 33 per cent reservation for women in parliament was actively endorsed by most of the major political parties and this had raised expectation that many more women would be nominated to contest the elections.14 The election manifestoes and the public pronouncements of parties as well as the print and electronic media highlighted the idea of women’s representation by reservation or by nomination of more women for elections signifying a more conscious political stand on women’s representation. However, these stances did not translate actually into more nomination of women candidates during elections. Many parties ended up allotting some seats to women candidates only as a token and to symbolize their pro women egalitarian policy.
In the inner party structures in the decision-making levels and the posts within the party, women are even less represented in most political parties. Women have a very low representation if at all in the actual decision-making bodies and rarely influence the more significant party policies (Table 14). Most often they are relegated to the ‘women’s wing’ of the party where they are required to deal with what are considered to be "women’s issues’ such as dowry and rape cases and sometimes on more general concerns like price rise which are considered to affect ‘housewives’. Issues like child and family welfare are largely seen as women issues, and falling in a realm which is not political. By and large a masculine view of political priorities is in operation. Most of the women’s wings of political parties have very little power and have hardly any say in the decision making and important policy matters.
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Political parties assert that it is difficult to get sufficiently qualified women candidates. Other arguments have also been advanced. It has been held that women are not independent voters; a majority of them are illiterate; a majority of them make their choice on the basis of suggestions from male members of their families-husbands or sons; women lack information and political awareness or that women are not politically conscious. On the other hand, in reality women have been active and vocal both in times of peace and crisis. They have been active in movements of peace, women and child welfare, trade unionism, food adulteration, price rise and deforestation and many other issues.15
Power rather than Representation
The real reason for the low political representation of women in the formal political structures and decision making levels, seems to lie in the compulsions of competitive elections and the quest for power by the political parties in a multiparty democracy. Increasingly the compulsions of the political parties due to narrow majorities, precarious coalitions and hung parliaments have made the question of power rather than that of representation the determining factor. Women’s issues and women’s participation and representation are encouraged only within the parameters of power and are constrained by the basic objectives and interest of the parties either to capture power or survival, if in power. While women are mobilized to vote by all the parties, at the stage of distributing tickets for standing for elections, the number of women drops dramatically. At this stage, political parties are driven more by power considerations with an eye on the ‘winnability’ of the candidates from the angle of the prospect of government formation. Women lose out at this stage as the imperative of ‘winnability’ seems to compel political parties to deny tickets to women unless they are sure to win. Women are considered to have less chances of winning, which is not necessarily true.16
In the 1996 elections, Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of women candidates contesting the elections: 55 for 85 seats. In Rajasthan 17 women contested in 25 constituencies. Orissa had 10 for 21 constituencies and in West Bengal, 21 women contested in 42 constituencies. However Kerala with better social indicators including female literacy had only 4 women contesting. A total of 599 women
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contested the elections. With all this women constituted only 3.4 per cent of the total number of contestants. In 1998 there were only 274 women candidates out of a total of 4750 candidates contesting the elections.
In 1999, out of 284 women who contested, 49 won, the success rate being 17.3per cent and for men it was 11.3 per cent. Women therefore had a better percentage of winning. In the General Elections of 2004, out of 355 women who contested from the main Political Parties, 44 won, the success rate being 12.4 per cent whereas men’s success rate was 9.8 per cent. It is interesting to note that though the number of women representatives in Parliament has not been very impressive their success rate in terms of percentage of contestants getting elected had always been higher than that of the male contestants.
Plugging Possible Loopholes
A party may be tempted to nominate women from constituencies where it is weak. However, by making the unit of consideration the state or union territory for Lok Sabha, and a cluster of three Lok Sabha constituencies for the Legislative Assembly, this risk is avoided. Parties will be compelled to nominate women in all states and regions. No serious party seeking power can afford to deliberately undermine its own chances of election on such a large scale. It is also mandatory to nominate women in one-third constituencies because otherwise twice the number of male candidates of the party will lose party nomination.
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Table – 4.3 The Gender Advantage Year No. Total No. Male Female of of Contes Electe per cent Contes Electe per cent Seats contestant ted d Winning ted d Winnin s available g 1952 489 1,874 — — — — — — 1957 494 1,518 1,473 467 31.7 45 27 60.0 1962 494 1,985 1,915 459 24.0 70 35 50.0 1967 520 2,369 2,302 490 21.3 67 30 44.8 1971 520 2,784 2,698 499 18.5 86 21 24.4 1977 542 2,439 2,369 523 22.1 70 19 27.1 1980 542 4,620 4,478 514 11.5 142 28 19.7 1984 542 5,570 5,406 500 9.2 164 42 25.6 1989 529 6,160 5,962 502 8.5 198 27 13.6 1991 521 8,699 8,374 492 5.9 325 39 12.0 1996 543 13,952 13,353 504 3.8 599 39 6.7 1998 543 4,750 4,476 500 11.2 274 43 15.7 1999 543 4,649 4,365 494 11.32 284 49 17.25 2004 543 5,435 5080 498 9.80 355 45 12.68 2009 542 8070 7514 484 644 556 58 10.43 Total 69.765 6,926 13.94 3235 502 15.52 Source: - September 14, 1999, Times of India, New Delhi Table 4.3 shows, though the number of women elected to Lok Sabha has not been very impressive, their success rate (per cent of contestants getting elected) has always been higher than the male aspirants.17
In the absence of actual reservation of seats, there could be fears that women may not be elected in one-third constituencies, as the voters may prefer a male candidate over a female candidate on account of gender bias. However, evidence so far suggests that women candidates of parties have not suffered any gender discrimination at the hands of voters. In fact, very often, the per centage of success of woman candidates is higher than that of male candidates. Table 4.4 shows that the success rate of women candidates in Lok Sabha elections has been uniformly higher than that of their male counterparts in every general election. It is possible to argue that the few women who contest are
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more often party candidates, and therefore, their success rate is exaggerated.
Table-4.4 Comparative Performance of Men and Women Candidates of Recognised Parties in Lok Sabha Elections Year Total Elect per Men Women Party ed cent Contested Elected per cent Contest Elected per Candidat winning ed cent es winnin Conteste g d 1984 1394 510 36.59 1327 469 35.34 67 41 61.19
1989 1523 498 32.70 1437 474 32.99 86 24 27.91 1991 2319 516 22.25 2180 479 21.97 139 37 26.62 1996 2269 530 23.36 2153 493 22.90 116 37 31.90 1998 1964 488 24.85 1831 451 24.63 133 37 27.82 1999 2049 527 25.72 1890 479 25.34 159 48 30.19 2004 2152 523 24.30 1976 479 24.24 176 44 25 2009 2334 522 22.37 2147 484 22.54 187 51 27.27 Total 16004 4114 26.51 14941 3808 26.24 1063 319 32.23 Source : Compiled by Lok Satta from Statistical Reports on General Elections, Election Commission of India, New Delhi
However, Table 4.4 clearly shows that even among candidates of recognised political parties, the success rate of women candidates is higher than that of men. While 32.53 per cent of women candidates of recognised parties have been elected to Lok Sabha since 1984, the success rate of male candidates is only 26.50 per cent. This trend is seen in all general elections since 1984, except in 1989. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that women will be elected in large numbers, and that, in fact, their presence in Lok Sabha will exceed one-third in many cases. In any case, past evidence suggests that in at least a quarter of the constituencies, women are likely to get elected if recognised parties nominate them in at least one-third constituencies.
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It is noteworthy that women’s participation has increased dramatically, to near equal or even higher than equal participation, only in countries like Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Germany and the Netherlands which have implemented party-based quotas of the kind we are proposing.
Women of Power and Women in power in Indian Politics
In spite of the low political representation of women in Indian politics, it must be noted that some women leaders have an important place in Indian politics today. Jayalalithaa as leader of AIADMK, Mamata Bannerji as leader of Trinamul Congress and Mayawati as leader of Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) are instances in point. Some of them head important and strong regional political parties which have been in alliance with major national political parties both outside and in national government. Even though the rise of some of these women leaders might be linked to their proximity to male leaders, they now hold a position of leadership within the party in their own right who can influence the decisions of their own party as well as the course of national politics. In addition, the example of Smt. Indira Gandhi who rose to be Prime Minister of India, and later of Sonia Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party, both of whom had the dynastic advantage underpinning their leadership and position of power and decision- making in the Congress Party and the government can hardly be ignored. But the positions of authority of these women leaders did not include any specific mandate to address only women issues. In this sense as leaders of political parties, they were as power driven as their male peers. Political leadership by women is not dramatically different from that of men. Women leaders are no better or worse than men. Nor have women leaders been typically anxious to give greater representation to other women within their own organizations or in the political process generally. Representation of women has not necessarily increased greatly under the leadership of women. In fact interestingly the 73rd Constitutional Amendment and the policy and implementation of 33 per cent reservation for women in Panchayats received strong support and impetus due to Rajiv Gandhi’s interest and advocacy in the matter.
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Thus the Indian political system cannot be said to be non- receptive to the emergence and dominance of women leaders even though the political representation of women has not particularly registered a significant increase over the last 14 general elections. While on the one hand most women politicians have found it difficult to rise within male dominated party hierarchies, on the other hand some women have managed to become leaders when they have set up parties of their own. Once they have established themselves as leaders, there has been an unquestioning acceptance of their leadership and decisions by the party rank and file, even if it is largely male.18
Women in parliament or legislatures do not necessarily confine themselves to women issues only. In the absence of a specific mandate for representing women issues, most of them feel that they represent both men and women of their constituencies. Like men they are drawn into the game of power with all its ruthlessness even though women’s approach to politics may not be identical to that of men. In fact even the women’s wings or organizations of parties are not necessarily marked by kind of feminist perspective or sensitivity. Also, the patriarchal articulations whether by male politicians and leaders or internalized by women candidates in presenting themselves as ‘bahus’ and ‘betis’ relying on traditional patriarchal notions of femininity are not absent in Indian politics. Many times women public figures do adapt to and adopt male priorities predominating in public life in order to be acceptable. Many women internalize the norms and roles of patriarchal political structures and merely replicate them instead of questioning them, resulting in reinforcing existing hierarchies of power.
Questions have been raised as to whether an increase in numerical strength of women in the political process and decision making bodies automatically leads to a qualitative shift in power and whether women on balance pay greater attention to the concerns of women more than male politicians. Problems of tokenism, visibility, marginality etc. are often discussed in referring to women as a ‘minority’ operating in a male domain.
Women’s rights and responsibilities to participate equally in political life should not however be treated as a ‘minority’ issue. The
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political space must belong to all citizens - women and men. There is no doubt that fewer the women in public life the lesser the likelihood of distinctively female values, priorities and characteristics finding expression. Hence women’s involvement in political process and decision-making in greater numbers can make a significant difference.19
In this context it is important to examine what interests women in the public/political sphere are furthering. It could be argued that issues important to women could be reasonably represented as well by male Members of Parliament. But many strongly feel that without a sufficient female presence in the national and other decision making bodies, it seems unlikely that issues which women as a group are more prone to be faced with - concerning reproduction or challenging other inequalities within the social and economic sphere - would be adequately addressed.
While it is considered important to bring women to positions of power, it is equally necessary to sensitize those in power whether men or women about gender. Along with this the importance of women’s economic independence, education and awareness and their improvement in the socio economic sphere can hardly be stressed. The restructuring of gender relations within both the family and society is an equally important step towards freedom, equality and justice.20
Representation through Reservation
Various strategies have been proposed to further the political representation of women in India. From a reservation of 33 per cent seats at various levels including the Parliament, it has also been suggested that political parties reserve 33per cent of their seats for women in the elections. The Bharatiya Janata Party recently announced such a reservation in its organization.21 However, it has been questioned whether women constitute an undifferentiated category and whether collective identification and mobilization of women as a ‘disadvantaged’ group in general on the basis of gender is a viable proposition in the politically accepted sense of the term particularly in view of caste and class differences among them. Mere presence of women in Parliament even if greater in numbers will not mean much unless they are truly representative of women’s concerns
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covering all categories. In the ongoing debate about reservation of seats for women in the Parliament it has been pointed out that an undifferentiated reservation for women will reinforce the existing inequalities in women’s access to positions of power. It is the elite and politicized families from which there is a smooth entry for women in politics. Women playing supportive roles to males in the family and emerging from their shadows have also found easy entry. Another trend has been the entry of widows of prominent political figures into politics and positions of power. On the whole the important factors for women’s active presence in politics in India as trends show are in general: family background, political influence, family financial position, existing involvement in politics, literacy, local conditions, campaign strategy, influence within the party and personality traits etc. rather than only competence, capability and merit. The combined result of all these factors is that very few women manage to get or are given party tickets. If the factors of economic dependence, prohibitive election costs, threats of violence and character assassination are added, even fewer can get seats in the legislature.22
In any case, it is argued by those in favour of reservation, there is no doubt that democracy and representation will be strengthened with compulsorily more presence of women through reservation. This is evident from the impact of the implementation of 33per cent reservation of seats for women in the local bodies (panchayats) in India by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment as a result of which the representation of women in the formal structures of governance at the local level has recorded a steady increase.. Women’s presence at the decision making levels will not only enhance the status of women but will also strengthen democratic traditions and make democracy more meaningful in fighting injustice and oppression while at the same time help to bring a different, explicitly female perspective to the political arena. Unless women are brought into the decision-making levels directly, important women issues will never be tackled with the seriousness they require.23
In addition, democracy demands the regard for not only the interests of those who support in elections but also the aspirations of those who expect to be represented. The recognition of the right of every citizen to participate in public decisions is a basic element of
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democracy, which, to be effective, requires that the needs and interests of all members of the society are respected and represented. Even if others might claim to represent them, there is no guarantee of justice and equity if one half of the population is consistently excluded from taking part fully in decision making as is the case with women in Indian politics and governance.24 There is therefore need for more inclusive processes of achieving representation. The value of inclusion of women in governance and decision-making institutions lies in the diversity of experiences women will bring to governance whether there are ‘female’ concerns or not. Comprehensive representation would be obtained if women constituting half the population find a proportionate number of seats in government.
References
1. Deshpande, Rajeshwari, (2004), How Gendered Was Women’s Participation in Election 2004?, Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. xxxix No. 51, December 18, P.5431-5436. 2. Human Development Report (HDR) 2007/08, UNDP, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, p.326-329. 3. Ghosh , Jayati (1999),Women in Indian Politics, Frontline, October 8, 1999 4. Kaushik Susheela, (1993) Women’s Participation in Politics, Vikas, New Delhi 5. Kaushik, Susheela,(1996), Why Women in Legislatures?, Paper presented at the meet of Parliamentarians, New Delhi 6. Manchanda, Rita, (1998), A Dwindling Presence, Frontline, March 20,1998 7. Majumdar, Veena, (1993), Women and the Political Process, Durgabhai Deshmukh Memorial Lecture, Council for Social Development, New Delhi 8. Mazumdar, Vina (1998), Women: From Equality to Empowerment, in Karlekar, Hiranmay, Ed. Independent India, The First Fifty Years, Oxford University Press 9. Mehta, Aasha Kapur, Arora, Dolly and Kabra, Kamal Nayan, (2001),Parliamentary Debate on the Golden Jubilee of Independence; Equity and Social Justice Mainstream, August 18, 2001
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10. Ranjana Kumari_,(1994),Women Parliamentarians, Haranand Publications, New Delhi. 11. Sen,Kalyani Menon, Shiva Kumar, A.K.,(2001), Women in India:How Free? How Equal?,. Report commissioned by the Office of the United Nations Resident Coordinator in India, New Delhi 12. Subramanian, Malathi, (2002) ‘Women in Indian Politics: Participation and Representation’ in Lal, Malashri, & Paul Kumar, Sukrita, Eds. Women Studies in India: Contours of Change, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla UNIFEM (2000) Progress of South Asian Women (2000). New Delhi 13. Abhilasha Kumari and Kidwai,Sabina,(1996), Crossing the Sacred Line, Frederick Ebert Stiftung, New Delhi 14. Abhilasha Kumari and Kidwai, (1994) Sabina, Illusions of Power, Frederick Ebert Stiftung, New Delhi 15. Kasturi, Leela., (1998), Development, Patriarchy and Politics: Indian Women in the Political Process,1947-1992 16. Kaushik, Susheela, (1985), Ed. Women’s Oppression: Patterns and Perspectives, Shakti Books, Delhi 17. Knocking at the Male Bastion: Women in Politics, (1997) National Commission of Women, New Delhi 18. Kumari, A.,& Kidwai, S., (1998) Crossing the Sacred Line: Women’s Search for Political Power, Orient Longman, India 19. Mohanty, Bidyut, (1999), Panchyat Raj Institutions and Women, in Ray, Bharati & Basu, Aparna, Eds., From Independence Towards Freedom, Indian Women since 1947 , Oxford University Press 20. Nussbaum, M., (2003) Gender and Governance: An Introduction, in Essays on Gender and Governance, Human Development Research Centre (UNDP), New Delhi 21. Sharma, Kumud., (1998), Power vs Representation: Feminist Dilemmas, Ambivalent State and the Debate on Reservation for Women in India, Occassional Paper No.28, Centre for Women Development Studies (CWDS) 22. Varma, Sudhir, (1997) Women’s Struggle for Political Space, Rawat Publications, Jaipur 23. Frederick Ebert Stiftung, (1993) Har Anand Women in Politics, Publications, New Delhi 24. Sheth, D.L, Yadav, Y., Kishwar, Madhu, (200) ‘Enhancing Women’s Representation in Legislatures: an Alternative to the Government Bill for Women’s Reservation’, Manushi No.116 January-February
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REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH CARE AMONG SLUM WOMEN (A Study in Andhra Pradesh)
Dr. T.R.Thirumalesha Babu Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology Government First Grade College, Koratagere Tumkur District, Karnataka State Abstract
Women in the Reproductive age group are more vulnerable group in terms of health care in developing countries like India and it is more alarming in slums particularly with RTI problems. Reproductive Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters related to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes. Some studies said that lack of awareness particularly on emergency contraception, non-practice of safe sex, unhygienic living conditions, pain during sexual intercourse, fungal infections, white discharge with foul smell are the major problems arefound in slums in Andhra Pradesh state. The impact of poor reproductive health is much more on socio-economic development of slum dwellers and causes to grow dangerous deceases on next generations. So, the present research effort is aimed to study the Reproductive Health Care among slum women in Andhra Pradesh state with the help of multi-stage random sampling technique and should be analyse the data by using adequate statistical tools and techniques.
INTRODUCTION
“Reproductive Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters related to the reproductive system and to its functions
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and processes. Reproductive Health therefore, implies that people are able to have a satisfying and safe sex life and they have capability to reproduce and have freedom to decide if, when, and how often to do so. Implicit in this last condition are the rights of men and women to be informed and have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable method of family planning of their choice, as well as other methods of their choice for regulation of fertility which are not against the law, and the right of access to appropriate health-care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant. It also includes sexual health, the purpose of which is enhancement of life and personal relations, and not merely counselling and care related to reproduction and sexually transmitted diseases” (ICPD Programme of Action).
Reproductive Health focus provides a means for addressing health and population issues with an emphasis on needs of women and men. Specific reproductive events, notably pregnancy and child bearing have an impact on women’s health as well as on traditionally emphasized demographic trends. However, Reproductive Health presents a lifelong process inextricable linked to the status and role of women in their homes and societies and is not just related to the biological events of conception and birth.
The complexity of the concept of reproductive health may seem overwhelming, particularly when translating it into action. The concept of reproductive health represents a new approach to existing programmes rather than a set of new programmes. It involves adapting what is already in place, revitalizing and modifying the same rather than starting from the scratch. An important aspect of the concept of reproductive health is the focus on meeting individual and community needs as the foremost priority. Also, this approach
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involves empowering women to take decisions regarding their reproductive lives; involving young people in the development and implementation of programmes and services; making greater efforts to reach the poorest of the poor, the marginalized and the excluded; and invoking men to assume greater responsibility for reproductive health.
Reproductive Health care is defined as the constellation of methods, techniques and services that contribute to the reproductive health and well-being by preventing and solving reproductive health problems.
Prevention of unintended pregnancy through the provision of accessible and high quality family planning service which are based on reproductive needs of couples.
Provision of safe abortion and post abortion care services;
Provision of safe motherhood services to improve maternal morbidity and mortality, including services to improve prenatal and neonatal mortality and post-neonatal mortality
Prevention and treatment of reproductive tract infections and sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS transmission
Provision of reproductive health services to adolescents;
Improving maternal and infant nutrition including promotion of breast feeding programmes;
Screening and managing specific gynaecological problems such as
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a) reproductive tract cancers, including breast cancer;
b) infertility;
The concept of Reproductive Health brings a new dimension to safe motherhood, family planning and STD programmes. Integrating them so that they are not delivered in isolation enables communities to deal in a more comprehensive manner in order to overcome the issue of territoriality.
Specific reproductive events, notably pregnancy and child bearing have an impact on women’s health as well as on traditionally emphasized demographic trends. The concept of Reproductive Health brings a new dimension to safe motherhood, family planning and STD programmes. Integrating them so that they are not delivered in isolation enables communities to deal in a more comprehensive manner in order to overcome the issue of territoriality.
A vast majority of adolescent girls in India are suffering from reproductive health morbidities which may affect normal life of adolescent and young adult women. Physical, mental, social, psychological and reproductive problems are often associated with menstrual irregularities and menstrual problems.
While cities are the generators of the nation’s wealth and income, there are large sections of the poor in cities, especially slum- dwellers, who are bypassed by the process of growth. Slums manifest the worst form of deprivation that transcends income poverty. They are characterized by acute over-crowding, insanitary, unhealthy and dehumanizing living conditions. They are subject to precarious land tenure, lack of access to basic minimum civic services such as safe
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drinking water, sanitation, storm drainage, solid waste management, internal and approach roads, street lighting, education and healthcare, and poor quality of shelter. Many of these habitations are located in environmentally fragile and dangerous zones prone to landslides, floods and other disasters that make the poor residents highly vulnerable. A significant proportion of the slum dwellers also face social burdens and health problems worse than their non-slum and rural counterparts.
The slum is continuously growing, and has doubled in population since the year 2001. Visakhapatnam is the largest city in AP according to 2011 Census. The port city saw a 352 per cent rise in urban slums since 2001, Vijayawada, next AP's big city after the two cities, has seen a 71 per cent increase in slum population. In Visakhapatnam,Ongole, Vijayawada, and Nellore women reproductive health is also of great concern. There are literally no health care provisions or facilities for people who are unable to provide proof of residence because of where they live; again, access to water and sanitation emerged as a formidable challenge particularly reproductive health care. The same has been true in many other major cities in Andhra Pradesh state.
Slum life has never been easy for the urban poor insofar as housing and living conditions are concerned. For women, the problems are especially acute. Women living in slums are often susceptible to forced evictions by governments and other actors, and too often face gender-based violence before, during, and after eviction.
With poor sanitation and close living quarters, sickness and disease is rife in slum living. Infection spreads quickly and this can prove fatal in the case of the young and weak. The main illnesses to
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affect slum life include measles, conjunctivitis, colds and flu and headache. Misinformed adults readily give children in the slums tobacco to chew which can lead to under lying health problems.Women’s reproductive health is also a major issue in many major cities in Andhra Pradesh state.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Awais et al. (2009) point out that women face problems and challenges in getting a sustainable livelihood and a decent life due to the environmental degradation and the interference of the outsiders. However, there are wide variations across regions in terms of work participation, sex ration, economic productivity, and social life.
The low social status of women also limits their access to care when it is needed. In some cases, exclusion or because decision- making is the responsibility of other family members, women may not seek care for certain illnesses (Pang Ruyan, 2001). As a result there is poor quality health care, lack of access to health care, work and environment neglect and hazards, and inefficiency of health care.
Pandey (2001) in his study on “Socio-Cultural Reproductive Health Practices of Primitive Tribes of Madhya Pradesh: Some Observations” have attempted to describe the socio cultural beliefs and practices of three primitive tribes-Bharias, Hill Korwas and Kamaras of Madya Pradesh. The traditional health care system and treatment were based on their deep observation and understanding of nature. About 86 percent deliveries performed at their home and three fourth of deliveries conducted by dais and other untrained persons. About 74 percent of the mothers squeezed first milk from
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breast. Female sterilization was more popular among castes. About 29 percent of the women were using any method of birth control.
From the findings of these literature studies, it is clear that the condition of health problems among women living in slums is severe.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
To overcome in the area of health, India adopted the development approach. In the development approach, improvement in health status is viewed primarily as a product of socio-economic development. By definition, development implies improved nutrition, hygienic living and working conditions, greater awareness of health problems and wider accessibility to health care services which have a favourable effect on the health status of the slum people. So, improvements in health status as well as health care are treated as integrated components of the development process, in which medical care is just one of the many inputs; the impact of state intervention on health status depends on its overall socio-economic policies.
The present study is focused on their healthof women of reproductive age groupliving in slums. In this context, there more communities are spread in slums of the remote and pockets of all over the state. Hence, it is confirmed that present study is reproductive health care among slum women in Andhra Pradesh state, India by framing the following objectives.
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the present study are following as-
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1. Identify overall health problems of women living in slums in Andhra Pradesh state, India.
2. To determine the influence of socio-economic background of the women and adolescent mothers living in slums on their health in selected communities.
3. To examine the reproductive health status of the women living in slums in selected communities.
4. To analyze the reproductive health hygienic practices in the slums areas in selected communities.
5. To bring out case studies of reproductive age group women in selected communities.
6. Assess/evaluate the health care services available for women in slums in Andhra Pradesh state, India.
METHODOLOGY
The Sample: The present study should be conduct through multi-stage random sampling technique and comprise 450 sample households which represents SC’s (88), ST’s (56), BC’s (195) and OC’s (111) 18-45 age group households throughout the selected slum cities in the study area.
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Proposed sampling Framework of the Study
Name of the Sl. No. of Slums No. of Samples District
1. VISAKHAPATNAM 15 150
2. PRAKASAM 15 150
3. ANANTAPUR 15 150
Total 45 450
Tool: As a sizable proportion of the respondents are illiterates and ignorant an Interview Schedule should be prepared and administered for collecting detailed data pertaining to the situation that lead to slums in women health status. Further a detailed analyses is made to know as to how the women reproductive health. After undertaking a pilot survey of sample cases the schedule is perfected before data collection.
Data Collection: The data is collected only from primary sources. As far as the primary data is concerned, the households are interviewed with an independent structured schedule to the analysis.
Data Analysis: The data and information so gathered is checked and cross checked. The data then is codified through the computers for tabulation by using SPSS package. The analyzed data should be presented in the form of simple tables. Statistical tools and
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techniques like percentages, averages, correlation, coefficient of variation and paired t-test are to be used in analysing the data. The analysis and inferences are made based the data given by the select respondents.
CASE STUDY APPROACH
The case study is useful to investigate an issue in-depth and “provide an explanation that can cope with the complexity and subtlety of life situation” (Denscombe, 2010, p. 55). Case study is a useful methodology for focusing on relationship, every day practices in natural settings, placing attention on a local situation (Stake, 2013). So, case study approach also should be used in this study.
NEED OF THE STUDY
With the increase of people living in a society, the impact of urban living on human health is now a growing concern. The rapid growth of slum populations in Andhra Pradesh state is an increasing challenge for local health authorities and deserves intensive investigations. People residing in slums face many problems like improper sanitation, unhygienic environmental conditions, reproductive health, social, economic, health, educational and cultural problems and many more. The basic problems inherent in slums are health hazards like reproductive health which includes specific gynaecological problems in Andhra Pradesh. So, it is essential to conduct research on reproductive health care among slum women in the study area.
CHAPTER SCHEME
The Analysis of the study should be documented in six chapters:
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The first chapter provides introduction to the study, the review of literature, the issues under study and the method of study.
The second chapter presents Identify overall health problems of women living in selected slums in Andhra Pradesh state, India.
The third chapter presents the influence of socio-economic background of the women and adolescent mothers living in slums on their reproductive health in selected communities.
The fourth chapter examines the reproductive health status of the women living in slums in selected communities.
The fifth chapter gives an analysis of the reproductive health care and hygiene practices in slums in selected communities.
The sixth chapter presents the summary of findings and conclusion of the study.
References
1. Gulati, S.C et al,2003: Reproductive health in Delhi Slums, B.R.Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
2. Das.N.P and Urvi Shah, 2001: Understanding women’s reproductive health needs in urban slums in india: a rapid Assessment, Paper contributed for XXIV IUSSP General Population Conferences, Salvador, Brazil, 18-24 August.
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3. Mishra, G.D., Cooper, R. and Kuh, D 2010. A life course approach to reproductive health: Theory and methods.
4. Pang Ruyan. 2001. “The important issues in developing a national plan on maternal mortality. Department of Reproductive Health and Research.” WHO, 2001.
5. World Health Organization. 2009. Mental health aspects of women’s reproductive health : a global review of the literature, ISBN 978 92 4156356 7, 8-161
6. Mishra ,G.D cooper , R &kuh , D (2010) .A life course approche to reproductive health theory and methods maturita.65.92-97.
7. Dube.S. and Sharma.K.(2012).‘Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Regarding Reproductive Health among Urban and Rural Girls: A Comparative Study’. Ethno-Medicine, 6(2): 85- 94.
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RELEVANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF FINANCIAL INFORMATION IN MODERN BANKING ( AN ANALYSIS WITH REFERENCE TO BANKING INDUSTRY IN KERALA) Fazlollah Pornour Research Scholar Kerala University Library and Research Centre University of Kerala, Trivandrum
Abstract
Information quality is critical in organizations. The current study examines relevance characteristic of financial information of banking industry in the Kerala state of India. This study uses primary data collected through distributing questionnaires to bank managers, accountant officers, and clerks who are used computer-based accounting information system in public and private sector banks in Kerala. Samples were taken at random with a random sampling technique. Eight independent variables Storage, Security, Availability, Retrieve speed, Accurate, Transfer speed, Timeliness, and Simplification of process have been considered as elements of information technology which applied in today’s modern banking. The linear regression, ANOVA, and t-test statistical methods were used through SPSS software package. The result of the study indicates that 3.40 percent variation in the relevance characteristic of financial information is determined by the eight components of information technology. Out of eight independent variables only the Transfer speed is a significant predictor of relevance characteristic of financial information. The relevancy of the financial information significantly depends on Transfer speed of the information technology. When transfer speed increases the relevancy of the financial information increases at the rate 12.7 percent.
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Keywords: Qualitative characteristics of financial information, Financial information, Accounting information system, Information Technology, Modern banking.
1. Introduction
Financial reports provide information concerning the reporting entity’s economic resources, claims against the reporting entity and also the effects of transactions and different events and conditions that change those resources and claims. Some monetary reports also include explanatory material concerning management’s expectations and methods for the reporting entity and different types of forward-looking information. The qualitative characteristics of useful monetary information determine the types of information that are possible to be most useful to the existing and potential investors, lenders and different creditors for making decisions concerning the reporting entity on the basis of information in its monetary reports. Being relevant is the most important characteristic of useful financial information. The qualitative characteristics of useful financial information apply to financial information provided in financial statements, as well as to financial information provided in other ways. Cost, which is a pervasive constraint on the reporting entity’s ability to provide useful financial information, applies similarly. However, the considerations in applying the qualitative characteristics and the cost constraint may be different for different types of information (Cooper, Finnegan, & Lloyd, 2015). For example, applying them to forward-looking information may be different from applying them to information about existing economic resources and claims and to changes in those resources and claims.
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2. Literature review
There are many studies that focus on qualitative characteristics of financial information in general. The application of information technology considerably affects the operations of the organization. Consequently, an organization must understand the role of technology in the organization and its influences on the organizational processes. An accounting system supported by a proper information technology is a requirement for management in today business conditions.
The quality of accounting system is influenced by several factors. The modern accounting system is almost unimaginable without the utilization of appropriate information technology. Information technology influences the way how MS operates, contributes a preparing, processing, presenting and delivering accounting information. It considerably contributes the accuracy and timeliness of accounting information and also the quality of accounting information systems (Manic Sacer & Oluic, 2013). Based on conducted empirical research, it can be said that the quality of MS and quality of accounting information in analyzed firms is at a satisfactory level. However nevertheless there are areas during which improvements are required, as the implementation of appropriate education of staff and conducting continuous auditing of the information system, to make sure the quality of accounting information.
The characteristics of electronic accounting information systems extremely influence the performance of electricity firms of Jordan under conditions of uncertainty. The electronic accounting information system in electricity firms in Jordan is effective in providing information for the purposes of planning under conditions of uncertainty, and in providing information for efficient decision-making
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under conditions of uncertainty and for the purposes of control under conditions of uncertainty (Al-kasswna, 2012).
Information technology has some special characteristics, both in theory and practice, that make it a promising engine of broad-based mostly growth in India. Special subsidies or export incentives are likely to be inefficient ways of stimulating the IT sectors' growth, or of positive spillovers for the rest of the economy. Similarly, special central government initiatives to extend the provision of IT training and related education are likely to represent a mistargeting of scarce government resources. A similar structure applies, to some extent, to state government policies to encourage the IT sector. State governments also could be better off removing general restrictions to doing business, as well as providing an enabling institutional infrastructure, instead of attempting to focus on the IT sector through a sort of industrial policy (Vijayasri, 2013).
Accounting decisions are not of repetitious, due to they are unstructured. Accounting decisions are not repetitive because many of them do not repeat themselves in regular activity cycles of the enterprise and have a characteristic of appearance reduced to the extent of whole enterprise’s activity duration. In turn, they are necessary, which means that when the enterprise is confronted with an accounting decisional problem; this should frequently be resolved in the shortest time possible (Mihalache, 2007). From here we can infer the importance of accountant decisional factors abilities and the necessity of these in the financial accounting activity of the enterprise. Frequently, the insufficient experience and lack of skills in the domain result in fallacious accounting decisions which influence the economic decisional process and the credibility of the financial information exposed.
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The study on the banking industry provides a wealth of information regarding technological progress. Banks intensively use new technologies and the detailed information on this industry provide investigations of the effects of advances in all IT and financial technologies and in both “front-office” and “back-office” technologies (Berger, 2003). Information technology can be fully useful only if they enable to meet the challenges in the present environment. In India, it can be successful only if it is properly implemented in rural areas (Tiwari & Kumar, 2012). Another necessary responsibility is to ensure the data is used just for the purpose intended. For this, there is a necessity to implement information technology and other Cyber laws properly. This can ensure the developmental role of information technology in the banking industry.
3. Theoretical framework
Relevant financial information is capable of making a difference within the decisions made by users. Financial information could also be capable of making a difference during a decision even though some users choose not to take advantage of it or are already aware of it from different sources (Pornour, 2015). Financial information is capable of making a difference in decisions if it has predictive value, confirmatory value or both. Financial information has predictive value if it can be used as an input to processes utilized by users to predict future outcomes. Financial information does not need to be a prediction or forecast to have predictive value. Financial information with predictive value is utilized by users in making their own predictions. The predictive value and confirmatory value of financial information are interrelated. Information that has predictive value often also has confirmatory value. for instance, revenue data for the present year, which might be used as the basis for predicting revenues in future years, may also be compared with revenue predictions for the present
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year that were made in past years (Cooper et al., 2015). The results of these comparisons will facilitate a user to correct and improve the processes that were used to build those previous predictions.
4. Methodology and analysis
This study uses primary data collected through distributing questionnaires to bank managers, accountant officers, and clerks who are used computer-based accounting information system in public and private sector banks in Kerala. Samples were taken at random with a random sampling technique. Eight independent variables Storage, Security, Availability, Retrieve speed, Accurate, Transfer speed, Timeliness, and Simplification of process have been considered as elements of information technology which applied in today’s modern banking.
Table 1 presents the model summary of initial and final regression for the effect of information technology on the relevance characteristic of financial information. The R Square of the full regression model is found to be 0.034 which indicates that 3.40 percent variation in the relevance characteristic of financial information is determined by the eight components of information technology. The backward selection method eliminated seven independents variables which are not significantly related to the relevancy of the financial information. The R Square of the final regression model is found to be 0.016 indicating that the retained independent variable determined 1.60 percent variation in the relevance characteristic of financial information. The Durbin-Watson value is found to be very near to 2.00 indicating lack of serial correlation of the dependent variables which is one of the assumptions of the regression analysis.
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Table 1 : Model summary of initial and final regression
Std. Adjusted Error of R R the Durbin- Model R Square Square Estimate Watson
Initial 0.185 0.034 0.004 0.391
Final 0.126 0.016 0.012 0.390 2.121
Table 2 presents the ANOVA of initial and final regression model for the effect of information technology on the relevance characteristic of financial information. The significance level of F-value for the initial regression model is 0.330 which is higher than 0.05. The result indicates that the initial regression model is not significantly fit to the data. After removing seven insignificant variables the significance level of F-value for final regression model became 0.039 which is less than 0.05. The result indicates that the final regression model is significantly fit to the data.
Table 2: ANOVA of initial and final regression model
Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig.
Regression 1.410 8 0.176
Initial Residual 39.974 261 0.153 1.151 0.330
Total 41.384 269
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Regression 0.657 1 0.657
Final Residual 40.727 268 0.152 4.323 0.039
Total 41.384 269
Table 3 which represent the Initial regression model for the effect of information technology on the relevance characteristic of financial information, shows that only the independent variable, Transfer speed is the significant predictor of relevance characteristic of financial information.
Table 3: Initial regression model
Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients t Sig.
Std. B Error Beta
(Constant) 4.348 0.721 6.030 0.000
Storage 0.032 0.056 0.036 0.578 0.564
Security -0.021 0.040 -0.032 -0.519 0.604
Availability -0.009 0.060 -0.009 -0.154 0.878
Retrieve speed 0.033 0.060 0.034 0.547 0.585
Accurate 0.004 0.046 0.006 0.092 0.927
Transfer speed 0.132 0.062 0.131 2.133 0.034
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Timeliness -0.095 0.069 -0.085 -1.370 0.172
Simplification of process -0.081 0.065 -0.077 -1.251 0.212
The coefficients of the final regression model presented in Table 4 shows that the Unstandardized Coefficients of the variable Transfer speed is positive and is equal to 0.127, which is significant at 5 percent level as the significance level of t-value is 0.05. The result indicates that as Transfer speed increases by one unit, the relevance characteristic of financial information increases by 0.127 units.
Table 4: Final regression model
Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients t Sig.
Std. B Error Beta
(Constant) 3.799 0.261 14.547 0.000
Transfer speed 0.127 0.061 0.126 2.079 0.039
The regression equation about the effect of Transfer speed on the relevancy of the financial information is found to be valid as the standardized residuals are limited to a normal distribution and the expected cumulative probability on observed cumulative probability for around the diagonal straight line. Further, the scatterplot of the regression standardized residual on the regression standardized
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predicted value does not show any distinguishable pattern indicating the linear relationship of dependent variables with independent variables or existence of homoscedasticity.
5. Conclusion
From the result, it can be concluded that 3.40 percent variation in the relevance characteristic of financial information is determined by the eight components of information technology. The backward selection method eliminated seven independents variables which are not significantly related to the relevancy of the financial information. The retained independent variable determined 1.60 percent variation in the relevance characteristic of financial information. According to the Initial regression model, out of eight independent variables Storage, Security, Availability, Retrieve speed, Accurate, Transfer speed, Timeliness, and Simplification of process only the independent variable, Transfer speed is the significant predictor of relevance characteristic of financial information. Finally, it can be said that the relevancy of the financial information significantly depends on Transfer speed of the information technology. When Transfer speed increases the relevancy of the financial information increases at the rate 12.7 percent.
References
1) Al-kasswna, R. okab. (2012). Electronic Accounting Information Systems Efficiency in Energy Sector under Conditions of Uncertainty - A Field Study Electricity Companies in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 3(5), 16–30.
2) Berger, N. A. (2003). The Economic Effects of Technological Progress: Evidence from the Banking Industry. Journal of
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Money, Credit, and Banking, 35. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intit le:Journal+of+Money,+Credit,+and+Banking+,#8
3) Cooper, Finnegan, & Lloyd. (2015). Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting. International Accounting Standard Board (IASB).
4) Manic Sacer, I., & Oluic, A. (2013). Information Technology and Accounting Information Systems, Quality in Croatain Middle and Large Companies. Journal of Information and Organization Sciences, 37(2), 117–126.
5) Mihalache, S. (2007). The Accounting Decisions and Their Modelling by Using Specialized Computer-Based Tools. The International Journal of Digital Accounting Research, 7(13), 27– 51. http://doi.org/10.4192/1577-8517-v7
6) Pornour, F. (2015). Impact of Information Technology on Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Information. Commerce & Business Researcher, 8(1&2), 141–149.
7) Tiwari, R., & Kumar, R. (2012). Information technology in banking sector. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Management Review, 1(1).
8) Vijayasri, G. V. (2013). The Role of Information Technology (IT) Industry in India. International Monthly Refereed Journal of Research In Management & Technology, II, 54–64.
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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SELF CONFIDENCE AMONG CRICKET PLAYERS
Mr. Syedali Physical Education Teacher Ashok International Public School Kammagondanahali Jalahalli West, Bangaluru.
Abstract
Everyone knows that self-confidence is very important but what is not known to everyone is the degree of its importance. Self-confidence is more important than you can imagine. Self confidence can change your whole life to the better while lack of confidence will definitely have a negative effect on your social relations, career, achievements and even your mood. The following list will give you a better idea of the importance of self-confidence: The present study based on effect of self confidence on the age and gender factors of cricket players of Bangaluru city, Karnataka, India. Self confidence In the Present Study an Attempt Was Made To Study the Influence Of age group and gender on the Self Confidence of cricket players of Bangaluru city. Sample Of Study Taken 50 Teenage boys and girls cricket players Of Same Age Group And 50 Adult Male cricket players both male female Of Same Age Group. Self Confidence Scale Of M.Basavanna Was Administrated. It Was Hypothesized That The Teenage cricket players Differ In Their Self Confidence Levels Than The Adult cricket players also there would be significance differ in self confidence between male female cricket players The Statistical Tests Like, Mean, Sd and t - test Were Applied to Analyze the collected research data. This Study Clearly Revealed That Teenage cricket players Exhibited Higher Level Of Self Confidence Than The Adult cricket players & male cricket players www.ijmer.in 258 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
VOLUME 5, ISSUE 7(3), JULY 2016 having the higher level of self confidence then the female cricket players. Further The Researcher Tried To Find Out Why Explained The Reasons And Suggested The New Ways to Improve.
Key words –Age group, Gender self confidence level
Introduction
Self confidence is an attitude, which all individuals have positive yet realistic views of themselves and their situations. Self confidence people trust their own abilities have a general sense of control in their lives and believe that, within reason, they will be able to do what they wish, plan, and expect. Like self esteems, self confidence refers to individual’s perceived ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things goes all right. Hence self-confidence is believed to increase one’s performance. The higher level of confidence generates enthusiasm for the given activity. It is the variation in confidence that makes differences in performance of sports activity. Therefore studying the influence of confidence assumes importance.
The Dictionary defines confidence as freedom of doubt; belief in yourself and your abilities. Many people lack the self-confidence and self-esteem needed to live a happy and healthy life. Self-esteem is a confidence and satisfaction in oneself. These two things must be present in people’s daily lives in order for them to believe that they have the ability to do anything. At this point in my life I am trying to gain the esteem I need to truly be happy. The best way to gain self- confidence is to look deep inside of yourself and believe that you have the ability to overcome all obstacles and challenges that you are faced with, on a daily bases, because our self-esteem is one of the few things that we have control over.
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Self-confidence is something that cannot be taught. It is up to the individual to decide how much belief that they possess inside of themselves. I am at the point where I realize that I must first believe in myself before others will believe in me. Nobody teaches us to be happy or sad. They are natural feelings that come along as we develop mentally, physically, emotionally and psychologically. When you get to the point where you allow others to dictate how you feel about life, you have to stop and take an internal survey. Ask yourself if your lack of self-confidence and self-assurance is holding you back from being the best that you can possibility be. Most often these feelings come from people allowing the negativity of other people to overcome them. You have to be willing to take control of your life and whatever is holding you back. So often we, as a people, look for the validation from society before we validate ourselves. I have allowed society to determine how I should look, dress and feel. It is time for me to take a stand and be in control of my own destiny.
Basavanna .M (1975) studied self-confidence in relation with self and ideal self and found that self confidence people particularly who were capable. Successful and adjusted, had significantly higher self ideal and self-congruence than those who were low in their level of self- confidence.
Hence several researchers have made significant attempts to relate motivation with sports and found significant association between the level of motivation and the* corresponding sports activity. It has been proved empirically that persons with greater amount of motivation are found to be superior to others who are less motivated. This reveals that the motivated groups improve significantly in the given sports activity more than the non-motivated group (Hansen, 1967). However, there is no single motivational technique that is superior to other techniques. This marks very clearly that each www.ijmer.in 260 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
VOLUME 5, ISSUE 7(3), JULY 2016 motivational technique is, by and large, important depending upon the conditions in which it is presented. Hence motivational techniques produce desirable effects to the extent that a coach or coaches present them wisely. In a similar way, the social factor like social support, SE5, personal factors like self-confidence have significant impact on the performance of persons. Thus present study makes an attempt to assess the influence of all such factors on performance of sportsman selected from the colleges of Gulbarga division. Research Questions.
Review of Literature
Many studies have been conducted in the area of child development. Some of the studies have been mentioned here. Chowdhury Aparajita & Muni, Anita Kumari (1995) in their study about „Role of parental support in children need satisfaction and academic achievement‟, found that need satisfied by parents was much more than need satisfied by outside family members. With regards to academic it was found from the academic marks of the children that the average ranging (40-60) students were getting more parental support.
Linda L.Dunlap (2004), in her paper, „What all children need: theory and application‟ provides that sibling relationships typically are children‟s first social network and form the basis for relationships with others. Siblings are usually children‟s first playmates, intimate friends, protectors, enemies, competitors, confidantes and the role models. They are an important source of support school-age children, in particular. During this time siblings are not only companions but also help with difficult tasks and provide comfort during emotional stress. The bond formed between siblings is one of the most complex, long-lasting, and important connections in life. Typically, no other relationship lasts as long or has such a great impact. Siblings, who are close in age, often
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METHODOLOGY The purpose of the present work is to compare the levels of self confidence among teenage and adult age group cricket players both male & female in equal number, the research hypothesized that the age & gender having the effect on the self confidence of sample group. The investigator has come across one questionnaire that would measure the level of self confidence the investigator visited the stadium & play grounds to meet the sample groups in the Bangaluru city. Objectives 1) To find out the level of self confidence of teenage players 2) To find out the level of self confidence of adult players 3) To compare the self confidence among teenage & adult cricket players 4) To compare the cricket players influence of age & gender difference on the psychological variable of the study. Hypothesis 1) There would be significant deference in self confidence among teenage and adult cricket players. 2) There would be the significance deference in the self confidence among the sample group due to difference in gender. Sample In the present study the researcher took fifty teenage cricket players both girls and boys and fifty adult cricket players both male female from the bangaluru city. www.ijmer.in 262 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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Tool Self Confidence Inventory (SCI). The self confidence inventory (SCI) developed by Basavanna .M (1975). The questionnaire consists of 100 items. The odd-even (split-half) reliability co-efficient calculated by spearmen brown formula is found to be 0.94. Test Administration and Collection of Data This scale is developed and standardized by Basavanna (1975), which consists of 100 items in all. The response categories are true of false. The score range is 0 to 100. According to manual lower the score higher would be level of self-confidence and vice versa. The reliability of the scale is 0.67. The validity of the scale is found to be satisfactory. Statistical Analysis: To meet the objective of the study mean, standard deviation, t-values were used to calculate and analyze the data. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table No 1 – Mean, Sd, t-value of teenage players and adult players of Bangaluru District.
Paired Samples Statistics
Group Mean N Std. Deviation t-values
Teenage Boys 42.56 25 7.04 4.354* Players Girls 50.68 25 9.71 Adult Male 47.76 25 8.63 1.56* Players Female 51.60 25 9.27 Significant level at 0.05*
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60 51.6 50.68 47.76 50 42.56 40 30 Male 20 female 10 0 Teenage players Adult players
The graph shows that the teenage boys cricket players have mean score is 42.56, the standard deviation is 7.04 and girls have mean score 50.68 it shows significant difference the calculated t value is 4.354* at 0.05 level, the low score in self confidence inventory which means the high in self confidence, the Adult cricket players have scored mean is 47.76, standard deviation is 8.63, female mean score is 51.60 the t-value of both means is 1.56*, which indicates the teenage boys cricket players are more self confidence than adult cricket players & the results showing the significance differences between boys and girls & male and female cricket players in their self confidence due to gender differences.
Conclusion
There is a significant difference between teenage cricket players and adult cricket players in their self confidence level.
The age factor influence the level of self confidence in cricket players.
The girls cricket players have high self confidence than female cricket players
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 7(3), JULY 2016
The gender factor effect on the level of self confidence of cricket players of Bangaluru city.
Both age & gender having influence on the level of self confidence of sample groups.
Reference
Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960): Skills Test Manual-
Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Sports Psychology encyclopedia,
Sports journals
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