Automated Mapping of Historical Native American Land Allotments at the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation Using Geographic Information Systems

International Journal of Geo-Information

Article Automated Mapping of Historical Native American Land Allotments at the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation Using Geographic Information Systems

Joshua Jerome Meisel 1,* , Stephen L. Egbert 2 , Joseph P. Brewer II 3 and Xingong Li 2

1 Natural and Social Sciences, Haskell Indian Nations University, 155 Indian Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66046, USA 2 Geography and Atmospheric Science, University of Kansas, 1475 Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA; [email protected] (S.L.E.); [email protected] (X.L.) 3 Environmental Studies, University of Kansas, 2100 Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The General Allotment Act of 1887, also known as the Dawes Act, established the legal basis for the United States government to break up remaining tribally-owned reservation lands in the U.S. by allotting individual parcels to tribal members and selling the remaining “surplus.” This research explores the processes involved in mapping these historical allotments and describes a method to automatically generate spatial data of allotments. A custom geographic information systems (GIS) tool was created that takes tabular based allotment land descriptions and digital Public Land Survey (PLSS) databases to automatically generate spatial and attribute data of those land Citation: Meisel, J.J.; Egbert, S.L.; parcels. The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe of North and South Dakota was used as the initial study Brewer, J.P., II; Li, X. Automated area to test the mapping technique, which resulted in successfully auto-mapping over 99.1% of Mapping of Historical Native allotted lands on the reservation, including the smallest aliquot parcels. This GIS technique can be American Land Allotments at the used to map any tribal lands or reservation with allotment data available, and currently it can be Standing Rock Sioux Reservation used to map over 120 individual reservations using publicly available data from the Bureau of Land Using Geographic Information Management (BLM). Systems. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: Dawes; allotment; GIS; map; automation; PLSS; geographic information systems; reser- ijgi10030183 vation; indigenous; Standing Rock

Academic Editors: Wolfgang Kainz and Fraser Taylor

Received: 18 February 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 18 March 2021 The Standing Rock Sioux Reservation located, along the border of North and South Published: 20 March 2021 Dakota, has undergone major disruptive changes in land tenure over the past 150 years (Figure1). Standing Rock, originally a part of the Great Sioux Reservation established in Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, is the seventh largest Indian reservation in the United with regard to jurisdictional claims in States (3572 sq. mi., 9251 sq. km.), yet has one of the highest poverty rates of anywhere in published maps and institutional afﬁl- the country [1]. Despite the vast tracts of land and resources within the reservation, tribal iations. members still experience the consequences of historic decisions made far away in both space and time.

1.1. The Dawes Act and Land Allotment Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. The biggest contributor to the ongoing land issues on the reservation was the Dawes Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Act, also known as the General Allotment Act of 1887 [2]. This Act of Congress forced This article is an open access article allotment in severalty on tribal members residing on reservations, meaning that tribes as a distributed under the terms and whole no longer owned their reservation land; instead, individual tribal members received conditions of the Creative Commons their own parcels of land, known as allotments. The remaining unassigned lands were Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// deemed “surplus” and sold on the open market, most often to white settlers. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10030183 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 25 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 2 of 24

Figure 1. Map of American Indian reservations in thethe contiguous UnitedUnited States.States. The StandingStanding Rock SiouxRock Sioux reservation reservation is highlighted is highlighted in red. in Data red. Data source: source: U.S. CensusU.S. Census Bureau Bureau Federal Federal American American Indian ReservationsIndian Reservations (AIR). (AIR).

1.1. TheReformers Dawes Act and and federal Land officialsAllotment promoted land allotment as a progressive step towards the civilization and assimilation of American Indians as farmers and ranchers. However, The biggest contributor to the ongoing land issues on the reservation was the Dawes the Dawes Act was not solely a process of giving Indians private ownership of their land; Act, also known as the General Allotment Act of 1887 [2]. This Act of Congress forced it was a way to break up the reservation, destroy tribal ideologies of land held in common, allotment in severalty on tribal members residing on reservations, meaning that tribes as weaken the authority of tribal leaders and traditions, and open unallotted reservation lands a whole no longer owned their reservation land; instead, individual tribal members re- for white settlement. Theodore Roosevelt described allotment as a “mighty pulverizing ceived their own parcels of land, known as allotments. The remaining unassigned lands engine to break up the tribal masses” [3]. During allotment, traditional practices and were deemed “surplus” and sold on the open market, most often to white settlers. patterns of land tenure were replaced by the efficient but relentless rectangular grid of the U.S. PublicReformers Land and Survey federal System officials (PLSS). promoted Allotment land further allotment tightened as a progressive the legally bindingstep to- relationshipwards the civilization between the and federal assimilation government of American and tribal Indians nations, as designatingfarmers and the ranchers. federal governmentHowever, the as Dawes the fiduciary Act was and not authoritysolely a proc ofess tribal of trustgiving assets Indians stemming private fromownership treaties, of lands,their land; and it all was tribal a way resources. to break This up the is known reservat asion, the destroy trust responsibility, tribal ideologies which of island carried held outin common, by the Department weaken the of authority Interior within of tribal the leaders Executive and Branch traditions, of the and federal open government unallotted ofreservation the United lands States. for white settlement. Theodore Roosevelt described allotment as a “mightyUnder pulverizing the terms engine of the Dawesto break Act, up headsthe tribal ofhousehold masses” [3]. received During 160 allotment, acres of tradi- land, singletional practices persons overand agepatterns 18 and of orphansland tenure under were 18 replaced received by 80 acres,the efficient and children but relentless under 18rectangular received grid 40 acres. of the It U.S. is notable Public Land that marriedSurvey System women (PLSS). were not Allotment awarded further allotments, tight- althoughened the legally widowed binding and divorced relationship women between qualified the tofederal receive government allotments and as heads tribal of nations, household.designating Actual the parcel federal sizes government and allotment as provisionsthe fiduciary varied and from authority reservation of tribal to reservation,trust assets dependingstemming from on such treaties, factors lands, as and the amountall tribal ofresources. land available, This is known the climate as the (allotments trust respon- in aridsibility, regions which were is carried often larger),out by the access Department to water, of timber Interior and within other the resources, Executive and Branch political of considerations,the federal government including of requeststhe United from States. the tribes themselves. In some cases, a person’s allotmentUnder consisted the terms of of a singlethe Dawes rectangular Act, heads parcel of containinghousehold thereceived entire 160 acreage acres to of which land, thesingle person persons was over entitled; age 18 in otherand orphans cases, a under single 18 allotment received might 80 acres, consist and of children several under different 18 parcels,received sometimes 40 acres. It not is evennotable adjacent that married to each other.women were not awarded allotments, alt- houghAllotment widowed had and and divorced continues women to have qualified lasting to effectsreceive for allotments American as Indiansheads of in house- three significanthold. Actual ways parcel [4]. sizes (1) Landand allotment loss. In total, provisio overns the varied course from of reservation 47 years, from to reservation, 1887 when thedepending Dawes on Act such was factors instituted as the until amount its repeal of land under available, the Indianthe climate Reorganization (allotments Actin arid in 1934,regions an were estimated often 90larger), to 120 access million to acreswater, of timber land left and Indian other handsresources, by a and variety political of means, con- includingsiderations, sale including of surplus requests reservation from lands,the tribes fraud, themselves. and sales In of some land bycases, individual a person’s allottees. allot- (2)ment Fractionation. consisted of The a single Dawes rectangular Act failed toparcel provide containing for what the would entire happen acreage to to an which allotment the parcelperson whenwas entitled; its owner in died;other thus, cases, upon a single the deathallotment of an might allotee consist who diedof several without different a will, titleparcels, to the sometimes land went not to even his oradjacent her heirs to each according other. to the laws of the state in which the landAllotment was located. had When and thiscontinues was repeated to have over lastin severalg effects generations, for American the number Indians of in owners three easilysignificant reached ways dozens [4]. (1) to Land sometimes loss. In hundreds, total, over all the of whomcourse heldof 47 undivided years, from interests 1887 when to a fractionthe Dawes of theAct original was instituted parcel. until This problemits repeal is under commonly the Indian referred Reorga to asnization fractionation Act in or 1934, the heirship problem and is the subject of numerous ongoing legal and policy proceedings [5,6].

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For example, it is not uncommon for an individual Indian land owner to have as little as 1/4000th of an undivided interest in a parcel of land. Furthermore, it is often the case that a person may have fractional ownership interests in a number of different land parcels, sometimes scattered over several reservations, because of the residence locations and intermarriage of that person’s ancestors. (3) Checkerboarding. The post-allotment inﬂux of white settlers onto reservations in many cases created patterns of interspersed parcels owned or operated by white settlers, a pattern known as checkerboarding. Advocates of allotment actually viewed this pattern as desirable because they assumed that Indian allotment holders would beneﬁt by observing the agricultural practices of their white neighbors. In fact, it disrupted existing agricultural, living, and social patterns, thereby further diminishing traditional ways of life.

1.2. Research Context The allotment era of American Indian history is a well-covered topic, as numerous articles and books have been published on the subject, ranging in scale from the national [4,7–10], to state and regional areas [11–13], to individual tribes [14,15]. Allotment has been explored from political, historical, social, and legal perspectives, but relatively few studies have explored allotment from a spatial perspective. Imre Sutton, the late professor emeritus of Geography at California State University, was one of the first academics to make a national call for more work to examine the vastness and irregularity of the cartographic record for Indian lands. While there exist many maps of Indian lands, Sutton questioned the veracity of land ownership maps as it is “hard to ascertain how accurate field maps at BIA or tribal offices are today, and the published record gets out of date very quickly” [16]. If studies of allotment and the consequences of this failed policy are to be seriously examined, there exists a need for a method to be able to generate, synthesize, and analyze allotment information. In the past, a major problem with geographic research on Indian allotments has been the lack of readily available spatial data for land surveys and allotments, as well as reliable and accessible digital sources of these datasets. Previous allotment mapping has largely been done by hand, either with traditional cartographic ink-on-paper methods or by manually digitizing paper maps or photographic images using GIS software and adding attribute data from archival allotment records. One of the earliest geographers to map and analyze land tenure patterns on a reservation was Dr. Harold Hoffmeister, of the University of Colorado Boulder in 1945, who studied the disparities in land tenure on the Consolidated Southern Ute Reservation in Colorado and Utah [17]. Later, in 1985, John Hartwell Moore performed an early spatial analysis of allotments among the Cheyenne in Oklahoma [18]. He utilized allotment records to manually map land ownership of the Cheyenne and used that dataset to analyze social connections within tribal groups using census information. In the early years of the twenty-first century, several studies used manual methods to digitize maps and allotment records for use in GIS analysis. Middleton [19] analyzed historical allotments of former Maidu reservation lands in northern California utilizing National Archives and local county records to trace land ownership for the Mountain Maidu in Plumas County, California. She manually constructed spatial features of allotments using GIS to follow the historical lineage of land ownership of original Maidu allotted lands. Greenwald, in her comparative studies of the experiences of the Nez Perce, Jicarilla Apache, and Cheyenne River Sioux tribes, analyzed allotment era land maps and employed a manual digitizing technique to generate spatial data of allotments in GIS [14,20]. Greenwald has noted the difficulties and limitations of manually digitizing allotments, as well as obstacles presented by a lack of data for some reservations of interest [21]. Palmer later employed a mixture of manual digitization of historical maps as well as modern land ownership data obtained from tribal offices of the Kiowa tribe of Oklahoma to examine the loss of Kiowa allotment lands [22]. Kretzler and the Grand Ronde Land Tenure Project developed GIS data for allotments at the Grand Ronde reservation in Oregon [23,24]. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 4 of 24

Working with the Grand Ronde tribal Historical Preservation Organization, the team was able to retrieve and digitize maps and other archival documents of historical land tenure on the Grand Ronde reservation to create a digital database of land allotments for visualizing allotment patterns and understanding the loss of allotment lands All of these previous allotment studies utilized manual methods to generate maps and, in the more recent studies, to create GIS spatial data of Indian lands. However, within approximately the past five years, the public availability of accurate and detailed digital datasets for the Public Land Survey System (PLSS) has created the potential for detailed mapping of Indian land allotments, and several recent studies have demonstrated the utility of these datasets in combination with the analytical capabilities of GIS. Egbert and Smith used a commercial software extension for ArcGIS to map and explore Kickapoo allotments in Kansas using a digital PLSS database and allotment records transcribed from archival records [25]. They found that allotment selections were primarily located in fertile stream bottomlands and their associated riparian woodlands. Allen used the same method to map and analyze allotments on the Omaha Reservation in Nebraska, finding that allotment preferences varied between groups of tribal members who favored adhering to traditional values, choosing allotments near traditional village locations, and those who saw advantage in taking allotments adjacent to future railroad lines because of their access to markets [26]. Sun Eagle likewise used the digital PLSS and archival allotment records for visualizing allotments on the Pawnee Reservation in Oklahoma [27]. She discovered that family and clan relationships were reflected in spatial patterns of allotment selections and that, as Egbert and Smith had found, there was an overall strong preference for fertile stream bottoms and woodlands. Most recently, Dippel and colleagues in several studies utilized a different technique to map Indian lands by using digital Indian land records obtained from the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) General Land Office (GLO) online database and matching them to PLSS quarter-section 160-acre units [28–31]. The major advancement made by Dippel et al. was the use of the two digital databases in tandem to match allotments to land descriptions. This avoided the team having to perform map digitization, archival work, or having to purchase additional software extensions for an already expensive software package. Their method, however, did not actually map allotment parcels of less than one quarter-section (160 acres) in size, of which there are many, but rather assigned them to the quarter section to which they belong. This was adequate for the broad-scale analyses they performed but does not permit analysis at the fine scale required for exploring numerous specific questions on individual reservations.

1.3. Mapping Allotment at Standing Rock An act of the Fiftieth Congress in 1889 authorized the president to direct that the Standing Rock Reservation be surveyed and that allotments in severalty be granted to its residents, as follows: one half-section (320 acres) to heads of family; one quarter-section to single persons over age 18 and orphan children under 18; and one eighth-section (80 acres) to children under 18 [32]. Two features of the enabling act are noteworthy: ﬁrst, the allotment sizes were twice the size of those stipulated in the Dawes Act, likely due to the arid climate and the amount of land available, and second, as in the original Dawes Act, married women were not authorized to receive allotments. However, the Fifty-Ninth Congress (1906–1907) subsequently granted allotments to married women and to children who had not previously been allotted [33]. (These allotments were made after the initial allotments under the terms of the 1889 Act were completed.) Actual allotment did not begin at Standing Rock until 1906 with the appointment of Special Allotting Agent Carl Gunderson. The vast majority of allotments were completed by 1910, but additional allotments continued to be made up through 1934. In all, 4726 persons at Standing Rock received allotments, consisting of a total of 13,324 parcels. In addition, because of the scarcity of timber on the reservation and its value for fuel and construction, small timber allotments, generally of 2.5 to 10 acres in size, also were made. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 5 of 24

This project began in 2016 with funding from the Indian Land Tenure Foundation (and later from the University of Kansas General Research Fund). The overall goal was to explore the feasibility of using the information in land allotment ledgers to create a digital spatial database of allotments on the Standing Rock Reservation to use as the basis for visualizing and exploring patterns of allotment. In the first phase of the project, information from the Standing Rock archival allotment records was manually transcribed into Excel spreadsheets and then ingested into an ArcGIS add-in tool that used a digital database of the Public Land Survey (PLSS) at the section level to create a spatial database of all allotments that consisted of standard subdivisions (aliquots), e.g., quarter sections, half sections, quarter-quarter sections, and so on). Non-standard parcels such as government lots could not be mapped by the add-in program and subsequently were added manually. Although this method produced a map that showed the overall pattern of allotments and permitted exploration of the spatial data, we discovered two major problems with the process. The first was the time-consuming, expensive, and error-prone nature of the transcription process itself. Hundreds of labor hours were required to enter and cross check the thousands of allotments and their associated attribute data. Even after the cross-checking process, numerous errors in transcription were discovered, necessitating additional reference to the original ledger sheets and the online General Land Office database created by the Bureau of Land Management (which itself was being updated during the course of the project) in order to make corrections. The second problem was that the add-in parcel subdivision tool created thousands of duplicate lines and vertices in the output map, which were frequently offset from each other. This was because each allotment parcel, with its topology, was created independently of all the other parcels, including its neighbors. This was in addition to the program’s inability to handle non-standard aliquots and government lots, as noted above. The net result was that additional large inputs of labor were needed to correct the underlying spatial database of allotments. Although the methodology in the initial phase of the project ultimately produced a largely accurate map of allotments at Standing Rock, it was apparent that a more efficient and accurate mapping method was needed, one that could take advantage of the digital databases rapidly coming online to produce allotment maps of reservations in a few days, rather than weeks or months. Thus, the next phase of the project focused on the development of the tool described in this paper.

1.4. Goals Digital allotment mapping using GIS is critical because it provides the cartographic visualization and spatio-analytical capabilities to explore both the patterns and processes of allotment. These are important not merely for satisfying historical curiosity but for providing a background for investigating and understanding subsequent events and impacts down to the present. The new allotment mapping tool fills the gaps in previous methods by developing a technique in which Indian allotments can be automatically mapped in a GIS software environment using common GIS tools and publicly available spatial databases and land allotment data. This new method generates complete and accurately sized and shaped GIS data of nearly all Indian allotments down to the finest scale. These GIS methods and techniques are repeatable and re-creatable in other GIS software; however, it was designed to be used in tribal offices on the reservation where ESRI’s ArcGIS is the standard software. This method is intended specifically to automate the process of mapping historical allotments on Indian reservations, but it can also be used by anyone wanting to map land property descriptions recorded in PLSS format. These tools are explained and preliminary allotment datasets are open-source and will be available at www.haskellgeography.com (accessed on 18 March 2021). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 6 of 24

2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Data Sources We used two major data sources in this study: historical allotment data extracted from handwritten allotment ledger books and digital spatial data for the Public Land Survey System. The nature of each of these datasets and the means of obtaining them are described below.

2.1.1. Allotment Data Tribal allotment data are openly available from at least two different sources. The Bureau of Land Management stores copies of the original allotment ledger books for many reservations in their various district offices, as does the National Archives at both its headquarters location in Washington, DC and branches located across the country. For the Standing Rock reservation, allotment ledger books are located at the National Archives branch in Kansas City. Allotments were recorded in two types of ledger books, generally known as Tract Books and Allotment Registers, and several copies of each were made at the time of allotment. Both types of allotment ledgers contain both spatial and attribute data: the spatial data consist of the legal description of allotment parcels in PLSS format, while the attribute data contain information about each allottee, such as name, age, and gender. Tract books, as their name implies, were organized geographically according to the rectangular Public Land Survey System. In this case, the legal description of the land came first, followed by the allottee’s name and allotment number and sometimes other information. Allotment registers, on the other hand, were organized by allotment number in numerical order (the first allottee being number 1, and so on). Information generally included, in addition to allotment number, the allottee’s name (both “English” name and “Indian” name), age, marital status, and gender, and sometimes the relationship of the allottee to the head of household. This information was followed by the legal description of the parcel(s) making up the person’s allotment and the total acreage allotted. For this study, high-resolution photographs of the Standing Rock allotment register and timber allotment register were made at the Kansas City Branch of the National Archives for subsequent transcription into Excel spreadsheets for use in conjunction with the PLSS to create a GIS database of allotments. In addition to the original handwritten allotment ledgers, allotments now can also be mapped using digital allotment data available from the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) General Land Office (GLO) online database (hereafter referred to as the BLM/GLO database). The BLM/GLO data, transcribed from original allotment records, are already in a digital tabular format that only needs slight modification to prepare for mapping with GIS software. However, the BLM/GLO dataset lacks the additional social/demographic information (age, gender, family relationships) available in the archival allotment ledgers. The full BLM/GLO digital allotment data for Standing Rock only became available after we had transcribed the handwritten allotment register, but we found it highly useful in the later stages of this project. We were able not only to compare the nature and value of each of the datasets, but also to supplement the incomplete allotment register data with the BLM/GLO digital data, as we note below.

each of the datasets, but also to supplement the incomplete allotment register data with the BLM/GLO digital data, as we note below.

2.1.2. Digital Land Survey Data The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) or Rectangular Survey System is a system for surveying and dividing land for settlement and sale and is the dominant land description system in the majority of the U.S., primarily in areas west of the Appalachian Mountains, although there are notable exceptions, especially in areas originally settled under French or Spanish colonial authority. The PLSS is a popular source of historical information used by researchers to investigate various topics, such as exploring historical cultural land- ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 scapes [34]. It also has been used as a base layer in several of the previously discussed7 of 24 allotment mapping studies. However, in a larger sense the PLSS grid ultimately changed the way Indigenous people tenured their lands under the evolving land systems in the Unitedthe way States. Indigenous The insatiable people tenureddesire of their Euro-A landsmericans under thefor evolvingadditional land land systems further in opened the upUnited Indian States. lands The to settlers, insatiable squatters, desire of and Euro-Americans speculators. Survey for additional grids like land the further PLSS openedthat were usedup Indianin this landsprocess to settlers,are problematic squatters, to and many speculators. Indigenous Survey people, grids since like thethey PLSS overlaid that a rigorouswere used grid in system this process of land are problematicdivision over to al manyready Indigenous existing Native people, systems since they of overlaidland tenure, a occupation,rigorous grid and system use. They of land therefore division represen over alreadyt one existing of the methods Native systems by which of land land tenure, was explored,occupation, partitioned, and use. and They obtained therefore from represent Native peoples one of the[35]. methods It is a harsh by which reminder, land and was for manyexplored, Native partitioned, people a andtangible obtained representati from Nativeon, peoplesof the methods [35]. It is aused harsh to reminder, disenfranchise, and marginalize,for many Native and assimilate people a tangible them, the representation, effects of which of the are methods still present. used to disenfranchise, marginalize,As a survey and system, assimilate the them, PLSS the splits effects much of which of the are US still into present. a massive grid of squares (FigureAs 2). a At survey the largest system, scale the there PLSS are splits township much ofand the range US into lines a which massive create grid 6 of by squares 6 square (Figure2). At the largest scale there are township and range lines which create 6 by 6 square mile grids across the landscape. Within these townships the PLSS has smaller 1 square- mile grids across the landscape. Within these townships the PLSS has smaller 1 square-mile mile units called sections. Each section is further divided into quarter sections and quarter- units called sections. Each section is further divided into quarter sections and quarter- quarterquarter sections; sections; these these various various regular divisionsdivisions of of a a section section are are called calledaliquots aliquots. In. In addition addition toto standard standard aliquot aliquot units, units, there there are governmentgovernment lots lots,, which which are are generated generated where where the the grid grid is is slightlyslightly altered altered to to compensate compensate for errorserrors thatthatoccur occur when when laying laying a 2-dimensionala 2-dimensional grid grid on on toptop of of the the 3-dimensional 3-dimensional Earth, Earth, or where thethe gridgrid meets meets the the meander meander of of a rivera river or or shoreline shoreline ofof a alake. lake.

FigureFigure 2. 2.PublicPublic Land Land Survey Survey System System (PLSS) structurestructure and and aliquot aliquot examples. examples.

TheThe PLSS PLSS is isavailable available in indigital digital format format from from the the FGDC FGDC Cadastral Cadastral Subcommittee Subcommittee Out- reachOutreach Web WebSite Site(www.nationalcad.org) (www.nationalcad.org in) in bo bothth shapefile shapeﬁle andand geodatabase geodatabase formats. formats. The The PLSSPLSS datasets datasets come come in in multiple multiple different layers,layers, based based on on the the size size of of the the grid grid subdivisions. subdivisions. TheThe “second “second division” division” of of the the PLSS, referred toto herehere as as quarter-quarter quarter-quarter sections, sections, is theis the most most commonlycommonly available available atomic atomic level of PLSSPLSS data,data, each each grid grid square square representing representing 40 40 acres. acres. The The “intersected” PLSS layer contains all quarter-quarter sections, government lots, and parcel slivers created by river meanders and bodies of water. The intersected layers are used to map allotments using the tool described here as it contains the necessary attribute data. The attribute ﬁelds of the PLSS have been standardized by the FGDC, which makes this GIS technique universal for all states with PLSS data availability. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25

“intersected” PLSS layer contains all quarter-quarter sections, government lots, and parcel slivers created by river meanders and bodies of water. The intersected layers are used to map allotments using the tool described here as it contains the necessary attribute data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 The attribute fields of the PLSS have been standardized by the FGDC, which makes8 this of 24 GIS technique universal for all states with PLSS data availability.

2.2. Methods: Tool Development 2.2. Methods: Tool Development The implementation of the allotment mapping tool was created using ArcGIS Model The implementation of the allotment mapping tool was created using ArcGIS Model Builder and involves the following four general stages. First, using the digital PLSS data, Builder and involves the following four general stages. First, using the digital PLSS data, createcreate a a master master aliquot aliquot spatial spatial base base layer layer of of all all possible possible aliquot aliquot subdivisions subdivisions with with unique unique parcelparcel IDs IDs (Figure (Figure 33);); second, createcreate a database of allotment parcels containing both land descriptiondescription data data and and attribute attribute data data with with unique unique IDs IDs for foreach each parcel parcel that that correspond correspond to the to formatthe format for unique for unique parcel parcel IDs in IDs the in PLSS the PLSSmaster master aliquot aliquot database; database; third, third,merge merge the allot- the mentallotment database database with withthe aliquot the aliquot database database using using matching matching parcel parcel IDs IDsto create to create a map a map of allotments;of allotments; and and finally, ﬁnally, map map the thefew few remaining remaining unmapped unmapped non-standard non-standard parcels parcels by (1) by creating(1) creating “micro” “micro” aliquot aliquot databases databases for unma for unmappedpped small small aliquots aliquots and merging and merging them themwith thewith allotment the allotment database database and and(2) manually (2) manually digitizing digitizing the the few few remaining remaining allotments allotments that that couldcould not not be be mapped mapped using using the the tool. tool. In In the the disc discussionussion that that follows, follows, we we first ﬁrst describe describe the the proceduresprocedures followed for eacheach stepstep andand then, then, where where appropriate, appropriate, discuss discuss its its implementation implementa- tionfor thefor Standingthe Standing Rock Rock project. project. A schematic A schematic summary summary of the of basicthe basic allotment allotment mapping mapping tool toolwill will be referred be referred to throughout to throughout the articlethe article (Figure (Figure4). 4).

FigureFigure 3. 3. TheThe “master “master aliquot” aliquot” is isa GIS a GIS data data layer layer that that contains contains the the shapes shapes of all of possible all possible aliquot aliquot parcels within a section merged together into one comprehensive file. Each parcel contains a parcels within a section merged together into one comprehensive ﬁle. Each parcel contains a Unique Unique ID which is used by the allotment mapping tool to join the allotment spreadsheet and cre- ID which is used by the allotment mapping tool to join the allotment spreadsheet and create the ate the allotment parcel shapes with accompanying attribute data. allotment parcel shapes with accompanying attribute data.

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Figure 4.4. SchematicSchematic summarysummary of of the the allotment allotment mapping mapping tool tool in ArcGIS in ArcGIS ModelBuilder. ModelBuilder. Allotment Allotment mapping mapping can be can performed be per- usingformed simple using and simple commonly and commonly available available GIS processes. GIS processes. Step (1) createStep (1) a copycreate of a the copy original of the PLSS original quarter-quarter PLSS quarter-quarter data files. Stepdata (2)files. generate Step (2) new generate attributes new fields attributes for each fields class for of each land cla aliquot.ss of land Step aliquot. (3) calculate Step (3) the calculate unique ID the values unique for ID each values type for of landeach class.type of Step land (4) class. dissolve Step borders (4) dissolve of PLSS borders base layerof PLSS polygons base layer based polygons on common based unique on common ID, creating unique new ID, shapes creating for eachnew aliquot.shapes for Step each (5) mergesaliquot. and Step concatenates (5) merges theand “master concatenates aliquot” th filee “master and its attributes.aliquot” file Step and (6) its joins attributes. the “master Step aliquot” (6) joins with the “master aliquot” with the tabular data of land descriptions generating the final data layer. the tabular data of land descriptions generating the final data layer. 2.2.1. Create the Master Aliquot Database 2.2.1. Create the Master Aliquot Database The digital PLSS databases as they currently exist are useful for basic cadastral cadastral map- map- ping and as a way to systematically identify, locate, and partition large tracts of land, but they do have two significantsignificant limitationslimitations forfor mappingmapping tribaltribal allotments.allotments. First, the digital PLSS data layers do not typically contain spatial data for for anything anything smaller smaller than than a a quarter- quarter- quarter section (40 acres). Many allotment parcel units on a reservation were smaller than 40 acres, and it is is essential essential to to have have these these data data available available in in order order to to properly properly and and completely completely map a tribe’s original allotments. Second, the digital PLSS layers do not make availableavailable other common common land land description description units units such such as ashalf half sections sections (320 (320 acres), acres), or half-quarter or half-quarter sectionssections (80 (80acres), acres), or orhalf half of ofa ahalf half of of a aquarter-quarter quarter-quarter section section (10 (10 acres). acres). However, However, these limitations cancan bebe addressedaddressed and and the the PLSS PLSS can can be be easily easily manipulated manipulated within within a GIS a GIS software soft- wareto generate to generate all varieties all varieties of land of aliquotsland aliq usinguots using simple simple and available and available techniques. techniques. The first first limitation of the digital PLSS can be solved by simply splitting the PLSS data into smaller and smaller aliquot quadrants. With With GIS software this task can be performed a number of ways, effectively creating smaller grids within the base PLSS grid system (Figure5 5))[ [36].36]. The second second limitation of the di digitalgital PLSS can be solved by using the atomic level PLSS as “building blocks” to create different size and shape aliquots such as thethe “northern“northern half of section 15” or “the western half of the southeast quarter of of section section 34.” 34.” These complex aliquots can be generated in the GIS software by merging together adjacent base units by altering the existing PLSS attr attributesibutes and dissolving interior borders between features with the same altered attribute values (Figure6 6a,b).a,b). IfIf performedperformed systematicallysystematically within a section, new spatial data representing all of the various shaped and sized aliquots by doing nothing more than grouping adjacentadjacent parcels andand dissolvingdissolving boundaries.boundaries.

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FigureFigure 5.5. On the left is is an an example example of of the the various various PL PLSS-basedSS-based parcel parcel aliquots aliquots one one may may encounter. encounter. Figure 5. On the left is an example of the various PLSS-based parcel aliquots one may encounter. Quarter-quarterQuarter-quarter sectionssections areare typicallytypically thethe smallestsmallest sub-unit within the PublicPublic Land Survey System. Quarter-quarter Quarter-quartersections are typically sections the cansmallest be quartered sub-unit furtwithinher usingthe Pub Ianlic Broad’s Land Survey Custom System. Grid Tools [36]. Quarter-quarter Quarter-quartersections can be quartered sections can furt beher quartered using Ian further Broad’s using Custom Ian Broad’s Grid Tools Custom [36]. Grid Tools [36].

(a) (a)

(b) (b) Figure 6. (a) Quarter sections are merged together to form northern and southern half sections. Figure 6. (a) QuarterFigureRemoving sections 6. (a the) Quarter are second merged sections string-charact together are merged toer form in the together northern label field to and form createssouthern northern ma halftching and sections. southernlabels for half two sections. different Re- Removing the secondmovingQuarter string-charact theSections, second northwest string-characterer in the label(NW) field inand the createsnortheast label fieldma (NE),tching creates or labels southwest matching for twolabels (SW) different forand two southeast different (SE). Quarter The Quarter Sections,Sections,Dissolve northwest northwestTool (NW) uses and these (NW) northeast matching and northeast (NE), field or values (NE), southwest orto southwestcombine (SW) and quarter (SW) southeast and sections southeast (SE). and The generate (SE). The the Dissolve Half Dissolve Tool uses these matching field values to combine quarter sections and generate the Half ToolSections. uses ( theseb) The matching above illustrates field values how to to combine generatequarter east/west sections half-quarter and generate sections, the using Half the Sections. tech- Sections. (b) The above illustrates how to generate east/west half-quarter sections, using the tech- (niqueb) The of above removing illustrates string howcharacters to generate from the east/west label field, half-quarter in this instance sections, the usingfirst character the technique is re- of nique of removingmoved string from characters the label from field. the A label Dissolve field, combines in this instance features the with first matching character labels.is removed from theremoving label field. string A Dissolve characters combines from thefeatures label with field, matching in this instance labels. the first character is removed from the label field. A Dissolve combines features with matching labels. Creating new parcels features for the different aliquot descriptions recorded in the Creating new parcels features for the different aliquot descriptions recorded in the allotmentCreating records new is parcels only the features first step. for theHaving different features aliquot to map descriptions is good, but recorded it is the in addi- the allotment records is only the first step. Having features to map is good, but it is the addi- allotmenttional data records recorded is onlyin the the allotment first step. ledger Having books features that is arguably to map ismore good, important. but it is theThe tional data recorded in the allotment ledger books that is arguably more important. The additionalland owner’s data name, recorded their age, in the gender allotment and fami ledgerly relations books that are is all arguably recorded more in the important. allotment land owner’s name, their age, gender and family relations are all recorded in the allotment Thebooks, land and owner’s need to name, added their to the age, newly gender crea andted family GIS features. relations The are key all recordedto our mapping in the books, and need to added to the newly created GIS features. The key to our mapping allotmentmethod is books,the ability and to need code to each added parcel to the in the newly allotment created spreadsheet GIS features. and The each key record to our in method is the ability to code each parcel in the allotment spreadsheet and each record in mappingthe PLSS methodbase layer is thewith ability matching to code unique each identifiers parcel in the (Figures allotment 7 and spreadsheet 8). The unique and iden- each the PLSS base layer with matching unique identifiers (Figures 7 and 8). The unique iden- recordtifiers act in as the addresses PLSS base for layer individual with matching land parcels, unique with identifiers each parcel (Figures having 7a andunique8). Thestring tifiers act as addressesuniqueof characters identifiersfor individual used actto identify, asland addresses parcels, locate, forwith and individual each diff erentiateparcel land having it parcels, from a unique other with parcels. eachstring parcel These having unique a of characters useduniqueidentifiers to identify, string are of essentiallocate, characters and to diffthis usederentiate mapping to identify, it technique from locate, other andand parcels. differentiateare used These for unique ittwo from processes other parcels. in the identifiers are Theseessentialmap automation unique to this identifiers mapping tool: first, aretechnique as essential a way and to to generate are this used mapping a for “master two technique processes aliquot” and filein the areof every used forpossible two map automationprocessesland tool: aliquot first, in thewithinas a map way a automationsection,to generate and tool:second,a “master first, as asaliquot”a way a way to filelink to generateof the every allotment apossible “master spreadsheet aliquot” data file land aliquot withinofto everythis a section,newly possible generated and land second, aliquot “master as withina way aliquot” to a section,link file. the andWeallotment used second, the spreadsheet as following a way to data terms link the in allotmentour data- to this newly generatedspreadsheetbases: MER “master data= prime to aliquot” this meridian newly file. generatedfor We the used survey “master the (two-digit following aliquot” code), terms file. We TWNin usedour = data-township the following row termsnum- bases: MER = primeinber our in meridian databases:the PLSS for system MER the survey = prime(3 digits), (two-digit meridian RNG code), for= ra thenge TWN survey column = township (two-digit number row code), in num-the TWN PLSS = townshipsystem (3 ber in the PLSSrowdigits), system number SEC (3 digits),= in section the PLSSRNG number system= ra ngewithin (3column digits), the six number RNGsquare = inmile range the township PLSS column system (2 number digits), (3 in Description the PLSS digits), SEC = sectionsystem= aliquot number (3 designation digits), within SEC within the = section six thesquare numbersection, mile Lo within townshipt = government the (2 six digits), square lot Description number mile township within (2the digits), town- = aliquot designationDescriptionship, if withinapplicable. = aliquotthe section, designation Lot = government within the section, lot number Lot = within government the town- lot number within ship, if applicable.the township, if applicable.

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FigureFigure 7.7. Transcribed allotment ledger books in in the the spreadsheet. spreadsheet. Concatenating Concatenating land land description description Figure 7. Transcribed allotment ledger books in the spreadsheet. Concatenating land description informationinformation toto generategenerate uniqueunique IDsIDs forfor eacheach parcel.parcel. NoteNote thethe similaritysimilarity betweenbetween thethe UIDUID columncolumn inin informationthe spreadsheet to generate with the unique PLSS default IDs for SE eachCDIVID parcel attribute. Note the field similarity in Figure be tween8. the UID column in thethe spreadsheetspreadsheet withwith thethe PLSSPLSS defaultdefault SECDIVIDSECDIVID attributeattribute ﬁeldfield inin FigureFigure8 .8.

Figure 8. PLSS attribute table viewed in ArcGIS. SECDIVID (PLSS second division identification) FigureFigurefield needs 8.8. PLSS only attribute slight modifica table viewed tion to in inmatch ArcGIS. ArcGIS. the SECDIVUID SECDIVID fromID the (PLSS (PLSS allotment second second ledger division division spreadsheet. identification) identification) fieldfield needsneeds onlyonly slightslight modificationmodification toto matchmatch thethe UIDUIDfrom fromthe theallotment allotment ledger ledger spreadsheet. spreadsheet. The allotment mapping tool first creates copies of original data files so as not to de- stroyTheThe source allotment data, see mapping step 1 of tool tool Figure first first 4.creates creates Blank copies attribute copies of of originalfields original are data generated data files files so for soas notaseach not to pos- de- to stroy source data, see step 1 of Figure 4. Blank attribute fields are generated for each pos- destroysible parcel source aliquot data, within see step a section 1 of Figure in th4e. Blankattribute attribute table of fields the downloaded are generated PLSS for eachInter- sible parcel aliquot within a section in the attribute table of the downloaded PLSS Inter- possiblesected GIS parcel data aliquot(Table 1), within see st aep section 2 of Figure in the 4. attribute A Field Calculation table of the is downloaded performed by PLSS the Intersected GIS data (Table1), see step 2 of Figure4. A Field Calculation is performed sectedGIS software, GIS data which (Table essentially 1), see step creates 2 of Figure a modified 4. A Field SECDIVID Calculation field, is and performed generates by new the byGIS the software, GIS software, which whichessentially essentially creates creates a modified a modified SECDIVID SECDIVID field, field, and andgenerates generates new unique IDs for each of the different aliquots in a section by modifying and concatenating new unique IDs for each of the different aliquots in a section by modifying and con- uniquefield values, IDs for step each 3 of of Figure the different 4. PLSS aliquots features in with a section the same by modifying unique ID and are concatenatingthen spatially catenatingfield values, field step values, 3 of Figure step 34. ofPLSS Figure features4. PLSS with features the same with unique the same ID are unique then spatially ID are merged together generating new shapes for every possible land combination within a sec- thenmerged spatially together merged generating together new generating shapes for new every shapes possible for land every combination possible land within combina- a section, step 4 of Figure 4. For example, an allotment may be described as the “western half tion within a section, step 4 of Figure4. For example, an allotment may be described tion,of the step southeast 4 of Figure quarter 4. Forof section example, 34, antownship allotment 10, mayrange be 9.” described This particular as the “westernunique ID half for asof the southeast “western quarter half of theof section southeast 34, township quarter of 10, section range 34,9.” townshipThis particular 10, range unique 9.” ID This for Standing Rock would be SD0701000934WSE. This unique ID is generated by parsing particular unique ID for StandingRock would be SD0701000934WSE. This unique ID is Standingthrough the Rock attribute would fields be SD0701000934WSE. to extract the values Th needed,is unique and ID then is generatedcombining by them parsing back generatedthrough the by attribute parsing throughfields to theextract attribute the va fieldslues needed, to extract and the then values combining needed, them and thenback together. In the PLSS attributes the following field names are described: STATEABBR = combiningtogether. In them the PLSS back attributes together. Inthe the followi PLSSng attributes field names the followingare described: field STATEABBR names are de- = State abbreviation, PRINMERCD = Principle Meridian Code, TWNSHPNO = Township scribed: STATEABBR = State abbreviation, PRINMERCD = Principle Meridian Code, Statenumber, abbreviation, RANGENO PRINMERCD = Range number, = Principl FIRSTDe MeridianIVNO =Code, section TWNSHPNO number, and = TownshipQQSEC = TWNSHPNOnumber, RANGENO = Township = Range number, number, RANGENO FIRSTD =IVNO Range = number, section FIRSTDIVNOnumber, and QQSEC = section = quarter-quarter section aliquot label. The following is an example Field Calculation that number,quarter-quarter and QQSEC section = quarter-quarteraliquot label. The section following aliquot is label.an example The following Field Calculation is an example that Fieldis used Calculation to generate that unique is used identifiers to generate for uniquethe eastern identifiers and western for the half-quarter eastern and westernsections, isand used see to Tablegenerate 2 forunique additional identifiers field for cathelculation eastern examples:and western [STATEABBR]&[PRIN- half-quarter sections, half-quarterand see Table sections, 2 for and additionalsee Table 2field for additionalcalculation field examples: calculation [STATEABBR]&[PRIN- examples: [STATE- ABBR]&[PRINMERCD]&[TWNSHPNO]&[RANGENO]&[FRSTDIVNO]&RIGHT([QQSEC]MERCD]&[TWNSHPNO]&[RANGENO]&[FRSTDIVNO]&RIGHT([QQSEC],3). For this, MERCD]&[TWNSHPNO]&[RANGENO]&[FRSTDIVNO]&RIGHT([QQSEC],3).particular example, the eastern and western half-quarter sections are created by For simply this 3).particular For this example, particular the example, eastern the and eastern western and ha westernlf-quarter half-quarter sections sectionsare created are createdby simply by removing the first letter, either an “N” or “S”, from the quarter-quarter attribute values in simplyremoving removing the first the letter, first either letter, an either “N” or an “S”, “N” from or “S”, the from quarter-quarter the quarter-quarter attribute attributevalues in the PLSS data (Figure 9). The RIGHT function is used here to truncate the quarter-quarter valuesthe PLSS in data the PLSS(Figure data 9). The (Figure RIGHT9). Thefunction RIGHT is used function here to is truncate used here the to quarter-quarter truncate the quarter-quartersection aliquot description section aliquot by returning description three by returningstring characters three string from charactersthe right side from of thethe section aliquot description by returning three string characters from the right side of the rightQQSEC side attribute, of the QQSEC thus removing attribute, the thus first removing letter in the the first aliquot letter abbreviation in the aliquot and abbreviation creating an QQSEC attribute, thus removing the first letter in the aliquot abbreviation and creating an andaliquot creating description an aliquot for the description eastern/western for the half-q eastern/westernuarter sections. half-quarter This creates sections. eight sets This of aliquot description for the eastern/western half-quarter sections. This creates eight sets of createsduplicate eight unique sets of IDs duplicate within uniquethe 16 quarter-quar IDs within theters 16 in quarter-quarters a section, each inof athem section, either each an duplicate unique IDs within the 16 quarter-quarters in a section, each of them either an ofeastern them or either western an eastern half of orone western of the four half ofqu onearter of sections. the four Dissolving quarter sections. boundaries Dissolving in step eastern or western half of one of the four quarter sections. Dissolving boundaries in step boundaries5 of Figure 4 in uses step matching 5 of Figure unique4 uses IDs matching for all eight unique possible IDs for east/west all eight half-quarter possible east/west sections 5 of Figure 4 uses matching unique IDs for all eight possible east/west half-quarter sections half-quarter sections within a single section (Figure 10a–c). This process is repeated for each

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 12 of 24

type of land description and merged together creating the master aliquot ﬁle Geodatabase of stacked and overlapping aliquot parcel shapes. The master aliquot can be imagined as a single stack of data layers, with each layer representing a different type of section aliquot from Table1 all merged together in one comprehensive data ﬁle, (Figure3).

Table 1. Possible aliquots within a section, size of each aliquot, and count per section and township.

Section Aliquot Example Abbr. Acres Sections Townships Half Northern half N 320 4 144 Quarter Southeast quarter SE 160 4 144 Half-half Northern half of the northern half NN 160 8 288 Quarter-quarter Southeast quarter of the northwest quarter SENW 40 16 576 Half-quarter Northern half of the northwest quarter NNW 80 16 576 Half-half-quarter Southern half of the northern half of the southeast quarter SNSE 40 32 1152 Quarter-quarter-quarter Southwest quarter of the northwest quarter of the SWNWNE 10 64 2304 (QQQ) northeast quarter Southern half of the southeast quarter of the Half-quarter-quarter SSENW 20 64 2304 northwest quarter Northern half of the southern half of the northern half of Half-half-half-quarter NSNSE 20 64 2304 the southeast quarter Northern half of the southern half of the northwest quarter Half-half-quarter-quarter NSNWSW 10 128 4608 of the south west quarter Southern half of the northeast quarter of the northwest Half-QQQ SNENWSW 5 256 9216 quarter of the southwest quarter Southern half of the southern half of the northeast quarter Half-half-QQQ SSNESWSE 2.5 512 18,432 of the southwest quarter of the southeast quarter

Table 2. Example Field Calculations performed in GIS on the PLSS Intersected base layer. This generates Unique IDs for various parcel aliquots. A dissolve function is later performed using the Unique IDs, thus generating the ﬁnal parcel shape. This is step 3 in Figure4.

Aliquot Field Calculation Section [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD]& [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] North/South Half [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO]& [FRSTDIVNO] & LEFT([QSEC],1) East/West Half [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] & RIGHT([QSEC],1) [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD]& [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] & Left([QQSEC],1) North/South Half Half &Mid([QQSEC],3,1) [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO]& [FRSTDIVNO] & Mid([QQSEC],2,1) & East/West Half Half Right([QQSEC],1) Quarter [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] & [QSEC] [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO]& [FRSTDIVNO] & Left([QQSEC],1) & North/South Half Quarter Mid([QQSEC],3,1) & RIGHT([QQSEC],1) East/West Half Quarter [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] & RIGHT([QQSEC],3) Quarter Quarter and Lots [STATEABBR] & [PRINMERCD] & [TWNSHPNO] & [RANGENO] & [FRSTDIVNO] & [SECDIVNO] ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25 ISPRS Int. Int. J. J. Geo-Inf. Geo-Inf. 20212021,, 1010,, x 183 FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25 24

Figure 9. PLSS attribute table opened in ArcGIS. A fieldfield calculation in step 3 of Figure4 4 is is used used to to concatenate concatenate attributeattribute Figurevalues 9.and PLSS generate attribute Unique table IDs. opened This in example ArcGIS. creates A field eastern calculation and inwestern step 3 half-qof Figureuarter 4 is sections used to byconcatenate removing attributethe first values and generate Unique IDs. This example creates eastern and western half-q half-quarteruarter sections by removing the first first character of the QQSEC fieldfield values, which are then concatenated together with other PLSS attributes to create the finalfinal characteraliquot Unique of the IDs.QQSEC See Figurefield values, 8 for Field which Calculation are then concatenated equation. together with other PLSS attributes to create the final aliquot Unique IDs. See Figure 88 forfor FieldField CalculationCalculation equation.equation.

(a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) Figure 10. (a) The NW quarter of the SE quarter (1), and the SW quarter of the SE quarter section (2) are highlighted above Figureand also 10. in (( aathe)) The The attribute NW NW quarter quarter table ofin of theFigure the SE SE quarter quarter9. Figure (1), (1), 10. and and (b the) the The SW SW two quar quarter quarter-quarterter of of the the SE SE quarter quarter sections section section are merged (2) (2) are are highlighted highlightedtogether with above above the andDissolve also intool, the see attribute attribute step 4 oftable table Figure in in Figure Figure4. (b) The99..( Figure btwo) The quarter-quarter 10. two (b) quarter-quarter The two sections quarter-quarter sections are merg are sectionsed mergedtogether are together withmerged the withtogetherDissolve the Dissolvewithtool, thesee Dissolvesteptool, 4 see of steptool,Figure 4see of 4. Figurestep (c) For4 4of.( each Figureb) Thesection, 4. two (b) quarter-quarter8The eastern/western two quarter-quarter sections half quarter aresections merged se ctionsare togethermerg areed created. withtogether the This Dissolvewith is justthe Dissolveone tool, example see steptool, of 4see of a step 4 of Figure 4. (c) For each section, 8 eastern/western half quarter sections are created. This is just one example of a typicalFigure4 land.( c) Fordescription. each section, See Table 8 eastern/western 1 for other aliquot half quarter combinations. sections are created. This is just one example of a typical land typical land description. See Table 1 for other aliquot combinations. description. See Table1 for other aliquot combinations. For large reservations like Standing Rock, the master aliquot step requires a signifi- For large reservations like Standing Rock, the master aliquot step requires a significant amountFor large of reservations computational like Standingtime simply Rock, because the master of the aliquot large number step requires of parcels a significant gener- cant amount of computational time simply because of the large number of parcels gener- atedamount in the of computationalmaster aliquot timefile. simplyFor example, because when of the generating large number half ofsections, parcels the generated GIS soft- in ated in the master aliquot file. For example, when generating half sections, the GIS soft- warethe master creates aliquot 4 new file. spatial For example, features whenfor each generating section, halfeach sections, representing the GIS the software four possible creates ware creates 4 new spatial features for each section, each representing the four possible half4 new sections spatial (northern, features for southern, each section, eastern, each and representing western halves). the four When possible generating half sections half- half sections (northern, southern, eastern, and western halves). When generating half- quarter(northern, sections, southern, the eastern,software and produces western 16 halves). new spatial When generatingfeatures for half-quarter each section. sections, And, quarter sections, the software produces 16 new spatial features for each section. And, whenthe software generating produces half quarter-quarter 16 new spatial featuressections for, the each software section. produces And, when 64 new generating spatial halffea- when generating half quarter-quarter sections, the software produces 64 new spatial fea- turesquarter-quarter for each section. sections, The the Standing software Rock produces reservation 64 new encompasses spatial features approximately for each section. 150 tures for each section. The Standing Rock reservation encompasses approximately 150 townships,The Standing or Rocknearly reservation 5400 sections, encompasses which ma approximatelykes generating 150 the townships, master aliquot or nearly a highly 5400 townships, or nearly 5400 sections, which makes generating the master aliquot a highly intensivesections, whichcomputer makes process generating for larger the reservations. master aliquot a highly intensive computer process intensivefor larger computer reservations. process for larger reservations. 2.2.2. Create the Allotment Parcel Database 2.2.2.2.2.2. Create Create the the Allotment Allotment Parcel Parcel Database There currently are two primary ways to create an allotment parcel database. The ThereThere currently are two primary ways to create an allotmentallotment parcelparcel database.database. The first is to manually transcribe the handwritten allotment entries from the allotment ledger firstfirst is is to to manually manually transcribe transcribe the the handwritten handwritten allotment allotment entries from the allotment ledger book for a reservation—either the allotment register or the allotment tract book can be bookbook for for a reservation—either the the allotment re registergister or or the allotment tract book can be used. The entries can be transcribed into Excel or any other spreadsheet or database that used.used. The The entries entries can can be be transcribed transcribed into into Exce Excell or any other spreadsheet or database that can be ingested into the GIS. It is important to record and store the information from the cancan be be ingested ingested into into the the GIS. GIS. It It is important to record and store the information from the ledger books in the same schema used for the PLSS data, such as three-digit numbers for ledgerledger books books in in the the same same schema schema used used for for th thee PLSS data, such as three-digit numbers for townships and ranges, and two-digit numbers for sections, government lots, and meridian townshipstownships and and ranges, ranges, and and two-digit two-digit numbers numbers fo forr sections, sections, government government lots, and meridian meridian codes. Aliquot descriptions in the allotment spreadsheets also must be standardized to codes.codes. Aliquot Aliquot descriptions descriptions in in the the allotment allotment spreadsheets spreadsheets also also must be standardized to match the PLSS nomenclature, such as SENW for the “southeast quarter of the northwest matchmatch the the PLSS PLSS nomenclature, nomenclature, such as SENW for the “southeast quarter of the northwest quarter section.” The transcription process is laborious; depending on the size of the res- quarter section.” section.” The The transcription transcription process process is islaborious; laborious; depending depending on the on thesize sizeof the of res- the ervation and the number of allotments, hundreds of hours of labor may be required. Since ervationreservation and and the number the number of allotments, of allotments, hundre hundredsds of hours of hours of labor of labormay be may required. be required. Since the total number of data cells for a reservation’s allotment database may reach into the the total number of data cells for a reservation’s allotment database may reach into the

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Since the total number of data cells for a reservation’s allotment database may reach into the tens of thousands, the possibility of inadvertent errors in transcription, especially errors intens transcribing of thousands, the the PLSS possibility information, of inadverten is significant.t errors Somein transcription, errors can especially be detected errors rather easilyin transcribing by cross the checking, PLSS information, while others is maysignificant. require Some an iterative errors can process be detected of mapping rather and correction.easily by cross checking, while others may require an iterative process of mapping and correction.The second method of creating a database of allotment parcels is to download all the allotmentThe second data for method a reservation of creating from a thedatabase GLO website,of allotment which parcels is the ismethod to download used byall the Dippel etallotment al. [29–31 data]. This for a method reservation has from the significant the GLO website, advantages which of is already the method having used been by Dip- checked forpel accuracyet al. [29–31]. and being This inmethod the appropriate has the significant format for advantages matching withof already the PLSS having database. been The GLOchecked allotment for accuracy data haveand being three in limitations, the appropriate however. format The for first matching is that identifyingwith the PLSS all the allotmentdatabase. The parcels GLO for allotment a given reservationdata have three is not limitations, always a straightforwardhowever. The first process. is that Althoughiden- thetifying GLO all land the parcelallotment online parcels database for a hasgiven fields reservation that can is be not useful always for identifyinga straightforward allotment parcels,process. suchAlthough as “Indian the GLO Allotment” land parcel and online “Tribe,” database these fields has fields are sometimes that can be left useful blank for or use aidentifying variety of termsallotment rather parcels, than asuch single, as “India uniformn Allotment” one. This means and “Tribe,” that it often these is fields necessary are to usesometimes a variety left of blank search or terms use a tovariety obtain of a terms complete rather dataset than ofa single, allotments uniform for aone. reservation. This Themeans second that it limitationoften is necessary of the GLOto use databasea variety of is search that, asterms noted to obtain earlier, a complete it does not dataset contain allof allotments the attribute for informationa reservation. for The allottees second limi containedtation of in the the GLO ledger database books, is e.g.,that, age,as noted marital status,earlier, sex,it does and not family contain relationship, all the attribute making information it inadequate for allottees for performing contained numerousin the ledger kinds ofbooks, spatial e.g., analysis age, marital such asstatus, examining sex, and the family spatial relationship, pattern of allotmentsmaking it inadequate within families for per- or the relationshipforming numerous between kinds allotments of spatial of analysis husbands su andch as wives examining or the the distribution spatial pattern of allotments of allot- for adultments women, within families to give justor the a few relationship examples. between The third allotments limitation of ofhusbands the BLM/GLO and wives database or isthe that distribution it only represents of allotments those for tribal adult members women, who to receivedgive just patentsa few examples. for their allotments.The third In thelimitation case of of Standing the BLM/GLO Rock, thisdatabase represents is that nearlyit only 99%represents of allottees, those tribal but this members number who varies fromreceived reservation patents for to reservation.their allotments. In the case of Standing Rock, this represents nearly 99% Asof allottees, described but above, this number allotment varies information from reservation for the to Standingreservation. Rock reservation was photographedAs described and above, transcribed allotment from informatio the allotmentn for the registers Standing available Rock reservation at the Kansas was City photographed and transcribed from the allotment registers available at the Kansas City branch of the National Archives (Figure 11). These allotment registers contain information branch of the National Archives (Figure 11). These allotment registers contain information for the majority of Standing Rock allottees up until about 1910–11, a total of 4026 allotment for the majority of Standing Rock allottees up until about 1910–11, a total of 4026 allotment recipients. However, allotments continued to be distributed up until allotment was ended in recipients. However, allotments continued to be distributed up until allotment was ended 1934. The remaining Standing Rock allottee information was obtained from the BLM/GLO in 1934. The remaining Standing Rock allottee information was obtained from the website by querying the GLO Web Services for the unaccounted-for allottees between BLM/GLO website by querying the GLO Web Services for the unaccounted-for allottees numbers 4027 to 4726. A total of nearly 700 additional Standing Rock allottees were between numbers 4027 to 4726. A total of nearly 700 additional Standing Rock allottees recordedwere recorded between between the end the ofend the of ledgerthe ledger books books and and the the end end of theof the allotment allotment period period in in 1934. These1934. These 700 extra 700 extra allottees allottees received received an additionalan additional 1095 1095 parcels parcels which which were were addedadded to the parcelsthe parcels from from the allotmentthe allotment register register to create to create a complete a complete dataset dataset of the of originalthe original allotments allot- at Standingments at Standing Rock. Rock.

FigureFigure 11. SampleSample image image from from the the allotm allotmentent ledger ledger books, books, available available from fromthe National the National Archives. Archives. NoteNote the variety of of land land descriptions descriptions in in the the middl middlee column: column: one one full full section, section, one onehalf-section, half-section, three three quarter-sections, two quarter-quarter-sections, and two lots. quarter-sections, two quarter-quarter-sections, and two lots.

2.2.3.2.2.3. Merge Matching Matching Parcel Parcel IDs IDs in in the the Two Two Databases Databases to toCreate Create the the Allotment Allotment Spatial SpatialDatabase Database The final ﬁnal step step in in creating creating the the allotment allotment mapping mapping tool tool is to is use to use a table a table join join to match to match eacheach spreadsheet allotment allotment record’s record’s unique unique ID ID to toa correct a correct parcel parcel in the in the“master “master aliquot.” aliquot.” EachEach allotmentallotment record in thethe spreadsheetspreadsheet has a unique ID that perfectly matches one of the parcelsthe parcels contained contained inthe in the “master “master aliquot.” aliquot.” Only Only matching matching records records are are kept kept during during the thejoin,

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 15 of 24

leaving only those parcels that are Indian allotments. In addition to automatically extracting the shapes of each parcel from the master aliquot, this join also adds the attribute data from the allotment spreadsheet, allowing for further analysis of the social demographic attribute data recorded in the allotment ledger books.

2.2.4. Map the Few Remaining Non-Standard Parcels A validation process is performed after the initial allotment mapping tool is completed to determine which parcels in the spreadsheet were not mapped. This validation process, using a reverse join, matches the output of the allotment mapping tool back to the original spreadsheet, while keeping all unmatched records. This type of join will generate “Null” values for any unmatched records, and those records are then isolated and extracted. This creates a list of all allotment parcels that the tool could not map, and it can be then checked for transcription errors and other potential reasons why the tool failed. After running the allotment parcel-mapping tool, there invariably will be a few parcels that remain unmapped. These consist of “micro-level” aliquots that are smaller than, or different from, the parcels in the master aliquot ﬁle, and non-standard parcels whose boundaries are expressed in metes-and-bounds descriptions rather than as aliquot subdivisions and thus cannot be mapped by the mapping tool. These problems are resolved using two different methods: (1) creating “micro” aliquot databases for remaining unmapped small aliquots and merging them into the allotment database and (2) manually digitizing the few remaining allotments that could not be mapped using the tool.

3. Results The allotment mapping tool, using only the quarter-quarter section PLSS building- blocks, produced 12,953 mapped parcels, or 97.2% of total allotment parcels (13,324) (Table3) . After performing a validation check (see Section 2.2.4), the mapping tool produced a report of unmapped records from the original spreadsheet. At Standing Rock, only 371 parcels from the allotment ledger books could not be mapped by the tool at the quarter-quarter level. As noted above, these consisted of aliquots smaller than those in the master aliquot database or parcels expressed in non-aliquot terms, for example “the north 10 chains of Lot 4,” or “From center of section 24, hence west 5 chains; 8 chains to river; southeast along river to line between SE4 of SW4; North to place of beginning.” (One chain = 66 feet in the U.S. survey system.) Of the 371 remaining unmapped parcels, 251 were aliquot parcels but were smaller than the smallest parcel size in the master aliquot file and therefore required a modified PLSS building block to map. The quartering tool was used to split the sections containing unmapped parcels into quarter-quarter-quarter sections (10-acre aliquots) and quarter- quarter-quarter-quarter sections (2.5-acre aliquots). Rather than doing this for the entire reservation area, only the specific section for each of the unmapped parcels was used by the quartering tool as a way to decrease unnecessary processing and therefore the time needed to generate these few, small-sized parcels. A second pass of the tool was then performed on these “micro” aliquots and they were added to the allotment map. This brought the total of successfully auto-mapped parcels to 13,204 or 99.1% (Table3). The remaining 120 parcels could not be drawn by the tool because they contain non- standard land descriptions, as noted above. Ordinarily, all these parcels would need to be measured and drawn manually; however, at Standing Rock the majority of these parcels fortunately already exist in the PLSS data as newly renamed government lots. The GLO plat maps of Sioux County, North Dakota and Corson County, South Dakota (which comprise the Standing Rock Reservation) were used to verify these locations as well as extract the new PLSS government lot number. These were then merged with the allotment database, resulting in a final successful mapping rate of 99.7% using automated methods (Table3). Only around two dozen of the last 120 parcels remained unmapped after this process, and they were manually digitized and merged with the allotment database. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 16 of 24

Table 3. Results of allotment mapping tool at Standing Rock. The vast majority of parcels can be ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25 mapped using only the quarter-quarter sections and government lots available in the PLSS Intersected

data set. A modified quarter-quarter-quarter-quarter section file was generated on a second-pass of the tool to create the remaining small-area parcels. Manual digitization was only needed on less than 1 percent of the allotmentsTable 3. onResults the reservation.of allotment mapping tool at Standing Rock. The vast majority of parcels can be mapped using only the quarter-quarter sections and government lots available in the PLSS Inter- Mapping Methodsected data set. A modified # of Parcels quarter-quarter-quar Mappedter-quarter section % offile Total was generated on a second-pass of the tool to create the remaining small-area parcels. Manual digitization was only Quarter-quarterneeded PLSS on less than 1 percent of 12,953 the allotments on the reservation. 97.22 Modified QQQQ PLSS 251 1.88 Mapping Method # of Parcels Mapped % of Total Manual methodsQuarter-quarter PLSS 120 12,953 0.90 97.22 Total ParcelsModified QQQQ PLSS 13,324 251 100.00 1.88 Manual methods 120 0.90 Total Parcels 13,324 100.00 In addition to successfully mapping nearly 100% of the allotment parcels at Standing Rock, the automated mapping tool created an allotment map with an unprecedented level In addition to successfully mapping nearly 100% of the allotment parcels at Standing of detail by mappingRock, even the automated the smallest mapping aliquot tool parcels created (Figurean allotment 12a,b). map In with their an landmarkunprecedented level studies, Dippel etof al. detail claimed by mapping the ability even to mapthe smallest 97.7% of aliq alluot allotments parcels (Figure at the quarter-section12a,b). In their landmark level of the PLSS [studies,29]. It mustDippel be et remembered, al. claimed the however, ability to that map their 97.7% approach of all allotments only mapped at the quarter- parcels at the quarter-sectionsection level of (160-acre) the PLSS level,[29]. It and must did be soremembered, by assigning however, parcels that smaller their approach than only that size to the quartermapped section parcels in at which the quarter-section they lie (Figure (160-acr 12a).e) The level, new and allotment did so by mapping assigning parcels tool easily generatessmaller these than smaller that size sizedto the allotmentquarter section parcels, in which achieving they lie a(Figure near-complete 12a). The new allot- dataset of allotmentment for mapping a reservation tool easily in a matter generates of hours. these smaller By using sized 160-acre allotment parcels parcels, as base achieving a units, Dippel et al.near-complete overestimated dataset the sizeof allotment of all allotments for a reservation under in 160-acres, a matter of and hours. failed By to using 160- produce spatial featuresacre parcels for aas large base numberunits, Dippel of smaller et al. over allotmentsestimated that the size were of availableall allotments from under 160- the BLM GLO database.acres, and The failed new to allotment produce spatial mapping features tool hasfor a an large advantage number of over smaller these allotments and that were available from the BLM GLO database. The new allotment mapping tool has an ad- other techniques because it accurately maps allotment parcels down to the finest aliquot, vantage over these and other techniques because it accurately maps allotment parcels while automatingdown the most to the time-consuming finest aliquot, while aspects. automating the most time-consuming aspects.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. (a) Pine Ridge reservation allotment parcels adapted from Dippel et al. [29–31]. (b) The same area at Pine Ridge mapped using the new allotment mapping tool described in this study, random color scheme assigned by GIS software. Figure 12. (a) Pine Ridge reservation allotment parcels adapted from Dippel et al. [29–31]. (b) The The spatial distributionssame area at Pine of Ridge allotments mapped at using Standing the new Rock allotment displayed mapping in tool the described preliminary in this study, maps reveal severalrandom interesting color scheme patterns. assigned Based by GIS onsoftware. previous studies of allotment, it was expected that the allotments at Standing Rock would roughly align with the spatial distribution of rivers and streamsThe spatial and distributions their associated of allotments woodlands, at Standing and theRock map displayed of allotments in the preliminary conﬁrmed that thismaps was reveal the case several (Figure interesting 13). In patterns. addition Based to streams on previous and rivers, studies lands of allotment, near it was existing and proposedexpected railroad that the lines allotments were also at Standing heavily Rock allotted, would implying roughly thatalign connectivity, with the spatial distribution of rivers and streams and their associated woodlands, and the map of allotments mobility, and proximity to resources that the railway would provide were important to at confirmed that this was the case (Figure 13). In addition to streams and rivers, lands near least some individuals when selecting their allotments.

ISPRSISPRSISPRS Int. J. Int.Int. Geo-Inf. J.J. Geo-Inf.Geo-Inf. 20212021 ,2021 10, ,x,10 10FOR,, 183x FORPEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 17 of17 1725 of of 24 25

FigureFigureFigure 13. The 13.13. TheTheoverall overalloverall allotment allotmentallotment pattern patternpattern at the atat theStandingthe StandingStanding Rock RockRock reservation. reservation.reservation.

TheThe Thespatial spatialspatial pattern patternpattern of allotments ofof allotmentsallotments also alsoalso clos closelyelyclos matchesely matchesmatches previously previouslypreviously generated generatedgenerated “surplus “surplus“surplus land”land”land” maps mapsmaps that thatthat were werewere created createdcreated in 1911 inin 19111911 and and and1925 19251925 by the byby theOfficethe OfﬁceOffice of Indian of of Indian Indian Affairs Affairs Affairs (renamed (renamed (renamed the theBureauthe BureauBureau of Indian ofof IndianIndian Affairs, Affairs,Affairs, BIA, BIA,BIA, in 1947) inin 1947)1947) to aid toto aid non-Indianaid non-Indiannon-Indian settlers settlerssettlers in choosing inin choosingchoosing available available available parcelsparcelsparcels on the onon the newlythe newlynewly opened openedopened reservation reservationreservation (Figur (Figure(Figure 14a–c).e 14 14a–c).a–c). Despite DespiteDespite Sutton’s Sutton’sSutton’s observation observationobservation that thatthat IndianIndianIndian land landland maps mapsmaps can can canbe unreliable bebe unreliableunreliable since sincesince they theyth areey areareupdated updatedupdated and and andmodified modiﬁedmodified so often, soso often,often, the thethe surplussurplussurplus land landland maps maps maps and and andthe the allotmentthe allotment allotment data data data line line lineup up quiteup quite quite well well well after after after overlaying overlaying overlaying them them withwith with the the newlynewlythe newly createdcreated created allotmentallotment allotment features.features. features.

(a) (a)

Figure 14. Cont.

ISPRSISPRS Int. J. Int. Geo-Inf. J. Geo-Inf. 20212021, 10, ,x10 FOR, 183 PEER REVIEW 18 of18 25 of 24

(b)

(c)

FigureFigure 14. ( 14.a) 1909(a) 1909 map map of surplus of surplus reservation reservation lands lands available available for sale for saleto non-tribal to non-tribal members members after after allotmentallotment (pink) (pink) versus versus lands lands set aside set aside for the for thetribe tribe (yellow). (yellow). (South (South Dakota Dakota State State Historical Historical Society Society DigitalDigital Archives: Archives: 2019-09-25-0004). 2019-09-25-0004). (b) Allotments (b) Allotments (green) (green) overlaid overlaid on the onmap, the confirming map, confirming that the that majority of land allotted on the reservation lies within the designated yellow area. (c)1920 map the majority of land allotted on the reservation lies within the designated yellow area. (c)1920 map showing remaining surplus lands after allotment. Dark grey areas are allotments outside of the showing remaining surplus lands after allotment. Dark grey areas are allotments outside of the previously designated areas to the east. These areas match green areas in Figure 14b. (South Da- kotapreviously State Historical designated Society areas Digital to the Archives: east. These 2019-09-25-0006). areas match green areas in Figure 14b. (South Dakota State Historical Society Digital Archives: 2019-09-25-0006). Since allotments were made sequentially by allotment number, it also is possible to Since allotments were made sequentially by allotment number, it also is possible to examine the temporal patterns of allotment based solely on the allotment numbers and a examine the temporal patterns of allotment based solely on the allotment numbers and knowledge of the allotment process at Standing Rock (Figure 15). One major temporal a knowledge of the allotment process at Standing Rock (Figure 15). One major temporal pattern shows that the special allotting agent began allotting parcels in the far southeast pattern shows that the special allotting agent began allotting parcels in the far southeast corner of the reservation first and worked methodically across the reservation in tiers, corner of the reservation first and worked methodically across the reservation in tiers, with with later allotments further west and north. later allotments further west and north. A second spatio-temporal pattern focuses on the relative locations of allotments between two groups of allottees. In practice, there were two waves of allotment at Standing Rock. The first wave began in 1906 and was completed with individual allottee number 2495, sometime in 1908 or 1909. These allotments were made to all those who were authorized to receive allotments under the initial enabling act. However, as noted earlier, in 1906 the married women of Standing Rock and other Sioux reservations petitioned for their own allotments, separate from their husbands, which they later received during a second wave of allotment [33]. In addition, children born during the initial wave of allotments were also awarded allotments during this later period. The spatial patterns in Figure 14 illustrate this complex process. Since the majority of allotments in the first wave were located in the eastern part of the reservation, there were relatively few remaining

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 19 of 24

parcels in that region, meaning that many of the married women and unallotted children of the second wave were forced to select lands further to the west. This pattern is visible in Figure 15. Although a few of the second-wave allottees (allotment numbers 2496 through ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25 4726) were able to select scattered parcels in the east (and presumably closer to parcels selected by their husbands or other allotted family members), the vast majority of these lands were located to the west of those in the ﬁrst wave.

Figure 15. Categorized allotment data based on allotment number. The pattern illustrates the Figure 15. Categorized allotment data based on allotment number. The pattern illustrates the tem- temporal progress of allotment across the reservation as it spreads from the southeast corner. poral progress of allotment across the reservation as it spreads from the southeast corner. 4. Discussion 4.1.A second Significance spatio-temporal of this Research—A pattern Tool focuses to Extend on the Tribal relative Sovereignty locations of allotments between two groups of allottees. In practice, there were two waves of allotment at Standing Access to accurate data has been and continues to be of paramount importance for Rock. The first wave began in 1906 and was completed with individual allottee number American Indians. The work to understand individual Indian’s land ownership and 2495, sometime in 1908 or 1909. These allotments were made to all those who were au- property rights and thus the residual effects stemming from allotment land is a complex thorized to receive allotments under the initial enabling act. However, as noted earlier, in undertaking and access to data is key. This GIS tool opens up the possibility for each 1906 the married women of Standing Rock and other Sioux reservations petitioned for tribe to map its historical allotments, at least where the data are available. The BLM/GLO their own allotments, separate from their husbands, which they later received during a has near-complete allotment data for 124 out of 326 current federally recognized Indian second wave of allotment [33]. In addition, children born during the initial wave of allot- reservations, and it also has a significant amount of uncategorized allotment data, where mentstribal were affiliation also awarded or allotment allotments number during was th notis recorded.later period. The spatial patterns in Fig- ure 14 illustrateData sovereignty, this complex or the process. control ofSince data the that majority helps individual of allotments Indians in the understand first wave these wererights, located is a in burgeoning the eastern topic part regardingof the rese tribalrvation, lands there and were was relatively a central tenet few remaining of the largest parcelsclass in action that region, lawsuit meaning filed and that successfully many of decided the married in favor women of individual and unallotted Indians. children In Cobell v. of theSalazar second(2009), wave Eloise were Cobell, forced a memberto select oflands the Blackfeetfurther to Nation the west. in northern This pattern Montana is visible brought in Figurea class action15. Although lawsuit a against few of the the Department second-wave of Interiorallottees (DOI) (allotment representing numbers individual 2496 throughIndian 4726) land were owners. able Cobell to select asked scattered the DOI pa forrcels an in accurate the east accounting (and presumably of individual closer Indian to parcelsmoneys selected generated by their by leasinghusbands and or extraction other allotted of resources family suchmembers), as gas andthe vast oil from majority individual of theseallotment lands were lands, located but the to DOIthe we wasst of unable thoseto inproduce the first anwave. accurate accounting of nearly 130 years of residuals and the case was settled at $3.4 billion. In the process of the lawsuit, the 4. Discussionflaws of allotment, i.e., fractionation and the deficiencies in the trust relationship, further 4.1.came Significance to light. of thisCobell Research—A v. Salazar illustratesTool to Extend the Tribal need forSovereignty tribes to be able to be transparent stewardsAccess to of accurate their own data land has data been and and records continues and not to rely be of solely paramount on the federal importance government for Americanfor this Indians. information. The work Work to is understand already underway individual to map Indian’s the available land ownership BLM/GLO and allotment prop- ertyrecords rights andand makethus the dataresidual available effects to st theemming tribes. Organizationsfrom allotment such land as is Indian a complex Land Tenureun- dertakingFoundation, and access Village to Earth,data is Indian key. This Agriculture GIS tool Council,opens up Native the possibility American for Agriculture each tribe Fund,to mapand its ahistorical handful allotments, of interested at parties least where are working the data with are available. tribes and The other BLM/GLO agencies has to make near- this completea reality. allotment This tool data can for be a124 significant out of 326 building current block federally for achieving recognized those Indian goals. reservations, and it also has a significant amount of uncategorized allotment data, where tribal affiliation or allotment number was not recorded. Data sovereignty, or the control of data that helps individual Indians understand these rights, is a burgeoning topic regarding tribal lands and was a central tenet of the largest class action lawsuit filed and successfully decided in favor of individual Indians. In Cobell v. Salazar (2009), Eloise Cobell, a member of the Blackfeet Nation in northern Montana brought a class action lawsuit against the Department of Interior (DOI) representing individual Indian land owners. Cobell asked the DOI for an accurate accounting

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 20 of 24

4.2. Potential Improvements to the Mapping Tool and Its Databases The GIS methods used here to automatically generate spatial data from text-based land descriptions has room for optimization. This is an early version of the tool that was created to verify that it works on multiple different reservations and, so far, it has performed as expected. However, large reservations are difficult to map without splitting up the reservation into smaller units for processing. The creation of the master aliquot data file is arguably the most computationally intensive process and has the most potential for improvement. Generating millions of parcels only to select a few and delete the rest seems wasteful. On the Standing Rock reservation, most of the smallest parcels that required the most computation time were grouped together in only a select number of sections. Isolating these sections for separate processing decreased the time needed to generate these smaller aliquots, but there are potentially other ways to speed up processing time. In addition, future versions of the tool will be modified to run in ArcGIS Pro. ArcGIS Pro is a 64-bit software, while ArcMap is 32-bit, which should speed up the mapping processes significantly. It also is anticipated that future versions will be ported to R and Python for those not using ESRI software products. It was noted earlier that each of the two major sources of allotment data (archival ledgers and the BLM/GLO database) has its strengths and weaknesses. Although the BLM/GLO online datasets offer the clear advantages of being accurate and ready to ingest into the tool, they lack important attribute information that is critical for certain types of spatial analysis. One solution to the problems associated with each of the methods of creating a database of allotment parcels is to begin by downloading the digital allotment data from the BLM/GLO website and then filling in its missing fields (age, marital status, etc.) with information found in the archival allotment ledgers. This could be further added to, if desired, by entering information found on land patents, leasing records, Indian censuses, and others. This method would have the advantage of beginning with a spatial database of parcels that already is correct and complete (or nearly so) and augmenting it with attribute data fields that are necessary for performing spatial analyses of the type needed for more fully understanding the impacts of allotment.

4.3. Future Avenues of Research at Standing Rock There is still much work to be done to fully understand how the process of allotment played out at the Standing Rock Reservation. Now that spatio-demographic data are available for the reservation, further analysis of the policy, practices, and patterns of allotment at the reservation can be performed. For example, since transportation and connectivity seemed to be important in the preliminary analysis of the allotment map, it would be interesting to add known wagon trails, dirt roads, and highways to the transportation layer. GIS could be used to calculate the distance from each allotment to existing roads, rivers, and railways, and then test these measures for statistical signiﬁcance. Pre-allotment settlement patterns were discussed by Indian agents at Standing Rock in their annual reports, which conﬁrmed that the reservation was largely settled prior to the allotment era, with families self-allotting on personal plots of land. One spatial pattern that deserves further exploration is that of family connections, as family relationships, both in the nuclear and extend family, were extremely important to tribal members. It will be recalled that the Standing Rock allotment ledgers recorded information about families and about how each allottee was related to the head of the family. This information can be mapped and analyzed to answer questions about what allotment strategies family members might have used in selecting allotments? Did they select allotments that were adjacent to each other where possible, or did they put primary emphasis on selecting the best available lands (e.g., those with access to water), perhaps resulting in more dispersed patterns? Preliminary exploration at Standing Rock appears to indicate that allotments of related family members exhibited a wide variety of patterns (Figure 16). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 25

Pre-allotment settlement patterns were discussed by Indian agents at Standing Rock in their annual reports, which confirmed that the reservation was largely settled prior to the allotment era, with families self-allotting on personal plots of land. One spatial pattern that deserves further exploration is that of family connections, as family relationships, both in the nuclear and extend family, were extremely important to tribal members. It will be recalled that the Standing Rock allotment ledgers recorded information about families and about how each allottee was related to the head of the family. This information can be mapped and analyzed to answer questions about what allotment strategies family members might have used in selecting allotments? Did they select allotments that were adjacent to each other where possible, or did they put primary emphasis on selecting the ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 best available lands (e.g., those with access to water), perhaps resulting in more dispersed21 of 24 patterns? Preliminary exploration at Standing Rock appears to indicate that allotments of related family members exhibited a wide variety of patterns (Figure 16).

FigureFigure 16. 16. SpatialSpatial patterns patterns of three of three different different Standing Standing Rock Rock families families in purple, in purple, blue blueand andred. red.The The circlescircles are are Standard Standard Distances, Distances, or ora measure a measure of ofdispersion dispersion around around a geometric a geometric mean mean center center of ofthese these family allotments. Some families received allotments in clusters, in blue and purple, and other family allotments. Some families received allotments in clusters, in blue and purple, and other families were widely dispersed, in red. families were widely dispersed, in red.

A Arelated related question question focuses focuses on on group group settlem settlementent patterns patterns within within the the reservation. reservation. As As withwith several several reservations, reservations, multiple multiple groups groups were were settled settled on on the the Standing Standing Rock Rock reservation. reservation. TheThe four four different different Lakota Lakota and and Dakota Dakota bands livingliving atat StandingStanding Rock Rock by by the the time time of of allotment allot- mentwere were the Hunkpapa,the Hunkpapa, Sihasapa Sihasapa (Blackfeet), (Blackfeet Lower), Lower Yanktonai, Yanktonai, and Upperand Upper Yanktonai. Yanktonai. Indian Indianagents agents noted noted that they that settled they settled separately separately in rough inspatial rough groups,spatial whichgroups, would which align would with alignsimilar with clan similar or tribal clan settlementor tribal settlement patterns foundpatterns on found the Cheyenne, on the Cheyenne, Pawnee, NezPawnee, Perce, Nez and Perce,other and reservations. other reservations. It would beIt possiblewould be to possible map allotments to map byallotments band affiliation by band by affiliation combining byallotment combining data allotment with information data with information found in several found ofin several the annual of the Indian annual censuses Indian cen- taken susesbythe taken Office by the of IndianOffice of Affairs Indian that Affairs contain that band contain affiliation band affiliation information information for the Standing for the StandingRock reservation. Rock reservation. Each of Each the four of the Lakota/Dakota four Lakota/Dakota bands on bands the reservation on the reservation was surveyed was surveyedseparately separately for a number for a number of different of different years in years the latein the 1890s. late 1890s. In addition, In addition, some some Indian Indiancensuses censuses in the in 1920s the 1920s and 1930sand 1930s also also recorded recorded allotment allotment and and annuity annuity numbers numbers for for each eachtribal tribal member. member. Names Names from from these these Indian Indian censuses censuses could could be used be used to crosscheck to crosscheck and update and updateeach allottee’seach allottee’s tribal tribal affiliation affiliation in the in GIS the data. GIS data. Ultimately,Ultimately, the the story story of ofallotment allotment is isone one of of land land dispossession, dispossession, as as million million acres acres of of tribaltribal land land were were lost lost as asa result a result of this of this failed failed assimilation assimilation policy. policy. A question A question remains remains as to as howto howmany many acres acres of land of land were were allotted allotted at St atanding Standing Rock Rock to totribal tribal members, members, how how many many acresacres were were sold sold as assurplus, surplus, and and how how much much Indian Indian and and tribally tribally owned owned land land is isleft left today? today? QuantifyingQuantifying and and visualizing visualizing the the dispossession dispossession of ofIndian Indian lands lands is iscore core to to understanding understanding the scope of how the Dawes Act affected and affects reservation life. County atlases and modern land tax parcels can be used in conjunction with the digital allotment database to update the status of the original allotments—to determine if they have been sold or leased to non-tribal members, purchased by the tribe, or remain in trust status.

4.4. A Framework for Future Research on the Spatio-Temporal Impacts of Allotment Each Indian reservation had the Dawes Act applied to it differently, resulting in a variety of different outcomes that need to be explored. However, the process of mapping allotment data and the ability to spatially analyze the data in GIS has been proven to be fundamental to the future of allotment research. The subject of the impacts of Indian land allotment policy is largely a spatial issue, and geographic information systems provide a framework, methodologies, and toolsets to answer many of the remaining questions about allotment. Toward that end, seven broad categories of questions initially suggest themselves for GIS mapping, visualization, and analysis: ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 22 of 24

1. Overprinting. When allotment came to a reservation, it was almost always the case that its Native residents already had long resided there, in some cases for decades or longer, and had established well-defined patterns of residency and land use. Thus, allotment’s rectangular grid survey system was overlaid on top of the existing pattern of land tenure, a process sometimes referred to as overprinting, resulting in potential disruption and conflicts. How do mapped patterns of allotment represent the impacts of overprinting and of efforts by both allotting agents and allotment recipients to resolve them? 2. Environmental factors. Each reservation was characterized by a unique combination of physical environmental factors, including climate, vegetation, soils, wild game and other animals, hydrology, and others that varied in quality and quantity across the reservation. When allottees (or sometimes the allotting agent) made land selections, what factors were considered most desirable or, conversely, least desirable? 3. Social factors. As noted above, prior to allotment Native people were often long settled on their reservations according to well-established patterns of social relationships and residency. In making allotment selections, did people maintain those patterns by selecting allotments close to other family members, friends, or clan groups? Or, conversely, did they avoid certain groups? 4. Economic factors. Did allotment recipients favor locations that gave them access to towns or trading centers or to transportation routes such as rivers, trails or roads, and prospective or existing railroad lines? Likewise, did they select allotments near to agency or subagency locations, or to existing or planned schools and churches? 5. Impacts of local allotment policies. Although Congress set broad guidelines for allotting each reservation, the local special allotting agent had considerable leeway in setting detailed on-the-ground policies for allotments. How did those policies reveal themselves in observed patterns of allotment? For example, were allottees encouraged, or perhaps forced, to take their allotment as a single parcel or could they select multiple parcels and, if so, how many and of what sizes, and where? How were conflicts over desired allotment parcels settled among contending allottees? And what was done in the case of individuals who refused to accept allotments? 6. Post-allotment policy changes. After allotment, and even while it was still ongoing, the defects of allotment became glaringly apparent. Numerous, sometimes bewilder- ing, policies regarding inheritance, land leasing, land sales, and fraud prevention, among others, were implemented, modified, and then modified again in vain attempts to prevent loss of land and to shore up the original goals of turning American Indians into successful farmers and ranchers. How did these various policies impact land holding (or land loss), land management, and even patterns of living? 7. Long-term broad impacts. How can the impacts of fractionation, checkerboarding, land loss, widespread land leasing to non-Native farmers and ranchers, and other widespread results of allotment be represented and explored in spatial datasets? This framework is merely a starting point, and we anticipate that other sets of questions will be added as our research continues. The new mapping tool described here provides a way to rapidly and accurately produce high quality spatial data of Indian allotment lands on reservations, data that are important to tribal members and future generations. It allows for the creation of this same dataset, not only for the Standing Rock reservation, but many other reservations across the United States that underwent allotment. Currently work is underway to establish partnerships with Native American and tribal non-profit organizations to continue this work and make training and data available to tribal land offices and the general tribal communities. Baseline datasets are necessary to answer a large range of questions, and this research provides that essential first step. It is difficult to ask and answer questions without available data. This allotment mapping technique will allow tribal members and researchers access to accurate spatial data for their reservation lands. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 183 23 of 24

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Joshua Jerome Meisel; data curation, Stephen L. Egbert; formal analysis, Joshua Jerome Meisel; funding acquisition, Stephen L. Egbert and Joseph P. Brewer II; investigation, Joshua Jerome Meisel; methodology, Joshua Jerome Meisel; resources, Stephen L. Egbert; visualization, Joshua Jerome Meisel; writing—original draft, Joshua Jerome Meisel, Stephen L. Egbert and Joseph P. Brewer II; writing—review and editing, Stephen L. Egbert, Joseph P. Brewer II and Xingong Li. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the Indian Land Tenure Foundation, grant numbers ILTF20151015, ILTF 20170101, and from the General Research Fund of the University of Kansas, grant number 2301149. APC was funded by Haskell Indian Nations University, NSF EPSCoR grant number OIA-1656006. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The mapping tool and sample data are available to download www. haskellgeography.com (accessed on 10 March 2021). Acknowledgments: The authors wish to acknowledge the work of Chelsea Burgess, Ximena Sevilla Benavides, and Cheyenne Sun Eagle in transcribing archival records. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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