A SIMPLE COMPUTATION of Ζ(2K) 1. Introduction in the Mathematical Literature, One Finds Many Ways of Obtaining the Formula
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3.3 Convergence Tests for Infinite Series
3.3 Convergence Tests for Infinite Series 3.3.1 The integral test We may plot the sequence an in the Cartesian plane, with independent variable n and dependent variable a: n X The sum an can then be represented geometrically as the area of a collection of rectangles with n=1 height an and width 1. This geometric viewpoint suggests that we compare this sum to an integral. If an can be represented as a continuous function of n, for real numbers n, not just integers, and if the m X sequence an is decreasing, then an looks a bit like area under the curve a = a(n). n=1 In particular, m m+2 X Z m+1 X an > an dn > an n=1 n=1 n=2 For example, let us examine the first 10 terms of the harmonic series 10 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 + + + + + + + + + : n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 1 If we draw the curve y = x (or a = n ) we see that 10 11 10 X 1 Z 11 dx X 1 X 1 1 > > = − 1 + : n x n n 11 1 1 2 1 (See Figure 1, copied from Wikipedia) Z 11 dx Now = ln(11) − ln(1) = ln(11) so 1 x 10 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 + + + + + + + + + > ln(11) n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 and 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + + + + < ln(11) + (1 − ): 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Z dx So we may bound our series, above and below, with some version of the integral : x If we allow the sum to turn into an infinite series, we turn the integral into an improper integral. -
On a Series of Goldbach and Euler Llu´Is Bibiloni, Pelegr´I Viader, and Jaume Parad´Is
On a Series of Goldbach and Euler Llu´ıs Bibiloni, Pelegr´ı Viader, and Jaume Parad´ıs 1. INTRODUCTION. Euler’s paper Variae observationes circa series infinitas [6] ought to be considered important for several reasons. It contains the first printed ver- sion of Euler’s product for the Riemann zeta-function; it definitely establishes the use of the symbol π to denote the perimeter of the circle of diameter one; and it introduces a legion of interesting infinite products and series. The first of these is Theorem 1, which Euler says was communicated to him and proved by Goldbach in a letter (now lost): 1 = 1. n − m,n≥2 m 1 (One must avoid repetitions in this sum.) We refer to this result as the “Goldbach-Euler Theorem.” Goldbach and Euler’s proof is a typical example of what some historians consider a misuse of divergent series, for it starts by assigning a “value” to the harmonic series 1/n and proceeds by manipulating it by substraction and replacement of other series until the desired result is reached. This unchecked use of divergent series to obtain valid results was a standard procedure in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. It has provoked quite a lot of criticism, correction, and, why not, praise of the audacity of the mathematicians of the time. They were led by Euler, the “Master of Us All,” as Laplace christened him. We present the original proof of the Goldbach- Euler theorem in section 2. Euler was obviously familiar with other instances of proofs that used divergent se- ries. -
Series, Cont'd
Jim Lambers MAT 169 Fall Semester 2009-10 Lecture 5 Notes These notes correspond to Section 8.2 in the text. Series, cont'd In the previous lecture, we defined the concept of an infinite series, and what it means for a series to converge to a finite sum, or to diverge. We also worked with one particular type of series, a geometric series, for which it is particularly easy to determine whether it converges, and to compute its limit when it does exist. Now, we consider other types of series and investigate their behavior. Telescoping Series Consider the series 1 X 1 1 − : n n + 1 n=1 If we write out the first few terms, we obtain 1 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 − = 1 − + − + − + − + ··· n n + 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 n=1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 + − + − + − + ··· 2 2 3 3 4 4 = 1: We see that nearly all of the fractions cancel one another, revealing the limit. This is an example of a telescoping series. It turns out that many series have this property, even though it is not immediately obvious. Example The series 1 X 1 n(n + 2) n=1 is also a telescoping series. To see this, we compute the partial fraction decomposition of each term. This decomposition has the form 1 A B = + : n(n + 2) n n + 2 1 To compute A and B, we multipy both sides by the common denominator n(n + 2) and obtain 1 = A(n + 2) + Bn: Substituting n = 0 yields A = 1=2, and substituting n = −2 yields B = −1=2. -
3.2 Introduction to Infinite Series
3.2 Introduction to Infinite Series Many of our infinite sequences, for the remainder of the course, will be defined by sums. For example, the sequence m X 1 S := : (1) m 2n n=1 is defined by a sum. Its terms (partial sums) are 1 ; 2 1 1 3 + = ; 2 4 4 1 1 1 7 + + = ; 2 4 8 8 1 1 1 1 15 + + + = ; 2 4 8 16 16 ::: These infinite sequences defined by sums are called infinite series. Review of sigma notation The Greek letter Σ used in this notation indicates that we are adding (\summing") elements of a certain pattern. (We used this notation back in Calculus 1, when we first looked at integrals.) Here our sums may be “infinite”; when this occurs, we are really looking at a limit. Resources An introduction to sequences a standard part of single variable calculus. It is covered in every calculus textbook. For example, one might look at * section 11.3 (Integral test), 11.4, (Comparison tests) , 11.5 (Ratio & Root tests), 11.6 (Alternating, abs. conv & cond. conv) in Calculus, Early Transcendentals (11th ed., 2006) by Thomas, Weir, Hass, Giordano (Pearson) * section 11.3 (Integral test), 11.4, (comparison tests), 11.5 (alternating series), 11.6, (Absolute conv, ratio and root), 11.7 (summary) in Calculus, Early Transcendentals (6th ed., 2008) by Stewart (Cengage) * sections 8.3 (Integral), 8.4 (Comparison), 8.5 (alternating), 8.6, Absolute conv, ratio and root, in Calculus, Early Transcendentals (1st ed., 2011) by Tan (Cengage) Integral tests, comparison tests, ratio & root tests. -
Euler's Calculation of the Sum of the Reciprocals of the Squares
Euler's Calculation of the Sum of the Reciprocals of the Squares Kenneth M. Monks ∗ August 5, 2019 A central theme of most second-semester calculus courses is that of infinite series. Simply put, to study infinite series is to attempt to answer the following question: What happens if you add up infinitely many numbers? How much sense humankind made of this question at different points throughout history depended enormously on what exactly those numbers being summed were. As far back as the third century bce, Greek mathematician and engineer Archimedes (287 bce{212 bce) used his method of exhaustion to carry out computations equivalent to the evaluation of an infinite geometric series in his work Quadrature of the Parabola [Archimedes, 1897]. Far more difficult than geometric series are p-series: series of the form 1 X 1 1 1 1 = 1 + + + + ··· np 2p 3p 4p n=1 for a real number p. Here we show the history of just two such series. In Section 1, we warm up with Nicole Oresme's treatment of the harmonic series, the p = 1 case.1 This will lessen the likelihood that we pull a muscle during our more intense Section 3 excursion: Euler's incredibly clever method for evaluating the p = 2 case. 1 Oresme and the Harmonic Series In roughly the year 1350 ce, a University of Paris scholar named Nicole Oresme2 (1323 ce{1382 ce) proved that the harmonic series does not sum to any finite value [Oresme, 1961]. Today, we would say the series diverges and that 1 1 1 1 + + + + ··· = 1: 2 3 4 His argument was brief and beautiful! Let us admire it below. -
Calculus Online Textbook Chapter 10
Contents CHAPTER 9 Polar Coordinates and Complex Numbers 9.1 Polar Coordinates 348 9.2 Polar Equations and Graphs 351 9.3 Slope, Length, and Area for Polar Curves 356 9.4 Complex Numbers 360 CHAPTER 10 Infinite Series 10.1 The Geometric Series 10.2 Convergence Tests: Positive Series 10.3 Convergence Tests: All Series 10.4 The Taylor Series for ex, sin x, and cos x 10.5 Power Series CHAPTER 11 Vectors and Matrices 11.1 Vectors and Dot Products 11.2 Planes and Projections 11.3 Cross Products and Determinants 11.4 Matrices and Linear Equations 11.5 Linear Algebra in Three Dimensions CHAPTER 12 Motion along a Curve 12.1 The Position Vector 446 12.2 Plane Motion: Projectiles and Cycloids 453 12.3 Tangent Vector and Normal Vector 459 12.4 Polar Coordinates and Planetary Motion 464 CHAPTER 13 Partial Derivatives 13.1 Surfaces and Level Curves 472 13.2 Partial Derivatives 475 13.3 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations 480 13.4 Directional Derivatives and Gradients 490 13.5 The Chain Rule 497 13.6 Maxima, Minima, and Saddle Points 504 13.7 Constraints and Lagrange Multipliers 514 CHAPTER Infinite Series Infinite series can be a pleasure (sometimes). They throw a beautiful light on sin x and cos x. They give famous numbers like n and e. Usually they produce totally unknown functions-which might be good. But on the painful side is the fact that an infinite series has infinitely many terms. It is not easy to know the sum of those terms. -
INFINITE SERIES SERIES and PARTIAL SUMS What If We Wanted
INFINITE SERIES SERIES AND PARTIAL SUMS What if we wanted to sum up the terms of this sequence, how many terms would I have to use? 1, 2, 3, . 10, . ? Well, we could start creating sums of a finite number of terms, called partial sums, and determine if the sequence of partial sums converge to a number. What do you think that this sequence of partial sums is converging to? It is approaching the value of 2. Therefore, we can conclude that the sum of all the terms of this sequence is 2. To discuss this topic fully, let us define some terms used in this and the following sets of supplemental notes. DEFINITION: Given a sequence of numbers {a n }, the sum of the terms of this sequence, a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + . + a n + . , is called an infinite series. DEFINITION: FACT: If the sequence of partial sums converge to a limit L, then we can say that the series converges and its sum is L. FACT: If the sequence of partial sums of the series does not converge, then the series diverges. There are many different types of series, but we going to start with series that we might of seen in Algebra. GEOMETRIC SERIES DEFINITION: FACT: FACT: If | r | 1, then the geometric series will diverge. EXAMPLE 1: Find the nth partial sum and determine if the series converges or diverges. SOLUTION: Now to calculate the sum for this series. EXAMPLE 2: Find the nth partial sum and determine if the series converges or diverges. 1 - 3 + 9 - 27 + . -
Fundamental Theorems in Mathematics
SOME FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS IN MATHEMATICS OLIVER KNILL Abstract. An expository hitchhikers guide to some theorems in mathematics. Criteria for the current list of 243 theorems are whether the result can be formulated elegantly, whether it is beautiful or useful and whether it could serve as a guide [6] without leading to panic. The order is not a ranking but ordered along a time-line when things were writ- ten down. Since [556] stated “a mathematical theorem only becomes beautiful if presented as a crown jewel within a context" we try sometimes to give some context. Of course, any such list of theorems is a matter of personal preferences, taste and limitations. The num- ber of theorems is arbitrary, the initial obvious goal was 42 but that number got eventually surpassed as it is hard to stop, once started. As a compensation, there are 42 “tweetable" theorems with included proofs. More comments on the choice of the theorems is included in an epilogue. For literature on general mathematics, see [193, 189, 29, 235, 254, 619, 412, 138], for history [217, 625, 376, 73, 46, 208, 379, 365, 690, 113, 618, 79, 259, 341], for popular, beautiful or elegant things [12, 529, 201, 182, 17, 672, 673, 44, 204, 190, 245, 446, 616, 303, 201, 2, 127, 146, 128, 502, 261, 172]. For comprehensive overviews in large parts of math- ematics, [74, 165, 166, 51, 593] or predictions on developments [47]. For reflections about mathematics in general [145, 455, 45, 306, 439, 99, 561]. Encyclopedic source examples are [188, 705, 670, 102, 192, 152, 221, 191, 111, 635]. -
Leonhard Euler - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Page 1 of 14
Leonhard Euler - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 14 Leonhard Euler From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Leonhard Euler ( German pronunciation: [l]; English Leonhard Euler approximation, "Oiler" [1] 15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made important discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function.[2] He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and astronomy. Euler spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, Prussia. He is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century, and one of the greatest of all time. He is also one of the most prolific mathematicians ever; his collected works fill 60–80 quarto volumes. [3] A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is our teacher in all things," which has also been translated as "Read Portrait by Emanuel Handmann 1756(?) Euler, read Euler, he is the master of us all." [4] Born 15 April 1707 Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10- Basel, Switzerland franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and Died Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was 18 September 1783 (aged 76) named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the [OS: 7 September 1783] Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on 24 St. Petersburg, Russia May – he was a devout Christian (and believer in Residence Prussia, Russia biblical inerrancy) who wrote apologetics and argued Switzerland [5] forcefully against the prominent atheists of his time. -
In Praise of an Elementary Identity of Euler Arxiv:1102.0659V3 [Math.CO] 12 Jun 2011
In Praise of an Elementary Identity of Euler Gaurav Bhatnagar Educomp Solutions Ltd. [email protected] June 7, 2011 Dedicated to S. B. Ekhad and D. Zeilberger Abstract We survey the applications of an elementary identity used by Euler in one of his proofs of the Pentagonal Number Theorem. Using a suitably reformulated ver- sion of this identity that we call Euler's Telescoping Lemma, we give alternate proofs of all the key summation theorems for terminating Hypergeometric Series and Basic Hypergeometric Series, including the terminating Binomial Theorem, the Chu{Vandermonde sum, the Pfaff–Saalsch¨utzsum, and their q-analogues. We also give a proof of Jackson's q-analog of Dougall's sum, the sum of a terminating, bal- anced, very-well-poised 8φ7 sum. Our proofs are conceptually the same as those obtained by the WZ method, but done without using a computer. We survey iden- tities for Generalized Hypergeometric Series given by Macdonald, and prove several identities for q-analogs of Fibonacci numbers and polynomials and Pell numbers that have appeared in combinatorial contexts. Some of these identities appear to be new. arXiv:1102.0659v3 [math.CO] 12 Jun 2011 Keywords: Telescoping, Fibonacci Numbers, Pell Numbers, Derangements, Hy- pergeometric Series, Fibonacci Polynomials, q-Fibonacci Numbers, q-Pell numbers, Basic Hypergeometric Series, q-series, Binomial Theorem, q-Binomial Theorem, Chu{Vandermonde sum, q-Chu{Vandermonde sum, Pfaff–Saalsch¨utzsum, q-Pfaff– Saalsch¨utzsum, q-Dougall summation, very-well-poised 6φ5 sum, Generalized Hy- pergeometric Series, WZ Method. MSC2010: Primary 33D15; Secondary 11B39, 33C20, 33F10, 33D65 1 1 Introduction One of the first results in q-series is Euler's 1740 expansion of the product (1 − q)(1 − q2)(1 − q3)(1 − q4) ··· into a power series in q. -
MATH 341: TAKEAWAYS We Used a Variety of Results and Techniques from 103 and 104: (1) Standard Integration Theory: for Us, the M
MATH 341: TAKEAWAYS STEVEN J. MILLER ABSTRACT. Below we summarize some items to take away from the class (as well as previous classes!). In particular, what are one time tricks and methods, and what are general techniques to solve a variety of problems, as well as what have we used from various classes. Comments and additions welcome! 1. CALCULUS I AND II (MATH 103 AND 104) We used a variety of results and techniques from 103 and 104: (1) Standard integration theory: For us, the most important technique is integration by parts; one of many places we used this was in computing the moments of the Gaussian. Integration by parts is a very powerful technique, and is frequently used. While most of the time it is clear how to choose the functions u and dv, sometimes we need to beR a bit clever. For exam- ¡1=2 1 2 2 ple, consider the second moment of the standard normal: (2¼) ¡1 x exp(¡x =2)dx. The natural choices are to take u = x2 or u = exp(¡x2=2), but neither of these work as they lead to choices for dv that do not have a closed form integral. What we need to do is split the two ‘natural’ functions up, and let u = x and dv = exp(¡x2=2)xdx. The reason is that while there is no closed form expression for the anti-derivative of the standard normal, once we have xdx instead of dx then we can obtain nice integrals. One final remark on integrating by parts: it is a key ingredient in the ‘Bring it over’ method (which will be discussed below). -
6.1 Sigma Notation & Convergence / Divergence
Math 123 - Shields Infinite Series Week 6 Zeno of Elea posed some philosophical problems in the 400s BC. His actual reasons for doing so are somewhat murky, but they are troubling regardless. In his Dichotomy paradox he argues that any objects in motion must arrive at the halfway point before they arrive at their goal. However, we can iterate the reasoning, and an object must also arrive at the halfway point to the halfway point first, and so on :::. If the goal is m meters away and you travel at a speed of v, then the time needed to traverse the distance is x x x x t = + + + + ::: 2v 4v 8v 16v x1 1 1 1 = + + + + ::: v 2 4 8 16 The parenthetical expression is an infinite sum. Zeno said that the time for the motion then must be infinite since if we add infinitely many positive numbers together then this must result in a positive number. As beings of logic we are forced to conclude that motion is an illusion. We have all been duped. On a completely unrelated note recall from Calc I that for small angles θ we can use a local linear approxi- mation to eθ. That is eθ ≈ 1 + θ This approximation is pretty good, but it's not perfect because the approximation is a line and eθ bends. Well in a similar way we can make our estimate better by taking a quadratic approximation and say 1 eθ ≈ 1 + θ + θ2 2 This is better, but still ultimately an approximation with some built in error.