371
A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY
IN NIGERIA
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Joseph Obukowho Asagba, B.S., M.Ed,
Denton, Texas
August, 1993 371
A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY
IN NIGERIA
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Joseph Obukowho Asagba, B.S., M.Ed,
Denton, Texas
August, 1993 Asagba, Joseph Obukowho, A Historical Review of the Development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Doctor of Philosophy (Higher Education Administration), August, 1993, 267 pp., 9 tables, reference list, 314 titles. The overall purpose of this study was to identify the major factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The study examined and analyzed the growth and development of the three Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna. The academic programs in the three Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology have a significant importance to the national development of Nigeria. The first conclusion of this study is that the federal government of Nigeria has played a significant, role in establishing the Federal Universities of Technology in order to provide the modern scientific and technological education for the economic need of the country, and that the most compelling factors that led to the establishment of those institutions are (a) philosophical, (b) economic, (c) sociological, and (d) geographical factors. The second conclusion is that the program of study at each of the Federal Universities of Technology was designed to train students in science and technical fields, and that both the number of students enrolled and the number of graduated students has increased significantly. The third conclusion is that the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission have played an important role in the administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology. The final conclusion is that the method used in selecting a vice-chancellor for the Federal Universities of Technology is based on the facts that the professors in the university vote on nominees and then the list is submitted to the University Council for appointment of the vice-chancellor through the Federal Ministry of Education. Several implications and recommendations for this study are listed. In addition, further studies are recommended in the next five years to identify possible changes or development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Copyright by Joseph Obukowho Asagba
1993
in ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to my Major Professor, Dr. Todd Davis, and Minor Professor, Dr. Pat N. McLeod, and to Drs. John Baier and Constance Hilliard, my committee members, for their patience, guidance, assistance, and advice to me in completing my dissertation. A special thanks to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Vann E. Asagba for their substantial encouragement and financial support through my years in the United States. My greatest debt is to my wife Lorinda and children for their patience, dedication, and persuasion. Their encouragement and undiluted spirit were a major source of inspiration and perseverance which sustained me through the proj ect. Finally, I would like to give special thanks to God for all the love, blessings, strength, and guidance he has provided me during the period of my studies and for the years I have spent in the United States; for without his blessings, love, and guidance, all of this would not be possible.
IV TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1 The Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna, Nigeria 6 Statement of the Problem 12 Purposes of the Study 12 Research Questions 13 Background and Significance of the Study ... 14 Definition of Terms 16 Delimitations of the Study 17 Methodology 17 Procedures for Collection of Data 19 Chapter Reference List 31 2. HISTORY AND RELATED LITERATURE 36 Introduction 36 Traditional Education in Nigeria 37 The History of Education in Nigeria 42 The Development of Higher Education in Nigeria 46 Chapter Reference List 59 3. PROCEDURES FOR THE COLLECTION OF DATA 64 Presentation and Description of the Data Collected 66 The Role of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) on Higher Education in Nigeria 86 Summary 88 Chapter Reference List 89 4. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA'S NATIONAL POLICY ON HIGHER EDUCATION FROM 1962-1987 .... 90 The Need to Understand Educational Policies and Policy Processes 90 Chapter " Page Definition of Development 91 Definition of Policy 92 The First National Development Plan of 1962-1968 93 The Second National Development Plan of 1970-1974 95 The 1976 Universal Primary Educational Policy 96 The 1977 National Policy on Education .... 104 The Third National Development Plan of 1975-1980 109 The Fourth National Development Plan of 1981-1985 115 The 1987 6-3-3-4 Nigeria Educational System 124 The Efforts to Improve Education by the Federal Government of Nigeria by the Year 2000 129 Summary 131 Chapter Reference List 133 5. THE PROCESS FOR SELECTING VICE-CHANCELLORS INTO THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA 141 Introduction 141 Past and Present Vice-Chancellors of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria ... 142 The Method of Selecting and Evaluating Vice-Chancellors and Administrators in Nigerian University 146 Definition of Administrative Organization and Leadership 148 Administrative Organization and Functions of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 152 The Role of the Federal Government of Nigeria in Administration, Planning, and Financing of Federal Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission 165 The Role of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in Higher Education . . . 168 The Function of the Administration Division of the National Universities Commission . . 175 Summary 180 Chapter Reference List 182
vx Chapter • Page
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 189 Introduction 189 Summary of Major Findings 189 Conclusions 201 Implications 202 Recommendations 203 Chapter Reference List 206 APPENDICES A. Map of Africa Showing the African Countries . . 208 Map of Nigeria Showing the Thirty States and Capitals 209 B. Organization Chart of the Ministry of Education . 211 Organization Chart for Top Administrators for University Policy Making in Nigeria 212 Organization Chart of the National Universities Commission Secretariat 213 Organization Chart of the Subadministrative Division of the National Universities Commission 213 The Federal Arena Chart of the Administrative Relationship between the Federal Government and the Federal Universities of Technology . . 215 The 6-3-3-4 Educational System Chart on the National Policy on Education of 1987 216 C. Letters 217 D. Topics Addressed in Interviews by Author (Interview Questions) 227
E. Interview Questions and Responses 232
REFERENCE LIST 245
vx 1 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page 1. Links between U. S. Universities and Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria .... 66 2. University Income and Source for 1980-1991 Academic Years for the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 67 3. Student Enrollment for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for the Academic Years of 1980-1991 70 4. Student Enrollment Distribution for 1980-1991 Academic Years and Fields of Study for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria .... 72 5. Number of Students and Degrees Awarded from 1985-1991 at Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 80 6. Subdegree Programs and Their Entry Requirement into the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 87 7. Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary and Secondary Education from 1955-1974 before the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 100
8. Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary, Secondary Education, and Universities from 1977-1985 after the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 was Implemented ... 101 9. Fields of Study of Students in Nigerian Universities, 1975-1980 and 1984 109
Vlll CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The history of education in Nigeria can be traced to the Colonial Periodf but of importance to the Nigerian people is the need to establish technological universities. As a developing nation, the Nigerian government established the Federal Universities of Technology in 1980 to train its citizens to meet the manpower needs of its economic development. It was also established to train the diverse personnel reguired for the economic, technological, educational, and social development of the country. The problems facing Nigeria are those in the areas of social change and the modification of societal structures which will enable the system to accommodate the new technological innovations that have come and will continue with economic development. Nigeria, a country located in Africa, gained independence from the British government in 1960. Over the past 30 years, Nigeria has attempted to adjust to the demands of political independence as well as to the social and economic needs of the country.
A "Special Report on Education" by Adobe (1980) clearly delineated the significance of education with the following explanation: Education is a basic human need. People need an education to acquire a broad base of knowledge, attitude, values, and skills on which they can build a better life. Education enhances the ability to learn and adapt to social and cultural activities? education is a means of meeting other basic needs. Education influences and is in turn influenced by access to other basic needs—adequate nutrition, safe drinking water, health services, and shelter. In this context, one remembers the argument of experts that health programs could be accelerated more by teaching the people basic principles of hygiene than by sophisticated medical science. Also, if children are better fed they can learn better, which would improve their overall benefits from education; and all development programs depend on education, for the simple reason that they all require skilled workers at all levels to manage capital, technology, services, and administration in every sector.
Possibly as a result of the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria is being transformed into a demanding and changing society. The people of Nigeria foster a strong belief in the benefits of an improved technological education. Nigerians believe that education is the key to the social and economic success of the country. Ojiaka (1984) agreed that the well being and future of a nation depends heavily on its education system.
The federal military government announced in 1975 that all Nigerian universities would become federal government institutions, in order for the federal government to control the policies and finances of the universities and to manage their affairs. The government also stated that higher education would be the sole responsibility of the federal government. All of the universities and the newly constructed facilities have been fully funded by the federal government. In reporting the events associated with the federal takeover, a columnist in a major Nigerian newspaper stated: We are in the midst of a revolution, an intellectual revolution designed to guarantee for all Nigerians functional literacy, a keen awareness for civil rights, responsibility for a good and adequate diet, low infant mortality and longer life span, decent accommodation, and generally, a happy life. (Ogunsola, 1977, p. 63) Because of the federal government's takeover of all universities in Nigeria, it is important to identify its role in the administration, planning, and financing of higher education in Nigeria. The success of any system of education hinges on proper planning, efficient administration, and adequate financing. The administration of education includes organization and structure, proprietorship, control, inspection, and supervision.
School systems and the policies that govern their management and day-to-day administration should grow out of the life and social ethics of the community which they serve. According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1983), the administrative machinery for an educational system should be based on three cardinal principles: (a) intimate and direct participation and involvement in the administration and management of the school; (b) effective lines of communication between the administrations for policy formulation and implementation; and (c) the coordination, planning, financing, and directing of the total educational effort by the Federal Ministry of Education. The Federal Ministry of Education has the responsibility for the overall development of education in Nigeria. Since the government's decision to take over all universities in 1975, the primary function of the Federal Ministry of Education has consisted of coordination of all educational matters, the guidance of government policies on education, and the maintenance of higher academic standards. The Federal Ministry of Education is headed by the Minister of Education, and the permanent secretary is the chief administrative officer. The permanent secretary is responsible to the Minister, not only for the organization and efficiency of the ministry, but also for advising the Minister (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983).
According to Morrison (1964), the permanent secretary is the Chief Civil Servant of the Ministry of Education. Adedeji (1981) stated, as follows: The federal government will have to continue to depend on their higher Civil Services for assistance in policy formation, between the past and present, between an outgoing government and an incoming administration at the federal level, for being a unifying force containing in its ranks people from virtually all the ethnic groups of Nigeria. (p. 667) According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1983), there are seven divisions within the Ministry of Education. These seven divisions include: (a) Administration and Finance; (b) Educational Administration; (c) Scholarship and Student Affairs; (d) School Inspection; (e) Educational Services; (f) Examination and Registration; and (g) Planning and Research (see Appendix B).
The vice-chancellor of any university in Nigeria is the chief executive of the university. It is important to discuss the method of selecting a vice-chancellor in Nigerian universities, because the improvement and development of any university depends on the executive head of the university. The heads of universities in Nigeria are the vice-chancellors, and they are the highest political officers in Nigerian universities. When a university in Nigeria is established, or when there is a vacancy in the appointment of a university vice-chancellor, the federal government, based on the vote of the professors in the university, submits a list of nominees to the University Council to appoint a vice-chancellor through the Federal Ministry of Education (National Universities Commission, 1982). The appointment of a vice-chancellor will determine who makes the decision. How the decision is to be made affects the efficiency and effectiveness of the institutions and their organizations, because the administration of the university will be in the hands of the vice-chancellor. The members of the University Council believe that when a vice- chancellor is appointed, changes and progress in that institution must become an integral part of the new vice- chancellor' s position. Eble (1978) stated the following: The appointment: of a vice-chancellor is accompanied with expectation about change and progress. Change has to be introduced as soon as possible, otherwise it may be hard to introduce these changes, as delay in appointing administrators who will carry out tasks will result in loss of opportunities. (p. 6)
The Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna, Nigeria The development of Federal Universities of Technology was the work of an educational team of experts that was set up by the federal government of Nigeria, through a committee of the Nigerian National Universities Commission. The committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an investigation into needs in the field of technological education. According to the National Universities Commission (1983), the planning committee that was set up by the federal government of Nigeria to establish the Federal Universities of Technology was under the chairmanship of Col. A.A. Ali, the former Federal Minister of Education. The experts were drawn from a wide range that included representatives from the National Universities Commission, such as the chief planning officer for academics, to carry out planning for the new universities. Also participating were the representatives of the ministries of health, education, economic development, and finance. One of the functions of the National Universities Commission is to advise the head of the federal government of Nigeria through the minister of education as to the need for the creation of new universities. The committee recommended that there is need to establish Federal Universities of Technology for the following reasons: (a) to train people for the modern scientific and technical education; (b) to meet the rate of growth in science student population; (c) to provide the manpower skill that will lead the country into economic and social development; (d) to establish universities in the north, west and eastern parts of the country to balance the geographical spread of the institution; and (e) to assure that the technical training is parallel with the pattern of technological training in United States universities and that the Federal Universities 8 of Technology should have a special link with the United
States universities (see Table 1 in Chapter 3).
The committee believes that the American model of technical education will be a means to the goal of economic development- The responsibility of the National
Universities Commission was to set up working parties in engineering and agriculture with the U.S. universities to
advise on the courses for the Federal Universities of
Technology in order to make them relevant to the need of the
Nigerian economy.
The federal government of Nigeria decided to establish the Federal Universities of Technology in order to provide modern scientific and technical education for the technological needs of the country.
The Federal University of Technology in Owerri was
established in 1980 as an autonomous institution. It is
located in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria, with a population of
approximately 42,631. The university formally enrolled its
first students in the 1980/81 academic year with a student
population of 213. The university was structured to have
four schools.
The federal minister for education, Col. A. A. Ali
(1980), at the inaugural ceremony of the Federal University
of Technology, Owerri, declared that,
The establishment of the Federal University of
Technology was an instrument of sociopolitical as well as economic change, and that technological education
would produce the manpower needed for national
development. (p. 9)
The Federal University of Technology at Akure was established by the fcsderal government of Nigeria in 1981 and enrolled its first student in the 1981/1982 academic year, with a student population of 112. The university was established to train Nigerians in vocational technical areas such as agriculture/agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology, and science education.
The university has four schools, and it is located in Akure, capital city of Ondo State, Nigeria, which has a population of approximately 71,106. Akure is located in the western part of Nigeria.
The Federal University of Technology at Minna was
established by the federal government of Nigeria on February
1, 1983, but enrolled its first student in February 1984 with a student population of 306. The university was
established in order to train its citizens in vocational
skills, and it was structured to have four schools together with a pre-degree and foundational courses program. The
university is located in Minna, capital city of Niger State,
Nigeria, which has a population of approximately 1,745,644.
Minna is located in the northern part of Nigeria.
The Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri,
Akure, and Minna were carefully planned to have their own 10 distinctive characte.r. Each of the universities was established on the basis of the national manpower needs and the differing environmental characteristics of each school.
The Federal University of Technology at Owerri catered to the needs of the eastern portion of Nigeria, the Federal
University of Technology at Akure to the needs of the western portion of Nigeria, and the Federal University of
Technology at Minna to the needs of the northern portion of
Nigeria. The universities were conceived as technological institutions which would train people in such areas as agriculture/agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology, environmental technology, science/science education, and veterinary medicine/science (Commonwealth
Universities Yearbook, 1990).
In 1980, 1981, and 1983 the federal government of
Nigeria established the Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna to train the diverse personnel required for the economic, technological, educational, and social development of the country. The universities' primary purposes were to produce graduates in science subjects and to serve as national institutions for technological research.
According to the Federal University of Technology,
Owerri Calendar for 1983/85, the objectives of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria are as follows:
(a) to encourage the advancement of learning and to hold out 11 to all persons without distinction of race, creed, sex or political conviction the opportunity of acquiring a higher education in technology; (b) to develop and offer academic and professional programs leading to the first degrees, post-graduate degrees, research and higher degrees which emphasize planning, adaptive, technical, maintenance, developmental and productive skills in the engineering, scientific, and agricultural disciplines; (c) to identify technological problems and needs of the society, and to find solutions to them within the context of overall national development; (d) to provide and promote sound basic scientific training as a foundation for the development of technology and applied sciences in needs of national development; (e) to offer to the general population, as a forum of public service, the results of training and research and to foster the practical applications of these results; (f) to establish appropriate relationships with other national institutions involved in training, research and development of technologies; and (g) to undertake any other activities appropriate for a university of technology of the highest standards (pp. 15-16). 12
Statement of the Problem
Since the founding of the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria, there has been no research concerning their development in light of their mission. This study will examine and analyze the growth and development of these institutions in light of the creative tension between legitimate interests of both the national government and the
University community. This study will review the selection of campus governance and the factors and events that led to the establishment and development of the Federal
Universities of Technology.
Purposes of the Study
The purposes of this study will be as follows:
1. to identify the major factors and events that led to the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria;
2. to review the programs of study and to analyze the student enrollment and output patterns of the Federal
Universities of Technology during their developmental stages;
3. to identify the role of the Federal government of
Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the
Federal Universities of Technology through the National
Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of
Education; 13
4. to identify the role of the federal government of
Nigeria and the governing bodies of the universities on the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
Research Questions
Based upon the statement of the problem and the purposes of the study, the following questions will guide this research:
1. What were the major factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
2. What were the programs of study, student enrollment, and output patterns of each Federal University of Technology during the period following their founding?
3. What is the role of the federal government of
Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of
Federal Universities of Technology through the National
Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of
Education?
4. What is the role of the federal government of
Nigeria and the governing bodies of the universities in the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? 14
Background and Significance of the Study
Nigeria, located in West Africa, is bordered by the
Niger Republic on the north and the Atlantic Ocean and Bight of Benin on the south. On the eastern and northeastern border are the two countries of Cameroon and the Republic of
Chad. The Republic of Benin, formerly Dahomey, forms the western border of Nigeria (see Appendix A).
There are two seasons in Nigeria: the rainy season, which runs from May through October, and the dry season, which runs from November through April. The climate of
Nigeria is generally tropical, although there is some variance within the nation. While southern Nigeria is hot and wet, northern Nigeria is hot and arid.
Nigeria, a nation comprising 30 states (see Appendix
A), has a total land surface of 923,768 square kilometers— approximately 356,669 square miles. According to the
Statesman's Yearbook of 1992, the total population of
Nigeria is approximately 118,819,377. Nigeria is the second largest nation in land area in Africa and the largest in population (see Appendix A).
There are about 252 distinct ethnic languages spoken in
Nigeria. The main languages are Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, Edo,
Fulani, Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Itsekiri, Ijaw, Urhobo, Efik,
Igbirra, and Ogini.
Nigeria gained independence from the British government in I960. Because Nigeria was a British colony until 1960, 15 the official language of the Nigerian people is English.
Nigeria has three tiers of government: federal, state, and local. Nigeria has a presidential system of government that is comprised of the National Assembly on the federal level and State House of Assembly on the state level. The
National Assembly contains the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Executive Branch is represented by the
President and by state Governors. The present governmental system in Nigeria is a Federal System operated by the military.
Nigeria is a major producer of oil and other minerals including tin, columbite, limestone, and coal. Agricultural and industrial independence is the major economic objective of the country. Nigeria is an agricultural country. Eighty percent of its total working population is engaged in this industry, producing yams, cassava, plantains, rice, beans, sugar-cane, and citrus fruits for food and cocoa, palm oil produce, ground nuts, rubber, cotton and timber for export
(Federal Ministry of Information, 1990).
Educational policy matters are formed and enforced by the Federal Ministry of Education, which is located in
Lagos. Financial matters, certification of teachers, and inspection of schools are additional responsibilities of the
Ministry of Education (see Appendix B).
This study traces the historical establishment and development of the Federal Universities of Technology and 16 identifies the role of thee federal government of Nigeria in the administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology. It also identifies the role of the federal government of Nigeria and the governing body of the university in the process of selecting vice-chancellors to the Federal Universities of Technology. This study reviews the programs of study, student enrollment, and output patterns of each Federal University of Technology during their development stages.
Definition of Terms Higher education institutions are those that cover the post-secondary section of Nigeria's educational system, such as universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, and advanced teacher training colleges. 2• Polytechnics or colleges of technology are technical education institutions established by the government through which two types of diploma certificates are awarded: Ordinary National Diplomas (ONDs) are awarded following the first two years of studies, and Higher National Diplomas (HNDs) are diplomas awarded after four years of training.
3- Universities are federally approved Nigerian institutions of higher education that conduct research and award both academic and full professional degrees. The universities award undergraduate and graduate degrees. 17
4- Advanced teacher* -braining colleges are established by the Federal Ministry of Education in order to train qualified teachers in the field of higher education and technical education. The length of the training is three years.. Upon completion of the program, students are awarded a grade 2 teacher's certificate (GTC).
5. Colleges of Education are approved higher institutions offering both research and academic training. The length of the training is three years, and, upon completion of the program, students are awarded the Nigeria Certificate of Education (NCE).
Delimitations of the Study This study is concerned only with the historical development of the three Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
Methodology This study historically researches the establishment and development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for 1980-1990. Cohen (1976) wrote, "The past exists in its own right and demands to be understood on its own terms"1 (p. 330). Renier (1961) observed that history is "the story of the deeds and achievements of men living in societies" (p. 35). Nevins (1962) defined historical research as a description or analysis of past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole 18 truth, and Good (1963) stated that history is "an integrated narrative or description of past events or facts, written in the spirit of critical inquiry to find the whole truth and report it" (p. 115). Van Dalen (1962) stated that modern historical research is critical; it is the search for truth. Therefore, historians must apply the same scholarly standard whether the problem is concerned with the history of a nation or the history of an educational institution. Mouly (1963) observed that one of the purposes for historical research is the scholarly desire of the researcher to give an accurate account of the past. Carr (1967) noted that history is a continuous process of interaction between the facts, the present, and the past. Bailyn (1969) pointed out that the reason for conducting a historical research is to learn something new and to present the new information. History consists of "events of the past, to the actual happenings themselves . . . history means a record or account of these events (Shafer, 1969, p. 2). The study of past events can be specific results. "Old norms and values are modified as a result of challenges; new norms and values appear in response to felt needs" (Shafer, 1969, p. 8). According to Best (1970), "History is a meaningful record of man's achievement which helps him to understand the present and, to some extent, to predict the future" (p. 94). Why is historical research important? Best (1970) observed that, 19
"Man uses history to understand the past, and to try to understand the present in light of past events and developments" (p. 94). He noted that historical research should go beyond the mere listing of events, providing instead a "truthful, integrated account of the relationships between persons, events, times, and places" (p. 94). Postan (1971) felt that historical research gives credible testimony to actually what happened and is the best available source to examine the past, present, and future. Historical research offers the most logical methodology to analyze, reconstruct, and narrate evidence, according to Borg (1963) and Best (1981) historical research involves investigating, recording, analyzing, and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past, understanding the present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. Hillway (1964) stated that the historical method can probably be considered the oldest form of true research.
Procedures for Collection of Data First, the method used in acquiring data for this study involved a computer search of Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) and Dissertation Abstracts International. In addition, a search was conducted through Social Science Search Database of the Institute of 20
Scientific Information (ISI). The searches aimed at avoiding duplication of work. Unpublished dissertations and dissertations in progress were checked to avoid duplication and indexes revealed journal articles that were used in the study. Second, a document study included the researching of unpublished sources consisting of letters, personal papers, notes, minutes, manuscripts of principals and interviews. Published materials consisted of annual reports, addresses or speeches, official university publications, proclamations, autobiographies, and publications in books, journals, and newspapers. Third, primary sources for this study included the oral history account of eyewitnesses who were privy to the events leading to the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology. Oral history interview is an appropriate tool of the institutional researcher (Crawford, 1974; Cutler, 1971; Marcello, 1978).
For the completion of this study, oral interviews were conducted with Nigerian officials selected because of their knowledge in the events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology. They are: (1) the vice-chancellors of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; and (2) the director-general of higher education, Federal Ministry of Education, in Lagos.
Oral interviews as a research method are unique in that they involve the collection of data through direct verbal 21
interaction between individuals (Guion & Imade, 1981). Historical study usually relies heavily upon the interview process because interviews can be used to verify, validate, and supplement information (Gorden, 1975; Stewart & Cask, 1974). Borg (1981) has pointed out that sources for historical research can be obtained from professional journals, research articles, and reports when conducting a historical research. Primary source material is important in historical research in order to establish the authenticity and credibility of the findings (Brook, 1969; Dollar & Jensen, 1974; Moore, 1983; Zuelow, 1977). According to Bailey (1982), if good data are available, historical research can serve as an effective complement to generalized scientific research by documenting a unique historical event. Further, if one is interested in learning how some contemporary event or institution came into being, a historical approach is indispensable.
Fourth, secondary sources were selected based on their pertinence and appropriateness to the study and on the unavailability of primary sources. Good and Scates (1954) indicated that secondary sources include such materials as histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedias, and sections of books on school administration. The essential steps involved in doing a historical research project are as follows: (a) define the problems or 22 questions to be investigated; (b) search for sources of historical facts; (c) summarize and evaluate the historical sources; and (d) present the pertinent facts within an interpretive framework (Beach, 1969; Berlinger, 1978; Block, 1971). According to Gottschalk (1967), the historical method consists of (a) the collection of probable sources of information; (b) the examination of those sources for genuineness; and (c) the analysis of the genuine sources for their credible particulars. This refers to both external and internal criticisms, respectively. After the materials have been collected and during the collection process, all items were examined externally (as to the reliability and likelihood of deceit or error in the materials) and internally (for an analysis of credible details, including author, date, primary and secondary source). Hopkins (1976) and Gay (1987) identified the following steps in historical research: (a) identification of the problem; (b) accumulation of source materials, their classification and criticism, and determination of facts; (c) organization of facts into results; (d) formation of conclusions; and (e) synthesis and presentation in organized form. The three basic steps involved when conducting historical research are: the collection of data; classifying or categorizing data; and presenting the arrangement as facts in a synthetic form (Eddy & Laabs, 1990). 23
Stempel and Westley -(1981) have observed that historical research concerns the establishing of facts and that historians most have the ability "to weigh the •consequences1 of these events" (p. 280). The goal of historical research is the description, explanation, and interpretation of past events through a careful analysis and evaluation of the sources of historical evidence (Sowell & Casey, 1982). This study was designed to survey the historical and contemporary development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Hence, no experimental design will be necessary. However, information from the review of the primary and secondary sources will be synthesized in order to establish facts and conclusions concerning the past, present, and future development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
The sources for historical research are typically records of past events. They are written or printed materials that may be official or unofficial, public or private, published or unpublished, prepared intentionally to preserve an historical record or prepared to serve an immediate practical purpose. Documents may be letters, diaries, wills, receipts, oral interviews, maps, autobiographies, journals, newspapers, court records, official minutes, proclamations and laws (Gay, 1987; McMillan, 1984? Slavin, 1984). 24
In historical research, the historian locates appropriate documents, gathers suitable data, and draws conclusions concerning a situation being studied. In addition, historical research may provide new perspectives on a crisis situation where other types of research would be impossible (Ary, 1985). Best (1986) has stated that historical research can best be accomplished by a systematic search of primary and secondary sources that would provide pertinent information. Kerlinger (1986) observed the following: Education is a particularly good example of the virtue of historical research. In education, historical research has great value because it is necessary to know and understand educational accomplishments and trends of the past in order to gain perspective on present and future directions. (p. 621)
He pointed out that one of the basic rules of research in history is the use of primary sources, which he termed "the original repository of an historical datum" (p. 621). Examples of some primary sources include, (a) a criminal record in an important investigation; (b) an eyewitness description of an event; (c) a photograph; and (d) minutes of organization meetings.
Kerlinger defined a secondary source as "an account or record of an historical event or circumstance which is one or more steps removed from an original repository" (p. 621). 25
Wise (1967) pointed out that historical research involves a systematic approach in the identification and collection of data and that objectivity is the only valid goal- According to Skager and Weinberg (1971), the sources of material upon which historical research is based are usually classified as primary or secondary. Leedy (1974) stated that, in the search for historical truth, the researcher should rely, if at all possible, on primary data. Historical research is used to understand the past and to try to understand the present in light of past events and developments (Gottschalk, 1963; McLeod, 1985). Beach (1969) contended that historical research in education is important because it brings out past events and developments. According to Finley (1963), historical studies are used in examining the growth and development of colleges and universities. A study of the entire history of institutions of higher education provides valuable insights into the process of establishing and maintaining adult education activities in a formalized institutional setting. The Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are no exception (Van Dalen, 1962). Van Dalen (1962) further emphasized that a historical approach to higher education also provides administrators and planners with descriptions or explanations for institutional change and that historians also interpret the highly visual and emotional character of colleges and universities. Bell (1974) agreed that 26 historical research will .assist present and future college and university administrators to identify problems, weaknesses, strengths and deficiencies in teaching, program development, and faculty recruitment. One of the reasons for conducting the current study is that history has a tendency to provide a better understanding of the past and future (Vaughu, 1983). In supporting this position, Vaughu (1983) noted that, regardless of how new or different our world may seem, the study of the past still offers much in personal and societal terms. Each of us constantly draws meaning from the past in an effort to make reference to the future. By examining the past, we can note the steps that were not taken, the doors that were not opened, or the measures that were not adopted, and, thus, we can become consciously aware of the consequences of our personal and collective decisions. According to Borg and Gall (1979), historical research in education is important because its findings enable educators to "learn from past mistakes and discoveries, perceive needs for educational reform, and to a certain extent, predict future trends" (p. 372). Borg and Gall (1979) further emphasized that, by studying the past, the educational historian hopes to achieve better understanding of present institutions, practices, and problems in education. They also emphasized that historical research in education is important for several reasons, that the finding 27 of historical research enables educators to learn from past discoveries and mistakes (Borg & Gall, 1983). Since history tends to repeat itself, its study can prevent mistakes and help to point new directions for higher education. According to Fogel and Elton (1983), historical research is important because it searches for evidence in an investigation. Historical research must be accomplished by following procedure (Van Dalen, 1962). The historical research for this study was accomplished by following a five-step procedure: (a) select the problem; (b) collect source materials; (c) critique source materials; (d) formulate questions to guide the study; and (e) interpret and report the findings. This historical research was also accomplished by Barzun and Graff's (1970) six virtues for anyone engaged in historical research; they are as follows: accuracy—if history is the story of past facts, those facts must be ascertained; love of order—there must be a system developed for reading, noting, comparing, verifying, indexing, grouping, and organizing; logic—the ready and practical application of the perplexities of library research must be applied; honesty—put it down as you find it; self- awareness—making personal biases and standards of judgment known to the reader; and imagination—creativity in finding sources and synthesizing the facts (p. 140). With careful 28 attention to these procedures, this study will attempt to conduct a historical review of the development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria by looking at the past and present and attempting to understand both. Cohen (1976) noted that careful attention to procedures in a historical research must be the historian's goal in order to discover the past and understand it. History provides the means through which the course of political, social, and economic problems can be understood (Farmer, 1983).
Historical research can provide a perspective for decision-making about educational problems, and it assists in understanding why things are as they are. Educational reform and even social reform are functions often served by historical research. Issues are often better understood and probably better dealt with if the historical perspective is known. Historical research can also be useful for predicting future trends (Wiersma, 1985).
Finally, the purpose of historical research is to obtain a better understanding of present institutions, practices and problems in education. It aids in avoiding past mistakes, builds on what is known, and helps to predict the future (Curry, 1986). 29
Organization of the Study The outline for the organization of this study is as follows: Chapter 1 presents the introduction, the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna, Nigeria, statement of the problem, and purposes of the study, research questions, background and significance of the study, definition of terms, delimitations of the study, methodology, organization of the study, and chapter references. Chapter 2 consists of a review of related literature, introduction, traditional education in Nigeria, the history of education in Nigeria, the development of higher education in Nigeria, summary and chapter references. Chapter 3 describes the procedures for the collection of data; presents data in table format; the role of the joint admissions and matriculation board on higher education in Nigeria; summary and chapter references.
Chapter 4 includes a discussion of the following: the federal government of Nigeria's national policy on higher education from 1962 to 1987; the need to understand educational policies and policy processes; a definition of development; a definition of policy; the first national development plan of 1962-1968; the second national development plan of 1970-1974; the 1976 universal primary education policy; Nigeria's 1977 policy on education; the 30 third national development plan of 1975-1980; the fourth national development plan of 1981-1985; the 1987 6-3-3-4 Nigeria educational system policy on education; the efforts to improve education by the federal government of Nigeria by the year 2000; summary and chapter references. Chapter 5 presents the process for selecting a vice- chancellor in Federal Universities of Technology; introduction; the appointment of the past and present vice- chancellors of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; the method of selecting and evaluating vice- chancellors and administrators in Nigerian universities; defenition of administrative organization and leadership; administrative organization and functions of the Federal Universities of Technology; the role of the federal government of Nigeria in the administration, planning and financing of Federal Universities of Technology; the role of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in higher education; the function of the administration division of the National Universities Commission; summary and chapter references.
Chapter 6 consists of introduction, summary of major findings, conclusions, implications, and recommendations. CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST
Adedeji, A. (1981, March 30). Civil Service problem. West Africa. 19/ P- 667. Adobe, O. (1980, September 22). Special report on education. West Africa. 9., p. 1819. Ali, A. A. (1980). The need for technological education. Opening address delivered at the inaugural ceremony of the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria. Ary, D. J. (1985). Introduction to research in education (3rd ed.). New York: CBS College Publishing. Bailey, K. D. (1982). Methods of social research (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Bailyn, B. (1969). The problems of the working historian. In A.S. Eisenstadt (Ed.), The Craft of American History (p. 202). New York: AHM Publishing.
Barzun, J., & Graff, H. F. (1970). The modern research (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Beach, M. (1969). History of education. Review of Educational Research, 39. p. 561. Bell, T. H. (1974). A performance accountability system for school administrators. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing. Berlinger, R. E. (1978). Historical analysis: Contemporary approaches to Clio's graft. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Best, J. W. (1970). Research in education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Best, J. W. (1981). Research in education (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Best, J. W. (1986). Research in education (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Block, J. (1971). Understanding historical research: A search for truth. Glen Rock, NJ: Research Publications. Borg, W. R. (1963). Educational research: An introduction. New York: David McKay. Borg, W. R. (1981). Applying educational research: A practical guide for teachers. New York: Longman. Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1979). Educational research: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York: Longman. Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1983). Educational research: An introduction (4th ed.). New York: Longman. Brook, P. C. (1969). Research in archives: The use of unpublished primary sources. Chicago: University of Chicago. Carr, E. H. (1967). What is history? New York: Random House. Cohen, S. (1976). The history of the history of American education, 1900-1976: The use of the past. Harvard Educational Review. 66. 330.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1990). History of higher education in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House. Crawford, C. W. (1974). Oral history - the state of the profession, Oral History Review, p.l.
Curry, J. (1986, Fall). What is historical research? Lecture in the Methods of educational research, EDUC 6000, University of North Texas, Denton.
Cutler, W. W. (1971). Oral history: Its nature and use for educational history, History of Education Quarterly, p. 184.
Dollar, C. M., & Jensen, R. J. (1974). Historians guide to statistics: Quantitative analysis and historical research. Huntington, NY: Krieger.
Eble, K. E. (1978). The art of administration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 33
Eddy, J. P., & Laabs, T. R. (1990). Doctoral dissertations as historical research in higher education. Peace Progress Journal, 1, 1. Farmer, R. (1983, January/February). The benefits of historical study. The Social Studies. 23. 14-15. Federal Ministry of Education. (1983). Functions of the ministry. Washington, DC: Publication of Nigerian Universities Commission. Federal Ministry of Information. (1990). The federal republic of Nigeria at a glance. Lagos: Government Printer. Federal University of Technology. (1983/85). Calendar: History and objectives of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Owerri: Government Printer. Finley, M. (1963). Generalizations in ancient history. In L. Gottschalk (Ed.), Generalizations in the writing of history (p. 34). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fogel, W. R., & Elton, G. R. (1983). Which road to the past: Two views of history. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Gay, L. R. (1987). Educational research, competencies for analysis and application (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company, a Bell & Howell Information Company.
Good, C. V. (1963). Introduction to educational research. New York: American Book.
Good, C., & Scates, D. E. (1954). Methods of research: Educational, psychological and sociological. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Gorden, R. I. (1975). Interviewing strategy, techniques and factors (rev. ed.). Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press.
Gottschalk, L. (1963). Categories of historical generalization. In Gottschalk (Ed.), Generalization in the writing of history (p. 121). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gottschalk, L. (1967). Understanding history: A primer of historical method. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 34
Guion, R. M., & Imade, A.- S. (1981). Eyeball measurement of dexterity: Tests as alternatives to interviews. Personnel Psychology. 34, 31. Hillway, T. (1964). Introduction to research (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hopkins, C. D. (1976). Educational research: A structure for inquiry. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. Leedy, P. D. (1974). Practical research: Planning and design. New York: MacMillan. Marcello, R. (1973, March). Oral history statement. History Department, University of North Texas, Denton, TX. McLeod, P. N. (1985 Spring). How to conduct historical research. Lecture in the techniques of vocational- technical education, research and analysis, EDVT 5480, University of North Texas, Denton. McMillan, J.H. (1984). Research in education: A conceptual introduction. Boston: Little, Brown. Moore, G. W. (1983). Developing and evaluating educational research. Boston: Little, Brown. Morrison, L. (1964). Government and parliament: A survey from the inside. New York: Oxford University Press. Mouly, G. A. (1963). The science of educational research. New York: American Book.
National Universities Commission. (1982). Methods of selecting a vice-chancellor in Nigerian universities. Washington, DC: Publication of the National Universities Commission. National Universities Commission. (1983). Inputs and participation of the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology. Lagos: Government Printer. Nevins, A. (1962). The gateway to history (rev. ed.). Boston: Raytheon Education. Ogunsola, A. (1977, July-September). Nigeria embarks on an educational revolution, Nigeria Illustrated, 1, p. 63. 35
Ojiaka, S. I. (1984). An historical review of federal government of Nigeria in national higher education, 1954-1982. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton, TX. Postan, M. M. (1971). Fact and relevance, essays on historical method. Cambridge: The University Press. Renier; G. J. (1961). History, its purpose and method, London: George Allen and Unwin. Shafer, R. J. (1969). A guide to historical method (3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press. Skager, R. W., & Weinberg, C. (1971). Fundamentals of educational research. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Slavin, R. E. (1984). Research methods in education: A practical guide. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sowell, E. J., & Casey, R. J. (1982). Research methods in education- San Francisco: Wadsworth. Statesman's Yearbook. (1991/92). New York: St. Martins Press. Stempel, G. H., & Westley, B. H. (1981). Research methods in mass communications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Stewart, C. J., & Cask, W. B. (1974). Interviewing principles and practices. Duguque, IA: William C. Brown.
Van Dalen, D. B. (1962). Understanding educational research: An introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Vaughu, S. (1983, March/April). History: Is it relevant? The Social Studies, 24, 56-60.
Wiersma, W. (1985). Research methods in education (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Baco. Wise, J. E. (1967). Methods of research in education, Boston: D. C. Heath.
Zuelow, M. C. (1977). An historical perspective for, and evaluation of, change in secondary education program for rural Alaskans in one regional education attendance area. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. CHAPTER 2
HISTORY AND RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
The review of related literature on the history and development of higher education in Nigeria was conducted in two different ways. The first step was to seek out books, reports, and articles dealing with the role of the federal government of Nigeria toward higher education. The second step was to review these studies to apply the concepts contained therein to the development of institutions of higher education in Nigeria. Education in Nigeria has become a problem of national scope? this is due to three great phenomena: the rapid change in modern science and technology, the high birth rate, and the rising expectations of the people of Nigeria. The review of related literature will provide information concerning the historical review of the establishment and development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The discussion is limited to the following topics: (a) traditional education in Nigeria; (b) history of education in Nigeria? and (c) development of higher education in Nigeria.
36 37
Traditional Education in Nigeria Traditional education has differed from place to place because of social, economic, and geographical imperatives. Patterson (1955) stated that the education of the child in Nigerian society began in infancy, just as was true in European, Asiatic, or American societies. Parents were responsible for the early childhood education of their children. The traditional education in Nigeria has taught young people to conform to social customs and traditions in their community and to learn trades in order to become productive citizens. Such education was maintained as knowledge and values were gained. Body (1936) believed that good education should originate in the family and that it was essential for children to submit without question to their parents' and teachers' instructions.
Traditional education was made up of the following features: physical training, development of character, respect for elders and peers, intellectual training, training in the poetic and the prophetic aspects of knowledge, vocational training, community participation, and promotion of cultural heritage (Fafunwa, 1974). Scanton (1964) viewed traditional education as making an individual ready for his responsibilities as an adult in his home, his village, and his tribe. According to Ulrich (1967), education is the cultivation of a person or the shaping of life. Knight (1971) pointed out that education meant 38 bringing up a child in a "way that helps to shape a human being to make the individual what he is or hinder him from being what he is not, and Castle (1966) stated that education in Nigeria is generally viewed as preparation for life. .According to Durkheim (1947), education is systematic socialization and training of the young generation by which the latter learns religious and moral beliefs, feelings of rationality, and collective opinions of all kinds. This means that education helps integrate the individual into the wider society in which he is born (Mursell, 1972). Hambly (1975) observed that, in pre-colonial Nigeria, the education of the child began with the attitude of society toward the expectant mother. The home was the first school for children, and early childhood education was entirely in the hands of the parents. He identified such education as care at home, social activities, physical care, domestic work, respect for elders, history of the family, and education through legends and folklore. Pre-colonial Nigerian society stressed education for the practical needs of life and for full participation in tribal activities— political, social, economic, and religious. Parents, relatives, elders, and peer groups were teachers, and each person knew the customs and traditions of the tribe and cooperated in the education of the children. According to Busia (1968), 39
It was the goal of traditional education to inculcate this sense of belonging, which was the highest value of the cultural system. The young were educated in and for the community's way of life. Traditional education sought to produce men and women who were not self- centered; who put the interest of the group above personal interests. (p. 49) The main objective of traditional education in Nigeria is continuity of the community. It is for this purpose that the accumulated knowledge of the community is transmitted to the young by the older members. The acquisition of physical and intellectual skills, character training, respect for elders, and vocational training become the means of ensuring community survival. For the Nigerian child, education is an integrated experience. It combines physical training with character building, and manual activity with intellectual ability (Nuduka, 1964; Oduyale, 1960). In discussing the purpose, content, and method of traditional education in Nigeria, Banjo (1972) maintained the following:
Before the advent of Christianity in this country, there were no schools, but this does not mean that there was no education of the young. The home was the school, and the parents and older members of family were the school staff. The method of teaching was informal, gradual, and practical. The child was given 40
the education that enabled him to take his place in the society as he grew older. He received no formal lectures, but by handling and experimenting, he learned a lot about nature. By the process of imitation and of trial and error, he came to distinguish through domestic discipline between desirable and undesirable habits of conduct and health. Through play and manual work, he performed physical exercises, and walked longer and longer distances which increased his strength and promoted his health. By helping his parents in pursuit of their occupation, he learned a trade. (p. 49) Banjo (1972) showed clearly that the purpose, content, and method of traditional education are intricately intertwined. He disagreed that traditional education is a preparation for future life or adulthood, but maintained that the child is taught how to live in his society and how to adapt to his environment at the different developmental stages. Reinforcement and punishment are two important means by which the traditional society molds children and makes them conscious of the expectations of the group or community, and children are made to meet these expectations. Adjustment to these expectations forms the basic curriculum for further growth in politics, religion, economics, and social relationships, which were invariably interwoven in traditional education in Nigeria until the advent of Islam 41 and subsequent missionary education. Islam and its Koranic education were first accepted in Nigeria, particularly in the north, and spread rapidly in that region. Both traditional education and the Koranic system of education predate Western education in Nigeria. Long before the missionaries established formal education in Nigeria, education in the country was basically informal (Fafunwa & Aisiku, 1982). Fafunwa and Aisiku contended that every society, whether simple or complex, has its own system for training and educating its youth for a good life. However, the goal of education and the method of approach differ from place to place, nation to nation, and people to people. For example, the Greeks considered an educated person as one who was mentally and physically well- balanced. The Romans also emphasized oratorical and military training, whereas the African considered the warrior, the hunter, the nobleman, and the man who combined good character with a special skill to be a well-educated and well-integrated citizen of his community.
According to Fafunwa and Aisiku (1982), knowledge or training can be acquired in three major ways: (a) a formal school system, which includes primary, middle, secondary and post-secondary or higher education; (b) a non-formal system that involves apprenticeship and on-the-job training in which learning is accomplished by doing? and (c) an informal system that includes various experiences and exposures, 42 otherwise known as incidental education. Most developing countries have this system of education, and Nigeria is no exception.
The History of Education in Nigeria Missionaries from various European denominations— Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, and Catholic—arrived in Nigeria during the 19th century. The missionaries introduced the European pattern of living and western form of education that has operated as a formal educational system since that time. The primary goal of the missionaries was to build schools and to train Nigerians who were interested in becoming trained teachers (Ajayi, 1965). According to Grover (1948), the missionaries established schools in order to spread literacy and train their pupils to earn a living. They also thought schools were one of the best means of spreading the Christian faith.
Chianakwalam (1956) noted that the reason for Nigeria's progress in the field of education was the zeal of the missionaries, whose connection with education dates back to 1841.
During this period, through 1843, the missionaries controlled and dictated which educational policies should be initiated. By 1846 the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had established nine schools, with a student population of 549. This period was characterized by lack of coordination simply 43 because the missionaries carried out their work as deemed most convenient to them. According to Odueze (1990), in 1876 an Irish priest opened a secondary school in Lagos, now known as Saint Gregory's Secondary School, and instruction in English was introduced. The missionaries effectively established boarding schools and gradually built up a pattern of primary education at every mission. There was no system in the pattern that emerged, no common syllabus, no general inspectorate. The Bible was the major textbook, and geography and grammar were added later. In 1909 a government secondary school, Kings College, Lagos, was established (Odueze, 1990), The boarding school tradition was developed in the colonial period, when western missionaries established such schools as a way of inculcating Christianity in students who were away from their pagan homes ("Kenya Crisis," 1991). The year 1899 marked the establishment of the first government schools and secondary schools. These were continually improved between 1846 and 1899 (Chianakwalam, 1956).
Horton (1868), in discussing the improvement of education in the colony, observed that lectures should be given in the theory and practice of education, classics, mathematics, natural philosophy, mensuration, and 44 bookkeeping. English language and literature should be introduced in the form of western education into Africa. Blyden (1882) agreed that the improvement of education in colonial West Africa should be introduced and that improving the culture and integrity of the people of West Africa through education was a very important method to be used in improving the African tribes. Blyden also stressed the importance of a liberal education in West Africa and noted that education was necessary to give the people the opportunity for free and healthy development that would civilize and shape the character and originality of the individual.
In discussing the improvement of education in Africa, Ward (1953) suggested that education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations, and traditions of the various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of the social life, circumstances, and progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth and evolution. Education's aim should be to render the individual more efficient in his condition of life, whatever it may be and to promote the community as a whole through the improvement of agriculture, the development of native industries, the improvement of health, the training and indication of true ideas of citizenship and service, and the raising up of capable, trustworthy, public-spirited leaders. 45
As late as 1934, the missionaries still controlled schools in Nigeria. This resulted in the development of educational institutions and practices in Nigeria. On January 19, 1934, the first institution of higher education in Nigeria, Yaba College, was opened to provide Nigerians with vocational skills. The second landmark in the development of higher education in Nigeria was the establishment of the University College of Ibadan in June, 1948 (Ajayi & Tamuno, 1973; Umaru, 1980). In discussing why higher educational institutions should be established in British West Africa, Hayford (1911) pointed out that higher educational institutions in West Africa should be established for the following reasons: to create a means of revising erroneous current ideas regarding the African; to raise the African in self-respect; and to make the African an efficient co-worker in the uplifting of man to nobler effort, and Nigeria is no exception. Hilliard (1957) agreed that the purpose of founding universities in British West Africa was threefold: to raise the African in self-respect, to educate the African, and to produce qualified persons to promote African economic development.
As Wise (1956) wrote that African universities would be a force in economic transformation and modernization and that African universities would lead in social, economic, and political development. According to Hussey (1930), the motives behind the founding of the higher colleges were 46 manpower needs coupled with reasons of economy, and the aim of higher college was to provide well-trained assistants for various departments of government and private enterprise. Higher education on the whole was a main instrument of national progress, the chief guardian of the people's heritage, and the voice of the people in international councils of technology and scholarship (Kayubi, 1984).
The Development of Higher Education in Nigeria The beginning of higher education for Nigerians dates to the time of slavery and the resettlement of freed slaves in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in the late 18th century. The first known Nigerian to have received some form of university education was Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowthers, who was among one of the last groups of slaves sold in West Africa cind who was repatriated to Sierra Leone in 1822. At the age of 13, Crowthers was trained by the Church Missionary Society and sent to the United Kingdom for further training, after which he returned to Sierra Leone in time to become the first registered student of the newly founded Fourah Bay College in 1827. Crowther was ordained a priest in 1861. He became the first African bishop, and he translated the English Bible into Yoruba, which is a Nigerian language. He also prepared a Yoruba dictionary and grammar and founded many churches and schools in Nigeria (Ashby, 1964). 47
Th€i development of higher education in Nigeria was made possible* by the efforts of the Nigerian and the Christian missions. Writing about the background of higher education in Nigeria, Adams (1970) observed that the move toward higher education had its germination in the work of the Christian missionaries. According to the Commonwealth University Yearbook of 1989, the first institution of higher education in Nigeria, Yaba College, was officially opened on January 19, 1934. The mission of this college was to provide vocational courses and prepare civil servants. The training would be of "professional character" and so highly vocational that, by itself, it could not earn United Kingdom university or professional qualifications. The Colonial Governor emphasized this point at the opening ceremony of the college in 1934: As the level of attainment of students who matriculate at Yaba Higher College rises in proportion to the improvements in the schools from where these students come, the standard of the work at the college will rise in a corresponding degree, and we look forward to the time when it will be possible for men and women to obtain at Yaba external degrees of a British University. (Cameron, 1934)
The statement that the standards of Yaba Higher College could not compete with any British university started a 48 spate of public protest and criticism. The heat generated by public discussion was so momentous that it prompted events which profoundly affected not only the educational but also the Nigerian political situation. A leading newspap€»r noted in an editorial: Unless the standard of the college is high, it will be impossible to justify the huge expenditure that is being incurred.... As far as Nigeria is concerned, nothing but the best is good enough for Nigeria. If we must have higher education, we wish to declare emphatically that this country will not be satisfied with an inferior brand such as the present scheme seems to threaten. ("Editorial," 1934, p. 6) The college was seen by the Nigerian public as inferior and of no value other than to supply government agencies with young recruits instead of providing higher education. Although it was declared that Yaba Higher College would be adapted to the mentality and aptitudes to suit the local environment, the reward of a local diploma that could not be recognized outside Nigeria caused frustration for the students, who would have preferred certificates of international recognition ("Reports," 1935). The Nigerians1 discontent was an expression of a people who had come to realize, in varying degree, that their place in the changing world would be determined by their rate of educational advancement and the application of modern knowledge to their 49 daily affairs. All available jobs that had some level of honor or prestige had to be filled by those who had higher levels of education. The first landmark for higher education in Nigeria was the establishment of the Elliot Commission, instituted by the Secretary of State for the Colonies on June 13, 1943. The commission was to make recommendations on the founding of future colleges in West Africa. Azikiwe (1937) stated that the establishment of universities in Africa would not only uplift the Africans but would help them shape the new Africa. He noted that universities have been responsible for shaping the destinies of races, nations, and individuals. "Give the Renascent African a university and this continent can become overnight, a continent of light" (p. 144). The outcome of the commission's recommendation, the University College of Ibadan, was created in June, 1948. The curriculum and most of the important academic decisions for the college were determined by the University of London. This trend continued until 1962, when the University College of Ibadan became a full-fledged university (Elliott, 1970). According to the Report of the Commission on Higher Education in the Colonies, the Asquith Commission (1945) recommended that the University College of Ibadan set and maintain high academic standards through the assistance of the University of London in order to gain international recognition. The British government and the University of London helped formulate 50 policy, advised the University College of Ibadan on all matters relating to higher education in the British colonies, and helped the college to obtain an academic staff of a quality that would aid them in maintaining the high standards of British Universities. According to Mellanby (1963), after the establishment of the University College of Ibadan in 1948, the college was severely criticized for not offering courses that led to a recognized degree of a standard equal to those obtained in Britain.. The Nigerian government then attempted to reduce public criticism of the college by making an effort to make the pattern of higher education in Nigeria parallel with the pattern of higher education in Great Britain.
The Elliot Commission reported in 1945 that the development of higher education in Nigeria was marked by more deliberate attempts to reproduce the principles and practices of higher education in the United Kingdom ("Report," 1943-1945). Kolinsky (1985) agreed that the result of the development of University College, Ibadan Standard and Curriculum was due to the influence of Britain's higher education. The British model of higher education was the primary concern for cultivating a political and intellectual elite, and the British pattern was also a means to the goal of economic development in Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 1964). 51
The development of higher education in Nigeria was influenced by the social, economic, and political needs of the natives, and, also, the institutions of higher education in Nigeria had academic standards similar to those of higher education in Great Britain (Ahmed, 1989). The primary purpose of the establishment of the University of Ibadan in 1948 was to produce an elite who could meet the standards for public service and who had the capacity for leadership that was needed for self-rule after the departure of the colonial government (Ashby, 1966; Fafunwa, 1971; Majason, 1974). Moore (1955) pointed out that the establishment of University College, Ibadan, was needed to produce West Africans capable of filling positions of authority in administration and the professions. Ferguson (1965) wrote that Nigerian higher education should be limited to the act of nurturing an administrative elite of producing men and women with standards of public service and capacity for leadership of self-rule. Kolinsky (1985) noted that the establishment of colonial higher education was intended to produce Africans with the standards of public service and capacity for leadership in self-rule and, also, that the establishment of the University College, Ibadan, was an aim to achieve independence of the colonies. McWilliam (1969) stated that one of the purposes of establishing a university in West Africa was to train the 52
Africans to have self-respect and to provide the manpower skill and leadership needed for self-rule after the colonial government. Ike (1977), in his study of university development in Africa, agreed that the purposes of establishing universities in Nigeria was to provide the manpower skill that would lead the country to economic and social development. The second landmark in the development of higher education in Nigeria was the work of the Ashby Commission, which began its assignment in April 1959. The Commission, appointed by the Nigerian government, was assigned to conduct an investigation into Nigeria's needs concerning post-secondary school certificate and higher education over the next two decades (1960-1980). The significance of this commission was noted by Fafunwa (1975): It was the first time in the history of education in Nigeria that the Nigerians themselves decided to examine the higher educational structure in terms of the needs of the country not only for the material time but for a long term; it was the first official comprehensive review of higher education in Nigeria to be undertaken by a team of experts (p. 2119).
The Ministry of Overseas Development and the Inter- University Council in Great Britain planned to offer concerted assistance to the government of Nigeria in reorganizing its system of higher education in order to make education a direct factor in economic development. This 53 objective was explained by Alan Pifer, then Executive Associate of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, in a memorandum addressed to Sir Ralph Gray, Deputy Governor- General of Nigeria, in March, 1959. Pifer suggested that the Ashby Commission's recommendations should be guided by economic concerns, since economic development was bound to be of predominant importance to Nigeria after independence. He also suggested that the Commission should concentrate on how to develop the personnel for leadership as the basis for the planning of Nigerian national economic development. Pifer1s suggestion was welcomed by the Nigerian government, which agreed that economic development should be one of the greatest concerns in the years after independence. Sir Ralph Gray felt that higher education might have a part in preparing the human resources of the country for greater efficiency and economic output. According to the International Yearbook of Education (1961), the Ashby Commission recommended the creation of universities at Nsukka, Ife, Lagos, and Zaria, as well as the upgrading of the University College of Ibadan to the status of a full-fledged university. There then followed the establishment of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka in I960? the University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University, in 1961; the University of Lagos in 1962; and the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in 1962. The Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, was carefully planned to have its own 54 distinct character. Each-of these four universities was established on the basis of the national manpower needs and the different environmental characteristics of each of the universities. Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria catered to the needs of the entire northern portion of Nigeria? the University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University, in the largely agricultural western section of Nigeria, emphasized agriculture and African cultural studies. The University of Lagos was conceived as a professional institution that would train people in such areas as engineering, medicine, business administration, and law. The University of Nigeria at Nsukkci, conceived to have faculties in the arts, science, and engineering, stressed the need for the industrial and commercial arts of food technology, catering, domestic science cind secretaryship (International Yearbook of Education, 1963). Akintoyo (1973), in his 10-year study on the University of Ife, now Obafemi University, agreed that the University of Ife was established to train people in such areas as agriculture and African cultural studies.
Aderibigbe and Gbadamosi (1987) mentioned in their study of the University of Lagos that the mission of the University of Lagos is to offer urban-based courses in business administration, law, medicine, engineering, and environmental studies, all with a good dose of compulsory general African studies for all students. They noted that 55 those courses were offered to meet the growing needs of the country's economy. Chineto (1984) observed that Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, was established to train Nigerians in such academic areas as agriculture, engineering, science, education, business administration, Islamic law and Arabic studies, and that those courses are essential to the economic and social development of the country. Azikiwe (1963), in his study of the University of Nigeria, stated that the University of Nigeria at Nsukka was established to train Nigerians in such areas as arts, food technology, science, domestic science, and engineering. The university was created to be an instrument of national development and to prepare students for leadership and service. During the post-war centralization of Nigeria, the Mid- West region began to demand its own university. In 1970 the Mid-West Institute of Technology was established and became recognized for federal assistance as the University of Benin in 1972. It was intended to be a technological university emphasizing courses such as petroleum technology (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. 1980). The federal government of Nigeria created seven new universities in 1975, the Bayero University, the University of Calabar, the University of Port Harcourt, the University of Ilorin, the University of Maiduguri, the University of Jos, and the University of Sokoto. The creation of those universities 56 was largely in response to the pressing need all over the country for university education. Each of these seven universities was established on the basis of the national manpower needs of Nigeria. The University of Maiduguri and Sokoto were allocated schools of agriculture and veterinary medicine because of their location in the heart of Nigeria's cattle industry. Ilorin, Port Harcourt, and Jos Universities were allowed to develop engineering faculties for specific reasons: Ilorin is near Nigeria's developing and already gigantic iron and steel complex; Port Harcourt is the hub of the oil industry; and Jos is the center of a thriving tin and columbite mining and refining complex. According to the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook (1989), the number of universities in Nigeria has grown to 30. Although growing attention was paid to education by the colonial government in the post-war years, expansion was slow, at least in relation to the size of Nigeria's school age population. Some of the challenges to educational planning included gross differences in educational opportunities between the sites, disparities regarding educational availability among primary school graduates, the demands of an expanding economy, and the need to conserve scarce resources (Okanlawon, 1980). Much progress has been made toward solving some of these problems, but, admittedly, some of them persist to the present day. 57
With regard to the development of higher education in Nigeria, Barkam (1975) concludes the following: Despite the rapid growth of African educational systems since independence, the method of instruction and the values they communicate are basically the same as those which evolved during the colonial era, and . . . most African university students have thus, been trained to assume technocratic roles in an administrative state similar to that which existed in their countries prior to independence and they are being taught to adjust their values to western norms to a point where they regard it as legitimate. (p. 30)
Clarke (1977) stated that the concern over the creation of institutions of higher education in Nigeria is in accordance with the universal concept of the mission and purpose of universities in relation to the communities they serve.
Clarke (1977) also noted that universities exist to fulfill three objectives—teaching, research, and service— and to promote the application of this knowledge to the service of society. Universities must reach out in serving their communities in the following areas:
(a) Direct material services: to provide direct physical or material benefit to small communities. 58
(b) Research-based consulting service: to provide consulting services on a limited basis to aid government as well as small businesses and industries. (c) Educational extension: to relate to the teaching function of universities in adult and continuing education to tackle illiteracy. Guardo (1982) agreed that the mission of universities is to fulfill three objectives—teaching, research, and service. The mission of the Nigerian universities is to teach, carry out research, disseminate knowledge, and serve the community (Nigeria Educational Research Council, 1969).
The findings of this literature indicated that formal education was introduced to Nigeria during the 19th century by the Christian missionaries. The first higher institution of learning, the Yaba College of Technology, was established in Nigeria in 1934, followed by the establishment of the University College, Ibadan, in 1948. Then followed the establishment of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka in 1960; the University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University, in 1961; the University of Lagos in 1962; the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in 1962; and the University of Benin in 1970. As described in Chapter 1, the federal government of Nigeria played a significant role in higher education when the Federal Universities of Technology was established in the 1980s as a national institution for technological research. CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST
Adams, S. G., Jr. (1970, January). Nigeria: Where education has not kept pace with politics, Phi Delta Kappan. 12. 152. Aderibigbe, A. B., & Gbadamosi, T. G. O. (Eds.). (1987). A history of the University of Lagos. 1962-1987. Lagos: University of Lagos Press. Ahmed, A. (1989). Asquith tradition, the Ashby reform, and the development of higher education in Nigeria. Minerva. 27.(2), 29. Ajayi, J. F. A. (1965). Christian missions in Nigeria. 1841-1891. London: Longman. Ajayi, J. F. A., & Tamuno, T. N. (Eds.). (1973). The University of Ibadan. 1948-1973: A history of the first twentv-five years. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press. Akintoyo, S. A. (1973). Ten years of the University of Ife 1962-1972, Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press. Ashby, E. (1966). Universities: British. Indian and African. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Ashby, E. (1964). African universities and western tradition: Godkin lectures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Asquith Commission. (1945). Report of the co-mmissinn nn higher education in the colonies. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Cmd 6647 v673, 1944-1945. Azikiwe, N. (1937). Renascent Africa. Lagos, Nigeria: Lagos Press.
Azikiwe, N. (1963). Origins of the University of Nigeria. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press.
Banjo, B. A. (1972). Method of traditional education in Nigeria. London: Preager. Barkam, J. (1975). An African dilemma. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
59 60
Blyden, E. W. (1882). The aim and methods of a liberal education for Africans. Inaugural address delivered on January 5, 1881, Cambridge, MA. Body, A. H. (1936). John Weslev and education. London: Preager. Busia, K. A. (1968). Purposeful education for Africa. The Hague: Houston, N.V. Publishers. Cameron, D. (1934). As we grow. Opening address delivered at the inaugural ceremony of Yaba Higher College, Yaba-Lagos, Nigeria. Castle, E. B. (1966). Principles of education for teachers in Africa. London: Oxford University Press. Chianakwalam, S. (1956). Educational development in Nigeria. School and Society. 84., 9-10. Chineto, A. C. (1984). Twenty years of education in Nigeria. Lagos: Publication of National Universities Commission.
Clarke, R. (1977). Extending the university for grass- roots development. Institute of Development Studies. Bulletin 8., 4.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1980). History and development of higher education in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1989). University development in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Durkheim, E. (1947). Sociology of education. Chicago, IL: Glencoe Free Press.
Editorial on the establishment of Yaba College (1934, January 19). Nigerian Daily Service, p. 6.
Elliot Commission. (1943-1945). Report of the commission on higher education in West Africa. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Cmd 665 v593. Elliott, K. (1970). An African school. London: Cambridge Press. 61
Fafunwa, A. B. (1971). A history of Nigerian higher educationIiagos: MacMillan. Fafunwa, A. B. , & Aisiku, J. U. (1982). Education in Africa: A comparative survey. London: George Allen and Unwin Publications. Fafunwa, B. (1975). The universities of Nigeria. Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House. Fafunwa, B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin. Ferguson, J. (1965, September). Ibadan arts and classics. Universities Quarterly. £(3), 399. Gray, R. (1959). A report on higher education in West Africa. Birkbeck College Archives. London: University of London. Grover, C. P. (1948). The planting of Christianity in Africa. London: Rex Collings. Guardo, C. J. (1982, September). Defining the mission of a university. Case Currents, 8.(3), 24. Hambly, W. (1975). Origins of education among the primitive peoples: A comparative study in racial development. London: MacMillan. Hayford, J. E„ C. (1911). Ethiopia unbound: Studies in race emancipation. London: University of London Press. Hilliard, F. H. (1957). A short history of education in British West Africa. Edinburgh: George and Harrap Company.
Horton, J. A. (1868). West African countries and peoples. British and native: With the requirements necessary for establishing that self-government recommended bv the committee of the House of Commons; and a vindication of the African role. London.
Hussey, E. R. J. (1930). Educational policy in Nigeriar Lagos: Government Printer.
Ike, V. C. (1977). University development in Africa: The Nigerian experience. London: Oxford University Press. 62
International Yearbook of „ Education. (1961). Nigerian educational development in 1960-1961, 23., 267. International Yearbook of Education. (1963). Nigerian educational development in 1962-1963, 25, 144. Kayubi, S. (1984). Higher education and the dilemma of nation-building in Africa. In A. Taylor (Ed.), Insights into African education. New York: Teacher College Press. Kenya crisis of boarding school. (1991, August 14). The Dallas Morning News, p. 9.
Knight, E. W. (1971). Twenty centuries of education. New York: Ginn.
Kolinsky, M. (1985, Spring). The growth of Nigerian Universities 1948-1980: The British share. Minerva. 29(2), 29-33.
Majason, J. A. (1974). Indigenous education and progress in developing countries. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.
McWilliam, H. 0. A. (1969). The development of education in Ghana: An outline. London: William Clowes and Sons. Mellanby, K. (1963, Winter). Establishing a new university in Africa. Minerva. .1(4), 151.
Memorandum from Alan Pifer ... to Sir Ralph Gray. (1959, March 30). Lockwood paper on higher education, file on Nigeria, Birkbeck College Archives. London: University of London.
Moore, G. (1955, Spring). Higher Education in Nigeria. Adult Education. 27(2), 15.
Mursell, J. L. (1972). Principles of education. New York: Ryerson Press.
National Universities Commission. (1964). Nigerian higher education system: British model. Lagos: Government Printer.
Nduka, O. (1964). Western education and the Nigerian cultural background. London: Oxford University Press. 63
Nigerian Educational Research Council. (1969). Proceedings of the Nigerian National Curriculum Conference. Lagos: Government Printer. Odueze, S. A. (1990). An historical review of higher education in Nigeria from 1960-1985 with emphasis on curriculum development. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton, TX. Oduyale, A. (1960). Practical physical education. London: Longman. Okanlawon, A. (1980, October 2). Free education and the issue of quality. Nigerian Tribune, p. 7. Patterson, F. D. (1955). Education in Nigeria, Journal of Negro Education, 24., 93. Scanton, D. G. (1964). Traditions of African education. New York: Markham. Ulrich, R. (1967). Three thousand years of educational wisdom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Umaru, M« (1980). Nigerian colleges and universities. In Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House. Ward, W. E. F. (1953). African education: A study of education policy and practice in British tropical Africa. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies.
Wise, C. G. (1956). A history of education in British West Africa. London: University of London Press. CHAPTER 3
PROCEDURES FOR THE COLLECTION OF DATA
This chapter consists of the description of the study. It describes how and where the data was collected for this study, and it also consists of reviewing the universities1 income, programs of study, student enrollment, and output patterns by the various schools at Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. This survey is followed by analysis of the universities1 income, programs of study, student enrollment, and their output patterns. The first step was to search for books, reports and articles that dealt with the history and development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The second step was to review these books, reports and articles and apply the concepts they contain to this study. The following procedures were used to collect the data for this study: (a) data were collected primarily from the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook from 1981 through 1992 concerning the income, programs of study, student enrollment, and the output patterns of each Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (b) the researcher made a trip to Nigeria to conduct a personal interview with the Vice-Chancellor of Federal Universities of Technology,
64 65
Owerri, Professor Obah, for pertinent information relating to the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors and the factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (c) Mr. Hamze, the Director-General of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education, in Lagos also provided specific information on the role of the federal government in administration, planning and financing of Federal Universities of Technology? and (d) telephone interview was made to Mrs. Bundy, a representative of the Nigerian Universities office, in Washington, D.C., to obtain additional information on the national educational policy development on higher education in Nigeria. Materials were received from the Nigerian Universities office in Washington, D.C. (see Appendix C). These searches and interviews that were conducted have revealed sufficient materials and information on the topic to complete an effective and efficient dissertation on this subject. The transcripts of the interviews were reviewed and analyzed in an attempt to add to the overall development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Areas covered in the questions asked to each interviewee are found in Appendix E.
After collecting of the data and materials, the facts are used to provide useful information concerning the development of the Federal Universities of Technology as institutions of higher education in Nigeria. The results of 66 the analysis are used to develop the summary, conclusions, and recommendations in Chapter 6.
Presentation and Description of the Data Collected
Table 1 Links between U. S. Universities and Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria
Federal University of Technology in U. S. university Nigeria Obj ective Field
1. Kansas State Federal Faculty Agriculture, University and University of development and veterinary City College Technology, development of medicine and of the City Owerri programs in science University of agriculture education New York
2. University of Federal Academic Agriculture Wisconsin, University of exchange Madison Technology, Minna
3. Massachusetts Federal Faculty Agriculture Institute of University of development of and Technology Technology, Akure programs in engineering and Iowa State agriculture and University engineering
Source: "Expansion of University Education in Nigeria," by National Universities Commission, p. 47, 1983.
Table 2 reveals the income and sources of income for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for the academic years of 1980-1991. 67
-P +> •P •P -P •P •P •P -P •P -P •P •P G G G G G G G G G G G G G Cd
in o o o o o o o o n rH o VO o in o o o VO o VO o o CO o t^ * CO o o o o r> o o in in o CO o K •» V ** o o o CN H CN o m o VO CN ov 43 CO o VO o\ o r* VO VO in n in M VO CN CO rH CO in in CO CM VO CO cd •k Kkk a) CN oa n in o CN CN CO r^ CO VO >« 58 5* rH rH ttt % » % % ft » X CO !Sl ft 0) o -H VO t-* CO cn -H O H in VO r* CO cr> o rH 4J • CO CO CO CO n u 0\ cr» CO CO CO CO CO o\ cn •H CM i Ch CO CO CO CO CO CO (U H en
Table 3 reveals the number of enrolled students for the academic years 1980-1991 at Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Table 4 reveals the student enrollment distribution by fields of study for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for the academic years 1980-1991. Table 5 reveals the output patterns for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. 70
Table 3
Student Enrollment for Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria for the Academic Years of 1980-1991
Academic Number of enrolled Name of institution year students
Federal University of 1980/81 213 Technology, Owerri (founded 1980) 1981/82 286 1982/83 366 1983/84 460 1984/85 774 1985/86 883 1986/87 1,010 1987/88 1,281 1988/89 2,210 1989/90 2,079 1990/91 2,435
Federal University of 1981/82 112 Technology, Akure (founded 1981) 1982/83 189 1983/84 299 1984/85 419 1985/86 623 1986/87 907 1987/88 1,044 1988/89 1,206 1989/90 1,491 1990/91 1,846
(table continues 1 71
Academic Number of enrolled Name of institution year students
Federal University of 1984/85 306 Technology, Minna (founded 1983) 1985/86 429 1986/87 568 1987/88 870 1988/89 800 1989/90 1,458 1990/91 1,556
Source: Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, London, Association of Commonwealth Universities, Vol. 3, 1981-1992 72
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The objective of this board included greater student mobility and easy access to higher educational institutions in the country. The JAMB is responsible for allocating those students who pass the common entrance examination to the institutions of higher education in Nigeria (Federal Ministry of Information 1977a). Before students may attempt the common entrance examination, they must not only obtain a high school diploma, but get a minimum of five credits in all subjects attempted (Federal Ministry of Education, 1978). The government of Nigeria set up the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) to monitor the process of admissions. This board is responsible for writing, administering and marking the examinations and recommending those who passed to the universities in Nigeria (Biobaku, 1978). According to the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (1992), the entry requirement for candidates applying for admission into the following fields of study: agriculture, engineering and science must pass five subjects that include English language and mathematics (see Table 6). For candidates applying for direct entry, they must also pass five subjects on their WASC or GCE "0" Level and must pass a minimum of two subjects in the GCE "A" Level and the 87 subject should be relevant to the proposed course(s) of study (Joint Admission and Matriculation Board, 1992). Table 6 Subdegree Programs and Their Entry Requirement into the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria Programs of study Entry requirement Agriculture/agricultural Candidate must pass the technology W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language Engineering/engineering Candidate must pass the technology W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language Environmental technology Candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "O" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics Science/science Candidate must pass the technology W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics Direct entry candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics, and must pass minimum of two subjects in the G.C.E. "A" Level that are relevant to the course of study. Source: Joint Admission and Matriculation Board, 1992. Note: WASC=West Africa School Certificate; GCE "0" Level=Ordinary Level on General Certificate Examination; and GCE "A" Level=Advance Level on General Certificate Examination 88 Summary This chapter described the procedures used in securing and analyzing the materials used in this study. Tables were used to better present the links between several United States universities and the Federal Universities of Technology, university income, programs of study, student enrollment, and output patterns of various schools at each Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. A table was also used to describe the entry reguirement for admission into the Federal Universities of Technology. CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST Biobaku, S. 0. (1978). Africa's need and Africa's universities. West Africa Journal of Education. 7, p. 40. Federal Ministry of Information. (1977a). National policy on education. Lagos: Government Printer. Federal Ministry of Education. (1978). Entry requirement into the Nigerian universities. Lagos: Government printer. Joint Admission and Matriculation Board. (1992, November 16). Entry requirement into Nigerian universities for the year 1993/94 academic year. National Concord, pp. 22-23. 89 CHAPTER 4 THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA'S NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL POLICY DEVELOPMENT ON HIGHER EDUCATION 1962-1987 This chapter presents the need to understand the educational policies of Nigeria; definition of development; and definition of policy. It describes Nigeria's national educational policies from 1962-1987 and the efforts to improve education by the federal government of Nigeria by the year 2000. The Need to Understand Educational Policies and Policy Processes Federal Universities of Technology, as referred to in this study, covers the post-secondary section of higher education system in Nigeria. Higher education is provided through universities, polytechnics, and colleges of technology, colleges of education, advanced teacher training colleges and such institutions as may be allied to them. In 1960, after independence, the federal government of Nigeria saw a need for a Nigerian policy on education which would be sufficiently comprehensive to build an entirely new country. The leaders of the country can no longer seek guidance from the British. Since Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the 90 91 future development of the country is the responsibility of the Nigerian people. Educational development in Nigeria has progressed through four distinct stages: 1890-1925 the period of Experimentation 1925-1948 the period of Attempted Reorganization 1948-1966 the period of consolidation and independence, and 1966- the period of evolution of the National Policy on Education (Okanlawon, 1980, p. 7). Each period has been characterized by Okafor (1971) as periods with organizational, racial or other compelling forces which determined the specific objectives. Because it was important for the federal government of Nigeria to develop its educational system, in 1962 the Nigerian federal government launched what it described as the First National Development Plan of 1962-1968. The peculiar primary aspect of the First National Development Plan was the recognition and the priority it placed on Nigerian educational needs and objectives (the establishment of sufficient educational facilities at all levels of education). The comprehensive nature of this development plan gives it its national character. Definition of Development Kim (1973) analyzed development in terms of improvement, growth, and change (p. 462). Portes (1976) agreed that development when treated as a normative concept, which is usually the case, is synonymous with improvement. 92 In this context, development means social transformation in the direction of more egalitarian distribution of social goods such as education and political decision making. Portes further noted that while development as improvement tends to focus more on the social and psychological transformations in societies and educational communities, development as growth involves the technological and economic transformation and change comes opportunities. Definition of Policy The word "policy" is filled with ambiguity. This is due in large measure to the various ways the term "policy" is used by social scientists. Traditionally, policy has been viewed from a legal perspective. Salisbury (1968) believed that there are two major positions on the subject of policy, sometimes taken separately, and sometimes in combination. Easton (1965) defined policy as the authoritative allocation of values for society. Policy consists of a broad frame of rules, and Easton describes this as the more general intentions of the authorities of which any binding output might be a partial expression. Friedrich (1963) noted that "it is essential for the policy concept that there be a goal, objective, or purpose" (p. 12). According to this position, all educational activities are policy-oriented and must encompass specific objectives to be purposeful. Friedrich further states that 93 there is a relationship between a governmental unit and its environment in the responses of government to challenges or pressures from the physical and social environment. The First National Development Plan of 1962-1968 Historically, education has received a high priority in Nigeria's development planning. In 1962, the nation adopted a systematic economic plan as an instrument for effective management of the national economy based on a five-year national development plan (Federal Ministry of Economic Development, 1977, p. 237). Nigeria has a growing industrial economy. Therefore, emphasis is placed on education and, more importantly, graduate education. The post independence educational needs of Nigeria, as outlined in the First National Development Plan, called for more purposeful governmental intervention in the educational planning in Nigeria so as to achieve six major national objectives in education. These objectives were: (a) a redefinition of the goal of Nigerian education; (b) a departure from the existing practice regarding the ownership, control, and administration of all educational institutions in Nigeria? (c) a democratization of education at all levels and for all Nigerians irrespective of their geographical location, religion persuasion, and age; (d) a re-evaluation of the content of the curriculum so as to make it relevant to a country poised to modernize her economy and 94 sensitive to a preservation of her moral and cultural values; (e) a revision of the division of responsibilities between the federal, state and local governments and a readjustment of financial obligations for education among the layers of the government; (f) a review of adult education programs in Nigeria with a view to producing functionally literate Nigerian adults ("Objectives for Education." First Nigerian National Development Plan. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, 1962). During this period, 1962-1968, the federal government was responsible for education in the capital territory of Lagos. The regional government, on the other hand, had primary responsibility for education at all levels in their respective regions with some assistance from the federal government. For this plan period, a total expenditure of £45,000,000-65,000,000 was incurred for the implementation of the federal and regional governments' programs in the educational sector of the economy (First Nigerian National Development Plan, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, 1962). This represented 65.2 percent of the total planned estimate of £69,800,000. The federal government spent £24,700,000 against the £29,200,000 estimated. The regional governments together incurred a total capital expenditure of £21,000,000. The First National Development Plan emphasized (a) an increase in enrollment at all levels of the Nigerian 95 education system? (b) division of funds to make such an enrollment increase possible; (c) the training of teachers; (d) provision of physical space, construction of new school buildings and expansion of existing facilities; and finally, (e) governance of all schools in the country including higher educational institutions. No specific mention or provision was made regarding the curriculum change in terms of course content at any level to reflect the high-level manpower development which the government considered as the most critical need. The prevailing view among the Nigerian educators was that education should be tailored to reflect the economic and social conditions of the country. The colonial system of education thus registered its final approval in post-independence Nigeria. The four premier post-independence Nigerian institutions of higher education were the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; the University of Nigeria, Nsukka; the University of Ife; and the University of Lagos, which became fully operational during this period. Each was unique. The Second National Development Plan of 1970-1974 According to the Nigeria Diarv Handbook (1977), the 1970—74 Second National Development Plan objectives were to look at expansion and improvement of educational institutions in Nigeria. This plan called for the importance of science and technology and the teaching of new 96 mathematics in primary school curriculum to prepare students toward the area of technological education, so as to meet the growing needs of the economy. Dike (1966) has argued that progress in science, medicine and technology should tend to follow rather than precede education and that despite the demands for change, the growth producing subjects such as agriculture, science and technology in the university curriculum will always have been a conventional resistance. The Second National Development Plan (1970-1974) objective was to make higher education the instrument of national policy in education to build entire new Nigerian national aspirations that was needed (Ali, 1977). The 1976 Universal Primary Education Policy On October 17, 1975 the Federal Military Government of Nigeria gave M58 million capital grant (Nigerian currency) to the states to execute the Universal Primary Education project during the 1975-76 financial year (Nigeria Diary Handbook, 1977). According to the Area Handbook Series on Nigeria (1981), in September 1976 the federal military government of Nigeria launched the Universal Primary Education (UPE) policy in order to make education free at all levels and ushered into the society a free primary education as a weapon against illiteracy. The interest of the Nigerian people was that education is an important road 97 to power, wealth, and status and that the Universal Primary Education will provide them free education, because until the introduction of the UPE, paying for school could be a problem for impoverished parents even at the primary level (Anyanwu, 1976; Gesinda, 1976). In 1981, free education and the issues of quality were discussed in the mass media and by some Nigerians. The main topic in the discussion was that free education at all levels would require more money. The question of who would pay for free education was raised. Free education would also tremendously increase the student population. According to Payne (1989), the economy of Nigeria is 90 percent dependent on oil. An economy based on oil resources was the future plan for Nigerian national development. During the 1970s, high oil prices helped Nigeria's foreign earnings and Nigeria became an oil rich nation because of the petroleum boom that earns Nigeria $20 billion a year. The financing of all levels of education in Nigeria occurred because of the oil revenues. The education and economic development of Nigeria depends on the oil revenues, especially with the introduction of free primary education in the 1970s (Beers, 1991). According to the report of the National Education Policy Implementation Task Force (1978), Nigeria, given its oil revenues, would have the resources to undertake development of a massive educational program based on the 98 1976 Universal Primary Education policy. The federal government of Nigeria believed that this would be an equitable way to share oil revenues since Nigeria's political and economic development depended on an educated population. The Nigerian educators and politicians have stressed the need for education to meet the challenges of today. The federal government of Nigeria built primary and secondary schools, as well as universities and technical schools, as the number of students increased during the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy (Beers, 1991). Odetola (1980) attempts to enumerate in descriptive and statistical forms the accomplishments of free education to dispel the efforts of the critics of "quality" in miseducating the Nigerian people. Odetola states that: Some Nigerians and some sections of the mass media are outdoing themselves in their criticisms of the scheme .... The critics concentrate their blistering attacks on inadequacy of educators viewing the shortages and inadequacies they conclude that it was hasty, ill digested and of low quality (p. 7). Odetola also states that even though critics are entitled to their opinion, they can often mislead the uninformed. Ozigi (1979) noted that "until about a decade ago, most post-primary institutions in Nigeria had enrolled 300 students .... Today the story is different ... it is 99 not uncommon to find institutions with student enrollments approaching 2,000" (p. 1753). Table 7 and Table 8 show the number of student enrollment before and after the Universal Primary Education policy of 1976. Before the Universal Primary Education policy of 1976 was put into effect, Nigeria had 1,703,000 children in primary education in 1955. By 1960, the year of Nigeria's independence, the number had risen to 2,193,000. In 1966, the total enrollment in primary schools was 3,026,000 and the number of student enrollment was estimated at 12.3 million in 1977. Enrollment in secondary schools in 1955 was 62,550; in 1960, it was 66,320; in 1966, it was 257,400 and the number of student enrollment was estimated at 1.2 million in 1977. The rise in 1977 is due to the fact that primary education had been free since 1976 (Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, 1980). According to the Area Handbook series on Nigeria (1981), the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy has brought growth in student enrollment as follows: primary school pupils from 4.4 million in 1974 to more than 13.6 million in 1980 and the secondary school system has increased from more than 500,000 pupils in 1974 to 2 million in 1980. The introduction of the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy has lead to the growth in numbers of educated persons in Nigeria. 100 Table 7 Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary and Secondary Education from 1955-1974 before the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 Post-Primary Number of Enrolled Institution Year Students Primary education 1955 1,703,000 Primary education 1960 2,193,000 Primary education 1966 3,026,000 Primary education 1974 4,400,000 Secondary education 1955 62,550 Secondary education 1960 66,320 Secondary education 1966 257,400 Secondary education 1974 649,000 University education 1974 25,000 Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, Lagos, 1980. 101 Table 8 Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary, Secondary Education and Universities from 1977-1985 after the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 was Implemented Post-Primary and Number of Enrolled Secondary Institutions Year Students Primary education 1977 12.3 million Primary education 1980 13.6 million Primary education 1985 15.0 million Secondary education 1977 1.2 million Secondary education 1980 2.0 million Secondary education 1985 2.5 million University education 1985 130,000 Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, Lagos, 1986. Oladapo (1988) pointed out that the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy ensured that the Nigerian government provided: (a) free, compulsory and universal primary education, (b) free secondary education, and (c) free university education at all levels of education. He also stated that in 1985 this policy brought growth in student enrollment as follows: (a) primary school—15 102 million; (b) secondary school—2.4 million; and (c) universities—130,000. According to Okanlawon (1980), a completely free education system: (a) is a guarantee against illiteracy, ignorance, superstition and sometimes religious fanaticism; (b) improves the democratic process by increasing the political awareness of the populace; (c) contributes to the well-being and health of the people; and (d) improves the social and economic conditions of the citizens (p. 10). Obozuwa (1981) stated that Nigerians must pursue a vigorous policy of manpower development through education to promote the economic development of the nation. Awokoya (1985) in discussing the issues of education and development into policy stated that the Nigeria Universal Primary Education policy development plan for education is the keystone of a people's life and happiness, and that the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy must meet the many needs and aspirations of the nation as a whole, and that it must also care for the individual, for it is the policy of the government of Nigeria to build up a sound education throughout the nation and to encourage every parent to ensure that their children benefit from the free Universal Primary Education. Awokoya also stated that Universal Primary Education without fees was an immediate governmental objective and anticipated the expansion of post-primary school opportunity in the future. 103 There is no doubt that educational development has come of age in independent Nigeria since the introduction of the Universal Primary Education policy of 1976. According to Rusk (1962), in his address in the Policy Conference on economic growth and investment in education, he emphasized that "education plays an important role in any society and that education is the single greatest instrument of development, it is an integral part, and inescapable and essential part of the development itself" (p. 17). Hanson (1966) in discussing the issue of education in social and economic development has pointed out that the key role of education in any nation depends on how the people of the nation perceive what education is out to do, and on what benefits they associate with such functions, and that the position of the federal government of Nigeria is that education is an integral part, an inescapable and essential part of the economic and social development process. The Nigerian philosophies of education are due to the past and present social, political, and economic setting of Nigeria (Adaralegba, 1969). Oladapo (1988) stated that the Nigerian political leadership recognized that education was an essential instrument for awakening the national consciousness, and for achieving national development and that education was not only necessary but an essential condition for democracy. The Nigerian government believes that education is a way of encouraging a national unity 104 among the many ethnic and language groups in the country, and that education provides the skilled workers, managers, teachers, and technicians needed for economic development (Beers, 1991). The 1977 National Policy on Education The work started in 1973 on the planning of the National Policy on Education and ended in 1977 under the chairmanship of Chief Simeon Adebo, the Chairman of the Nigerian National Universities Commission. The experts were drawn from a wide range that included representatives of the universities, the National Universities Commission, and Ministries of Health, Education, Economic Development, and Finance. Also participating were representatives of the National Council for Education, the Joint Consultative Committee on Education, and the National Educational Research Council. The government's white paper on national education policy states that one of the main factors that led to the planning exercise was the government's realization that: For the benefit of all citizen's of Nigeria the country's educational goals in terms of its relevance to the needs of the individual as well as in terms of the kind of society desired in the relation to the environment and realities of the modern world and rapid 105 social changes should be clearly set out. (Federal Ministry of Information, 1977b, p. 13.) The 1977 policy on education was implemented to effectively utilize education for national development, because a comprehensive approach to educational planning is necessary. Ogunsola (1977) warned that "any development that will not reflect national planning and realistic implementation may lead to disaster" (p. 26). In response to this fundamental concept of development through education, Nigeria created the National Policy on Education (Federal Ministry of Education, 1977), the document which attempted to redirect and focus educational efforts in a comprehensive and purposeful manner. This policy was the product of a combined group of educators, administrators, and policy makers appointed by the then Federal Military Government and was published in 1977 by the Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, to ensure: (a) Nigeria a free and a democratic society, (b) Nigeria a just and egalitarian society, (c) Nigeria a united, strong, and self-reliant nation, (d) Nigeria a great and dynamic economy, and (e) Nigeria a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (pp. 1-5). The 1977 National Policy on Education contains general statements which indicate the philosophy of Nigeria education, and the policy contains the following goals for higher education: 106 (a) The acquisition, development, and inculcation of the proper value-orientation for the survival of the individual and society. (b) The development of the intellectual capacities of individuals to understand and appreciate their environments. (c) The acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to develop into useful members of the community; and (d) The acquisition of an objective view of the local and external environments. (Federal Ministry of Information, 1977b, p. 14). The National Policy on Education seemed to have placed emphasis on giving education rather than certificates to the beneficiaries of the Nigerian educational system. The 1977 policy also emphasizes the following: (a) de-emphasizing of examinations, (b) acquisition of skills, (c) provisions of options, (d) emphasis on the worth of life, (e) exposure to technical versatility, and (f) promotion of naturalism through an understanding of relationship of individuals to one another and the State (Federal Ministry of Education, Education Today. 1987a). Nwagud (1976) stated that the government brought about a new educational policy to be used as a guide for the future of the people in attaining the useful goals of education. 107 Thompson (1976) stated that Nigerian educational policies help to shape the vital decisions a society has to make with regard to education. Thompson defines the most vital decision in the following manner: Major educational policies must be made regarding who will attend school, what will be taught and who will teach, how the educational system will be governed and administered, and how education will be financed. How these questions are answered depends upon the interaction of a host of economic, cultural, social, psychological, and political variables. (p. 15) These are the major factors that influence educational policies in any society. Various societal conditions which cause changes in one or more of these variables will result in a different educational policy. In fact, the federal government of Nigeria has been constantly affected by such social, political, economic, and cultural variables. Iruka (1979) agrees that the 1977 education policy aimed for these objectives. More importantly, Nigeria relies heavily on education to solve its social, political and economic needs. The 1977 National Policy on Education is intended to provide economic development at the highest level in basic and applied sciences, and education at the secondary level for skilled technicians and industrial workers. The 1977 National Policy on Education is also intended to make each 108 Nigerian a sound and effective citizen who can make a contribution to a united, strong, free and democratic society (Federal Ministry of Education, 1979). Qsuntokun (1982) pointed out that the 1977 National Policy on Education is an attempt to meet Nigeria's national educational objections and to help shape the social and economic development. Awokoya (1985) agreed that the 1977 National Policy on Education adopted by the federal government of Nigeria is an instrument of excellence for effecting national development and that it is the greatest investment that the nation can make for the quick development of its economic, political, sociological and human resources. According to Oladapo (1988), the 1977 National Policy on Education should serve as the goal of social and economic transformation and the development of the Nigerian people, and that the policy was the government commitment to education to ensure that every citizen is given full opportunity to develop his intellectual and working capabilities for his own benefit and that of the community. Uchendu (1979), the Nigerian educator and writer, observes that the 1977 National Policy on Education objectives are shared by most African countries because it helped shape the social and economic development. 109 The Third National Development Plan of 1975-1980 On March 29, 1975 the federal government of Nigeria announced that the government will spend M30 billion (Nigerian currency) for the Third National Development Plan of 1975-80 (Nigerian Diary Handbook. 1977). Table 9 Fields of Study of Students in Nigerian Universities. 1975- 1980 and 1984 Field of Study (percentages) 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1984 Humanities 5,132 6,465 6,938 5,963 8,731 10,908 14,897 16.3 16.7 17.1 13.5 15.8 17.1 15.7 Social services and law 6,872 8,557 7,767 13,066 13,501 12,978 20,175 21.8 22.0 19.1 29.7 24.4 20.3 21.3 Education 5,126 7,025 6,239 6,268 9,487 11,420 15,789 16.3 18.1 15.4 14.7 13.5 17.8 16.6 Natural sciences 5,000 6,101 6,338 6,491 7,453 9.868 15,456 15.8 15.7 15.6 14.7 13.5 15.4 16.3 Medical, sciences 4,504 4,989 6,638 6,465 7,813 7,826 11,331 14.3 12.8 16.3 14.6 14.1 12.2 11.9 Engineering, architecture, 3,252 3,730 4,374 3,879 5,767 7,121 11,061 etc. 10.3 9.6 10.8 8.8 10.4 11.1 11.7 Agriculture, etc. 1,625 1,990 2,321 1,959 2,497 3,931 6,170 5.5 5.1 5.7 4.4 4.6 6.1 6.5 Total 31,511 38,877 40,615 44,121 55,249 64,052 94,879 Source: From Fourth National Development Plan (1980-84). Lagos: Federal Ministry of National Planning, p. 268. During the 1975/80 national development plan, the National Universities Commission was to forecast Nigerian manpower and educational needs of the country and to 110 evaluate the economic capacity of the educational system. The Commission's report was instrumental in the great expansion of educational facilities in Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1986, p. 10). The NUC created the Inter-Regional Manpower Board in order to determine the needs of higher sector manpower. The Committee on Education and Human Resource Development joined with the National Manpower Board to determine the educational and training requirements of certain occupations. Through its study, the Committee was able to determine the state of Nigerian human resources and the critical manpower needs in the higher sector (National Universities Commission, 1983, p. 67). The Manpower Board duty is also to encourage inter-university meetings between employees and the government (Moghrasi, 1972, p. 2). Etuk (1984) stated that Nigerian educational objectives were shaped by the Third National Development Plan of 1975- 80. This plan called for the reform of the content of general education to be more responsive to the socioeconomic need of the country. It also called for the consolidation and development of the national system of higher education in response to the economic manpower need. The 1975-80 Third National Development Plan gives specific impetus to higher education for high-level manpower training and economic development. Among other things, the Plan states, Ill Government commitment, however is the creation of the country educational system capable of ensuring that every citizen is given the full opportunity to develop his intellectual and working capabilities for his own benefit and that of his community. (Federal Ministry of Economic Development, 1975, p. 45) This Third National Development Plan was a very powerful instrument for social change in a process of dynamic nation- building of Nigeria. The government identifies six national objectives for the Third National Development Plan and they are: (a) to expand facilities for education aimed at equalizing individual access to education throughout the country; (b) to reform the content of general education to make it more responsive to the socio-economic needs of the country; (c) to consolidate and develop the nation's system of higher education in response to the economy's manpower needs; (d) to streamline and strengthen the machinery for educational development in the country; (e) to rationalize the financing of education with a view of making the educational system more adequate and efficient; and 112 (f) to make an impact in the area of technological education so as to meet the growing needs of the economy (Nigeria Diary Handbook, 1977). This led to the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology in the 1980s. During the Third National Development Plan, the federal government decided to build new Federal Universities of Technology in states without federal universities. The Third National Development Plan has contributed to the development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. In short, the federal government of Nigeria felt that locating the Federal Universities of Technology in areas that were educationally backward would stimulate an interest in education on the part of local communities. The Third National Development Plan also emphasized the following: (a) free universal and compulsory primary education throughout the country; (b) free education for handicapped and gifted children at all levels; (c) the expansion of secondary schools; (d) the introduction of parallel system of secondary technical schools to supplement the present system of secondary education; (e) the production of trained teachers for schools at all levels and the up-grading of teachers in-service; 113 (£) the expansion and consolidation of the universities; and (g) the establishment of new universities under the federal government leadership and control. They are the University of Sokoto, University of Maijuguri, University of Calabar, University of Jos, University of Port Harcourt, and the University of Ilorin (Nigeria Diary Handbook. 1977). Conroy (1980) has stressed that the objectives of general education are directly related to productivity, and that general education goals are valued by society in terms of economic productivity. The Third National Development Plan of 1975-1980 emphasized that Nigerian Universities must offer courses in science and technology. However, Nigerian policy makers had already realized that a major constraint on Nigerian development was the lack of adequate manpower, and that economic and social development required more doctors, engineers, and educators. For this reason, the 1975-1980 National Development Plan earmarked the N30 billion for the improvement of education (World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1987, p. 10). Table 9 shows the fields of study of students in Nigerian universities between 1975 and 1984. According to the UNESCO Yearbook of Education (1987), The percentage studying practical subjects like engineering and agriculture remains a small minority. Over 70 per cent of all Nigerian university students between 1975 and 1979 enrolled in the traditional 114 disciplines—including basic or "pure" sciences. Less than 30 per cent enrolled to study applied or practical subjects, including human and veterinary medicine. The combined average output of agriculturalists and technologists of all specialties by all the Nigerian universities between 1975 and 1979 accounts for only 14 per cent of the yearly total number of students who graduated during the period. The "overproduction" of "educated persons" in the humanities and "underproduction" of graduates in the applied sciences and technology continued from 1980 through 1984. In 1980, for instance, 55 percent of all those enrolled in the Nigerian universities were inscribed in courses of study in the arts and humanities, social sciences and law; 15 per cent took courses in the natural or pure sciences, and 12 per cent in the medical sciences. Those in the applied sciences such as engineering, agriculture, construction, architecture and related fields of study, constituted less than 20 per cent of the total number of students enrolled in all the Nigerian universities in 1980. Roughly the same percentage was enrolled in the applied sciences in 1984. In the session of 1984-85, social sciences and law had the largest enrollment—more than 21 per cent of all students—followed by education with 16.6 per 115 cent, pure science with 16.3 per cent, and humanities and arts with 15.7 per cent. Thus, one of the many problems that resulted from attempts to reform the Asquith tradition in Nigerian higher education was shown in the readiness of policy- makers merely to alter the aspirations and aims of education in favour of science and technology, but with little or no institutional measures to support such "change." Indeed, the state of applied science and technology in relation to pure scholarship has not changed to any significant extent. Thus far, the traditional neo-classical orientation of Nigerian higher education has, in effect, been maintained to the dismay of the initiators of reform. The preexisting curriculum of higher education with its primacy of academic subjects has been preserved. (p. 20) The Fourth National Development Plan of 1981-1985 According to the Federal Ministry of Planning (1985), Nigeria's educational objectives were also shaped by the Fourth National Development Plan of 1981-85. The plan helped change student preferences from the humanities, social sciences, and law and encouraged students going on to universities to work for a degree in pure or applied science such as engineering, agriculture and medicine. Many 116 Nigerian universities stressed such curricula in response to the economic needs of the country. The reorganizing of the system of higher education toward economic development has been one of the declaimed objectives of governmental policy for higher education in Nigeria since independence in 1960. Politicians, military men in office, administrators, foreign advisers and educationalists have called for a development of model higher education and that in the view of many Nigerians, there would clearly be a place in the developing economy for high-level manpower such as technologists, engineers, agriculturists, and veterinarians who would guide the Nigerian national economic development (UNESCO, 1987). The Nigerian economy has needed skilled labor to combat the various problems it faces. According to Hoselitz and Weiner (1961), the extent to which higher education in many modernizing countries is not calculated to produce graduates with the skills relevant to the needs of the country creates the paradoxical but common situation of a country in which skilled labor is a scarce resource, and yet, in which highly educated persons are in superabundant supply (p. 177). Nigeria is no exception to this type of situation. Nigeria must avoid this situation by creating more job opportunities and providing the right education. Bunting (1955) in an address at an educational conference in Nigeria mentions that if Nigerians want to make the Nigerian youth a 117 better human being, a better citizen and a better worker, then Nigerian educators and government must re-examine their approach to education. According to Harbison and Myers (1965), the economic development of every country is the result of the trained effort of its citizens, and that it takes human agents to discover and exploit natural resources, to mobilize capital, to develop technology, to produce goods, and to carry on trade. Harbison and Myers (1965) also state that the wealth of a country is based upon its power to develop and utilize the innate capacities of its people, and that if a country is unable to develop its human resources, it cannot build anything else, whether it be a modern political system, a sense of national unity, or a prosperous economy. The national economic development of Nigeria must be the primary goal of higher education (Ashby, 1965; Adetoro, 1966b). Harbison (1970) stated that the building of a reservoir of highly educated persons was the key to Nigeria's economic development, and that higher education should produce qualified persons able to promote national economic development. The political leaders regarded higher education as the basic component in nation building and the foundation from which they hoped the economic revolution would be launched and achieved (Lewis, 1965; Yesufe, 1969). Meier (1970) in his study of international poverty, pointed out that there is a strong association between the 118 educational, economic and political subsystem of a developing nation. He also points out that education is considered both a consumer good (because of the benefits it gives to the educated) and a capital good (because of the increased earnings to the educated person). Gray (1959) has pointed out that higher education needs to play a part in preparing the human resources of the country for greater efficiency and economic output, and that higher education should lay emphasis on the production of engineers, technologists, agriculturists, veterinarians, architects, and other categories of the skilled persons who should be actively engaged in economic production. Adetoro (1966a) contended that the standards of the Nigerian higher education academic system must emphasize economic development. Adetoro advised the makers of Nigerian educational policy that they must do everything possible to avoid catastrophe. He believed that the curriculum of educational institutions must be designed to meet the demands of science and technology, scientific and technological studies. In supporting this position, Arikpu (1968) noted that curriculum of educational institutions should be designed to meet the demands for economic and social development. The college curriculum must be capable of responding to precipitous change in technology, demographics, and social systems (Moore, 1992). 119 Hcilsey (1961) stated- that some of the problems associated with social and economic development and the production of skilled manpower are the result of deficiencies in the African educational system, and he noted the following: 1. Little has been done by African universities to develop technological research personnel who could transfer scientific and technical knowledge to business enterprises in order to strengthen the economy of the country and increase the national income. 2. The rate of development is hampered by lack of sufficient numbers and quality of technical, scientific, professional, and managerial personnel to undertake feasibility studies, evaluate development projects, determine what projects would best further the country's development, formulate viable development programs and manage and supervise the implementation of projects. These inadequacies make Africa dependent on expatriates for even modest activities in important sectors. 3. The educational system was not devised to meet the challenge of rapid transition from a traditional economy to an industrial one. 4. The curriculum tended to be conventional in outlook and largely satisfied with conditions and facilities that cannot meet the challenge of rapid economic development and the application of modern technology. Specialized training 120 courses in professional and technological fields are generally either absent or inadequately developed. In terms of student enrollment, liberal arts and the humanities predominate while insufficient numbers are enrolled in agriculture, scientific, engineering, and technological fields. Bushnell (1980) stated that the social and economic foundation of any nation must be built through education by planning and implementing programs that will improve the economic development of the nation. Fafunwa (1975) stressed that '"education should reflect the present and future of the dynamic Nigerian society in terms of social and economic development" (p. 52). According to Lewis and Mertens (1987), for economic development reasons, the right education prepared individuals for the dual responsibilities of home management and wage earning. Denison (1971) pointed out that the role of education is to provide skills that contribute to the productivity of all individuals, and that the basic requirement of education occurs at the elementary and secondary levels and extends to the college level. The right education was generally regarded as essential to economic growth. Poignant (1967) argued that education should have a privileged position in the national plan because it trains future workers with the aim of raising production and the standard of living, thereby improving every aspect of human 121 society. He also states that education is a long-term national investment and that the future active population of a country will benefit from the expanding flow of better educated and trained young people. This, he says, will gradually transform the intellectual and vocational structure of the population. Shoemaker (1971) contended that the expanding role of education for work is that individuals require formal training, and preparation for initial job entry, because it is a basic responsibility of the public that we must choose between increased welfare or an expanded program of preparing for work. The purpose of education is to perpetuate and improve the society in which it exists. Our society requires that everyone receive the opportunity to earn an adequate living. According to Ginzberg (1982), higher education must provide the right education to help build the nation's economy, and that economy has no place for functional illiterates, and that education courses or programs can help acquire occupational skills. A nation's position of leadership demands a strong economic base to train people for new skills when required, and to provide an increased level of efficiency and productivity if we are to survive in world competition. That is why the right education should be provided (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972). Galbraith (1975) mentioned that education is very essential for human resource 122 development, because it gives opportunities for people to enjoy higher incomes and it invests human capital in economic growth. Conroy and Diamond (1976) point out that occupational education is important because it provides the right training and skills to people for particular occupations, such as nursing, computer programming, and drafting, that can cause economic growth in the society. Corman (1980) maintained that people lack the basic skills so often required in entry-level jobs, and that is why the right education should be provided in preparing people for work. Adesua (1980), in his study of vocational education in Nigeria, pointed out that modern technology has great elimination of unskilled and low-skilled persons and that vocational technical education will be responding to the needs of the society by keeping up and training the people due to the technological change. Vocational education must recognize the economic condition of a society and to provide technological training to individuals to meet the demands of the market in terms of the technological change (Oyeneye, 1980a, 1980b and 1981). According to the report of the task force on education for economic growth (1983), it was concluded that poor quality of education does an inadequate job of preparing students for work, will threaten any country's economy, and that higher education in many 123 modernizing countries must produce graduates with the skills by providing the right education. Almond and Powell (1966) stated that education enables individuals to improve their welfare. Education also gives people more confidence in their ability to influence their environment, and education is important in political socialization. In a developing society, only higher education can open the way to economic and social advancement and potential political power. Nigeria is no exception (Cowan, 0,Connell and Scanlon, 1965). Gowon (1973) stated that universities should play a significant role in providing the skill and knowledge that will lead to the economic, cultural, and social development of the people. According to Deutsch and Hecole (1981), higher education increases people's general awareness and widens their view of world events, and the people of Nigeria are no exception. N'Daw (1969) stated that African universities are a force in economic transformation and modernization, and that the African universities must lead in the push for modernization processes such as social and economic mobilization. Yesufe (1973) pointed out that African universities must be committed to active participation in social transformation, economic modernization, and the training and upgrading of the total human resources, and government gives a high priority to education. It is 124 important to study the history of higher education in Nigeria, so as to see what the politicians and educators are doing to promote future development through education. Almond (1978) mentioned that "it is higher education that provides the human pool from which most intellectuals and the elites who run the country are drawn" (p. 5). The Nigerian leaders' philosophy is to provide education for its citizens and to invest highly in education as a weapon in the fight for independence. The nationalist leaders viewed university education as essential as an instrument for developing national consciousness and the catalyst for national development (Oladapo, 1988). Aderibigbe (1989) agreed that the Nigerian leaders viewed university education as an instrument that must reflect to the social and economic development of Nigeria. The 1987 6-3-3-4 Nigeria Educational System According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1987b), Nigerian educational objectives are shaped by the 6-3-3-4 Education System Plan of 1987. This plan called for the Nigerian educational system to be reorganized to prepare students in stages consisting of pre-primary, primary, and secondary in two tiers of (I) Junior and (II) Senior, technical colleges and higher education (see Appendix D). In 1987, the federal government of Nigeria implemented this educational reform program and the objectives of this 125 program are: (a) the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity, (b) the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual in the Nigerian society, (c) the forming of the mind in the understanding of the world around, and (d) the acquisition •of appropriate skills, abilities and competitiveness, both mental and physical, as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society. This policy was based on "the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and to give equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the primary and secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal school system" (Federal Ministry of Education, 1987b). Pre-primary education is the education given in an educational institution to children the age of three, prior to their entering the primary school. Primary education is given to children at the age of six, for a period of six years. The objectives of primary education include the preparation for a broad based education with emphasis in the following curriculum: (a) language study, (b) integrated science, (c) mathematics, (d) social studies, (e) cultural arts, (f) health and physical education, (g) religious instruction, (h) agriculture, and (i) home economics. Secondary education is given in two stages: Junior and Senior Secondary, each of three years duration with a total 126 of six years. The aim of secondary education is to prepare students for useful living within the society and for higher education. The junior secondary school is both pre-vocational and academic and offers the following subjects: (a) mathe- matics, (b) English, (c) language of the environment, (d) one major Nigerian language, (e) integrated science, (f) social studies, (g) creative arts such as music and art, (h) practical agriculture, (i) religious students, (j) physical education, and (k) two pre-vocational subjects. The pre-vocational subjects may be selected from the following: (a) introductory technology, (b) local crafts, (c) home economics, (d) business studies, (e) Arabic studies, and (f) French. Senior secondary school education is given to students after successfully completing the junior high. There are three types at this stage: Senior Secondary School, Technical Colleges, and Teacher's Colleges. In senior secondary schools, students are offered the following subjects: (a) English language; (b) one Nigerian language; (c) mathematics; (d) one of physics, chemistry and biology; (e) one of literature in English, history and geography; (f) agricultural science or a vocational subject; and (g) three elective subjects. The elective subjects may be from the following: agricultural science, additional mathematics, Arabic studies, auto mechanics, bible 127 knowledge, biology, bookkeeping, chemistry, commerce, economics, electronics, English literature, fine arts, French, geography, government, health science, history, home economics, Islamic studies, metal work, music, physical education, physics, shorthand, technical drawing, typewriting, and woodwork. The recent 6-3-3-4 education system was developed in 1987. The system reflects the present national policy on education, including technical education, which is aimed at giving attention to the need for the development of skills in certain basic fields like agriculture, engineering, environmental science, and those other sectors that might be urgently needed for the economic growth of the country. The major objectives of the current 6-3-3-4 national policy on education includes the following aims concerning technical education: (a) to provide trained manpower in applied science, technology, and commerce; (b) to provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial, and economic development; (c) to educate people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental problems for the use and convenience of man; (d) to give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies; (e) to give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production of craftsman, technicians, and other skilled personnel who will be 128 enterprising and self-reliant; and (f) to enable young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of technology (Federal Ministry of Education, 1989). Technical colleges are those that cover the post- secondary section of Nigeria's educational system. The length of the training is three years. The technical colleges offer programs such as electrical technology, auto mechanics, welding, and building construction. Upon completion of the program, students are awarded the City and Guide Certificate. According to the Nigeria Educational Research Council (1988), the new 6-3-3-4 educational system that includes technical education was developed to meet the educational needs, manpower needs, and economic development of the country. Higher education, as referred to in this study, covers post-secondary education in either a university, a polytechnic, a college of education, technical colleges, or advanced teacher's college. The objectives of higher education include the development of intellectual capacity to understand the environment and the acquisition of physical and intellectual skills necessary for the development of both the individual and his society (see the 6-3-3-4 educational chart in Appendix D) for the duration of the year of studies. The 1987 6-3-3-4 educational policy on 129 education contributed to the importance of the role of the federal government of Nigeria in all levels of education. The Efforts to Improve Education by the Federal Government of Nigeria by the Year 2000 Education experts met in Lagos for the "Education for All by Year 2000" conference and endorsed a plan to revitalize education in Nigeria from the primary level to the university level. The experts recommended that the government should subsidize the cost of providing instructional materials, especially books, in schools. They also recommended that, due to the high cost of providing education for all, the government should establish "a national education development fund with inputs from the government, international organizations, private citizens and non-governmental organizations" (Kerr, 1990, p. 23). The government apparently worried by reports that 8 million Nigerian children between the age of 6 and 11 have no access to education and that 55 million adults are illiterate, issued a statement that education will, from 1992, be free and compulsory in the first nine years of schooling (p. 23). In September 1992 an amendment was made on the 6-3-3-4 national policy on education. Fafunwa, the Minister of Education, announced to the nation that free and compulsory education from primary to junior secondary school levels throughout the country has started. He also stated that the 6-3-3-4 national policy on education holds great promise for 130 the future and that children will now stay longer years in school based on the nine years compulsory education with tuition free (Asemota, 1993). Educationally disadvantaged states were given a ten- year deadline to ensure that school age children are enrolled by the year 2000. Any child that misses out is to be handled by special education units of the ministries of education. The Minister of Education, Professor Babatunde Fafunwa, emphasized that the government planned for all school-age children to be literate by the year 2000 (Kerr, 1990, p. 23). According to Fafunwa (1990), states are to contribute If250 million to the yearly primary education fund, while the federal government is to contribute H800 million. On the university level, the federal government has been granted a long-awaited loan from an international body (IDA). Nigeria's reguest for $120 million (about 1*960 million) for its ailing universities was formally granted in 1990. The fund will help provide desperately needed facilities for Nigerian universities. The Nigerian head of state, President Babangida, explained that the acceptance of the loan by the federal government was based on the need to review and restore excellence to institutions of higher learning. 131 * Summary The following is the summary of the review of the educational policy and development in Nigeria. The policies spell out the country's educational philosophy which is based on the objectives of molding individuals into sound and effective citizens, and the provision of equal educational opportunities for all citizens. The Nigeria educational policy on higher education has changed substantially in the last 30 years. But there must be a clear conception of what the policies of higher education are and of the federal government's position in the development of those policies. Policy-makers' attitudes toward higher education are critical in a nation where all colleges and universities are not only publicly supported but owned by the federal government. On the other hand, the educational and political leaders in Nigeria have played an important role in implementing the educational policies that shape the Nigerian educational system. After Nigeria gained independence from British rule on October 1, 1960, education became a national concern. The federal government of Nigeria perceived education as an instrument for affecting national development and nationalized the university systems. From that point the federal government began clarifying the philosophy and objectives underlying its massive investment in education and spelled out in clear, unequivocal terms the policies 132 that would guide the government's educational efforts. 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CHAPTER 5 THE PROCESS FOR SELECTING OR APPOINTING VICE-CHANCELLORS INTO THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA This chapter will identify the role of the federal government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of the universities on the process used to select vice-chancellors into the Federal Universities of Technology and the administrative organization and functions. It will also describe the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission. Introduction The improvement and development of Nigerian universities have traditionally depended on the executive heads of the universities. The heads of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are the vice- chancellors, the highest political officer of each university. According to the National Universities Commission (1982), when a university has been established or when there 141 142 has been a vacancy in the position of university vice- chancellor, the University Council, which is the governing body of the Nigerian Universities, will submit a list of nominees to the Federal Ministry of Education to appoint a vice-chancellor. Such lists were obtained from votes of the professors at the university. How this decision is made affects both the efficiency and effectiveness of the institution and its organizations, since the administration of the university is the responsibility of the vice- chancellors . Past and Present Vice-Chancellors of the Federal Universities of Technology of Nigeria Federal University of Technology at Owerri. Professor Gomwalk was the first Vice-chancellor and Chief Executive Officer of the Federal University of Technology at Owerri. Gomwalk was appointed Vice-Chancellor in 1980. He brought a wealth of knowledge and experience necessary to run the university. He was the previous head of the chemistry department and Dean of Faculty of Science at Ahmadu Bello University. His greatest challenge regarding the Federal University of Technology at Owerri was to meet all the requisites necessary to begin operation of the university in 1980. He accomplished that task with a positive attitude with great devotion to the profession and the university. His academic leadership position at Ahmadu Bello University 143 contributed greatly to his appointment as Vice-Chancellor for the Federal University of Technology at Owerri. Professor Gomwalk graduated with a B.Sc. in chemistry from the University of London and a Ph.D. degree in chemistry from the University of Strathclyde. The mission of the Federal University of Technology at Owerri did advance under his presidency leadership, both organizationally, fiscally, and academically. He was bright, energetic, and totally dedicated to the University's development (Federal University of Technology at Owerri, Calendar for 1983/85 and 1989/92). Professor Gomwalk was the Vice-Chancellor of the University until 1989 when Professor A. Nduka was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Federal University of Technology, Owerri. Professor Nduka was a former head of the physics department at the University of Ife. He brought with him his academic administrative experience to be the Chief Executive of the University. Professor Nduka graduated with a B.Sc. degree from the University of California, an M.Sc. from Stanford, and Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Chicago. Professor Nduka was the Vice-Chancellor of Federal University of Technology at Owerri from 1989 to 1991 when Professor C. 0. G. Obah was appointed Vice-Chancellor. Professor Obah graduated with a B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering and went on to obtain his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in electrical and electronics from the University of London. 144 As a vice-chancellor of the University, Professor Obah is still a professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at the university- As a former head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at the University, Professor Obah brought with him administrative experience and academic knowledge necessary to be Vice-Chancellor of a scientific and technological institution. Federal University of Technology at Akure. When this university was established in 1981, the federal government of Nigeria appointed Professor T. I. Francis to be the first Vice-Chancellor and Chief Executive head of the university. Professor Francis was formerly a professor and head of the College of Medicine at the University of Ibadan. He graduated with an M.B.B.S. medical degree from the University of London. He was the Vice-Chancellor of the University until 1991 when his Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Professor A. A. Ilemobade, was appointed Vice-Chancellor. Professor Ilemobade is also a professor of Animal Production and Health at the University. He graduated with an M.S. degree from the University of Oklahoma and a D.V.M. and Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Medicine from Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria. His position as former Deputy Vice- Chancellor and his unique academic qualifications contributed greatly to his appointment as Vice-chancellor of 145 the University (Federal University of Technology, Akure, Calendar for 1989/92). Federal University of Technology at Minna. When this University was established in 1983, the federal government of Nigeria appointed Professor J. 0. Ndagi the first Vice- Chancellor of the University. Professor Ndagi was the former head of the Department of Research Test and Measurement at the Ahmadu Bello University. He graduated with a B.Sc. degree from the University of London, and an M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree in research and statistics from the University of Wisconsin. He was the Vice-Chancellor of the University until Professor S. 0. Adeyemi was appointed the new Vice-Chancellor in 1991 by the federal government of Nigeria. Professor Adeyemi was a former head of the Department of Civil Engineering at Ahmadu Bello University. He graduated with a B.Sc. degree from Ahmadu Bello University, and an M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree in civil engineering from the University of Wisconsin. Professor Adeyemi brought with him a great knowledge in science and administrative experience to be the Vice-Chancellor of the Federal University of Technology in Minna. He is an intelligent, and socially and politically astute individual. Undoubtedly, his previous leadership position contributed greatly to his appointment (Federal University of Technology, Minna, Calendar for 1988/92). 146 The Method of Selecting and Evaluating Vice-Chancellors and Administrators into Nigerian Universities Prior to the selection of a vice-chancellor, the factors to be considered in the selection of Nigerian university chief executives and the criteria to be utilized in evaluating a vice-chancellor's job performance effectiveness have been identified. Customarily, the method employed in the selection of a vice-chancellor has been one of the problems in the Nigerian educational system. According to the National Universities Commission (1982), when there were vacancies in the position of vice- chancellor, the appointment was made by the government and a vote was taken by the professors at the university. The next step in the procedure was for the University Council to submit to the government a list of nominees for possible appointment. A government official, through the Federal Ministry of Education, chose the best nominee. In any higher education institution in Nigeria, the educational leadership and managerial development of academe has been most successful when a complex balance of qualities were recognized by the government search committee which selected a vice-chancellor. The search committee from the Federal Ministry of Education looked at the following factors when considering selection of a vice-chancellor: personality, academic background, and job experience (Hamze, 1993). Marchese (1987) agreed that the following factors 147 were used in selecting and recruiting administrators by search committees: academic qualifications, job experience, communication ability, and personality. University Council members, on the other hand, have looked at the following factors to evaluate vice-chancellors: fairness, integrity, managerial capability, communication ability, coordination ability, productivity, sensitivity, flexibility, and nationality (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983; Obah, 1993). The members of the University Council believed that when a vice-chancellor was appointed, changes and progress in that institution would become an integral part of the new vice-chancellor's position. Eble (1978) stated that: The appointment of a vice chancellor is accompanied with expectation about change and progress. Change has to be introduced as soon as possible, otherwise it may be hard to introduce these changes, as delay in appointing administrators who will carry out tasks will result in loss of opportunities. (p. 21) Neuhling (1981) indicated that a candidate for college president should be evaluated in terms of character, intelligence, fairness, ability to reason, high energy level, willingness to work hard, ability to work independently while part of a team, ability to be loyal, and balance in the possession of need for power. Neuhling (1981) also suggested that the job of an effective college president would include directing and leading an 148 administrative team, effecting needed changes and strategies for implementation of institutional goals, obtaining input from all constituencies in any strategy for change, and holding discussions with all personnel selected to implement strategies. Eble (1978) identified a method of evaluation for administrators as follows: (a) communication, (b) decision making, (c) operations, (d) delegation of communication, (e) problem-solving, and (f) relations with students and colleagues. Definition of Administrative Organization and Leadership An administrative organization may be defined as a group set up whereby university administrators with several levels of structure in the areas of leadership aim to carry out objectives and reach a goal. The administrative organization could be as follows: administrative leadership, governance, and management. University administrative organizations exist to serve the objectives of higher education. The nature of the organization includes the nature of administrative and academic organizational set up (Ewell, 1985). Governance was a process of making decision by basic policies and a process for using personal power. Management was a process of delivering the services of a college or university and the techniques used to develop work programs and employ people to get a job done (Martorana & Kuhns, 149 1975). Leadership was a process involved in governance and management. Leadership sought objectives for purpose and performance to reach the objectives. Administrative leadership was a process of making decisions in the best interests of those in higher education (Jedamus, Peterson & associates, 1980). According to Vroom and Yetton (1973), leadership was an elusive, yet very real concept that influenced everyone. Yuki (1981) defined leadership as an act that initiated a structure in interaction as part of the process of solving a mutual problem. Fielder (1967) defined leadership as the task of directing and coordinating task- relevant group activities. Etzioni (1961) stated that leadership was power, based predominantly on personal characteristics. Dubin (1961) viewed leadership in an organization as involving the exercise of authority and the making of decisions. Leadership as a comprehensive element was defined by Lassey and Fernandez (1976) as: a role that leads toward goal achievement, involvement, involves interaction and influence, and usually results in some form of changed structure of behavior of groups, and organizations. Strength of personality and ability to induce compliance or to persuade are critical variables in the effectiveness of leaders, but their relative influence depends on time and circumstance. (p. 69) 150 The theories of administration were used to identify the principles and development of an administrative system. The system used in running a higher education institution was as follows: Authority. According to Richman and others (1974), authority was a power, based on the recognition of the legitimacy or lawfulness of the attempt to exert influence and that the basis of authority was found in the influence rather than in the influencer. McGregor (1960) defined authority as leadership that depended on using one's power in a formal manner to get the employees1 maximum performance and in use when the leader put the task of work before the employee's viewpoint. Decision making. This, according to Harrison (1972), was the scientific process whereby a situation was studied and evaluated and the problems were considered before a course of action with intent to execute was formulated. Cope (1981) defined decision making as a process of studying a situation and taking action to be formulated. Policy determination. As Good (1973) pointed out, policy making is a selection and statement of the principles and rules of action that are to govern a particular type of activity. Democracy. This term referred to a governmental system or a system used in an administrative set up of a higher institution of learning in which respect existed for human 151 dignity and performance in all areas through the use of influence, persuasion, and compromise (Zammuto, 1982). Ouchi (1981) defined democracy as leadership that depended on developing a team of persons who worked effectively together and who allowed other persons a chance to make decisions on group problems. Administrative organizational decision making has rested on the foundation of the administrative structure of the institution. The function of improving the quality of decision making between the chancellors and the university administrators has been dependent on policy. Policy has been represented in the traditional system of hierarchical control in which power resided at the top of the organization and flowed unilaterally downward. In many higher education organizations, the administrators, board members, students, and faculty members have been given the opportunity to participate in decision making. Within the institutions of higher learning in Nigeria, there has been participation in the decision making process by University Council members and administrators in matters affected by institutional policy formulation and administrative practices. Berghe (1973) pointed out that governance in Nigerian universities was by nature oligarchical with the decision making power at the executive level of the structure. This type of power structure favored greater participation in 152 decision making by the senior staff such as the chancellors, the registrars, and deans. This power structure shows that most universities thus have been very authoritarian in nature. Okafor (1971) observed that most Nigerian university decisions involving policy formulation and administrative practices have been greatly influenced by both national leaders and national politics. All Nigerian universities were controlled by the federal government. In order for Nigerian universities to function well in administration and policy matters, the University Council of each Nigerian university has necessarily involved the vice-chancellors, administrators, and even faculty members in decision making. This action has achieved a balance and created a healthy organization. All administrative efforts to operate any organization both effectively and efficiently must have included successful decision making processes. Zwingle and Mayville (1974) stated that for a university to function well, there should have been an effective working relationship between the university council members and the president or vice-chancellor of the university. Administrative Organization and Functions of the Federal Universities of Technology of Nigeria The improvement and development of any university is dependent on the executive heads of the universities. 153 According to the National-Universities Commission (1990a), the governing body of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria is the University Council. The University Council or governing body in each of the Federal Universities of Technology is patterned after that of the British Universities of Technology (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. 1987). The heads of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria were: 1. The University Council (University Senate)—the highest academic body of the University system. The University Council is the most powerful administrative and policy making organization in each institution. It is the University's governing body, and its members were appointed by the Pro-Chancellor, who is also the chairperson of the University Council, to serve on the University Council for a period of five years. Usually the University Council is comprised of full professors, department chairperson and a few elected representatives at large, such as six persons appointed by the federal government to represent the University interests. Two members appointed are from the Federal Ministries of Education, Health and Finance. The registrar is the secretary to the University Council (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, 1987). The responsibilities of the governing body of the University Council include the selection of the Vice- Chancellor, control management, administration of funds 154 granted to the University, and taking final action on all matters of high-level policy and decision-making in the institution. The University Council also handled questions about curriculum, teaching programs, conferring of degrees, and dealt with the appointment of the academic staff, promotion and student welfare services through the dean of student affairs. 2. Pro-Chancellor (Chairperson)—as applied to Nigerian higher education, the highest political officer of the Federal Universities of Technology. (S)he was appointed through the Federal Ministry of Education and served as a member of the University Council for a period of five years. His or her responsibilities included the hiring and administration of classified staff employees. Hartnett (1971) stated that the chairperson of the University Council must have an open relationship, communicate regularly, and be honest with members of the University Council, and have a basic understanding of the university's goals and priorities. 3. Vice-Chancellor (President)—administered the university and was appointed by the government from the vote of the professors in the universities. When there was a vacancy, the University Council submitted to the government a list of nominees to be appointed vice-chancellors. Then the government officials, through the Federal Ministry of Education, chose the best nominee. Ritchie (1970) stated 155 that an integral part of the President's job involved defining, redefining, supporting and implementing the goals, priorities and changing programs of the institution. McConnell and Mortimer (1971) suggested that for a president or chancellor to be effective, (s)he must have the formal power to take appropriate measure for dealing with problems and needs, and be supportive of the faculty members in the fulfillment of their obligations on behalf of the institution. According to Balderston (1974), for a university president to be effective, he or she should be occupied with administrative procedures, information systems, and methods of attaining efficiency and effectiveness, lines of authority, and channels of communication and organizational strategy. A university president should be granted adequate authority in dealing with financial problems, goals and priorities, and encouraging constructive changes for his institution (Gross & Grambsach, 1974). Cohen and March (1974), in their study of university presidents, suggested that in order for an administrative leader to be effective, he or she must stimulate a thorough analysis of the problems facing the institution and encourage administrative members to offer possibly fruitful alternatives. Kauffman (1977), in his study of the college and university president's or chancellor's leadership styles, found that many of these chief executive officers placed top priority in restoring 156 faculty morale and self-respect, and that some of the presidents let people know that they are friendly, open, and accessible. 4. Deputy-Chancellor—acts as the chief administrative officer to the vice-chancellor and is responsible for advising, planning, and assisting the vice-chancellor in all administrative affairs. This person is appointed to represent the vice-chancellors in their respective university offices. The deputy-chancellor is a member of the academic personnel committee. He or she is responsible for recommending personnel policy, conducting faculty grievance procedures, and reviewing recommendations on retention, promotion and tenure (Cohen & March, 1974). 5. Dean of Academic Affairs (Vice-Chancellor of Academic Affairs)—is responsible for the academic matters of the students, developing curriculum for the university, and reporting any changes to the vice-chancellor for approval. 6. Director of Budget (Bursar)—is responsible for the financial management of the university. 7. Director of Planning and Development—is concerned with the policies, planning, and development pf the university. 8. Registrar—is a ranking officer of the university, appointed by the council of the university and, by statute, is responsible to the deputy vice-chancellor. Coombs (1970) 157 stated that "the responsibilities of a registrar include general administration and for providing secretarial services for the University Council, Academic Board, and other such bodies and committees as may be prescribed by statutes" (p. 6). The registrars responsibilities were the academic matters related to admission and examination. According to a report from the Council of Student Personnel Associations (1974), the role and responsibilities of a registrar included aiding prospective students in matching their educational needs, interests, and qualifications with the offerings, opportunities and standards of the college or university; maintaining the academic records of the students and providing timely and accurate data for communication, both within the college and between the college and its constituency; and being active in top-level decision making in administrative and educational policy areas, such as long range planning, academic standards, enrollment projections, and student recruitment. Since the registrar's responsibilities are very broad, (s)he executes these duties through a deputy registrar, who performs through a network of assistant registrars. Assistant Registrars—Each university has several assistant registrars and each assistant registrar has a rank and an assigned specific area of responsibility, as follows: (1) Senior Assistant Registrar Number One is responsible for publicity and public relations; (2) Senior Assistant 158 Registrar Number Two is responsible for matters relating to Senior and Junior staff; (3) Assistant Registrar Number One is responsible for academic matters relating to admissions and examination; (4) Assistant Registrar Number Two is responsible for offering assistance to the Registrar on general matters; (5) Assistant Registrar Number Three offers assistance to the Registrar on appointments and promotions of senior staff; and (6) Assistant Registrar Number Four offers assistance to Assistant Registrar Number One. 9. College Dean—is the chief officer of the departmental unit of his or her college. The dean is appointed by faculty members from each department by vote when there is a vacancy. The function of the dean is to carry out administrative matters within the college. Gould (1964) stated that the responsibilities of a dean involved academic personnel matters, curriculum and other purely academic problems. As Hodgkinson and Meeth (1980) have stated, a dean is a scholar and an academic administrator. He or she is responsible to keep control of available resources and goals within the department, and makes recommendations on promotion decisions and tenure of the faculty members. According to Griffiths and McCarty (1980), the responsibility of a college dean is to serve as a chief officer to the Chairpersons of the departmental unit of the college. The dean must demonstrate strong leadership, and organizational and managerial skills. He or she must be 159 able to establish goals and objectives, establish communication lines with department chairpersons, and work effectively with the faculty members. The primary function of a dean is to sense the rhythm of each department in terms of its growing or wanting strength in order to anticipate needs for several years ahead. The dean must have a deep concern about the quality of every teacher-scholar under his or her oversight and should take a special interest and recognize the good work of his or her colleagues (Brown, 1973). According to McHenry and Associates (1977), the dean of the faculty of a university should be both the chief representative of the president to the faculty through the schools and departments and the recognized representative of the general faculty in the higher levels of the university administration. The dean should have direct access to the president and to all other chief officers reporting to the president. His or her job was to be a leader in the educational functions of the university. Bennett (1983) pointed out that the toughest jobs of a dean of the faculty involved the educational policies and curriculum, faculty appointment and advancements, and faculty morale. 10. Department Chairperson—is the head of a department. The chairperson is elected by a vote of the faculty members when there is a vacancy and functions to carry out administrative matters within the departmental 160 unit. According to Bowen and Schuster (1986), the chairperson position existed to better understand the situation of faculty in a department and to work toward good interpersonal communication with the staff, thus enabling faculty to grow and develop. As Knowles (1970) stated, an academic chairperson of a department had an important role to play in both academic and day-to-day administration of the department. The chairperson needs a good organization of faculty members to work with and is responsible to keep authority invisible and peace among his faculty members. One of the most important functions a department chairperson should perform is assuring a proper balance in the diverse approaches to learning and the varied sub-areas of instruction and scholarship represented in his or her discipline. A chairperson must lead because (s)he is the chief operator in a department and must demonstrate the qualities and arts of leadership (Bergmann & O'Malley, 1979) . According to Brammer (1979), a chairperson should work hard to identify the strengths of the faculty, build strengths through encouragement, work with all faculty, and be ready to provide encouragement and reinforcement. McCorkle and Archibald (1982) stressed that an academic chairperson must demonstrate strong leadership, organizational and managerial skills, as well as a clear understanding of the diverse nature of the academic 161 disciplines. (S)he was responsible for recruitment, selection, and evaluation of faculty members. The department chairperson was the one responsible for seeing that these things actually got done as they should. A department chairperson makes sure the integrity of the institution is maintained. He or she is responsible for curriculum, personnel, and budget. The chairperson is also responsible for annual employee evaluations, for tenure and promotions, recommendations, and for course assignment and scheduling, not to mention such matters as conflict mediation and performance counseling (Tucker, 1981). As Tucker (1984) has suggested, a chairperson must serve as a role model and mentor to faculty members. He or she should stress the concept of role modeling and try to set a good example for the faculty in teaching, research, and faculty development in general. A chairperson is the key link between the institutional administration and the faculty and student. A department chairperson has both to resist and to promote change in curricular and instructional requirements. He or she must learn to weigh the interest and progress within the department (Waltzer, 1975). Neumann and Boris (1978) pointed out that a chairperson must accomplish a great deal through department consensus and participation, and that interpersonal relationships with faculty members are a must. An effective chairperson must recognize the need to encourage his or her faculty members, 162 not neglecting the ones that seem to be doing fine, and giving all encouragement. A department chairperson should have the communication and management skills useful in confrontations and providing feedback to individuals. Kimble (1979) stated that a chairperson should demonstrate strong interpersonal skills, encourage faculty to participate in developmental activities, respect colleagues as academic leaders and scholars, and understand the mission, direction, priorities, and orientation of the institutions they serve. One of the major roles a chairperson must play is visiting with a new faculty member, showing interest and support, and helping the person get off to a positive start—trying to make them feel like a regular faculty member (Corcoran & Clark, 1984). Brown (1977) viewed the responsibilities of a chairperson as making tough decisions about evaluating and recruiting faculty, providing raises, adjudicating conflicts, moderating tensions, and counseling faculty about diverse topics such as midlife crises, personal and professional growth, and early retirement. A chairperson could support faculty, especially junior faculty, by adjusting workloads and assignments, allocating funds, providing information, and finding research equipment (Creswell, 1985). According to Mager and Pipe (1970), a chairperson should be able to detect a problem situation as early as possible, review faculty performance, and give feedback about performance to the 163 promotion and tenure committee. A chairperson should have access to both summative and formative evidence documenting progress of work toward specified objectives and goals. The department chairperson must maintain a collaborative, open, fair atmosphere, one in which there is a sense of caring about the development of the faculty as a primary function of the job (Kouzes & Posner, 1988). An excellent chairperson must establish an open atmosphere to build trust, openness, and honesty. Openness is essential in creating a situation where faculty members are free to express their views without threat of retaliation or reprisal. The chairperson must be honest and straightforward with the faculty (Creswell, Wheeler, Seagren, Egly, & Beyer, 1990). Because chairpersons are called upon to solve many types of problems, Boice (1982) suggested that a chairperson should initiate the first level of response to their faculty as a colleague and friend. He or she should be aware of issues and concerns, hold a colleague-to-colleague discussion about issues, then use the authority of the position and, if necessary, initiate formal procedures to modify faculty behavior. A chairperson should make faculty feel comfortable by talking to them, listening to what they have to say and being frank in response to their inquiries, keeping an open mind and asking questions rather than making 164 statements to clarify an understanding of communication (Burley-Allen, 1982). Booth (1982) mentions that chairpersons should keep themselves intellectually alive because this is the most important thing for their overall growth and development and that they must be involved in some challenging intellectual focus in both teaching and their academic fields. A chairperson must also have strong leadership skills in dealing with conflict. Bragg (1981) points out that as chairpersons become more savvy about the political process involved in their jobs, the budget and the management processes involved in the department, they become more effective as chairpersons. KirkpsLtrick (1985) contended that the responsibilities of a chairperson were to determine the need or desire for a changes, prepare a tentative plan, analyze probable reactions, make a final decision, establish a timetable, communicate the change, and implement the change. According to Clark and Lewis (1985), chairperson must demonstrate academic vitality by remaining active in their fields, helping to build a focus for the department and keep it before the faculty, help faculty set goals at the beginning of the year, and review accomplishments of the goals with faculty at the end of the year. As Furniss (1981) stated, the role of a chairperson is to creatively help faculty move in new directions and to identify resources for these moves. 165 11. Faculty Member—is a member of a university department with a rank of professor, associate professor, reader, senior lecturer, lecturer I, II, III, or assistant lecturer. Faculty members have roles in academic and personnel administration and share authority effectively, both as academic and personnel administrators, in the areas of management and decision making. They sit on committees to hear faculty grievances, develop curricula, conduct research, and teach (Mortimer & Mcconnell, 1978). Becker (1975) pointed out that the responsibilities of a faculty member included teaching and conducting research in a direction that the institution will accept in the advancement of knowledge. The federal government established policies and passed legislation directing the organization and administration of the formal educational system of university institutions in Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 1990). The organization and top administrators' policy making functions in Nigerian universities appears in Appendix B. The Role of the Federal Government of Nigeria in Administration, Planning, and Financing of the Federal Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission The educational administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are controlled by the Federal Ministry of Education and the 166 National Universities Commission. The Federal Ministry of Education has the responsibility for overall development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria and its function consists of all educational matters such as management and maintenance of higher education standards. The Ministry of Education is headed by the Minister for Education, and the permanent secretary is the chief administrative officer, whose major duty is to run the organization efficiently and to advise the Minister on educational matters (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983). According to Morrison (1964), the permanent secretary is the chief civil servant of the Ministry of Education. As Adedeji (1981) outlined: The government, both Federal and State, will have to continue to depend on their higher Civil Services for assistance in policy formation, between the past and the present, between an outgoing government and an incoming administration and, at the Federal level, for being a unifying force containing in its ranks people from virtually all the ethnic groups of Nigeria, (p. 667) The Federal Ministry of Education has several internal divisions and they are as follows: Educational Administration, School Inspection, Administration and Finance, Scholarship and Student Affairs, Educational Services, Planning and Research, Examination and 167 Registration. The Federal Ministry of Education outlines the educational policies on education. They are responsible for the curricula, courses, and program development for higher institutions of learning. Ukeje (1964) agrees that some of the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education is to develop curriculum, courses and programs to each higher educational institutions in the country. The Federal Ministry of Education is also responsible for preparing an educational development plan which takes economic and social need into account. This unit of the Ministry is headed by a well-trained staff, and their duties are as follows: (a) policy control and administration of higher education; (b) planning, research, and development of education; (c) inspection services to improve and maintain standards; and (d) educational services. See Appendix B for the organizational structure of the Ministry of Education. The duties of the Minister of Education are: (a) supply information and make recommendations on educational policy; (b) prescribe regulations for management of the Ministry and provide the Ministry with information on higher education; (c) recommend annual budget for higher education; (d) advise and counsel the heads of higher institutions of learning concerning the administration, budget, and methods to improve higher education; (e) make a full report to the legislative session of advice and counsel with heads of higher education institutions concerning their 168 administration, budgets, "and methods to improve higher education, and develop recommendations for legislative consideration; and (f) act as the administrator to carry out responsibility for education programs. The duties of the Federal Ministry of Education include among other things: (a) the determination of a national policy on education in order to ensure uniform standards and quality control; (b) the coordination of educational practices in Nigeria; (c) advisory services to all levels of education, including the universities; (d) federal inspection advisory services to help improve and maintain standards; (e) planning and research on a national scale; (f) the coordination of non-formal education, including adult education and vocational improvement centers; (g) the coordination of educational services; (h) international cooperation in education; (i) the coordination of national school examinations and relevant teacher examinations— testing and evaluations; and (j) the establishment of a central registry for teachers (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983). The Role of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in Higher Education According to the National Universities Commission annual report of 1963-1966, the federal government of Nigeria established the National Universities Commission (NUC) in 1962 to ensure the maintenance of high academic 169 standards in Nigerian universities. The NUC has undisputed control over the affairs of the universities, particularly in terms of finance, personnel, and courses. The relationship between the Nigerian universities and the government is one of a good working relationship that exists between the universities and the government. The Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission are fully responsible for higher education. They are responsible in terms of the freedom to teach, conduct research, and to make appointment to both academic and administrative positions (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. 1988). In the area of funding, the NUC, through the Federal Ministry of Education, occupies a very significant position in relation to the Nigerian university system. The commission makes allocation of funds to the universities from a block grant from the government. The federal government supports the universities with grants administered through the National Universities Commission which is set up by law (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. 1992). The NUC and the Federal Ministry of Education handles the affairs of the universities. The Federal Ministry of Education has direct relationships with the president of the country and the universities commission on the federal levels. The relationship between the universities and the government appears in the Federal arena 170 chart (see Appendix B). The commission serves as an intermediary between government and the universities to audit and transmit their financial, personnel, and other requests (Musa, 1979). The major responsibilities of the commission are as follows: 1. To investigate proposals for the establishment of universities or other institutions of higher learning which desire to have federal grants and to advise the federal government whether the proposal for federal grants should be approved; 2. To initiate and consider, in consultation with the universities, plans for such balanced development as may be required to enable universities to meet national needs; 3. To examine the financial needs, both recurrent and capital, of universities seeking or receiving federal grants and to present these needs to the Federal Ministry of Education; 4. To receive annually a block grant from the federal government and to allocate it to universities with such conditions attached as the commission may deem advisable; 5. To collect, examine, and publish information relating to university finance and education in Nigeria; 6. To make, either itself or through committees, such other investigations relating to higher education as the commission may think necessary, and, for the purpose of 171 these investigations, to have access to the records of universities seeking or receiving federal grants; 7. To make such other recommendations to the federal government or to the universities relating to higher education as the commission may deem to be in the national interest (University Development in Nigeria, Report of the National Universities Commission, 1963). The National Universities Commission was given responsibility to advise the government as to the desirability of centralized planning of university development (NUC, Annual Report, 1967-1969). In 1975, under the leadership of General Muhammed, Nigeria former head of state, the commission was given more powers and began to apply itself seriously to the development of centralized planning and fiscal control. It maintained that the autonomy given to universities could only be exercised with fiscal restraint and that all Nigerian universities must demonstrate political awareness and national responsibility through their various admissions policies (NUC, Annual Report, 1987-1989). According to the NUC Annual Report of 1971-1973,the commission and the universities themselves were acutely aware of the staffing problems of the university system. Because of the importance of quality personnel, each of the new universities was given funds to hire faculty and to send them to graduate school in Nigeria or abroad for further 172 education or training. In some cases, faculty members are hired from overseas. The NUC has set up Nigerian university offices in London, Cairo, New Delhi, India, Washington, D.C. and Ottawa, Canada for the purpose of coordinating staff recruitment, advertisement, training of students, and purchases of university books, laboratory equipment and consumables. These foreign offices help to attract academics from their respective locations to visit a Nigerian university under an academic exchange program, sometimes subsidized by the host government through grants made available for salary supplementation of particular foreign teachers in Nigerian universities. With the increase in the scope and responsibilities of the new commission, consequent upon the federal government decision to take over the responsibility for higher education, the secretariat needed expansion and re- organization in order to cope with this. Consequently, five main divisions were created in the secretariat, each headed by a director with appropriate qualifications. These divisions are: Administration, Academic Planning, Finance, Physical Planning, Research and Post Graduate Development. (The Role of the NUC, Nigerian Observer, 1983) The areas of responsibility of these divisions are as follows: 1. Administration Division —Internal Administration of the Commission 173 —Commission's Staff Matters —Commission's Meetings —University Administration —Academic Visitation to the Universities —Conditions of Services of University Staff —Special Investigations —Circulars to the Universities —Liaison with Nigerian governments and ministries -—Annual Report of the Commission —Publication and Information —Other schedules as may be added from time to time. 2. Academic Planning Division —The processing of new courses. This in turn, includes proposed faculties and institutes in the existing universities, and courses to be offered by the new Universities Curriculum Development and Coordination/Preparation of Master Plans —Costing of Academic Programmes —Annual Estimate Hearings of the Universities —Allocation of Federal Grants to the universities —Other schedules as may be added from time to time. 3. Finance Division —Participation in Annual Estimate Hearings of the Universities 174 —Collating the various estimates of all universities —Operation of the National Universities Commission Fund —Other schedules as may be added from time to time. 4. Physical Planning Division —This unit is responsible for advising the executive secretary on the planning, general supervision and inspection of university building projects consistent with the planning of the new university institutions. 5. Research and Post-Graduate Development Division —Liaison with outside Agencies —External Aid for Nigerian Universities —Coordination of research work in the universities —Processing of applications for overseas travels by the universities and NUC staff. 6. Statistics/Data Unit —This Unit is responsible for analyzing and producing the statistical data arising from the annual operations of the commission. Each of these divisions, with the exception of the Statistics/Data Unit, has a reasonable complement of senior and junior staff to support the divisions, although it should be pointed out that the commission has not been able 175 to recruit as many staff as it needed to perform its functions effectively due to various reasons, the most important of which is lack of housing facilities for its staff and appropriate salary (Organization of the National Universities Commission Secretariat, NUC, 1990b). See Appendix B for the organizational chart of the National Universities Commission. The Function of the Administration Division of the National Universities Commission According to the Annual Report of the National Universities Commission of 1986-88, the sub-administration division is an imperative service link among all other divisions of the NUC and hence a good factor in the implementation of policy decision relating to university administration. The Director of Administration is the secretary to the board and most of its committees, hence the division looks after the effectiveness of the various committees and the welfare of the commission members. It is in charge of the communication of government circulars and decisions to the universities. The administration division serves as a service center to all divisions in the sense that it provides guidelines for the effective performance of the various divisions in the recruitment of staff, provision of establishment estimates for the secretariat, as well as serving as the liaison between the federal government and the secretariat staff on government policies and procedures. 176 According to the Annual Report of the NUC of 1974-1976, for the commission to carry out its function effectively, the division of sub-administration was established into six units: Establishment Section, Committee on Protocol Section, Information and Publication Section, Transport Section, General Services Section, and Library Section. Committee on Protocol Unit. The Board of the Commission meets at least four times a year and in order for the members of the commission to be more aware of the progress and problems of the universities, board meetings rotate round the university towns. The meetings of the various committees are held as constantly as necessity demands. For all these meetings the administration division provides both secretariat and clerical services as will be highlighted shortly (Annual Report of NUC, 1980-1982). The Committee and Protocol Unit. This unit or section is charged with the responsibility of servicing the various committees for a more effective and direct thrust into the different spheres of its responsibilities. The Committees are: 1. Accreditation Committee 2. Finance Committee 3. University Development Committee 4. Tenders Committee 5. Management Committee 177 6. Establishment Committee 7. Appointments Promotion Committee Secretaries are appointed from the committee unit to cover the various meetings of the commission and the committees which come up from time to time. The protocol arm of the unit organizes receptions, accommodation and entertainment for members of the commission and the committees (Annual Report of NUC, 1987-1989). Transport Unit. This is charged with the movement of board members during meetings. The unit also oversees the use of vehicles allocated to the various sections and or units of the commission's secretariat for maintenance purposes. The General Services Unit. This unit purchases and maintains office equipment and as well maintain staff quarters. It is also responsible for the security arrangement for offices and houses of the commission as well as seeing to the cleanliness of the office surroundings (Annual Report of the NUC, 1987-89). The Information and Publication Unit. This unit is responsible for collation, edition and publication of news as it affects the commission. In that capacity, the unit has the onerous task of image making for the commission. For this reason, it is this unit therefore that deals directly with the media in order to project the activities of NUC. The unit has for long been publishing and 178 distributing quarterly bulletins where current issues in university management are highlighted for local and international consumption (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91). The Universities and Overseas Unit whose duty is to encourage and foster linkage relationships among Nigerian universities and their foreign counterparts in order to have Nigerian universities activities recognized internationally as well as benefit financially, technically and morally, was a unit of the administration division. This division, research and post graduate development, was set up in 1987 to promote and fund research programs in the universities. This brings to five the number of divisions in the commission (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91). The Library. A sub-unit in administration is largely a reference one with limited facilities for borrowing. External publications are sometimes procured in exchange for the commission's bulletins and annual reports. Publications like weekly bulletins of the Federal universities, research reports of government enquiries and white papers are available for reference purposes (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91). See Appendix B for the sub-administration division organization chart of the National Universities Commission. Growth and Changes within the Division. According to the Annual Report of 1989-91 the steady growth of the division is a direct response to the growth of the 179 commission. With a staff strength of less than ten persons at inception, the commission currently has 336 employees. The Administration Division naturally has grown in order to cater for the increased staff strength of the secretariat. The staff strength of the members of staff. Administration Division has the largest number of employees with varied and encompassing duties. In its period of growth there were changes in the structure of the division. In 1985, a unit in the division, purchases, was moved to finance and moved back to administration in 1987. Transport, legal, committee, information and protocol were one time or the other subjected to similar movement. All these units had been returned to the administration division, where they rightly belong, by the end of 1987. There has also been a high incidence of changes in leadership of the division, starting with the time when the head of division was referred to as head of administration until NUC became a first class government parastatal and the headship becomes a director. Since then, the division has been headed by about seven persons. The division is set to do its best towards the achievement of the goals of the commission. As a service center of any organization, administration division has to be bold, dynamic, foresighted, adventurous and unequivocal. Only in doing this can it be effective, efficient and respectable. 180 The administration division of the National Universities Commission is aware of the benefits good management and effective implementation welfare conditions could bestow on its employees and is doing very well in that regard- This alone can lead to great heights of achievement for staff whose duty it is to evolve a single university system through central coordination and national planning (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91). Summary The following is a summary of the findings of this part of the study: 1. The appointment of a vice-chancellor in Nigerian universities is approved by the federal government through the Ministry of Education. This shows that the federal government plays an important role in the selection process. Meaningful improvement in university administration may be achieved through a clear definition of the functions of vice-chancellors. Identification of the factors that should be considered in the selection of university vice- chancellors is important, and a clear definition of the criteria that should be used in the evaluation of vice- chancellors1 job performance is a major step in arriving at a fair appraisal of the productivity of university officers. 2. Hamze, the Director-General of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, stated in an interview 181 with the researcher (1993) that some of the factors that are considered to be very important in the selection of a vice- chancellor are personality, academic qualifications, experience in the job, clear definition of the selection process and job incentives and rewards. 3. 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Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education and ERIC. CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This chapter presents a summary of the study. The results of the data analysis are presented, and the findings and conclusions are discussed. The chapter concludes with the implications and recommendations. Summary of Major Findings The findings of the study enhance the achievement of the objectives of this study. Those objectives were to seek answers to four research questions. The first question was the following: "What were the major factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?" The development of the Federal Universities of Technology was the work of an educational team of experts that was set up by the federal government of Nigeria, through a committee of the National Universities Commission. The committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an investigation into the need in the field of technological education. The Mohammed Commission was under the chairmanship of Col. A. A. Ali, the former federal commissioner for education. The experts were drawn from a wide range that included 189 190 representatives from the National Universities Commission, such as the Chief Planning Officer for Academics, to carry out planning for the new universities. Also participating were the representatives from the Ministries of Health, Education, Economic Development, and Finance. The committee recommended that the Federal Universities of Technology should be established for the following reasons: (a) to train people for modern scientific and technological educational; (b) to meet the rate of growth in science student population; (c) to provide the manpower skill that will lead the country into economic and social development; and (d) to establish the Federal Universities of Technology in the north, west, and eastern parts of the country to balance the geographical spread of the institution. According to the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Calendar of 1983-85, the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria was established for the following reasons: (a) to provide the Nigerian people the opportunity of acguiring a higher education in technology; (b) to provide and promote sound basic scientific training as a foundation for the development of technology and applied sciences; (c) to identify technological problems and needs of the society, and to find solutions to them within the context of overall national development; (d) to offer academic and professional programs leading to the award of first degrees, post-graduate degrees, research, and higher degrees emphasizing in 191 planning, adaptive, technical, maintenance, developmental, and productive skills in the engineering, scientific, and agricultural disciplines with the aim of producing socially mature men and women with capability to understand, use, and adapt existing technology and to improve on it, and develop new ones; and (e) to act as agents and catalysts, through post-graduate training, research, and innovation for the effective and economic utilization, exploitation, and conservation of the country"s natural, economic, and human resources (pp. 15-16). The most compelling factors that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are (a) philosophical, (b) economic, (c) sociological, and (d) geographical factors. As Carr (1967) noted, in examining the cause of educational institutions, the following factors must be emphasized: (a) economic, (b) geographical, (c) sociological, and (d) philosophical factors and that historians should take an eclectic view and explain the historical events in terms of a combination of all these views. Philosophical factors. The Nigerian government and educators recognize that two questions are fundamental to the development of a sound technical program: what should be taught, and how should it be taught? Answers to these questions involve the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria was established to 192 train and prepare students .in modern scientific and technical education for the technological need of the country. Economic factors. Technical education is a contributor to the Nigerian society's economic mainstream, and the economy of technical education itself. Labor is a basic component of the Nigerian economic system. The development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria has a source of labor supply to the country's economic growth. The rapid rate at which technological changes are occurring creates a need to establish the Federal Universities of Technology, in order to provide the technological education programs that are flexible enough to adapt to a changing economy to operate as productively as possible. As Wirth (1971) noted, economic growth will increasingly depend on the rate of technological development, which in turn will depend on the availability of technically trained personnel. Sociological factors. As the Nigerian government and educators recognized that Nigerian society and nature of work has changed, and a technology becomes increasingly compleix, engineers and scientists have to become more highly traineid. The Federal Universities of Technology was established to provide scientific and technological training to its citizens in speeding up training of manpower need of the country, and to train or retrain people for suited occupations with the needs, interests, and ability to 193 benefit: from such training. The Nigerian government and educators look at technical education for at least a partial solution to the social problems related to Nigeria's unemployment. As Leighbody (1972) stated, technical education is a based need to the nature and broad goals of societal needs and personal fulfillment. Geographical factors. The assessment of education in each of the northern, eastern and western regions of Nigeria also led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna. The federal government of Nigeria established the Federal University of Technology at Owerri in 1980, the Federal University of Technology at Akure in 1981, and the Federal University of Technology at Minna in 1983. Each of these three universities was carefully planned to have its own distinct character. The Federal University of Technology at Owerri catered to the need of the entire eastern portion of Nigeria, stressing such academic areas as agriculture/ agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology, management technology, and natural/applied science. The University enrolled 213 students for the 1980/81 academic year and the primary purpose of the University was to produce graduates in science and technical subjects. The Federal University of Technology at Akure catered to the need of the western section of the country and emphasized the following academic areas: agriculture/ agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology, 194 environmental technology, science technology, and veterinary medicine. The University enrolled the first students in 1981/82 academic year with a student population of 112. The Federal University of Technology in Minna catered to the need of the northern section of Nigeria and emphasized the following academic areas: agriculture/ agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology, science/science education, and veterinary medicine, together with the pre-degree and foundational courses for first and second year students of degree programs. The University enrolled the first students in February 1984 with a student population of 306. The School of Agriculture/Agricultural Technology and Veterinary Medicine at the Federal University of Technology were allocated because of their location in the heart of Nigeria's cattle industry. Research question two asked, "What were the programs of study, student enrollment and output patterns of each Federal University of Technology as they developed from 1980 to 1991?" The three Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna, all of which started with only a handful of students and a small number of courses and a few schools, now constitute a complex and well-developed system of higher education. Each of the universities has schools which offer programs in a wide range of fields in the undergraduate level. 195 The first degree programs in all three universities have high entry requirements. Both honors, 1st class, 2nd class, upper and lower divisions; and 3rd class or a pass degree are offered. The bachelor's degree in technology may be obtained in five or six years, depending upon the discipline and type of degree in question. The Federal University of Technology in Owerri offers post-graduate studies which began in 1989. The University offers the following degrees in three semesters: (a) Master of Science, (b) Master of Engineering, (c) Master of Technology, (d) Master of Business Administration, and (e) the Doctor of Philosophy degree in four semesters, depending upon the subjects of specialization. Both master's and doctor's programs involve research in an approved topic and the presentation of a thesis. The Federal University of Technology at Owerri. The university was founded in 1980. It has four schools: Agriculture/Agricultural Technology, Engineering/Engineering Technology, Management Technology, and Natural/Applied Science. The Federal University of Technology at Akure. The university was founded in 1981. It has four schools: School of Agriculture/Agricultural Technology, School of Engineering/Engineering Technology, School of Science Technology, and School of Veterinary Medicine and Science. The Federal University of Technology at Minna. The university was founded in 1983. It has four schools 196 together with a pre-degrea and foundational courses program. The Schools consist of the following: Agriculture/ Agricultural Technology, Engineering/Engineering Technology, Science/Science Education, Veterinary Medicine/Science, and the pre-degree and foundational courses program for first and second year students of degree programs. Enrollment and Output Patterns. The Federal University of Technology at Owerri opened in 1980 with 213 students. By the 1981/82 academic year it had 286 students, rose to 366 in the 1982/83 academic year, and to 460 in 1983/84. In the 1984/85 academic year 774 students enrolled at the University. In 1985/86 883 students enrolled, and it awarded 67 degrees in 1985/86. Enrollment rose to 1,010 in the 1986/87 academic year. In 1987/88, the University had 1,281 students, and it awarded 175 degrees in 1986/87 and 163 degrees in 1987/88. In 1988/89 the student enrollment had risen to 2,210 and it awarded 209 degrees in 1988/89. By the 1989/90 academic year the University saw a significant growth in student enrollment of 2,079 and awarded 236 degrees in 1989/90 with addition to the 13 post-graduate degrees awarded between 1989-1991 and with enrollment of 2,436 for the 1990/91 academic year. The Federal University of Technology at Akure was established in 1981 and admitted its first students in the 1981/82 academic year with student enrollment of 112. By the 1982/83 academic year it had 189 students and rose to 197 299 in the 1983/84 academic year, and to 419 in 1984/85. In the 1985/86 academic year, 623 students enrolled at the University, and the University awarded only 1 degree in 1985/86. By the 1986/87 academic year 907 students enrolled, and the University awarded 54 degrees in 1986/87. The student enrollment rose to 1,044 in the 1987/88 academic year, and the University awarded 133 degrees. In 1988/89, the University had 1,206 students enrolled and awarded 131 degrees. In the 1989/90 academic year the University enrolled 1,491 students and awarded 216 degrees. The University saw a significant growth in student enrollment of 1,846 and awarded 238 degrees in 1990/91. The Federal University of Technology in Minna was established in 1983, but opened in 1984 with 306 students. By the 1985/86 academic year the University had 429 students and rose to 568 in the 1986/87 academic year. In 1987/88 the University enrolled 870 students and in the 1988/89 academic year the enrollment fell to 800 due to a decline in the number of students that enrolled in environmental technology, but enrollment increased to 1,458 in the 1989/90 academic year. By the 1990/91 academic year student enrollment was 1,556. The University awarded 115 degrees in 1988/89, 156 in 1989/90, and 190 degrees were awarded in 1990/91. Research question three asked, "What is the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of Federal Universities of Technology through 198 the National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education?" The Federal Ministry of Education outlines the educational policies and they are responsible for the curriculum, courses, and program development for higher institutions of learning. The National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education are responsible for preparing the educational development plan which takes economic and social need into account. Together with the National Universities Commission, the Federal Ministry of Education handles the affairs of all Federal Universities in Nigeria. The federal government of Nigeria is responsible for education at all levels and has the full financial responsibility for higher education in the whole country. The federal government plays a coordinating role with the broad direction of educational policy, planning, and finance. Planning. When the Federal Universities of Technology was established, the NUC and the Federal Ministry of Education handled the affairs of the universities. The NUC coordinates the physical, academic, and staff development of the Universities. The NUC set up an academic planning group to devise the systematic phasing of academic and professional courses in these universities. In planning for the development of the universities, the NUC and the Federal Ministry of Education considered not only the plans put 199 forward by the individual universities themselves, but other factors such as the demand for students and national needs for qualified graduates. Financing. The financing of higher education in Nigeria cannot be made possible without the oil revenues that ctre shared among the universities, including the Federal Universities of Technology. The Federal government makes sure that these revenues are equitably distributed among the universities. Sources of financing the Federal Universities of Technology include: (1) grants in-aid from the government where contribution is over 90 per cent; and (2) income from services rendered (e.g., accommodation charges). Approximately four months before the beginning of the financial year each University submits its draft estimates of expenditures to the National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education. These estimates are prepared under three headings: recurrent expenditure; non- recurrent, capital or development expenditure; and equipment expenditure. After receiving the draft estimates from each institution, the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the Federal Ministry of Education finance committee scrutinizes them on a line-by-line basis. The committee then meets with the heads of institutions and their financial officers so that they can justify their estimates. After reaching the consensus on the draft estimates of each institution, the Director of Finance Division at the NUC and 200 the Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education will then present a form of recommendations to the Budget Division of the Ministry, which represents the government and determines specifically the size of the grants to be made to each institution. Research question four asked, "What is the role of the federal government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of the Universities on the process for selecting vice- chancellor into the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?" The improvement and development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria depends on the executive heads of the Universities. The head of the Nigerian Universities are the vice-chancellors, and they are the highest political officers of the Universities. When a University is established or when there is a vacancy in the position of a University vice-chancellor, the professors in the University submit a list of nominees to the University Council to appoint a vice-chancellor through the Federal Ministry of Education. The search committee from the Federal Ministry of Education looks at the following factors when considering the selection of a vice- chancellor: personality, academic qualifications, and job experience. On the other hand, the University Council members look at the following factors for evaluating and selecting a vice-chancellor: fairness, integrity, managerial capability, communication ability, coordination 201 ability, productivity, sensitivity, flexibility, and his or her nationality. Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions are made: 1. It is concluded that the federal government of Nigeria has played a significant role in establishing the Federal Universities of Technology in order to provide the modern scientific and technological education for the economic need of the country, and that the most compelling factors that led to the establishment of those institutions are (a) philosophical, (b) economic, (c) sociological, and (d) geographical factors. 2. It is concluded that the program of study at each of the Federal Universities of Technology was designed to train students in science and technical fields, and that the number of student enrollment and graduated students has increased significantly since the establishment of those institutions. 3. It is concluded that the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission have played an important role in the administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology. 4. It is concluded that the method used in selecting a vice-chancellor for the Federal Universities of Technology is based on the facts that the professors in the University vote on nominees and then the list is submitted to the 202 University Council for appointment of the vice-chancellor through the Federal Ministry of Education. Implications The findings and conclusions of this study suggest the following implication: 1. Compared to institutions in European and Western societies, Nigerian higher education is very young. Nevertheless, the Nigerian people are fully cognizant of the value of a strong educational policy system of education that was developed from 1962 through 1987 to upgrade and strengthen the education in Nigeria. The work of the Federal Ministry of Education in implementing the educational policies has provided a viable system of education for its people. 2. From the beginning the Nigerian people accepted the British pattern and content of higher education in order to establish their universities and to gain academic recognition. However, with the establishment of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology, the university communities and the Nigerian people approach their establishment to manpower training and procurement that will provide the national development of the country. 3. There will be many unskilled and uneducated people in Nigeria because of the new technological development. In order for those who are not educated to fit into the working cycle in the new technological development, the education and training at the Federal Universities of Technology will 203 be of vital importance to anyone going into branches of science and technology. 4. To assure that the technical training at the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria is parallel with the pattern of technological training in United States universities, the educators at the Federal Universities of Technology should be current in their training with the American universities with which they have special links, in order to cope with the ever-changing technology. Recommendations Based on the findings, conclusions, and implications of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Since technical education develops human talents and willingness to change, all of which are essential ingredients for technological, economic, and social progress in any society, the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria should place emphasis on the technical education in imparting knowledge and skills for development. 2. It is recommended that an investigation could be made to determine whether the academic programs offered in each Federal University of Technology are in tune with the university1s mission as accorded by the 6-3-3-4 Educational Policy of 1987. 3. It is recommended that an investigation could be made to determine whether the courses taught at the Federal Universities of Technology have improved with regard to the economic and social needs of Nigeria. 204 4. Since the federal government of Nigeria has supported the growth and development of the Federal Universities of Technology, it is recommended that the federal government should continue to provide financial support to the Universities. 5. It is recommended that the federal government of Nigerian, through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission, should continue to develop a long-range comprehensive educational plan for each of the Federal Universities of Technology. 6. It is recommended that the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission should conduct periodic self-studies to determine whether they are keeping pace with the needs of the changing conditions in the higher educational institutions in Nigeria. 7. It is recommended that the Federal Ministry of Education should conduct a research study on "national policy on education in Nigeria." From this research, criteria for higher educational decisions could be developed which would further the development of effective educational standards. 8. It is recommended that the present relationships between the universities, the National Universities Commission, and the Federal Ministry of Education should remain and be strictly adhered to. 9. It is recommended that the approved channel of communication between the government and the universities on 205 matters of educational interest should continue to be through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission. 10. It is recommended that matters relating to the internal administration of the Federal Universities of Technology should be addressed directly to the Federal Minister of Education by the University Council. On the other hand, the university should communicate directly with the National Universities Commission on all matters that fall within the responsibilities of the NUC, on which they may require the guidance of the Federal Ministry of Education. 11. It is recommended that in the case of the vice- chancellor's position, it will be the responsibility of the University Council to select three suitable candidates from among whom the president will ultimately appoint one. 12. It is recommended that a similar study be conducted in five years from now in order to identify any possible changes or development of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST Carr, E. H. (1967). What is history? New York: Random House. Federal University of Technology. (1983/85). Calendar: History of the University, Owerri. Nigeria: Government Printer. Leighbody, G. B. (1972). Vocational education in America's schools: Manor issues of the 1970*5. Chicago: American Technical Society. Wirth, A. G. (1971). Education in the technological society. Scranton, PA: International Textbook Company. 206 APPENDIX A MAPS 207 208 f r 6 ^TUNISIA enghaz fclejandr^a.J ?sWefc*f" '.f!f "V^Arrimv . t>V,'U --• ,, PEfnes^jj' A^eria. ..'.I • j** • bN^?\ 'f^ >S# . ' . • .pi£.U^ I.-, :•-»- %. - '- ',>. iTJBiSTiSTj,. I •' HiGEHIMatduqurA i r Istmt _• ' _jk - , .---t, j /' f I \ ', CtHTfU'nr«»ucU ~AFRICA "N X-' -\V ' \. 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C ja e (0 M 3 o P a* u •P en £*i •H P c •H -H CO e P T3 a) (0 > X} 3 •H w Q) O a) •P e x: > (0 -p P a •H a) 0 P 4-! CO •-Hp a 0 i—i 0 cn p (0 a) •H p p CO z a) to c a) x: a) u CD c 0 s •H c p0 -p 0 oo •H N W •H W c • r-[ 01 ca £ 4-J! Cn c? o: u 0 2 O u 215 •P c (U „< /H n 5 H Q) 0 S oi o 25 (0*^ M s, 0) Ifl > a> •H as •H •p U •P a) •H i.! • ODD W "O •o 2: CO Q> (*> o 4 AO out O "O O O liiII la nigs X> OJ ls^s° °-|S so 2£ § « «S V oi d O ui SS |2 §• z.a-|«| - o JS -c 2o:o«a O O S- O fl-r (O CD O) I/) DIE fl SJS32 «:« o o uj s-—0 APPENDIX C LETTERS The letters were photocopied on white heavy bond letterhead 8-1/2" x 11". Papers reproduced here as 74% of original. The cover letters were reduced 52% and photocopied on white 8-1/2" x 7" papers. The following letters are: 1. Letter from Dr. Witt? approval to conduct study by the Office of Research Administration at the University of North Texas. 2. Letters from Dr. Davis of introduction of the study to the Vice-Chancellor, Federal University of Technology, Owerri; the Director, Nigerian Universities Office, Washington, D. C.; and the Director, Office of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria. 3. Letter from author to schedule interview with the Director of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education. 4. Letter from the Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos. 5. Letters from the Nigerian Universities Office in Washington, D. C.. 6. Letter from author to the Nigerian Universities Office. 217 218 University of North Texas Office of Research Administration October 26, 1992 Joseph Asagba 2605 Mingo Rd #202 Denton, TX 76201 Dear Mr. Asagba: Your proposal entitled "A Historical Review of the Development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 1980-1990," has been approved by the IRB and is exempt from further review under 45 CFR 46.101. If you have any questions, please contact me at (817) 565-3946. Good luck on your project. Sincerely, Peter Witt, Chair Institutional Review Board PW/tl P 0. Box 5396 . Denton. Texas 76203-5396 817/565-1940 • FAX 817/565-2141 • INTERNET: RESEARCH© VAXB ACS UNT EDU 219 University of North Texas Department of Higher Education College of Education November 9, 1992 Umaru: Dechi Gomwalk Professor and Vice Chancellor Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State Nigeria, West Africa Dear Professor Gomwalk, I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a , dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria. As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is: Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045 Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance. Sincerely, Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education PO Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857 817/565-2045 . TDD 800-735-2989 220 University of North Texas Department of Higher Education College of Education November 9, 1992 The Director, Nigerian Universities Office Embassy of Nigeria 2010 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. Suite 400 Washington, D.C. 20036 Dear Sir, I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a ' dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria. As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is: Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045 Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance. Sincerely, Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education PO. Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857 817/565-2045 • TDD 800-735-2989 221 University of North Texas Department of Higher Education College of Education November 9, 1992 The Director, Office of Higher Education Federal Ministry of Education Lagos, Nigeria, West Africa Dear Sir, I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria. As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is: Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045 Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance. Sincerely, Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education P.O.Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857 817/565-2045 • TDD 800-735-2989 222 2605 Mingo Road Apartment 202 Denton, TX 76201 U. S. A. November 16, 1992 The Director of Higher Education Federal Ministry of Education Lagos, Nigeria West Africa Dear Sir: I am a Nigerian and a Ph. D. candidate in Higher Education at the University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. I am completing a dissertation as part of my Ph. D. program and my topic is the historical review of the development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The purpose of the study is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission and to examine the following: (a) the major factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (b) to review the programs of study and to analyze the student enrollment and output patterns of the Federal Universities of Technology during their developmental states; (c) to identify the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology through the National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education; and (d) to identify the role of the federal government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of the Universities on the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the Federal Universities of Technology. I will be coming to Nigeria in December and plan to stay in Nigeria for about six weeks. I would like to schedule an interview with you during my stay in Nigeria as part of collecting data for the completing of my study. This study and the data collected shall neither implicate, cause harm to, or embarrass the participation of institutions in any way. The results of the study will be made available to participating institutions desiring them. By the time of your response to schedule the interview I will be in Nigeria, so I would appreciate that you forward all your correspondence directly to me in Nigeria. My address is: Mr. Joseph 0. Asagba P. 0. Box 1674 Sapele, Delta State Nigeria Thank you for your attention and cooperation. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Yours truly, Joseph 0. Asagba 223 FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND YOUTH DEVELOPMENT OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR DIVISION " "FORMAL'' EDUCATION' D'EPMlMfeWT' When replying, please quote earlier reference P. M. B. No ...12573 Telegrams Ret. No. D*iEW?l?.L.2.8.. Telephone 613567 Date .. December.1.9.9.2 Mr. Joseph 0. Asagba, P.O.Box 1674, Sapale, Delta State. RE: INTERVIEW FOR DATA COLLECTION I am directed to acknowledge receipt of your letter dated November, 16th 1992 and to Inform you that my director will be willing to receive you whenever you would be ready in January, 1993. A.O. Bankole for: Director of Formal Education, 1} -VW, vw< 224 PROF. ROMANUS EGUDU NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES OFFICE EMBASSY OF NIGERIA TELEPHONE (202)659-8113 2010 MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE, N.W. CABLE ADDRESS.- NUCO WASHINGTON 4TH FLOOR TELEX NO. 89-630 WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036 YOUR REF: OUR REF: 12 December, 1990 Mr. Joseph Asagba 2605 Mingo Road Apt.# 202 Denton, Texas 76201 Dear Mr. Asagba: As a follow-up to our telephone conversation, I am enclosing the following information which may prove useful to you in the completion of your dissertation: (1) Articles from the National Universities Commission publication, "25 Years of Centralised University Education in Nigeria", ed. Dr. A.U. Kadiri: (a) "The Emergence of State and Private Universities" by Professor 1.0. Oladapo; (b) "Organisation of the National Universities Commission Secretariat" (Contributions from the NUC Secretariat) (2) Directory to Subjects of Study (taken from the 1988 Commonwealth Universities Yearbook) (3) The 6-3-3-4 System of Education at a Glance, issued by Implementation Committee, National Policy on Education, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria, 1987. Please let me know if we can be of further assistance to you. Sincerely, Barbara L. Bundy for: Education Attache (Universities) /bib Enclosures: a/s 225 2506 Mingo Road Apartment #202 Denton, TX 76201 October 9, 1992 Ms. Barbara L. Bundy Nigerian Universities Office Embassy of Nigeria 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. 4th Floor Washington, DC 20036 Dear Ms. Bundy: To complete my dissertation research entitled "A Historical Review, of the Development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria, 1980-1990" I would like to request the following material: 1. The history and development of Federal Universities of Technology (FUT) in Nigeria including the name of the committee and those involved in the founding of the FUT; and, 2. Names of the U. S. Universities that have links or special relationship with the FUT in Nigeria. The materials will be very helpful for completion of my dissertation. Your help will be appreciated. Sincerely, Joseph Asagba 226 PROF ROMANUS EGUDU NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES OFFICE EDUCATION ATTACHE EMBASSY OF NIGERIA TELEPHONE (202) 659-8113 2010 MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE, N.W. CABLE ADDRESS: NUCO WASHINGTON SUITE 400 TELEX NO. 89-630 WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036 FAX NO. (202) 659-8116 YOUR REF: OUR REF: 16 October, 1992 Mr. Joseph O. Asagba 2605 Mingo Road Apt. #202 Denton, Texas 76201 Dear Mr. Asagba: I wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter dated 9 October, 1992. I regret to inform you that I do not have the specific information you requested in your letter. However, I am enclosing some information that may prove useful to you in the completion of your dissertation research: (1) Select pages from the following university calendars: (a) FUT, Owerri [1983-1985]; (b) FUT, Yola [1982-83]; Rivers State University of Science & Technology [1984-89]; (2) List of Existing Inter-Institutional Linkages Between Nigerian and U.S. Universities; (3) Map of Nigeria showing thirty states and capitals. Best wishes are conveyed to you on the completion of your Ph.D. Sincerely, L. Bundy , for: Education Attache (Universities) bib/ Enclosures: a/s APPENDIX D TOPICS ADDRESSED IN INTERVIEWS BY AUTHOR (INTERVIEW QUESTIONS) 227 228 The following people were interviewed on January 27, 1993, and March 12, 1993, for use in this research: Vice-Chancellor of Federal University of Technology, Owerri: Professor C. 0. G. Obah. Director-General of Higher Education at Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos: Mr. M. Y. Hamze. Interview Documented Activity Log Interview Interviewee name and Date position records interviewed Personal Tape notes recording Professor C. 0. G. Obah, Vice Chancellor, Federal 1-27-93 X X University of Technology Mr. M. Y. Hamze, Director of Higher Education, Federal 3-12-93 X Ministry of Education 229 Crucial Questions Asked the Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos 1. What is the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? What actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play in this? 2. In the area of financing of the Federal Universities of Technology, what role does the federal government of Nigeria play? Where do the funds come from and how does the Federal Ministry of Education estimate the amount of funds to give to the University? 3. Have there been any changes in the method and amount of funding to the Federal Universities of Technology during the 1980s to present? Explain. 4. From your perspective, is the federal government of Nigeria playing an important role in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? Explain what the actual role of the government is. 5. In the selection process of the Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology, what actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play? Please explain. 6. What are the major factors that the Federal Ministry of Education considers during the selection process of a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Explain why this process is used. 7. As a Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, what is your actual role or administrative function? 230 Crucial Questions Asked the Vice-Chancellor of the Federal University of Technology at Owerri, Nigeria 1. What major factors and events led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? How does the Nigerian society support the establishment of the Universities? Who opposed their establishment and why? 2. What are the two or three most critical developments that shape the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? 3. In the next decade what do you think the Mission of the Federal Universities of Technology should be? 4. What are the major factors affecting the Federal Universities of Technology that you might expect in the next decade? 5. What are the major developments regarding the Mission of the Federal Universities of Technology? What is coming? What are the problems and opportunities that you see that we should be examining? 6. What do you think will happen if the federal government of Nigeria does not pay attention to technological education? 7. Are the Federal Universities of Technology considered to be major research institutions? 8. Do you think that the academic programs at the Federal Universities of Technology prepare students to exercise real leadership? In what way and how? 9. Who decided the curricula content of the degree programs at the Federal Universities of Technology? 10. What are your views of strategic planning for the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? 11. From your perspective as a Vice-Chancellor, what is best about the Federal Universities of Technology as an educational institution and what is worst about it? 12. What are the strengths and unique characteristics of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? 13. What is the role of the Federal Universities of Technology as a federal institution to the Nigerian society? 14. How did the University evaluate student progress at the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? 231 The following key questions are about the Vice-Chancel lor and the selection process of the Vice-Chancellor position. 15. What was your position before being appointed Vice- Chancellor at the Federal University of Technology? 16. What are your educational qualifications? 17. Do you think that your educational qualifications influence your appointment as a Vice-Chancel lor? In what way? 18. What is the process used in selecting or appointing a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Why is this process used? What are the positive and negative aspects of this process? 19. From your perspective, what are the major factors that the University Council considers during the process of selecting or appointing a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Why does the council use such a process? 20. As a Vice-Chancellor, what are your administrative functions as a chief executive of the University? APPENDIX E INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES 232 233 INTERVIEW RESPONSES Interviews with the Vice-Chancellor and the Director- General of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education resulted in the following responses. The following are the crucial questions asked the Vice- Chancellor and the Director-General. Vice-Chancellor Question la: What major factors and events led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Answer: The major factors that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are: 1. The philosophical factors—that is, the Nigerian government and educators recognize that two questions are fundamental to the development of a sound technical education: what should be taught and how it should be taught. 2. Economic factors—that is, technical education will be a contributor to the Nigerian society1s economic mainstream and that the rapid rate at which technological changes are occurring creates a need to establish the FUT, to provide the technological education that will adapt to the changing economy. 234 3. Sociological factors—that is, the Nigerian government and educators recognized that Nigerian society and the nature of work has changed and, as technology becomes increasingly complex, engineers and scientists have to become more highly trained. The government and educators look at technical education for at least a partial solution to the social problems related to the Nigerians unemployment. 4. Geographical factor—the assessment of education in each of the northern, eastern, and western regions of Nigeria led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology. The FUT of Owerri catered to the need of the entire eastern portion of Nigeria, the FUT at Minna catered to the need of the northern section, while the FUT at Akure catered to the need of the western section of the country. The major events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology was the work of an educational team of experts that was set up by the federal government, through a committee of the National Universities Commission. The committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an investigation into the need in the field of technological education. The Mohammed Commission was created by the Nigerian President, Usman Aliju Shagari, and was under the chairmanship of Col. A. A. All. The experts were drawn from a wide range that included representatives from the National Universities Commission and the Ministries of Education, 235 Health, Economic Development, and Finance. During the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology, the committee met numerous challenges on how to meet the requisites necessary to begin operation of the Universities. The committee^ greatest challenges regarding the establishing the Federal Universities of Technology requires the following: (a) securing a location and facilities? (b) employing faculty, staff, and administration? (c) developing procedures for admissions? (d) promulgating regulations for students? (e) creating a curriculum? (f) prescribing estimate for costs? (g) obtaining financial support? and (h) addressing important matters. However, the Universities were set up and approved by the president. Question lb: Did the Nigerian society support the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology? And who opposed their establishment and why? Answer: The establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology was lcirgely supported by the Nigerian society. They see this as a means of receiving the technological education as a solution to the unemployment. Question 2: What are the two or three most critical developments that shape the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Answer: The most critical developments that shape the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology are: (a) securing a location and facilities? (b) creating 236 curriculum; and (c) employing faculty, staff, and administration to start operation of the Universities. Question 3: In the next decade what do you think the mission of the Federal Universities of Technology could be? Answer: In the next decade the mission of the Federal Universities of Technology will continue to be to provide a sound scientific and technological education to the Nigerian people, to identify technological problems and needs of the society, and to find solutions to overall national development of Nigeria. Question 4: What are the major factors affecting the Federal Universities of Technology that you might expect in the next decade? Answer: To continue to provide the best post-graduate training in science and technical education, to adapt to the new technology, and to improve on it. Question 5: What are the major developments regarding the mission of the Federal Universities of Technology? What is coming? What are the problems and opportunities that you see which we should be examining? Answer: The major development regarding the mission of this University is that the academic program is designed to respond to the changes in technology. What is coming? I see more changes in modern technology. The problems I see are the rapid economic development and modern technology, and insufficient numbers of students enrolling in 237 agriculture, scientific, engineering, and technological fields. Those are what we should be examining. Question 6: What do you think will happen if the federal government of Nigeria did not pay attention to technological education? Answer: The social and economic development of the country will not be strengthened and there will be lack of sufficient numbers and qualified people in the areas of technical and scientific profession. Question 7: Are the Federal Universities of Technology considered major research universities? And in what way? Answer: Yes, the Federal Universities of Technology are research institutions because of their academic programs in engineering, scientific, and agricultural disciplines. Question 8: Do you think that the academic programs at the Federal Universities of Technology do prepare students to exercise real leadership? In what way and how? Answer: Yes, I believe that the academic programs at the Federal Universities of Technology do prepare students to exercise real leadership in their academic disciplines because the students are provided with a sound scientific and technological training. Question 9: Who decided the curricular content of the degree programs at Federal Universities of Technology? Answer: The curricula is decided by the University Council in collaboration with the National Universities 238 Commission academic planning division for curriculum development. Question 10: What are your views of strategic planning for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Answer: Strategic planning process for the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria is aimed at selecting the academic programs that are vital to the need of the economic and social need of the country. And to have the best faculty member with the basic qualification in their areas of study. Question 11: From your perspective as a Vice- Chancellor, what is best about the Federal Universities of Technology as an educational institution and what is worst? Answer: The academic program is what is best about the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The University prepares students for technological education. There is nothing worst about the Universities because the mission of the Universities is being met; that is providing the technological training to individuals and responding to the needs of the society in terms of the technological change. Question 12: What are the strengths and unique characteristics of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Answer: The strengths of the University is the support of the federal government and the Nigerian people. The 239 academic programs are the- unique characteristic of the Universities. The Universities offered programs such as Agricultural Engineering Technology, Engineering Technology, Agricultural Technology, Science Education Technology, and Environmental Science. Question 13: What is the role of the Federal Universities of Technology as a federal institution to the Nigerian society? Answer; The Federal Universities of Technology is a federally supported higher institution. Their role is to provide the scientific and technical education to the Nigerian people and to provide the necessary technical education to the unskilled and unemployed in order to seek gainful employment that will meet the economic and social need of the country. Question 14: How did the University evaluate faculty and student progress? Answer: The departmental heads supervised their faculty and student progress. Question 15: What position did you hold before being appointed Vice-Chancellor at the Federal University of Technology, Owerri? Answer: Previously I was the former head of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department at FUT of Owerri. I was appointed the Vice-Chancellor of this University in 1991. 240 Question 16: What is your educational background? Answer: My educational background has always been in science. I obtained my Ph.D. in Electrical and Electronics. Question 17: Do you think your educational background in science influenced your appointment as the Vice- Chancellor to a technological institution as the Federal University of Technology? Answer: Yes, I believe that my appointment as the Vice-Chancellor had a lot to do with my educational background in science. Question 18: What is the process used in selecting or appointing a Vice-Chancellor? Why is this process used? What are the positive and negative aspects of this process? Answer: First, a vote is taken from the Professors at the University on nominees. Secondly, the list of nominees is submitted to the University Council. Thirdly, the University Council submits the list of nominees to the Federal Ministry of Education for the selection process. The selection committee from the Federal Ministry of Education chooses the best nominee to the President of the country for appointment. Question 19: From your perspective, what are the major factors that the University Council looks at during the process of selecting a Vice-Chancellor? And why does the Council use such a process? 241 Answer: The University Council looks at the following factors when selecting nominees for the Vice-Chancellor position: (a) fairness, (b) integrity, (c) leadership and managerial capability, (d) communication ability, (e) coordination ability, (f) productivity, (g) sensitivity, (h) flexibility, and (i) nationality. The University Council uses such a process as a method in evaluating the nominees in order to get the best candidate for the Vice- Chancellor position. Question 20: As a Vice-Chancellor, what are your administrative functions? Answer: My job as a Vice-Chancellor is to administer the University, to lead the administrators and faculty members, taking change and doing what is right for the University. Director-General of Higher Education Question: What is the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? And what actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play in this? Answer: The federal government is responsible for the overall development of the Federal Universities of Technology. The role of the Federal Ministry of Education is to outline the educational policies, responsible for the curriculum, courses, and program development. The actual 242 role of this office is to- handle the affairs of the Universities such as finance, policy, and planning. Question: In the area of financing of the Federal Universities of Technology, what role does the federal government of Nigeria play in this? And where do the funds come from and how does the Federal Ministry of Education estimate how much funds to give the University? Answer: The federal government of Nigeria is responsible for the financing of the Universities. The funds come from the oil revenues that are shared among the Universities in terms of grants. The Universities must submit a draft estimate of their expenditures to the National Universities Commission and this office. The NUC and this office will scrutinize the estimates. After reaching the consensus on the draft estimates, then we will present a form of recommendations to the budget division of this ministry which represents the government and then determine specifically the size of the grant to be made to each of the Universities through the National Universities Commission. Question: Have there been any changes in the method and amount of funding to the Federal Universities of Technology during the 1980s to present? Explain. Answer: There has been no change in the method used in handling the financing of the Universities but funding to the Federal Universities of Technology during the 1980s to 243 present has increased. This is because of their academic programs and increases in student enrollment. Question: From your perspective, is the federal government playing an important role in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? Explain what are the actual roles. Answer: The federal government is playing an important role in these areas through this office and the National Universities Commission office. Question: In the selection process of the Vice- Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology, what actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play in this? And explain why? Answer: The Federal Ministry of Education plays an important role in the selection process of the Vice- Chancellor to the FUT. The actual role of the Ministry is to make sure the best candidate is recommended to the president for appointment as a Vice-Chancellor. Question: What are the major factors that the Federal Ministry of Education looks at during the selection process of a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? And explain why this process is used? Answer: The Federal Ministry of Education looks at the following factors when selecting a Vice-Chancellor: (1) academic gualifications, (2) job experience, 244 (3) communication ability, and (4) personality. This process is being used in order to select the best candidate for the Vice-chancellor position. Question: As a Director-General of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, what is your actual role or administrative function? 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