Bulletin of the Marine Geology, Vol. 34, No. 2, December 2019, pp. 63 to 76 Review of Landslides in the Eastern

Tinjauan Longsor Bawah Laut di Wilayah Timur Indonesia

Hananto Kurnio,Tommy Naibaho and Catur Purwanto

Marine Geological Institute, Jl. Dr. Djundjunan No. 236, Bandung, 40174 Corresponding author : [email protected] (Received 25 June 2019; in revised form 01 July 2019 accepted 19 November 2019)

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews submarine landslide potential in the eastern Indonesia by analyzing published and recently acquired bathymetric data and interpreting seismic reflection data. This review aims to study and invent hazards that might affect seafloor infrastructure construction such as optic cables, especially in the eastern Indonesia Region. The hazards were also recognized as source of such as Palu Bay 2018 and Babi north of Flores Island in 1992. On the other hand, submarine landslide is a common process of basin fill sedimentation in the region. As blessed with many active volcanoes, it has 130 of total the world 400, Indonesia should aware of induced by volcanoes especially the ones closed to the . There are five active volcanoes frequently produce tsunami in historical times: Anak Krakatau, ; , Province; Sangihe, ; Teon and Nila, ; and Iliwerung, Lembata Island, east Lesser Sunda . Key words: submarine landslide, volcanic tsunami, seafloor infrastructure, eastern Indonesia

ABSTRAK:Makalah ini menelaah potensi langsoran dasar laut di wilayah Timur Indonesia melalui analisis publikasi dan data batimetri yang baru diambil serta penafsiran data seismic refleksi. Tinjauan longsoran dasar laut dimaksudkan untuk mempelajari dan menginventarisasi bencana yang mungkin bisa mempengaruhi pembangunan infrastruktur dasar laut seperti halnya kabel optic, terutama di wilayah Timur Indonesia. Bencana tersebut telah dikenal sebagai sumber beberapa tsunami seperti Teluk Palu 2018 dan Pulau Babi utara di tahun 1992. Sebaliknya, longsoran dasar laut merupakan proses sedimentasi pengisian cekungan yang biasa terjadi di wilayah tersebut. Dikarunia akan gunungapi terbanyak di dunia, sebab memiliki 130 dari 400 dunia, Indonesia harus menyadari bahaya tsunami yang ditimbulkan oleh aktivitas gunungapi terutama yang dekat laut. Terdapat lima gunungapi aktif yang sering menghasilkan tsunami dalam sejarah: Anak Krakatau, Selat Sunda; Makian, Provinsi Maluku; Sangihe, Sulawesi; Teon dan Nila, Laut Banda; dan Iliwerung, Pulau Lembata, Nusa Tenggara Timur. Kata kunci: longsoran dasar laut, tsunami gunungapi, infrastruktur dasar laut, Wilayah Indonesia Timur

INTRODUCTION Sea; and Iliwerung, Lembata Island, east Lesser Sunda Eastern Indonesia is a very dynamic region on its Islands (Paris et al, 2014). Volcanic tsunami is another geologic setting. It consists of many islands separated form of submarine landslide. This article tries to discuss mostly by deep and influenced by interaction of submarine landslide and its possibility to destroy three mega-plates of Indo-, and seafloor infrastructures such as cable optic. Pacific. The seas among the islands in historical times Submarine landslide have experience geological hazards such as submarine volcano eruptions, tsunami and landslides (Yeh et al, Submarine landslides on open continental slopes 1993; Tsuji et al, 1995; Pelinevsky et al, 1997; Rynn, are important processes for global sediment fluxes 2002; Brune et al, 2010; Lovholt et al, 2012; Yudhicara which also can generate very damaging tsunamis et al, 2015; Heidarzadeh et el, 2018; Paloksung et al, (Mason et al, 2006). Furthermore, Mason et al define 2019 and Mutaqin et al, 2019). that submarine landslides are sediment transport across As a country with 130 active volcanoes from the the continental shelf into the deep and these could world total 400 (Mutaqin et al, 2019), Indonesia posed take place on continental margins, many varieties of volcanic tsunami threat. In historical times, there are geological conditions and water depths. five active volcanoes that produce volcanic tsunami: Submarine landslide is initiated when the Anak Krakatau, Sunda Strait; Makian, Maluku downwards gravity and other factors stress overcome Province; Sangihe, Sulawesi; Teon and Nila, Banda the resisting stress of the seafloor slope material which

63 generating movements along concave to planar surfaces density layer. Submarine landslide could also cause (Mason et al, 2006). It also can occur at planes as low as destructive effect, such as evidence in the 1998 PNG 1° and cause significant damage to life and property. tsunami – Indonesia neighbor country in the east Much greater uncertainty on preconditioning factors (Tappin et al, 2008). and triggers occur in submarine landslides due to Shigihara et al (2006) carried out hydraulic difficulty in monitoring the events. Submarine experiment in the laboratory how a landslide on a landslides that take place in very low gradients is uniform slope causes the generation of a tsunami. They representing involvement of high pore pressures noticed that interaction between material and water is (Talling et al, 2014). significant generating tsunami, while the continuous Harbitz et al (2014) found out that defining areas material flow makes tsunami wave period short. The prone to submarine landslide is easier than predicting experiments were numerically simulated using two- individual hazardous locations, dimensions and layer model of shear stress on the bottom and interface, evolution. There are variety of processes and dynamics and compared its results. which include release mechanism and disintegration, Akgun (2011) investigated landslide-induced mixing with water; depend on the triggering and the wave in dam reservoir lake. Parameters used for the moving behavior (rheology) of the masses involved. landslide material are internal friction angle and unit Violent earthquakes provoke smaller landslides weight. Using these data, wave characteristics were rather than large landslides (Volker et al, 2011). Mostly, calculated using empirical relationship. The wave submarine landslides occur on the lowest slopes, due to characteristics include height, run-up and velocity. The larger sediment accumulation before its release. Volker obtained wave properties were used for a potential et al (2011) compared bathymetric datasets before and hazard assessment in vulnerable areas such as the after mega earthquake Mw 8.8 Maule 27 February 2010 highway in front of dam location. On the other hand, the offshore Central Chile and found out that no giant dam itself is safe due to the distance from the landslide landslide occurred. From gravity core data, they area. observed that a pre-existing slide features took place Fine et al (2005) investigated a 7.2 M earthquake until 700 to 1000 years ago which occurred as November 18, 1929 that triggered a large submarine retrogressive failures at the slide wall. The smaller landslide involving 200 km3 material in the Atlantic slides were triggered by aftershocks. Volker et al (2011) coast of Canada. The landslide was transformed into a pointed out that frequent violent earthquakes at tsunami consisted of turbidity current of mud and sand convergent margins do not create landslide that moving 1000 km eastward, breaking 12 telegraph generate tsunami due to its small scale. According to cables and killed 28 Canadian people. The tsunami was Masson et al (2006) landslide head wall mostly take also observed in the United States and Portugal – place on the mid-slope with its peak located between eastern part of the Atlantic with amplitudes 3 to 8 m and 1,000 to 1,300 m water depth; rather than on the upper runup until 13 m along the coast. Simulation using a slope. shallow-water numerical model results in reasonable Areas where fine-grained sediments prevail, agreement between computed and observed tsunami submarine landslide frequently occur (Masson et al, arrival times. Parsons et al (2014) also studied the 2006). The sediments are created by chemical source and progression of a submarine landslide and weathering processes at tropical and their tsunami generated by the 1964 great Alaska earthquake accumulations on continental slope promote landslide at Valdez. formation. Other subjects of landslides are submarine deltas and fans of large rivers especially deltas formed DATA AND METHODS where rivers discharge sediment onto steep submarine Bathymetric data was acquired along 2049 km walls. ship tracks using Research Vessel Geomarin 3 owned The dynamic processes and flow regimes of a and operated By Marine Geological Institute of submarine landslide are depend on the mobilized Indonesia (MGI). It was conducted at 2018 in the sediment composition where clay to sand ratio is the program of systematic marine geological and key control parameter (Elverhoi et al, 2010; De Blasio geophysical mapping around Kai Archipelago Maluku et al, 2006). Clay-rich material remain compact and Province. Equipment used was Echosounder SyQuest achieve very long run-out distances and high velocities Bathy 2010 frequency 3.5 kHz. Bathymetric resolution on gentle slopes in the ocean, while increased sand is 10 m on 1 : 250,000 map scale. content makes the flow less cohesive leading to internal Multichannel seismic data directly was stored in particle segregation (Elverhoi et al, 2010). The finer SEG-D format during acquisition. Seismic data clay and silt form an upper low-density layer, while the processing used IBM workstation software O/S Linux coarser material forms a lower sandy granular high- RedHet and ProMAX 2D 2003 version after field

64 Hananto Kurnio et al. survey finished. The seismic was applied Airgun RESULTS supported by three compressors as acoustic source and streamer to receive signal reflected from subseafloor Submarine landslides at Eastern Indonesia based on geological features. Seismic data acquired was the same data acquired by MGI length with bathymetry along 2049 km ship tracks Study on submarine landslides in the eastern while seismic penetration deep was 3.2 seconds. Indonesia region is started with data acquired by Marine Seafloor sediment was sampled using gravity Geological Institute (MGI) itself using research vessel corer (length 4.2 m and weight section 350 kg) operated Geomarin 3. The data was acquired in 2018 at the back deck of Geomarin 3. Positioning was done surrounding Kei Archipelago East Maluku Province. when the corer touch seafloor. Total 25 seafloor The methods used are marine geology through sediments were already taken. All the samples were sampling of seafloor sediments using gravity corer and megascopic described and analysed grain size using geophysics applying multi-channel seismic, gravity and sieving method. geo-magnetic method. Geological data discusses On the other hand, study was also carried out sediment especially relate to indications of landslide through many relevant scientific publications and seafloor material, while geophysical data used to look information gained via on line. Identification of current for submarine landslide features is seismic. submarine landslide was recognized through multi- Bathymetry of Kei Archipelago Waters channel seismic records on its seafloor features such as geologically are controlled by karst high of shallow sea blocky slump and slump deposits. The landslide was depth amongst Kei Islands in the middle, West Arafuru also identified through sediment core observation Basin in the east which is consisted of shallow platform obtained during the cruise. On the other hand, paleo with thick sediments and East Banda Sea in the west submarine landslide was identified through older (Weber Deep) (Figure 1). sediment sequences.

Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Kei Archipelago Waters from RV Geomarin 3 cruise. Ship tracks are shown. Data sources are: Marine Geological Institute of Indonesia (MGI), Agency for Geospatial Information, Center for Geological Survey and TOPEX 2018.

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 65 Figure 2 shows sea floor slope map in Banda Sea analyses 10 cm top sediment were sampled from the and . The steep slopes are in accordance cores. Based on megascopic descriptions, sediments of with steep morphology shown in seismic records Kei Archipelago Waters are consisted of dark grey sand, (Figure 4) where some submarine landslides might fine to coarse sizes, loose, rounded to angular grain occur. Steep slopes (>50°) immediately west of the shapes, moderate sortation, composed of quartz, rock islands (Kei Archipelago in the middle and Aru fragments, mafic, mollusk shells and shells fractures; Archipelago in the east) revealed geological control on and dark grey silt, soft, composed of quartz, mafic, and its formation (Hartadi et al, 2015). The area is located at rock fragments. Sediment classifications are based on northwestern margin of the Australia Craton (Audley- Folk (1965). Charles, 2004). The predicted landslide sediments on Appearance of west Arafuru Basin in seismic the steep slopes taken during field survey (Figure 2) are records (Figure 4, small red square right side in the composed of mixed sizes from clay to gravel and middle figure) shows thick sediment at fault scarp. distributed sporadically in the east and west of Kei According to Audley-Charles (2004) and Aldha and Ho

Figure 2. Sea floor slope map in the vicinity of Kei Archipelago shows steep morphology immediately west of the Archipelago and west of Aru Island in the east.

Archipelago (Figure 3), of sea depth between 234 to (2008) this sediment is landslide materials occurred at 668 meters and of slope seafloor morphology mostly post-rift phase in the south part of the basin. On the 60-70°. They are consisted of gravel (5.91 – 15.85 %), other hand, steep slopes were also observed in some sand (60.01 – 72.68 %), silt (9.42 – 22.4 %) and clay seismic records west of Kei Archipelago (Figure 4, (4.06 – 8.97 %). large red square in the middle). Slope angle of these During field survey 25 seafloor sediment samples scarps are mostly less than 300. The blow up image were taken using gravity corer which locations as from the eastern area represents East Banda Sea shown shown in Figure 3. The sediment obtained has length as depression bounded by Kai high in the east and from 22 cm to 343 cm in the cores and all had been southeast. Sea depth of this part approximately 3,000 megascopic described. For the purpose of grain size meters.

66 Hananto Kurnio et al. Table 1. Grain size analysis of predicted landslide sediments.

Percentage (%) Sample No. Sediment Textures Sea Depths No (meter) (GM3-2018) Gravel Sand Silt Clay (Folk, 1965)

1 KAI-01 10.48 65.49 18.40 05.63 gravely muddy Sand (gmS) 461

2 KAI-13 15.85 65.75 09.42 08.97 gravely muddy Sand (gmS) 668

3 KAI-17 05.91 72.68 14.77 06.64 gravely muddy Sand (gmS) 464

4 KAI-20 13.53 60.01 22.40 04.06 silty Sand (zS) 234

Figure 3. Seafloor sediment sampling locations in Kei Archipelago Waters and samples interpreted as landslide sediments (black arrows).

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 67 68 Hananto Kurnio et al. Figure 4. Seismic line map (above), seismic records acquired by Marine Geological Institute Research Vessel Geomarin 3 in 2018 surround Kei Archipelago (middle) which shows steep morphology in the west as well in the east (red squares). and seismic blow up image represent the eastern area (below).

Another study of sedimentation was based on Northwest of Kai Islands and south of BirdÊs Head multi-channel seismic records obtained by Research , seismic reflection data interpretation was Vesssel Geomarin 3 cruise in Aru Basin – west of Aru noticed sedimentation process at Seram Trough (Figure islands and south of Papua. In this study is found that 5). The process took place as slumps and sediment fill. the youngest sediment sequence, especially in the The slumps could take the forms of blocky slide and middle of the basin, is consisted of deep sea landslide slump deposits. Blocky slide is a certain area of seafloor debris and turbidite deposits at its lower slope. Seafloor with blocky topography lay downslope from the head of sample observations on microscope of this debris show landslides. According to Normark et al (1993) this shell fragments, foraminiferas, mafic minerals and feature has the possibility of giant landslide. Sediment lignite (Kusnida et al, 2018). core acquired shows gravitational movement deposit at In the past, between lower part Middle Pliocene the slope base triggered possibly by earthquake while at until upper part Late Pliocene, as also observed from the central floor of Ceram Trough was deposited multichannel seismic records; the depositional significant turbidites masses. The 210 length core was framework of the sediment sequences show repetition obtained from water depth 2320 meters and consisted of of progradation typical of basin slope mass flow dark greenish grey soft sandy clay. Bioclastic clasts part (Kusnida et al, 2018). According to Vail et al (1977) the of debris was found at core depths between 79 and 95 landslide sediments were deposited at transgression cm and it consists of carbonaceous materials, mafic phase as revealed from its seismic characteristics minerals and stiff clay (Kusnida et al, 2016). alternation of low to medium amplitude, continuous and wavy reflectors.

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 69 Figure 5. Seismic record south of BirdÊs Head Papua shows submarine landslides occurred as slumps in slope and sediment fill in the base of basin (Naibaho, 2013).

Submarine landslides at Eastern Indonesia based on could trigger submarine mass failures that generate published studies locally catastrophic tsunamis especially in the eastern On the other hand, based on literature study; region. Submarine landslides that generate tsunami in tsunamigenic slope failures in Indonesian history have this area have been recorded by Brune et al (2010) and been observed many times. Moderate earthquakes Lovholt et al (2012) as shown in Figure 6 and Table 2.

Figure 6. Locations of recorded historical tsunamis in Eastern Indonesia generated by submarine landslide (Lovholt et al, 2012).

70 Hananto Kurnio et al. Table 2. Historical tsunami in Eastern Indonesia generated by the shore that flooded and killing more than submarine landslide (Lovholt et al, 2012). 1000 people at the surrounding area (Rym, 2002). YEAR SOURCE REGION VICTIMS In Lembata east of Flores Island, 1899 Landslides Banda Sea 3730 previously named as Lomblen, tsunami was 1992 Landslides and M7.8 Earthquake 2200 occurred without earthquake in 1979. Landslide was generated strong tsunami of 7 1815 Landslide and M7.5 Earthquake Sea 1200 to 9 m heights and inundated up to 1500 m on 1979 Landslide Flores Sea 539 shore. It was reported that it began with first 1871 Volcano, Earthquake and Landslide 400 negative wave followed by second large 1928 Volcano and Landslide Flores Sea 128 positive wave that killed 530 people and 700 missing from four villages (Soloviev et al, Unfortunately, not all tsunamigenic submarine 1992; Yudhicara et al, 2015). Landslide mechanism landslides are documented well. was studied by Yudhicara et al based on study of origin The following Table 2 invents submarine soil, landslide material and hot spring water samples landslides in Eastern Indonesia triggered by many around the site. The original soil has much more factors such as excessive sedimentation, earthquake and coarser grain sizes than the landslide material (80.5% to volcano (Lovholt et al, 2012); while this paper tries to 11.8%) and it is interpreted that the soil become finer discuss the seafloor phenomenon based on literature and softer before being landslide material. On the other study and interpretation of own data acquired during hand, high content of SO (99.48%) in hot spring water surveys using Research Vessel Geomarin 3 operated by is interpreted that magmatism processes involved in Marine Geological Institute of Indonesia (MGI). MGI making the soil become acidic and fragile; furthermore, survey results especially interpretation from seismic X-ray diffraction analysis show that the landslide records show that some areas potential produce material demonstrates hydrothermal minerals such as submarine landslide that may generate tsunami, such as quartz, saponite, chabazite, silicon oxide and coesite. shown in – south of BirdÊs Head Papua These results reveal that the area was influenced by an (Figure 4). In 1989 Large subaerial landslides have been active geothermal system as also the main source of observed in . It was triggered by a landslide mechanism. magnitude of Ms=7.8 earthquake that generated a local In Eastern Indonesia, some submarine landslides tsunami (Brune et al, 2010). that generate tsunami were also occurred in Southwest of Seram Island, in northern coast of combination with earthquakes such as in Bali and Frores an earthquake struck in December 1992 that Flores region (Lovholt et al, 2012). In this region, the killed over 1000 people in the island as well as 1000 due obvious tectonic features are trench and Flores to the generated tsunami. Run-ups until 6m were Thrust (Figure 7). Flores thrust seismically more active measured in the coastal areas of Flores and Babi Island than the subduction, eight large earthquakes north of (Tsuji et al, 1995). Large run-ups found in east Flores Bali based on analyze source mechanisms were mostly (11-26 m) washed away house foundations. Brune et al thrust. (2010) explained that all tsunami waves were generated Submarine landslide generating tsunami was by rupture on two seismic faults, even though the largest investigated in Palu Bay during the September 28th run-ups could not be justifiable with such tectonic 2018 earthquake (Pakoksung et al, 2019). The landslide source model. Yeh et al (1993) pointed out that large took place in the strike-slip Palu-Koro fault zone on landslides were produced by the earthquake. Their Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. The landslide was views on landslide tsunami hypothesis were supported generated by horizontal displacement of the fault which by numerical modelling where the resulted wave triggered tsunamis that creating wave hazards along heights similar to the measured values. Tsunami largest coastal area of Palu City. In the past there were three run-up behavior was also studied on the backward side events of tsunami in this area (heights 15, 3 and 10 m) at nearly conical Babi Island. Experiments either generated by 1927 (M 6.3), 1938 (M 7.6) and 1968 (M numerical or analog showed that these could be 7.8) with sources are unclear (Gomez-Gesteira et al, ascribed to tsunami wave splitting around each side of 2010 and Pelinovsky et al, 1997). the island and collided at the back side directing to large Heiderzadeh et al (2018) noticed that horizontal run-up. movement was not significant in the Palu-Koro strike At first, a disastrous coastal mountain landslide slip to generate tsunami, instead they used fault slip was generated by a MS=7.0 earthquake north of Bali in information provided by USGS for modelled tsunami 1815. Then, It was followed by a tsunami when it reach propagation of Palu event. They also concluded that horizontal movement was not generate tsunami based

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 71 generated tsunamis models that well developed and widely used, numerical models for landslide- generated tsunamis are inadequate (Heinrich et al, 2001; Shigihara et al, 2006).

DISCUSSION Vulnerable with many geological hazards, Indonesia should be aware with these hazards especially relate to construction of seafloor infrastructures such as optic cables, gas and oil pipes, and electricity cables. Indonesian telecommunication company PT Telkom Tbk gradually built Figure 7. Tectonic overview of Bali and Flores region based on Lovholt et Information Communication al., (2012). Technology infrastructure (ICT) based on optical network platform on observations from tide gauges. Submarine landslide which was named Nusantara Super Highway (https:// mechanism has been proposed for tsunami generation inet.detik.com/telecommunication/d-1620709/ in Palu Bay. nusantara-super-highway-rampung-di-2015) (Figure According to Pakoksung et al (2019) submarine 8). NSH is the vision of the company to unite Indonesia landslide tend to generate large localized waves tsunami which was started since 2001 using satellite based compared to the longwave system tsunami resulted technology. NSH construction is divided into six rings from submarine earthquake. Compared to earthquake-

Figure 8. Seafloor fibre optic network existing and plan to built by PT Telkom Tbk some are passing through area of potential submarine landslide hazard (Source: https://www.slideshare.net/mulimuljati/indonesia-domestic- fibre-optic)

72 Hananto Kurnio et al. to connect Indonesian islands in accordance with six Indonesia should aware of the volcanic eruption- economic corridors developed by Indonesian induced tsunami because it is known as a volcano-rich Government. The six rings are : Sumatra (9,981 km), country, with more than 130 active volcanoes from a Java (11,524 km), Kalimantan (6,664 km), Sulawesi total 400 volcanoes in the world. and North Molucca (7,233 km), Bali and Nusa Recent activity of marine volcano Krakatau in Tenggara (3,444 km) and Molucca and Papua (8,254 Sunda Strait was reported by Center for Volcanology km). The last ring is connected Ambon – the capital city and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) occurred of Molucca Province; FakFAk, Sorong, Manokwari, on 22 September 2018. Small amount of volcanic Jayapura and Merauke – West Papua and Papua materials fell into the sea, especially on the south – Provinces (Figure 8). The projects are funded by PT southeast flank. Thus, it is still categorized as a tsunami Telkom Tbk itself and prioritize on eastern Indonesia hazard; especially for the coastal area along Sunda due to western Indonesia has been completed. The total Strait. Relate to this, knowledge and preparedness of the length of NSH is 47,099 km spread from Sumatra to communities should be improved as well as other Papua which covered 421 cities and regencies. The stakeholders such as scientists, journalists, local network is meant to support TIME – governments and polices. Other potency for tsunami Telecommunication, Information, Media and hazards are Agung Volcano in Bali, Soputan Volcano Edutainment; business platform based on information and Gamalama Volcano in . technology in the era of digital economy network. The NSH has been completely built in 2015, but monitoring CONCLUSIONS of its seafloor cables should be continuously carried out The study found out that blocky slide and slump especially at the areas of submarine geological hazards. deposits were observed in Seram Sea - south of BirdÊs Marine Geological Institute of Indonesia (MGI) Head Papua based on interpretation of seismic records. has provided data on marine geological hazards such as Blocky slide has the possibility of giant landslide that submarine volcanoes, submarine landslide and faults might affect seafloor infrastructure such as cable optic for PT Telkom Tbk. The data was used for precaution and trigger tsunami. On the other hand, submarine existing seafloor fiber optic cables in Papua, West landslide that trigger tsunami was occurred in north of Papua, Saumlaki and Ambon of Molucca Province Flores Island in 1992 and Palu Bay in 2018; while which all are in Eastern Indonesia and Padang– submarine landslides are common processes for basin Mentawai Western Indonesia. fill sedimentation in Eastern Indonesia. Submarine landslides triggered by volcanic collapse were not documented well in the eastern ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Indonesia. This view reveals after Krakatau volcano The author would like to thank to Marine collapse in Sunda Strait that generated tsunami in the Geological Institute Management for permission using coastal area especially in Java side. Beside volcanic data acquired using Research Vessel Geomarin 3. collapse, there are other tsunami related volcanic Special thanks are dedicated for colleagues involve in activities : underwater explosion, air wave generated by the data acquisition which include scientists, the blast, and pyroclastic flows that entered to the sea technicians and Geomarin 3 captain and crews. (Mutaqin et al, 2019). National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) – NOAA has catalogue global REFERENCES historical tsunami database triggered by volcanic activity since 2100 BC. At least 139 tsunamis recorded Akgun, A., 2011, Assessment of possible damaged where the most catastrophic occurred in Thera Island, areas due to landslide-induced waves at a Greece in 1610 BC and Hokkaido Island Japan on 29 constructed reservoir using empirical August 1741 BC. Both reached 90 meter maximum run- approaches: Kurtun (North Turkey) Dam up. reservoir area. Nat. Hazards Syst. Sci., 11, In the world death caused by volcanic tsunamis 1341–1350, 2011 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst- reached more than 54,000 persons, which is equal to sci.net/11/1341/2011/ doi:10.5194/nhess-11- 25% volcanism total victims (Mutaqin et al, 2019). 1341-2011 © Author(s) 2011. Although tsunami related to volcanic eruption rarely Aldha, T., and K.J. Ho, 2008, Tertiary hydrocarbon happen, some events had major impacts such as the play in NW Arafura shelf, offshore South 1792 CE of dome collapse of the Mayuyama volcano in Papua: Frontier area in Eastern Indonesia. Kyushu (15,030 death tolls), the 1741 CE eruption of Proceedings, Indonesian Petroleum Oshima-Oshima Volcano in the Japan Sea (1,607 death Association, Thirty-Second Annual tolls), and the Krakatoa tsunami, Indonesia in 1883 CE Convention& Exhibition, May 2008. (36,000 death tolls) (Lockridge, 1988).

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 73 Audley-Charles, M., 2004. Ocean trench blocked and Kusnida, D., Naibaho, T. and Firdaus, Y., 2016, obliterated by Banda forearc collision with Depositional Modification in Seram Trough, Australian proximal continental slope. Eastern Indonesia. Jurnal Geologi dan Tectonophysics 389:65–79. Sumberdaya Mineral, 17(2):99-106. Brune, S., Babeyko, A.Y. and Sobolev, S.V., 2010, Kusnida, D., Naibaho, T., Firdaus, Y., and Albab, A., Landslide tsunami hazard in the Indonesian 2018; Stratigrafi Seismik Cekungan Aru, Papua Sunda Arc. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, Barat Seismic Stratigraphy Of The Aru Basin, 589–604, 2010 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst- West Papua. Jurnal Geologi Kelautan, 16(2): sci.net/10/589/2010. 81-90 De Blasio, F.V., Engvik, L.E. and Elverhoi, A., 2006, Lockridge P A 1988 Historical Tsunami in the Pacific Sliding of outrunner blocks from submarine Basin. In: El-Sabh, M. I. and Murty, T. S. landslides. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley. Natural and Man-Made Hazards: Proceedings com/doi/10.1029/2005GL025165 of the International Symposium held at Elverhoi, A., Breien, H., de Blasio, F.V. and Harbitz, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada, 3–9 August 1986. C.B., 2010, Submarine landslides and the Springer Science & Business Media. 868p. importance of the initial sediment composition https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1433-9. for run-out length and final deposit. Ocean Lovholt, F., Kuhn, D., Bungum, H., Harbitz, C.B. and Dynamics 60 (4): 1027-1046. DOI: 10.1007/ Glimsdal, S., 2012, Historical tsunamis and s10236-010-0317-z. present tsunami hazard in eastern Indonesia and Folk, R.L.; 1965, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, the southern Philippines,; Journal Of Hemphill, online available Geophysical Research, Vol. 117, B09310, doi:10.1029/2012JB009425, 2012. Fine, I.V., Rabinovich, A.B., Bornhold, B.D., Thomson, R.E. and Kulikov, E.A., 2005, The Mason, D, Habitz, C, Wynn, R, Pederson, G & Grand Banks landslide-generated tsunami of Lovholt, F, 2006, Submarine landslides: November 18, 1929: preliminary analysis and processes, triggers and hazard protection. numerical modeling. Marine Geology Philosophical Transactions of the Royal 215:45–57. Society, 394, 2009-39. Gómez-Gesteira M, Rogers BD, Dalrymple RA, Mutaqin, B.W., Lavigne, F., Hadmoko, D.S., and Crespo AJC, 2010, State-of-the-art of classical Ngalawani, M.N., 2019, Volcanic Eruption SPH for free-surface flows. J Hydraul Res Induced Tsunami in Indonesia : A Review, IOP 48:6–27. doi: 10.3826/jhr.2010.0012 Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. To cite this article: B W Mutaqin et al Harbitz, C.B., Lovholt, F. and Bungum, H., 2014, 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 256 Submarine landslide tsunamis: how extreme 012023. and how likely? Article in Natural Hazards · July 2014 DOI: 10.1007/s11069-013-0681-3. Naibaho, T., 2013, Pemetaan Geologi Dan Geofisika Bersistem Sekala 1 : 250.000 Perairan Misool Hartadi, E.T., Mjøs, R., Zwach, C., Schaack, M.V., Lembar Peta 2713-2714 Papua Barat (Kr. Priyanto, B., Luppo Willem Kuilman, L.W. and Geomarin III), Bahan Paparan Kolokium Hasil Scott Young, 2015. Tectonic Evolution of the Litbang Geologi Kelautan, Pusat Penelitian Tarera Audina Fault, Aru Trough and Adi Dan Pengembangan Geologi Kelautan Trough, Indonesia, AAPG International Bandung. Conference & Exhibition, Melbourne, Australia, September 15. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) – NOAA. Normark, William R., Moore, James G; Heidarzadeh, M., Muhari, A., & Wijanarto, A. B., Torresan, M. E., 1993, "Giant volcano-related 2018, Insights on the source of the 28 landslides and the development of the Hawaiian September 2018 Sulawesi tsunami, Indonesia Islands", in Schwab, William C.; Lee, Homa J.; based on spectral analysis and numerical Twichell, David C. (eds.), Submarine simulations. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 176, Landslides: Selected Studies in the U.S. 25–43. Exclusive Economic Zone (PDF), U.S. Heinrich, P., Piatensi, A., Okal, E., He´bert, H., 2001. Geological Survey, 184-196. Near-field modeling of the July 17, 1998 Pakoksung, K., Suppasri, A., Imamura, F., Athanasius, tsunami in Papua . Geophys. Res. C., Omang, A. and Muhari, A., 2019, Lett. 27, 3037–3040.

74 Hananto Kurnio et al. Simulation of the Submarine Landslide translated by Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, Tsunami on 28 September 2018 in Palu Bay, New Delhi, 210 pp., 1988. Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, Using a Two-Layer Talling, P.J., M. Clare, M. Urlaub, E. Pope, J.E. Hunt, Model. Pure Appl. Geophys. 2019 Springer and S.F.L. Watt. 2014. Large submarine Nature Switzerland AG https://doi.org/10.1007/ landslides on continental slopes: Geohazards, s00024-019-02235-y. methane release, and climate change. Paris, R., Switzer, A., Belousova, M., Belousov, A., , 27(3):32–45, http://dx.doi.org/ Ontowirjo, B., Whelley, P. & Ulvrova, M., 2014, 10.5670/oceanog.2014.38. Volcanic tsunami: a review of source Tappin D. R., Watts P.& Grilli S. T.. 2008The Papua mechanisms, past events and hazards in New Guinea tsunami of 17 July 1998:anatomy Southeast (Indonesia, Philippines, Papua of a catastrophic event. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. New Guinea). Natural Hazards, 70:447-470. Sci. 8:243-266. Parsons, T., Geist, E.L., Ryan, H.F., Lee, H.J., Tsuji, Y., Matsutomi, H., Imamura, F., and Takeo, M.: Haeussler, P.J., Lynett, P., Hart, P.E., Sliter, R. Damage to Coastal Villages due to the 1992 and Roland, E., 2014, Source and progression Flores Island Earthquake Tsunami, Pure Appl. of a submarine landslide and tsunami: The 1964 Geophys., 144(3/4), 481:490. Great Alaska earthquake at Valdez. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 119(11):8502–8516 Vail, P. R., Mitchum, R. M., Jr., Todd, R. G., Widmier, J. M., Thompson, S., III, Sangree, J. B., Bubb, Pelinovsky, E., Yuliadi, D., Prasetya, G. and Hidayat, J.N., and Hatlelid, W. G., 1977, Seismic R., 1997, The 1996 Sulawesi Tsunami. Natural stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level, in Hazards, 16(1):29-38. AAPG Memoir, 26: 49-212. Rynn, J.: A preliminary assessment of tsunami hazard Volker, D., Scholz, F. and Geersen, J. , 2011, Analyses and risk in the Indonesian region, 2002, Science of submarine landsliding in the rupture area of of Tsunami Hazards, 20(4):193-200. the 27 February 2010 Maule earthquake, Shigihara, Y., Goto, D., Imamura, F., Kitamura, Y., Central Chile. Marine Geology, 288(2011): 79- Matsubara, T., Takaoka, K. and Ban, K., 2006, 89. Hydraulic and numerical study on the Yeh, H., Imamura, F., Synolakis, C. E., Tsuji, Y., Liu, generation of a subaqueous landslide tsunami P., and Shi, S.: The Flores Island Tsunamis, along the coast. Natural Hazards, 39(2):159- T. Am. Geophys. Un., 74(33):369, 177. 371–373. Soloviev, S. L., Go, C. N., and Kim, K. S.: Catalogue Yudhicara, Bani, P., and Darmawan, A., 2015, of Tsunamis in the Pacific 1969–1982, Geothermal System as the Cause of the 1979 Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Soviet Landslide Tsunami in Lembata Island, Geophysical Committee, Moscow, 1992, Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, 2(2): 91-99.

Review of Submarine Landslides in the Eastern Indonesia Region 75 76 Hananto Kurnio et al.