/~ttitudes Toward the Jse of Force and Violence 1 1 r 'homas Muentzer, Menno Simons, and Martin A Comparative Study with Reference to Prevalent Contemporary Positions By RALPH 1. MOELLERlNG

PREFACE Ages. To a certain extent, at least, he was standing in the tradition of early church HE treatise offered here seeks to ex­ fathers, like Tertullian and Cyprian, who T_ tract and delineate, from three leading repudiated war wirh outspoken disappro­ figures of the period, three bation. His emphasis on peaceful living basic attitudes toward the use of force and and the relief of suffering has been in­ violence which have been, and continue to herited by the , who bear his be, assumed by the followers of Jesus name, and by much of the thinking which Christ. When Constantine first raised the is characteristic of present-day Christian Christian banner in front of his armies he . was already tending in the direction of the first position exemplified most clearly in 's views on war and peace the career and theology of Thomas Muent­ are those which predominated in the me­ zero The , organized for the avowed dieval church and were shared, with some purpose of wresting the Holy Land from minor variations, by Zwingli and Calvin. rhe infidel Mohammedans, are the clearest The classical church tradition inherited by medieval prototype of this "theology of some of the major American denomina­ violence," while the attitude of some Amer­ tions, along with most Lurherans, Re­ ican clergy during World War I is rhe formed, and Anglicans in Europe, has most striking reverberation of this outlook included willingness to fight in "just wars" in modern history. Those who would un­ while recognizing them as punishments for dertake a "holy war" to destroy atheistic human sin. The interpretation of Luther Communism are the latest representatives on this point, as in so many areas, has been of this school of thought. far from unanimous and unambiguous. When Menno Simons renounced the use Bishop Berggrav of Norway could quote of force under any circumstances he was Luther as favorable to his policy of re­ reaffirming the minority opinion of scat­ sistance against tyrants. Dean lnge could tered sects that persisted during the Middle argue that Luther's subservience to the state 406 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE paved the way for the deification of the years younger than Luther, he was equipped state and the usurpation of power by Fas­ with a university education and faroiliar­ cist-minded scoundrels. This seemingly in­ ized with the Biblical languages, read pa­ terminable debate over the intent and tristic and scholastic theology, and was implication of Luther's doctrine of church immersed in the writings of the German and state cannot be adequately treated mystics. His voracious reading seems to within the compass of this paper. It must have been stimulated by a desperate inter­ suffice to indicate that Luther represents nal struggle. As a troubled soul in search a third and clearly distinguishable view on of certainty he shifted from one position the use of force and violence which is sig­ to another in an effort to resolve his per­ nificant for past, present, and future. sonal conflicts.3 In 1513 he became a Roman Catholic I. THOMAS MUENTZER, REVOLUTIONARY and was soon promoted to be the SPIRITUALIST OR SOCIALIST AGITATOR? provost of a monastery. In 1519 he became One of the most versatile and contro­ father-confessor of a nunnery. Momentar­ versial figures to appear during the period ily he became an exuberant follower of of the German Reformation, Thomas Luther and joined the Wittenberger in Muentzer has been anathematized and helping to demolish the massive structure praised, interpreted, and reinterpreted. His of the medieval church. Yet he began to fiery and restless mind was embroiled with move away from Luther almost as soon as radical conceptions of the nature of Chris­ he had found him. In 1520 he was a priest tianity. While Karl Holl has defended the in Zwickau, where he was exposed to a re­ thesis that he can be viewed as "the orig­ vival of Taborite doctrines in the "proph­ inator of " latter-day Marxists ecies" of Nicolaus Storch, who claimed to claim him as a precursor of modern social­ be the recipient of direct revelation and ism.I Robert Friedman, a Mennonite apocalyptic visions. Muentzer was at­ scholar, finds him so vulgar and fanciful tracted by the thought that God was com­ that he doubts whether he can rightfully municating directly with His elect.4 Soon be classified as a Christian.2 Few have doubted the intellectual com­ 3 Annemarie Lohmann, ZM geistlichen Ent­ petence of Thomas Muentzer. Born in wicklung Thomas Muentzers (Leipzig und Ber­ Stolberg in Thuringia, about five or six lin: Teubner, 1931), who characterizes the dif­ ferent stages in his spiritual pilgrimage until he emerges as an independent reformer: (1) Muent­ I Two important Marxist studies in East Ger­ many have been concerned with his role in the zer under spiritualist direction until 1521; Peasant's Revolt as an anticipation of proletarian (2) The formation of the new religious prin· revolutions under capitalism: M. M. Simirin, Die ciple in the Prague Manifesto of November Volksreformation des Thomas Muentzer und 1521; (3) Peaceful expansion and elaboration der grosse Bauernkrieg (a translation from the of his teaching, 1522 until July 1524; (4) Vio­ Russian, Berlin, 1952), and Alfred Meusel, lent progression (September 1523, according to Thomas Muentzer und seine Zeit mit einer plan after July 1524) and the reaction to his Auswahl der Dokumente des grossen deutschen teaching. All translations from the German are Bauernkrieges (Berlin, 1952). my responsibility. 2 "Muentzer, Thomas," The Mennonite En­ 4 Ibid., p.16: "The Spirit is not revealed cyclopedia, III (Scottsdale, Pa.: The Mennonite only in the written Word of the , but it is Publishing House, 1957), 785-789. poured out immediately into the soul of man." ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 407 he was induced to share the conviction At this new location Thomas Muentzer that the final Judgment was im..'11inent. issued a manifesto announcing the forma­ Already during his "Zwickau period" tion of a new church in Bohemia which some of the main outlines of Thomas was to consist solely of the elect and Muentzer's attitude toward the use of force which would depend for its guidance upon and violence began to take shape. He direct inspiration from God.6 His own role adopted and expanded Storch's expectation is now defined in terms of the parable of that the people chosen by God, the true the wheat and the tares: "Harvesttime is Christians, would rise up and exterminate here, so God Himself has hired me for His all the godless. These ruthless and destruc­ harvest. I have sharpened my scythe ...." 7 tive actions were necessary preliminaries Muentzer found Bohemia uncongenial to to the second advent of Christ and the his bold declaration, and he was soon ex­ inauguration of the millennium. Contem­ pelled. During Luther's absence at the poraries observed and lamented the change he lodged in Wittenberg with that had come over Muentzer. They de­ Carlstadt, who was in agreement with him tected a lust for blood which sometimes in many respects but unwilling to follow gave vent to sheer raving. The imagery him in his most extreme views. As a rest­ of violence in the Book of Revelation took less wanderer Muentzer moved from place on a special significance for him, and he to place in central Germany, sustained by began to show a marked preference for a now unshakable confidence in his pro­ dwelling on such incidents in the Old phetic mission. Renouncing his academic Testament as Elijah's slaughter of the degrees he signed his papers only as of Baal, jehu's slaying of the sons "Christ's messenger." His deprivations and of Ahab, and ]ael's assassination of the sufferings he understood as strenuous unsuspecting Sisera.5 training for his messianic task: "The living Renouncing the pursuit of learning, the God is sharpening His scythe in me, so highly educated Muentzer now repudiated that later I can cut down the red poppies the ideals of the humanists and incessantly and the blue cornflowers." 8 propagated his eschatological-centered From Easter of 1523 until August 1524 faith among the impoverished miners and Muentzer was a priest in Allstedt, a small disgruntled weavers of Zwickau. Using the town in the Harz mountains, where his pulpit to utter fierce denunciations of the preaching attracted large throngs from the local Franciscans and opposing the preacher neighboring mining districts. Here he favored by the well-to-do burghers, he manifested some of his diversified interest earned the enmity of the town council and and ability by writing a number of liturgi­ was peremptorily dismissed. A popular cal tracts on and the German uprising in his behalf was promptly sub­ 6 Otto G. Brandt, Thomas Muentzer: Sein dued, and the turbulent rebel was com­ Leben und seine Schriften (Jena and Leipzig, pelled to take refuge in Prague. 1933), p. 60: "Den wer den Geist Christi nit in sieh spueret, ja der ihn nit gewiszlieh hat, der ist 5 Norman Cohn, The Pursuit 0/ the Mil­ nit ein Glied Christi, er ist des Teufels.... " lennium (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1957), 7 Cohn, p.255. pp. 252, 253. 8 Ibid. 408 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

Mass. Like Luther, he married a former way reformer in Wittenberg 11 lacks con­ nun and rr~"~.l rt..;U .. ~-, Temporarily he fide--- '-, +- "--'-::; ,,;, .. : .. and is unwilling appeared to be content to assume a more to carry through to its logical completion moderate position. As late as July 9, 1523, the movement which he has inaugurated. he sent a rather conciliatory letter to Lu­ Luther has devised a comfortable reforma­ ther. In the same year he wrote in an evan­ tion in which the stress is laid on individ­ gelical spirit to his brethren in Stolberg.9 ual salvation. A "honey sweet Christ" is This comparatively peaceful interlude made available through the simple process was soon terminated. In the winter of of personal faith in contradiction of the 1523-24 Muentzer founded a strange fact that the real Christ is the "bitter conspiratorial society called the League of Christ," who can only be received as we the Elect, designed to execute the program become identified with Him in His suHer­ he had formulated at Prague - if neces­ ings. Those who would be saints of God sary by force of arms. From this time on must not shrink away from the dire pros­ Muentzer seems to have lost touch with pect of bearing the cross. For the princes reality and embarked on a road of fanciful this means the unpleasant but unavoidable apocalypticism and uncompromising fa­ commission from God to purge the ranks naticism which could only lead to ruina­ of Christendom of its pretenders and im­ tion. Luther recognized this trend and postors: began to refer to him as a Schwaermer,10 . . . Drive His enemies from the elect. . . . Don't give us any old jokes about how the With a mixture of curiosity and alarm power of God should do it without your Duke John of came to Allstedt in application of the sword, otherwise may it July 1524 and asked Muentzer to preach rust away from you in its scabbard! . , . a sermon. Taking his text from the second God is your protection and will teach you chapter of Daniel, Muentzer complied and to fight against His foes. . . . The godless took full advantage of the opportunity to have no right to live except as the elect expound his characteristic ideas and de­ wish to grant it to them ....12 velop more fully what has been called his Indirect evidence related to Muentzer's "theology of violence." position on the use of force is found in the The princes are warned that they must letters addressed to him by choose between obedience to God or sub­ and his friends from Zurich in September mission to the devil. The last of the world 1524. Addressing him as a beloved empires foreseen by Daniel is approaching brother in Christ and commending him for its doom. The Satanic usurpers of God's domain must be overthrown and extin­ 11 Explicitly called Brother Fattened Swine and Brother Soft Life in the "Sermon Before the guished. Those serpents, the clergy, and Princes," in George H. Williams, Spiritual and those eels, the secular rulers and lords, con­ Anabaptist Writers, The Library of Christian taminate one another in a squirming heap Classics, XXV (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1957), 61. of corruption. That fainthearted and half- 12 Ibid., pp. 66-69; d. Carl Hinrichs, Thomas Muentzer: Politische Schriften (Halle, 9 Brandt, p. 62. 1950), pp. 3-28, where detailed commentary 10 Mennonite Encyclopedia, III, 785. is included. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 409 his writings against "fictitious faith" and Muentzer found a large proportion of the ritualistic customs of Baptism and the paupers whn mprp ol1o(,p;:>tible to his tem­ lord's Supper, these pacifist-minded Ana­ pestuous rabble rousing. Obsessed by his nevertheless feel constrained to conviction that the destruction of the un­ admonish him regarding some dangerous godly was impending, he patrolled the policies which they have detected and streets at the head of an armed band with which they wish he would disavow. They a red crucifix and a naked sword carried cannot understand why he continues to in front of him. tolerate chanting and the Mass. Moreover, On the title page of an incendiary pam­ they have been disturbed by reports that phlet published at Muehlhausen Muentzer he advocates the use of the sword to pro­ wrote: tect the adherents of the . True be­ Beware, I have put my words into thy lievers are sheep likely to be slaughtered mouth; I have lifted thee above the people at any moment. "They must be baptized and above the empires that thou mayest in anguish and affliction." Even under the build and plant. A wall of iron against Old Testament dispensation war was a mis­ the kings, princes, priests, and for the peo­ fortune. Now it is to be categorically ple hath been erected. Let them fight, for renounced.13 victory is wondrous, and the strong and The final objective of Muenrzer, the es­ godless tyrants will perish.15 tablishment of the kingdom of God on With the outbreak of the Peasants' War earth, which he had first announced in the Muentzer proved himself a revolutionary Prague Manifesto, now became a burning in action, although he does not seem to passion for him. Having spurned the have had a voice in the main uprisings in "spiritless flesh at Wittenberg," and hav­ the south and west of Germany. His in­ ing abandoned any hope of converting the fluence was limited to the Thuringian rulers to his views, he turned to the peasant sector, where the peasants scoured the population as the only redemptive means countryside, looting and burning monas­ available. A violent upheaval spearheaded teries and convents. In a letter sent to his by the common people would be necessary followers at Allstedt he issued a call to to dislodge the heathen princes and inaug­ arms: urate the reign of God's saints.14 I tell you, if you will not suffer for God's In the free imperial city of Muehlhausen sake, then you must be the devil's martyrs. So watch out! Don't be so discouraged, 13 Williams, p. SO. The postscript or second letter to "Brother Thomas" was written after indolent, do not show adulation for the the Swiss evangelicals had heard about the belli­ perverse visionaries, the godless scoundrels. cose sermon which Muentzer had delivered be­ Start and fight the Lord's conflict. It is al­ fore the princes of Saxony. If the report is true ready overdue.... If there are but three they want him to know that they are offended, and they plead with him to abstain from any of you who, confiding in God, seek only further utterances which would defend war. His name and honor, you will not need to 14 Muentzer's attack on Luther, "Schutzrede wider das geistlose Fleisch zuo Wittenberg," 15 Quoted by Friedrich Engels, The Peasant Hinrichs, pp. 72-lO1; cf. Lohmann, pp. 65 War in Germany (New York: International to 6S. Publishers, 1926), p. 69. 410 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

fear a hundred thousand .... Now go at are a harmful Staupbesen (birch rod) to them, go ahead, go ahead! The rascals are the ... .17 as dispirited as dogs .... Pay no attention Philip of Hesse, strengthened by recruits to the lamentations of the godless! They from other princes, and with ample artil­ will beg you in such a cordial way, and whine and cry like children. Don't show lery, could afford to treat the unfortunate any pity .... Strike, go ahead, while the peasants with contempt. Nevertheless, iron is hot! Don't let your sword get cold! terms for submission were offered; the Don't allow it to become feeble! ... Throw chief demand being the surrender of their tower to the ground! As long as they Thomas Muentzer and his closest asso­ are alive you will never get rid of your ciates. In all probability the offer would fear of men. One can't speak to you about have been accepted, but the self-acclaimed God as long as they are reigning over you. prophet made an impassioned plea in Push ahead, attack, while you have day­ which he declared that God had spoken light. God goes ahead of you, so follow, to him and had promised to catch the can­ follow ....16 non balls of the enemy in his cloak sleeves. About 8,000 peasants finally grouped The effectiveness of the speech was en­ themselves into an ill-equipped army and hanced by the appearance of a rainbow appealed to Muentzer to provide them which, as the symbol on Muentzer's banner, leadership. Comparing himself to Gideon, was readily interpreted as a signal of divine the ill-fated prophet left Muehlhausen with approvaI.18 Confident that some stupen­ some 300 of his most devoted and rabid dous miracle would occur to transform ap­ followers and joined the peasant camp at parent defeat into sudden victory the peas­ Frankhausen. Peasants from neighboring ants were singing "Come, Holy Spirit," villages were threatened by force if they when the impatient princes fired a salvo. did not join the "army of the Lord." An The results were immediate and cata­ urgent appeal was sent to the town of strophic: the disorganized peasants fled in Erfurt for reinforcements, and defiant let­ panic, while the cavalry hunted them down ters were sent to the enemy. To Count and slaughtered them by the hundreds. Ernest of Mansfeld Muentzer wrote: Muentzer escaped, but his hiding place was Say, you wretched, shabby bag of worms, soon uncovered. After being tortured he who made you a prince over the people was beheaded in the camp of the princes whom God has purchased with His pre­ on May 27, 1525.19 cious blood? ... By God's mighty power The memory of Thomas Muentzer has you are delivered up to destruction. . . . been preserved by friends and critics alike. The eternal, living God has commanded Even though he never designated himself that you be removed from the throne of power which has been given to us. For 17 "Muentzers Brief an Graf Ernst von Mans· you are useless to the Christian cause, you feld," May 12, 1525, Ibid., pp. 77, 78. 18 According to the Histod Thomas Muent­ 16 Brandt, pp.74, 75. Luther's much-quoted zen, a work which was written while the story (often out of context) ferocious pamphlet was still fresh in people's memory and which Against the Thievish, Murderous Hordes 0/ the evinces a rather high standard of factual ac­ Peasants can be better understood as a fearful curacy. reaction to Muentzer's threats. 19 Cohn, pp.269-271. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 411 as an Anabaptist, he was regarded as the open atheism." The Spirit, which is the "evil genius" of the movement by Luther, only reliable interpreter of the Bible for Zwingli, and Bullinger. The debate is still Muentzer, is identified by Engels as human raging as to what affinities of belief, and reason. The heresies concealed under Chris­ what historical contacts, can be demon­ tian phraseology, according to this Marxist strated between the champion of the peas­ evaluation, include a denial of heaven and ants, the Swiss evangelicals, and the Men­ hell and a political program designed to nonites. implement an equalitarian commonwealth More astounding is the apotheosis which on earth. By the kingdom of God Muen­ he has received at the hand of Russian and tzer understood a new ordering of society German Communists, from Engels through in which class differences would be dis­ Kautsky to the present day. solved and private property confiscated. All existing authorities who did not support Marxist apologists who have been en­ the revolution were to be overthrown by grossed in a search for historical precedents force. Princes and nobles who did not sur­ to modern Communism have been much render to the revolutionaty regime were to attracted to a study and interpretation of be liquidated without mercy.20 Thomas Muentzer. His bristling defiance While admitting that Muentzer as a of the political and ecclesiastical order of child of his age could not have a full in­ his time has merited their applause. In his sight into theoretical Marxism, Engels dependence on force and violence they see claims that he often "went far beyond the one who was a 16th-century revolutionary immediate ideas and demands of the ple­ with tactics and objectives akin to their beians and peasants." Just as farsighted own. No less than the Swiss evangelicals, Communists have always been in the van­ who were his contemporaries, they are guard of the trend toward socialism, so eager to proffer him the hand of fellowship Muentzer molded a party out of the revo­ and call him comrade. The question con­ lutionary elements that "still represented tinues to be debated: Was Muentzer a revo­ only a small minority of the i.nsurgent lutionary spiritualist or a socialist agitator? masses."21 Writing in 1850 Friedrich Engels pro­ Echoes of Thomas Muentzer's attitude fessed to find many parallels between the toward the use of force and violence are situation in Germany during the Peasants' also found at times among professing War and the revolutionary movements Christians. Among the more weird and which erupted in Europe in 1848. The unusual sects one often finds apocalyptic numerous apocalyptic references in Muen­ imagery reminiscent of Storch and Muen­ tzer's writings are dismissed as concessions tzer. Rarely do they express a desire to made to the mentality of the people he was take up arms themselves to usher in the dealing with in a day when religious super­ kingdom of God, but the way they de­ stitions abounded and retained a tremen­ nounce existing authorities in state and dous hold on the imagination of the com­ church is similar to the verbal abuse which mon people. "Under the cloak of Christian forms," opines Engels, "he preached a kind 20 Friedrich Engels, pp. 65-68. of pantheism ... and at times even taught 21 Ibid., p. 73. 412 ATrITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

Muentzer heaped upon Luther and the and capitalists from all the nations marshal­ princes. Although the theological views of ing all their tanks, planes, and weapons of Charles Russell and Judge Rutherford war and entering into the "Valley of would depart in many respects from those Threshing." In Muentzer's vision the saints of the most notorious radical reformer of were required to bear the brunt of the the 16th century, there is much in the battle. In Rutherford's scheme the faithful teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses that may witnesses will occupy the mountainsides in cause us to exclaim, "Shades of Thomas the role of spectators, while Christ, the in­ Muentzer!" Just as the false reformers and visible field general of Jehovah, strikes godless rulers had once combined ecclesias­ down Satan's armies with the flail of de­ tical and political power to prevent the struction. The honor of Jehovah will be inauguration of the reign of God's saints vindicated, the obstacles to the establish­ and to enforce the oppression of the peas­ ment of a theocracy will have been re­ ants, so in the 20th century we see the moved, and the cherished dreams of the churches, commercial enterprises, and Witnesses will be fulfilled.23 world empires allied to frustrate God's The spirit of Thomas Muentzer and his purposes and persecute Jehovah's Wit­ "theology of violence," supposedly anchored nesses. Babylon, the mother of harlots to a more sane and solid tradition of faith (symbolic of religious power), is married and teaching, have at times found their way to Satan. Rutherford wrote: into "respectable" . This has In these latter times the three elements, been especially true during periods of under the supervision of the devil, have chaotic confusion and devastating wars, united in forming the most subtle and when emotions are likely to be charged wicked world power of all time. They with hatred and otherwise reasonable men operate under the title of Christendom, lose their stability and restraint. which is a fraudulent and blasphemous A particularly strong case could be pre­ assumption that they constitute Christ's sented for a resurgence of Muentzer's mil­ kingdom on earth.22 lennial and bellicose views as being widely The refusal of the Witnesses to bear exhibited in the United States during arms and salute the flag is not due to any Wodd War I. The parallel becomes most pacifist views but to their contention that striking when we remember that both the prevailing political powers are demonic. share a vision of a better world emerging On the basis of an allegorical, and often from the use of force in God's name. Just fantastically farfetched, interpretation of as Thomas Muentzer could call upon the prophecies (again akin to Muentzer) they princes to use their power to uproot the foresee the final battle of Armageddon, in godless and later mobilize the peasantry to which Satan will marshall all his visible wage war against their tyrannical oppres­ forces against Jehovah. In their vivid por­ sors, so American churchmen in 1917 and trayal of this decisive clash between good 1918 could call upon our citizenry to fight and evil they picture the priests, politicians, a "holy war" against the pagan Huns and

22 Deliverance (Brooklyn: The Watchtower 23 Rutherford, Religion (Brooklyn: Watch­ Bible and Tract Society), p.53. tower Bible and Tract Society), pp.337-357. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 413 the nefarious Kaiser. Just as the fiery Just as Muentzer had used preaching as preacher of Allstedt could dream of the the means for arousing the populace and rule of God's saints on earth, so the opti­ bolstering their morale, so the crusading mistic clergy during the first few decades ministers in the United States used their of the 20th century could visualize God's pulpits to inflame passions and converted will being "done on earth as it is in their churches into recruiting stations. The heaven" because the world would become shameful behavior of much of the Amer­ "safe for democracy" and permanent peace ican clergy during our first intervention in would be assured. Somehow the contradic­ a world conflict demonstrates that Chris­ tion between idealism and violence is tian leaders today are not immune to passed over. Oddly enough even the ethics the ever-recurring temptation to achieve of Jesus are strained to conform to this their goals by forsaking the sword of the position. That Jesus was a pacifist was Spirit and resorting to the tactics employed categorically denied. J. Wesley Johnston of by men like Thomas Muentzer. the John Street Methodist Episcopal For the most part ecclesiastical leaders Church in New York City affirmed: learned their painful lesson through the "Christ was the greatest fighter the world disillusionment following World War I. has ever seen." He was "the Lion of the Yet there was a tendency in some quarters Tribe of Judah," and "surely every believer to again view our entrance into W orId in Christ . . . will Uilsheathe his sword and War II as a righteous cause meriting di­ gladly give his life . . . to help win the vine approvaL Militant Dean Beekman, an fight against the forces of cruelty, abomina­ Episcopal prelate, made 509 speeches in tion and hell." 24 churches, colleges, and civic clubs around The editor of the Christian Register the country depicting the horrors of (Unitarian) was sure that Jesus not only would endorse Christian participation in Nazism. After we became embroiled in the war but also would eagerly join in the the conflict his injunction was: "Don't pray killing: for peace; pray for triumph." 26 Some Bible As Christians, of course, we say Christ Fundamentalists, displaying an unmistak­ approves (of the war). But would he able Calvinistic strain commingled with fight and kill? . . . There is not an oppor­ certain Anabaptist traits, became so vocif­ tunity to deal death to the enemy that he erous in their patriotism as to be on the would shirk from or delay in seizing! He verge of resurrecting the spirit of Thomas would take bayonet and grenade and bomb Muentzer. Apocalyptic references scattered and rifle and do the work of deadliness throughout their publications made Hitler against that which is the most deadly and Mussolini personifications of evils enemy of his Father's kingdom in a thou­ sand years. . . . That is the inexorable prophesied in Ezekiel and Revelation, or truth about Jesus Christ and this war; and sometimes Stalin was announced as the we rejoice to say it.25 .27

24 Quoted by Ray H. Abrams, Preachers Pre· 26 Ralph Luther Moellering, Modern War sent Arms (New York: Round Table Press, and the American Churches (New York: The 1933), p. 63. American Press, 1956), p.60. 25 Ibid., p. 68. 27 Ibid., pp. 66, 67. 414 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

Wherever the churches or American re­ the Bible on this point, and soon found ligiosity tends to identify the United States himself questioning the validity of infant with God's people, and its foreign policy Baptism. Unsatisfied by the explanation of with God's objectives in history, there is the reformers, he found himself out of har­ danger of reverting to a Muentzerlike the­ mony with Lutherans and Zwinglians as ology of violence. Whenever Christians de­ well as with the Romanists. About 1531 piet Soviet Russia as the center of all god­ he reached "the momentous decision" that lessness, and begin to talk about "preventive Baptism on confession of faith alone was warfare," we may be sure that the spirit of Scriptural, but it was five more years be­ Thomas Muentzer is again rising to haunt fore he was willing to risk an open break and disturb us. Deplorable as it may be, with the church which had nurtured him.29 the position he assumed on the use of force His willingness to assume an independ­ by Christians has not yet been obliterated. ent status was accelerated by his revulsion to the violent spirit displayed by the "per­ II. MENNO SIMONS, ADVOCATE verted sect of Muenster." Menno was OF OR POLITICAL deeply shaken by the debacle of the radical IRRESPONSIBILITY? followers of Melchior Hoffmann. Some of The most outstanding Anabaptist leader the more zealous and pious members of his of the during the 16th cen­ own parish were swept away by the fanat­ tury, and the progenitor of a movement icism of the Muensterite delusion. His own which has persisted to this day in America brother seems to have been among those and Europe, was Menno Simons, born 13 who supported a teaching of vengeance and years after Luther and about 7 years liquidation of the ungodly. Deeply dis­ younger than Muentzer. At the age of 28 tressed by these abominable doctrines, he he was ordained as a priest at . tried desperately to counteract their perni­ Doubts regarding were cious influence with public denunciation early planted in his mind by the Sacrament­ from the pulpit and visits on the ists, clergy in the Netherlands under the members of his flock. 30 influence of Cornelius Hoen.28 To resolve A sharp polemic written at this time and his inner conflicts Menno turned to a dili­ directed against "the blasphemy of Jan van gent study of the Scriptures. He acknowl­ Leiden" begins to delineate his position edges that he found enlightenment in the against war and violence as instruments to writings of Martin Luther which came to which Christians may resort for the right­ his attention. His estrangement from the ing of wrongs or for the establishment of Roman Church was a gradual development. Disturbed by the execution of an itinerant a theocracy on earth. There is only one tailor in a neighboring city for the offense true King and Lord, Jesus Christ, who of being rebaptized, he began to examine possesses all authority in heaven and on

28 Hoen's views regarding the Lord's Supper 29 Biography of Menno Simons by Cornelius were published in Switzerland by Zwingli at the Krahn, Mennonite Encyclopedia, III, 577-583. very time that Menno was tormented by doubt. 30 John Horsch, "Menno Simons' Attitude They were publicly repudiated by Luther at the Toward the Anabaptists of Muenster," Men­ . nonite Quarterly Review, X (1936), 55 ff. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 415 earth.31 The church is His spiritual king­ to be God's angels who root up the tares. dom, within which love and peace prevaiL Some say that the lord wants to punish Those who advocate the use of force to Babylon and Christians are to be His in­ consummate the rule of God have broken struments, but Christ must return for the their covenant relation with the Lord. final Judgment before His enemies are Referring to the armor of the Christian castigated.33 according to Ephesians 6 Menno reminds At first thought it may seem inconsistent his readers that "the weapons of our war­ in Menno's writings to discover that such fare are not carnal." The only security an uncompromising advocate of passive guaranteed the follower of Christ is to be resistance does not shrink from dwelling armed with the sword of the Spirit against on the torments of the eternally damned. the wiles of the deviL The person who Even though men should not lift a finger wants to abide in Christ must take up his to resist the encroachments of evil it is fully cross and follow after Him. All the injunc­ within the province of God to mete out an tions of Jesus in the unmitigated punishment of the fiercest type implying (turn the other imaginable. Unless people are born again cheek, love your enemies, be perfect) must in this life they will be hurled into the bot­ be taken seriously. This is the true voice tomless lake of fire and brimstone in the of Christ, which must be heeded. next life.34 Quoting St. Paul, Menno affirms that the Weare likely to wonder whether Menno fruits of the Spirit are love, joy, peace, and his followers were not unconsciously long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, tempted to find a sinful compensation, if meekness, and temperance. It is always not secret delight, in the thought that their wrong to return evil for evil. The ideal is enemies who abuse them now find the to live peaceably with all men. Give place tables turned in the hereafter as they to wrath and leave vengeance to the Lord. squirm in the miseries of eternal hellfire. Overcome evil with good. We should pat­ The climax in Menno's spiritual conflict tern our mind after that of Jesus Christ, came with the at the Old Cloister, and we observe that He "was minded to suffer." If we are to be patient "until the 33 Ibid., pp. 46, 47. coming of the Lord, then surely it is for­ 34 Cf. his vivid description of the horrible bidden to fight, inasmuch as the Lord is not punishments meted out by God's vengeance on the evil and impenitent, in the Complete Works yet come." 32 of Menno Simons, pp. 202, 203, 205: "In the In flat contradiction to the views of 'terrible, unbearable judgment' the persecutors Thomas Muentzer, Menno insists that we of the Anabaptists will be told, 'Depart from Me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for cannot arrogate to ourselves the authority the devil and his angels.' "Then shall your laughter be changed into 31 Jesus is identified with Melchisedek, king weeping, your joy into sorrow, your abundant of Salem (peace). He is the Second David and earthly life into everlasting death, your luxury the fulfillment of many prophecies from Isaiah, into eternal woe, your pride into dust and Jeremiah, and Micah which speak of the peace­ worms, your violence into suffering, your beauty ful rule of King Messiah. Cf. "The Blasphemy into ugliness, and your cruel and unmerciful of John of Leiden" in The Complete Writings tyranny be rewarded with unquenchable hell­ of Menno Simons (Scottdale, 1956), pp. 38 ff. fire." Cf. "Defense to All Theologians," ibid" 32 Ibid., p. 45. p.538. 416 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE near Bolsward, when some 300 misguided brethren and gave them the leadership in zeal0t~ inlhllf'rl with the revolutionary faith ~nrl <~;r;t qnd doctrine which they fervor of the Muensterites lost their lives. needed." Scorning "dungeon, fire, and "The blood of these people," he said, "be­ sword," he brought them through their came such a burden to me that I could not great tribulation.37 endure it nor find rest in my souL" 35 No Not a systematic theologian of great longer could he evade his responsibility of merit, Menno merely projected his vision helping the erring sheep. Turning to God of two fundamental Biblical ideals, a con­ with sighs and tears, pleading for forgive­ cept of practical holiness and an emphasis ness and courage, he had his conversion on the church as a voluntary association experience. kept under constant surveillance by the From this time on he openly attacked leaders and preserved under discipline by the evils of Romanism. His complete seces­ rigid application of the ban. sion from the church followed after about related to everyday life meant for him the nine months. Exactly when he was rebap­ resolute abandonment by Christ's followers tized is not clear. During the next year he of all carnal strife and violence, indeed the retired from active life to contemplate the use of force in any manner. For him the implications of his decision. Then he ac­ church was the representative and agent of cepted ordination as an elder in the Ana­ Christ on earth, and as such it must pre­ baptist brotherhood of northern Holland, serve itself unstained by the contaminating where he labored from 1536 to 1543. His and degrading influences of the political writings were not learned treatises but order. A thoroughgoing separation from simple books which represented sincere the sin of the world necessitated a repudia­ efforts to meet the immediate needs of the tion of armed conflict. common man. The remaining 18 years of In his treatise on "The New Birth" his life were devoted to building up the Menno Simons indulges in a typical stern church in northwest Germany, where per­ denunciation of sin and demands a heart­ secution was not so severe.36 felt religion rather than one which becomes Present-day Mennonites claim to find absorbed in the attraction of external cere­ their origin in the movement initiated by monies. Those who have received the Bap­ Conrad Grebel and his colleagues in tism of the Holy Spirit are inwardly puri­ Zurich, Switzerland, in 1525, and they rec­ fied and will accede without qualification ognize as the earliest organ­ or compromise to the absolute ethic of izer of the Anabaptists in , but nonresistance. The life of love does not they are proud to be named after Menno allow for retaliatory acts. The children of Simons, for they esteem him as "the peace are concerned with eliminating hu­ heaven-sent leader who rallied the scattered man suffering, not with adding to the bru­ talities of the world. They should be eager 35 Harold Bender, "A Brief Biography of to give food to the hungry and drink to Menno Simons" in The Complete Writings of the thirsty. The regenerated people of God Menno Simons, p. 12. "have beaten their swords into plowshares 36 To find the peace he desired, however, he was compelled to flee from place to place. From 1546 to 1561 he was in the territory of Holstein. 37 Bender, p.28. ATTITIJDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 417 and their spears into pruning hooks and love their brethren." In no way does this know war no more." 38 imply, however, that Christians are per­ In the "Foundation of Christian Doc­ mitted to use force even if they found their trine" Menno warns, "Let everyone be fellow believers in such dire straits as Lot. careful lest he transgress in the matter of Our ethical imperative is to "suffer pa­ the sword, lest he perish with the sword." 39 tiently and not fight and do battle with The weapons of Christians are not instru­ swords and muskets." The only positive ments for breaking down the walls and action which we can take is to open our gates of cities and causing human blood to doors to war refugees and heal the wounds be "shed in torrents like water." Christian of the victims of violence. Here the pat­ tern is set for the contemporary leadership reliance should be placed solely on the in­ of in alleviating the suffer­ ward Baptism with Spirit and fire, which ings of war refugees. "We should risk our alone can overthrow the citadels of Satan. lives for the brethren" even if we know Physical force must be repudiated "even if in advance that we are endangering our­ we should be torn into a thousand pieces, selves. 41 Evidently Menno would have and if as many false witnesses rose up found it possible to give physical susten­ against us as there are spears of grass in ance to someone taking part in an under­ the field and grains of sand upon ilie sea­ ground resistance movement to political shore." The use of iron and metal imple­ tyranny or to offer aid to escapees from ments of warfare are left in the hands of East Berlin. the ungodly, "who, alas, regard human blood and swine's blood about alike." Some observers may wonder whether Patience is the best weapon of defense, there is not an inconsistency between the peace ethic and the Mennonite insistence Christ is an impregnable Fortress, the on the vigorous use of the ban. While re­ Word of God is a sword, and victory is assured by "a courageous, firm, unfeigned jecting any use of physical force, apparently even to prevent the worst crime, the Ana­ faith in Jesus Christ." 40 baptists are willing to impose the most In commenting on Abraham's admirable severe kind of church discipline. This may faith Menno Simons might be expected to raise the question in some minds whether be embarrassed by the narrative in which the worst anguish that can be indicted the patriarch resorted to armed interven­ upon a fellow human being is always phys­ tion and killed four marauding kings in ical pain. What about the mental torture order to rescue his nephew Lot. But Abra­ accompanying social ostracism? Would ham is lauded for his implicit trust in the a whipping or a gun wound be worse than living God and for daring to risk his life. to be treated with disdain by the members "This is an example to all the spiritual of your own family? 42 children of Abraham that they should so

41 "True Christian Faith," ibid., p. 347. 38 The Complete Works of Menno Simons, 42 "Admonition on Church Discipline" ibid. p.94. p.412: "Do not have anything to do . : . wid~ 39 Ibid., p. 200. people who . . . reject and separate themselves 40 Ibid., p. 198. from the body of fellowship of Chri~t, no matter 418 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

The Anabaptists believed that there were Whoever has the inward peace of Christ significant distinctions to be observed be­ will banish all thought of violent action.43 tween the old and new covenants. The Is Menno promoting the most desirable original agreement which God decreed in­ form of pacifism? Will adherence to his volved a theocracy. In the days of ancient principles be an effective witness that tends Israel the covenant people were justified in to curb evil, or will it lead to political using force. The body of believers and the irresponsibility? What if all Christians re­ body politic were identical. The sword of fused to participate in the affairs of gov­ Israel, however, was not bequeathed to the ernment? Are they not then surrendering church of Christ but to worldly govern­ by default to demonic powers? These are ments. some of the ever-recurring criticisms that Thus Menno and his Anabaptist fol­ dispute the soundness of this position. Is lowers do not think it is incongruous to it possible to withdraw from a corrupt require unexcepting nonresistance to evil world in such a way that the "pure Chris­ on the part of believers while granting tian" is not tainted by it? As thoughtful the state the right to use "police power" modern pacifists have been compelled to to preserve law and order. The Mennonites admit - nonparticipation in military com­ are far from being anarchists. In accord bat dOeS not exempt the pacifist Christian with Romans 13 they agree that the Chris­ from all guilt in what is transpiring. tian should render honor and obedience to Menno is eager to be exonerated from the government. But this does not make it all charges of complicity with dangerous obligatory that Christians fight in Caesar's radicals like the Muensterites. Doctrines armies. When faced with induction into which stir up sedition and polygamy are the armed forces there is a higher law at abominations and patent heresies. "We stake. Obedience to God takes precedence hate and reprove (in evangelical fashion, over compliance with man-made laws. The that is) those that fight with the sword, Christian cannot administer justice in the steal, rob, or in any manner wrong anyone state; that is not his calling. The real foun­ on earth. . . ." 44 His repeated complaint dation for Christian ethics is found in is that those who would judge his followers Romans 12, where retribution is left in as tumultuous are the very ones who give God's hands. Let the Christian limit him­ unqualified endorsement to the bloody wars self to a program of charitable activity; let of their emperors, kings, and princes. Some him overcome evil only by doing good. of his antagonists he accuses of courting the favor of the powers that be even to whether it be father or mother, sister or brother, man or wife, son or daughter.... " 43 "Brief and Clear Confession," ibid., It should be noted that Menno uses a dis­ p.423. Cf. "Reply to False Accusations," ibid., tinctly evangelical approach toward the use of pp.548-550: "The office of the magistrate is the ban, emphasizing that it is intended to save ordained by God, but 'Love compels us respect­ and not destroy the offender. Late in his life he fully and humbly to show all high officials ... was drawn into a controversy on the subject of how they should rightfully execute their office." church discipline which embittered his last years. Authorities are reprimanded for trying to ad­ In the heat of polemical debate he felt compelled judicate that which 'belongs exclusively to the to adopt a more stringent position than he had eternal judgment of the Most High God.' " originally held. 44 "Reply to Gellius Faber," ibid., p. 715. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 419 the extent of betraying innocent Anabap­ are not urged to "come out in the open" tists "who would rather die than willfully with their teachings. Moses, Jeremiah, transgress the Word of the Lord. . . . By Elijah, and St. Paul are cited as Biblical so doing you open the doors wide to the examples of men who fled from certain rapacious rulers to rob such pious souls death at the hands of their enemies. To and to the bloodthirsty to murder them." 4!"i be sure, God rescued some of His saints At least in his verbal assaults on his op­ with extraordinary miracles, but these in­ ponents Menno Simons was not always stances of supernatural intervention can­ meek and mild. In an outburst of inflamed not always be anticipated even by the passion he writes: "Shame yourselves, most faithful men. In keeping with the o callous, perverted men. . . ~n 46 The spirit of Gelassenheit which characterizes magisterial reformers have churches filled this group they will not venture a daring, with: aggressive proclamation of their tenets. The immoral, the impenitent, the sensual, They are willing to endure suffering if it the perverts, yes, of the bloodthirsty comes their way, but they have a natural wolves, lions, bears, basilisks, serpents, and human eagerness to avoid persecution if fiery flying dragons. . . . In truth, I know possible.48 not how the Behemoth of hell could rant Mennonites always find the classic ex­ in a more devilish and cruei fashion than ample for nonresistance in Jesus, who told you or your members who pose as the Peter to return his sword to his sheath. Chutch of Christ.47 They are chagrined by the vehemence with The disciples of Menno Simons are not which he cleansed the temple. Even the encouraged to go out of their way to seek sometimes seems to be martyrdom. Where they know that secrecy interpreted as the tragic martyrdom of the is necessary to preserve their lives they foremost pacifist of all time. We should seek to emulate Jesus, who "willingly 45 "Epistle to Micron," ibid., p. 924. To Martin Micron he addresses the lament: "[1 am] yielded His life." 49 In what the translator hated of the world because of this defaming, considers a corrupt text some allowance false, bloodthirsty writing and shouting of the would seem to be made for the defensive learned ones, who for the sake of their poor bellies teach the broad, easy way with all the use of weapons: false prophets. . . . But what will help? The Touching weapons, the elders are unable innocent, defenseless Lamb must be hated and to consider it impure when a believer murdered in His members," p. 926. Cf. "Reply to False Accusations," ibid., pp.556, 557: He traveling on the roads, according to the complains that established churches and their conditions of the land, carries an honest antecedents have given a Christian sanction to staff or a rapier on his shoulder, according plunder, bloodshed, and violence of all kinds. to the custom and the manner of the They have induced rulers to take up arms against land. But to carry weapons of defense and one another until they "have shed human blood like water, torn the hearts from each other's to present them according to the com­ bodies, and have made countless harlots, rogues, mand of the magistracy, this the elders widows, and orphans." He finds their crimes depicted in Rev. 17:6 and 18:20. 48 "Reply to False Accusations," ibid., p. 573. 46 "The New Birth," ibid., p. 99. 49 "Exhortation to a Church in Prussia," 47 Ibid., p. 100. ibid., p. 1031. 420 ATI'ITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

do not consider permissible - unless it harassed and subjected to abuse of all be in case of soldiers on guard.50 kinds. Meanwhile Mennonite theologians The position set forth by Menno Simons continue to argue in defense of their his­ in rejecting all forms of force and violence torical position.53 has been preserved for 400 years and is The Church of the Brethren, the Quak­ still maintained by those present-day Chris­ ers, and pacifist-minded Christians within tians who bear his name as well as by other all the major denominations stand in the so-called "peace churches." A conference tradition of Menno Simons in their renun­ of Mennonites held at in East ciation of armed intervention as a legiti­ Friesland passed the following resolution mate Christian approach to the security and in determining how to treat those members welfare of nations. This absolute ethic of who had given offense by taking part in nonresistance has taken on new cogency drilling for military service: with the threat of a nuclear holocaust. If a brother has taken part in this, he Pacifism once again appeals to many as shall desist from it, confess to sorrow for a valid Christian alternative to mutual the offense and ask the forgiveness of God obliteration, in which resistance and mas­ and the church before he may be recog­ sive retaliation may seem utterly gruesome nized as in peace --;vith the church.51 and futile.

The short Mennonite Confession of 1591, III. MARTIN LUTHER, THEOLOGICAL called the Concept of Cologne, contains GIANT OR FORERUNNER OF NAZISM? the statement: "No vengeance is permitted; Martin Luther, who outlived Thomas nay, it is forbidden, not only with outward Muentzer by 21 years and passed away weapons but also to give railing for rail­ 15 years before Menno Simons, was, despite ing." 52 With slight exceptions these prin­ his break with Rome, an advocate of grad­ ciples were firmly upheld by all Mennonites ual and peaceful change. Conservative in who survived persecution during the 17th his theological reformation, he was even and 18th centuries. In the 19th century, more cautious in his attitude toward the however, the refusal to bear arms was political realm. Living in semifeudal Ger­ modified among European Mennonites many he accepted the established order everywhere except in Russia. In America as ordained by God and was reluctant to the immigrant groups from the "peace advocate any drastic innovations. churches" succeeded, for the most part, in not deviating from their original ideal. As an avid reader of Augustine, Luther Both world wars resulted in defections was impressed by his elaboration of Am­ among the members, and those who re­ brose's theory of a iustum bellum. Defense mained unmoved by the call to arms were against barbarians and brigands sounded like a commendable Christian undertaking.

50 Article VIII, "The Wismar Articles of In Luther's day the infidel Turks were men­ 1554," ibid., p. 1042. acing the Christian civilization of western 51 Quoted by John Horsch in "A Historical Survey of the Position of the Mennonite Church 53 One of the standard works used in Men­ on Nonresistance,"' in Mennonite Quarterly Re­ nonite colleges and seminaries today is Guy view, I (July 1927), p. 19. Hershberger's War, Peace, and Nonresistance 52 Ibid., p. 20. (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1955). ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 421

Europe. 'Force and violence were unavoid­ is one of the natural divinely instituted able in a sinful world where external in­ orders. It stands under the judgment of vasion had to be repelled and internal God no less than does the ecclesiastical insurrection suppressed. Unlike either realm.55 Luther never said that the church Thomas Muentzer or Menno Simons Lu­ should have no interest in political matters. ther did not deviate from the traditional On the contrary, the Christian must be free concept of a just war. Throughout his to resist breaches of the Decalog as they career he consistently held that it is per­ occur in the social structures around him. missible for a Christian to bear arms if In his books, letters, and sermons Luther the cause for which he fights is righteous frequently dealt with public morals. Every­ before God. Luther was as much opposed thing from drinking to foreign policy, and to Muentzer's fanaticism, which would including riots, welfare of the poor, bank­ wield the sword to expedite the advent of ing, rents, and imports, came under his God's kingdom on earth, as he was to surveillance and elicited opinions from his Anabaptist nonresistance, which would pen. Economic practices which he regarded stand by and permit the enemy to plunder as unchristian, such as usury and various and kill without reprisals. forms of exploitation, he opposed. When Luther was asked to tender advice luther was conservative in his outlook on a new city constitution for Erfurt he on government because of his great appre­ made three distinctions. First of all, there ciation for stability and good order. Almost are certain aspects of political life in which any kind of oppression, it seemed to him, Christians have a right and a responsibility was preferable to outright anarchy and to make definite demands. If these are not civil war. Nothing did he dread more met satisfactorily Christians are in good than revolution and internal strife, which conscience obligated to resist. There is helps to explain why he was so alarmed a second sphere within which Christians by the peasant uprising. An imperfect may make recommendations according to state was always better than no state at all. what they deem desirable, but they do not Unlike Muentzer Luther was a realist insist on compliance with these requests. who had a much more profound under­ Thirdly, there is a neutral area in which standing of the evil propensities inherent one course of action cannot be advocated in all humanity, whether they be princes, as indubitably preferable to another. These burghers, or peasants. He had no illusions issues may be safely relegated to lawyers about the perfectibility of man under any and princes to be decided by sound kind of temporal rule. Yet he was not reason.54 a gloomy pessimist. With a deep eschato­ Unlike many of his latter-day "descend­ logical consciousness he was convinced (as ants" who have assumed his name, Luther was Muentzer) that the end of the world did not draw a rigid line of separation was imminent.56 But his low estimate of between church and state. Secular authority 55 George W. Forell, Faith Active in Love: 54 H. H. Kramm, "Luther's Teaching on An Investigation 0/ the Principles Underlying Christian Responsibility in Politics and Public Luther's Social Ethics (New York: The Amer­ Life," Lutheran Quarterly, III (1951), 308, 309. ican Press, 1954), pp.120-141. 309. 56 Ibid" pp. 156--185. 422 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE the potential goodness of human institu­ ists" should come into the possession of tions did not drive him into the fatal error power. It is high time that such views be of the Schwaermer who wanted to renounce plainly labeled as heretical. . . . When them and become God's instruments for a government becomes lawless and acts eradicating them. Even if the state cannot with arbitrary despotism, the result is bring paradise on earth, it can prevent a demonic condition, that is to say, the government is godless. To obey such a sa­ earth from becoming hell. And as long tanic government would be nothing short as this present world stands it will be the of sinfuL . . .57 Christian's responsibility (in contradistinc­ tion to Menno Simons) to assist the The disagreement between Luther and prevailing regimes in maintaining the best Menno Simons becomes abundantly clear possible ordering of society by discharging when we examine his oft-quoted treatise their civic obligations; by performing their Whether Soldiers Too Can be Saved. Unlike God-given duties in the station where they Menno the Wittenberg Reformer does not find themselves, as parent, ruler, preacher, disparage the occupation of the soldier as or servant. Until or unless the government such. To bear arms can be a God-approved demands something clearly contrary to the calling if the person is godly and performs will of God it is to be obeyed. his duties in the right way. Like any other The weakness in Luther's presentation calling it can be abused if it is held by 58 is that he seems to provide no guidance a non-Christian. Even slaying and rob­ for the Christian who is tyrannized by bing, however, can be a work of love. a secular authority which is no longer per­ JUSt as a physician has to cut off a diseased forming the functions delegated to govern­ limb in order to save the body, so the ments by God. When temporal rulers pass soldier may be compelled to punish the laws or issue edicts which are in conflict wicked in order to restore peace for law­ with our duty to God the Christian must abiding citizens. If all people were devoted refuse to obey. Even then, Luther warns, to the preservation of peace, war would we are not to make matters worse by com­ be the worst plague conceivable on earth. mitting sabotage, murdering tyrants, or but what are Christians to do if other~ staging revolutions. What if the corruption begin to steal, outrage women, and commit and abuse of political power become intol­ murder? erable and only drastic, violent intervention Biblical narratives are related to justify would appear able to remedy the situation? war. Many of the stories in the Old Testa­ Disciples and interpreters of Luther can ment, such as the warrior David repelling only conjecture as to what he might say and do. Some indicate that his response 57 Quoted from an address delivered before would be passivity and nonresistance­ the Lutheran WJorld Federation Assembly in 1952, Proceedings, pp.76-85. leave it in the hands of God and pray for 58 Works of Martin Luther, Philadelphia an alleviation of the distress. Others, like ed., 34 ft. [It can be a Christian work of Bishop Berggrav of Norway, would retort: grim and unpleasant necessity to abide by mili· tary law and serve as a soldier who slays or It is a positively frightful misrepresenta­ harms others.} [Of course} "if the person en­ tion of Lutheran doctrine to assert that gaged in it is wrong and bad" [it is bound to be "wild conquerors" or "despotic revolution- sinful}. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 423 the Philistines, illustrate divine approval ination his Reformation carefully abided of war under certain circumstances. When by this distinction. called upon the soldiers Yet the German Reformer does not to repent, he did not compel them to aban­ hesitate to give counsel to the princes and don their profession. When Christ was on admonish them. The same general rule trial before Pilate He mentioned that if which he has laid down for their subjects He were exerting temporal power His serv­ also applies to them. They should be more 59 ants could rightfully fight for His release. willing to endure evil than turn to violence According to Luther, there are lawless even if it means loss of temporal advantage men who must be restrained by force "like and property. War should be only a last wild horses and dogs, and where this does resort after every possible means of arbitra­ not help they must be put to death by the tion has failed. Caesar Augustus, Luther worldly sword." 60 In keeping with Saint agrees, spoke prudently when he said: Peter's admonition we are obligated to "War is like fishing with a golden net; submit to the ordinances of kings and the loss risked is always greater than the princes.61 Even if the government perpe­ catch can be." A prince who rules accord­ trates an injustice, "as the king of Babylon ing to his own mad will is like a driver did to the people of Israel, yet God would who will lead everyone into a smashup.63 have it obeyed, without treachery and de­ Contrary to the opinion of some of his ception." The commandment "Thou shalt detractors Luther never conceded unlimited honor thy father and mother" by analogy authority to the princes and never de­ can be extended to all authorities that manded blind and unquestioning obedience God places over us, including ecclesiastical and secular powers. Luther could not imag­ from the common people. When a ruler ine a Christian evading all authority; and is in the wrong, Luther clearly asserts, civic as a result of his bitter experiences with disobedience is the Christian duty. We the papal regime, he was convinced that cannot violate our conscience and offend spiritual power was more subject to abuse God by upholding a sinful decree. The and corruption than temporal power. Sec­ crucial and difficult question to be decided, ular authority cannot rob people of their however, is how does a person know faith; therefore it need not be resisted even whether the government's action is right when it does wrong. But spiritual authority or wrong? "I answer, As long as they can­ must be vigorously opposed when it con­ not know, nor find out by any possible tradicts God's Word and misleads people into false doctrine.62 Under Luther's dom- should remember that the power of the govern­ ment, 'whether it do right or wrong,' cannot harm the soul, but only the body and property; 59 Ibid., pp.36, 37. unless indeed it should try openly to compel us 60 Treatise on Good Works, I, 200. to do wrong against God or men, as in former 61 1 Peter 2: 13, 14: "Be subject for the days when the magistrates were not yet Chris­ Lord's sake to every human institution, whether tians. . .. For to suffer wrong destroys no one's it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors soul. ..." P. 264: .. [Christians should not endure as sent by him to punish those who do wrong it and keep silent if spiritual power so much as} and to praise those who do right." departs a hair's breadth from its own duty." 62 Treatise on Good Works, p.263: "We 63 Ibid., p.265. 424 ATTITIJDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

means, they may obey without peril to against the Turks, but it should not be their souls." 64 undertaken as a Christian crusade under Luther severely criticized the Council of the direction of the papacy. Christians Nicaea because of its opposition to war. should fight "in humility and obedience to The decree forbidding Christians to per­ God's command", with their minds cen­ form military service on pain of seven tered on protecting people rather than years' penance proved to him the fallibility seeking honor or booty.67 One of luther's of church councils: chief criticisms of the Koran was that it sanctions the use of the sword to spread If a king or prince has to fight and defend 68 himself in a just war, he has to take what its tenets. soldiers he can get. But if these volunteers Luther refuses to permit the temporal are condemned, what will become of em­ powers to intrude in the spiritual domain perors, kings and princes, now that there with the exercise of force. Those who have are no soldiers to be had except volun­ fallen under the ban are not to be coerced teers? Tell me, are the lords to fight with weapons of war. To wield the sword singlehanded or weave strawmen to oppose is the right of the emperor, kings, and their enemies? 65 princes. The spiritual estate is forbidden When the Holy league of Nurenberg to employ it.69 appeared to threaten the Lutherans with Occasionally Luther inculcates the virtue war, Luther was of the cautiously conceived of cross-bearing in a way which would ap­ judgment that the Protestants could right­ peal to Menno Simons, while it would fully resist this alliance of princes. How­ most assuredly arouse the ire of Thomas ever, he warned the Smalcaldic League Muentzer. Even if the ban is unjustly against waging a preventive war, which imposed it should be endured. Christ would make them morally culpable. They teaches us "to love chastisement, pain, and must await some overt act of aggression by even death, and not to fear them." People the Roman Catholic princes before striking should be reminded that the power of the back. After consulting with the jurists of ban, if wrongly used, cannot harm them, Wittenberg, and being assured that they but must always be beneficial to the soul. were on safe ground according to the laws If the burden becomes too heavy, "then of the empire, Luther and his fellow theo­ try to escape from it with meekness, not logians, Jonas, Bugenhagen, Amsdorf, and with revenge and retaliation by word or Melanchthon, agreed that a war of self-de­ deed." Whether pious or wicked rulers fense was permissible.66 use the rod of chastisement, God will give Luther did not object to a war of defense it a salutary effect. We should not be incited to rebellion against authority be­ 64 "Secular Authority: To What Extent cause it is abused by some. We should It Should Be Obeyed," Works of MdlTtin Luther, Philadelphia ed., III, 270. 67 "On War Against the Turk," op. cit., V, 65 "On the Councils and the Church," op. eit., V, 156-158. 110. 66 H. Richard Klann, "Luther on War 68 Ibid., pp. 96 if. and Revolution," CONCORDIA THEOLOGICAL 69 "Treatise Concerning the Ban," op. cit., MONTHLY (May 1954), 353-366. Vol. II, p.38. ATIITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 425

yield to God's will "and leave the mighty be leveled against Luther is that his sanc­ to His sword and judgment." As we hum­ tion of a just war was an oversimplified bly acquiesce in an illness God sends us, solution for his own day, and it is even so we must submit to an evil government.70 less relevant to recent modern wars or In any critical appraisal of Luther's atti­ future atomic warfare. He presses his point mde toward the use of force and violence in this way: we may be inclined to wonder whether he For what is just war except the punish­ was not unconsciously tempted to write ment of evildoers and the maintenance of so much in favor of temporal government, peace? . . . In a just war one punishes at and to endorse its use of war, because one time a whole great crowd of evildoers who are doing harm in proportion to the he felt the urgent need to protect the gains size of the crowd.72 which had been registered by his reforma­ tory efforts. By providing a rationale for If one criminal can be punished by execu­ the political status quo he was helping to tion, so the argument runs, an aggregation silence his papal foes who would have of evildoers can be killed in warfare. But jumped at an oppormnity to discredit him who represents the righteous side of a war as a dangerous and seditious agitator. evoked by a complexity of causes and Could Luther have afforded to alienate the wreaking havoc for all the participants? power structure of his time? If he had Were the victims of the atomic bomb really advocated pacifism, he could not have used receiving their proper punishment in a just the protection of the princes, he might war? have been eliminated from the scene along Luther was averse to the use of con­ with Muentzer and the Anabaptists, and spiracies and plots to undermine a rival the entire Reformation might have been regime. It strains our imagination to see forcibly suppressed.71 What is most un­ him encouraging a plot against Hitler's formnate is the way succeeding generations life or offering support for De Gaulle's of Lutherans have pounced upon state­ French resistance movement. Conversely, ments (often out of context) which were it is a foul calumny to denominate him as addressed to the particular situation Luther the "forerunner of Nazism." 73 His vitriolic found himself in and have made them attacks on the Jews which provided verbal normative for all conditions and all places. ammunition for German anti-Semites are inexcusable tirades and uninhibited out­ Another criticism which may possibly bursts of anger, but they must be examined

70 Ibid., pp.45-50. Cf. p. 51: "The world in the light of his personal experiences, the is far too wicked to be worthy of good and pious theological polemic in which they are im­ lords, it must have princes who go to war, leV)l bedded, and the total attitude of his entire taxes, and shed blood, and it must have spiritual tyrants who impoverish and burden it with bulls lifetime toward the Jews, which included and letters and laws. . . . To resist them is nothing else than to resist God's chastisement." 72 Ibid. 71 "That Soldiers Too Can Be Saved," op. 73 Peter F. Weiner, Martm Luthe-r; Hitler's cit., p. 38 "[If we admitted that war was wrong] Spiritual Ancestor. Weiner's denunciation of we should have to give way on all other points Luther is upheld by Liam Brophy in "Luther, and admit that the use of the sword is entirely Hitler, and Chaos," Hibernia (Dublin: March wrong." 1946) . 426 ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE

remarkable pleas for tolerance and sincere allowed to hear sermons so they can be prayers for their conversion H reconverted, but they should be excluded Luther wisely resisted the temptation to from the Lord's Table.75 degrade the Gospel into a handbook of One of the gigantic "ifs" of history social politics. His insight excelled that might be a conjecture as to what would of both Thomas Muentzer and Menno have happened if Martin Luther had be­ Simons in perceiving that no social struc­ come acquainted with the peaceful Ana­ ture or church constitution as such is un­ baptists by personal association instead of qualifiedly Christian and prescribed by the mistakenly categorizing them by rumor Bible. For this reason too he had to oppose and reputation among the fanatics like the Schwaermerei of Muentzer. As long as Thomas Muentzer and the leaders of the the peasants presented their grievances in Muenster debacle. That he would have a peaceful petition he could sympathize disapproved of their sacramental views can with their plight and remonstrate with the be assumed without fear of contradiction, princes. As soon as they resorted to war but that he would have clamored for their and crime, burned whole cities, and tor­ execution, if he had fully understood their tured innocent citizens to death, he felt position, is doubtful, to say the least. that it was the duty of the established pow­ Luther's outlook on the use of force and ers to restore law and order, and to do it violence is a third alternative, clearly dis­ by every means possible, although it was tinguishable from that of Thomas Muent­ unavoidably cruel and severe. zer and Menno Simons. It would be hard Luther's attitude toward the use of force to exaggerate the tremendous influence it in combating heresy is a complicated is­ has had in forming the convictions of sue which cannot be adequately summa­ countless Christians on this crucial ethical rized in a few sentences. At times, espe­ issue. Broadly speaking, though there are cially during his earlier life, he maintained points of disagreement and deviation, his that the peaceful persuasion of the Gospel stand is comparable to that of Calvin and is all that can be used. Except in the case most Anglican divines. Thus, if we are of criminals and anarchists who may be reducing Christian attitudes toward war prosecuted under state laws, he would not and pacifism to three major divisions, the use physical punishment to eradicate false one represented by Luther has always com­ doctrine. "To burn heretics is against the manded the majority opinion in Christen­ will of the Holy Spirit." People who hold dom. Most consistently, and even more erroneous opinions and lead ungodly lives rigorously than the Reformers ever in­ may be excommunicated from the church, tended, it has been adopted and codified but this expulsion should not be accom­ by theologians of the Lutheran communion. panied by any civil disadvantage. Those Typical is a tract entitled WaT and Chris­ who have been excommunicated may be tianity and written by Theodore Graebner. After quoting the pertinent paragraphs 74 Ralph Luther Moellering, "Luther's Atti­ tude Toward the Jews," CONCORDIA THEOLOG­ 75 Luther is not as lax in church discipline ICAL MONTHLY (December 1948; January and as men like Menno Simons were induced to be­ March, 1949). lieve. Cf. Kramm, pp. 312,313. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE USE OF FORCE AND VIOLENCE 427 from the Lutheran Confessions, he defends many. New York: International Publishers, the distinction between a just and an unjust 1926. Hinrichs, CarL Thomas Muentzer, Politische war and insists that Lutherans should ren­ Schriften. Halle, 1950. der loyal and patriotic service in accord Lohmann, Annemarie. Zur geistlichen Ent­ with Romans 13.76 This is the underlying wick lung Thomas Muentzers. Leipzig, 1931. attitude which, though it is being ques­ Luther, Martin. 6 vols. Holman Edition, tioned in some quarters, still predominates Works of Martin Luther. Philadelphia. The Complete Works 0/ Menno Simon!., among Lutherans, Episcopalians, and Pres­ Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1956. byterians, and is held by numerous other Rutherford, Judge. Religion. Brooklyn: Christians in the United States and Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. throughout the world. Williams, George H. "Documents Illustrative of the ," Part I in Spiritual Berkeley, Calif. and Anabaptist writers, The Library of Christian Classics, XXV. Philadelphia: The Westminster BIBLIOGRAPHY Press, 1957. Pp.17-293. 1. Journals Ill. Secondary Sources CONCORDIA THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY, XXV (May 1954). Abrams, Ray H. Preachers Present Arms. New York: Round Table Press, 1933. The Lutheran Quarterly, Vol. III. Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit the Mil­ The Mennonite Quarterly ReiJiew, Vols. I, X. of lennittm. London: Seeker and Warburg, 1957. II. Primary Sources Forell, George W. Faith Active in Love: An Investigation of the Princi'Ples Underlying Lu­ Brandt, Otto G. Thomas Muentzer, Sein thers Social Ethics. New York: American Press, Leben und seine Schriften. Jena and Leipzig, 1954. 1933. The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Vol. III. Scott­ Engels, Friedrich. The Peasant War in Ger- dale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1957. Moellering, Ralph Luther. Modern War and 76 Moellering, Modern War and the Amer­ the American Churches. New York: American ictPa Churches, pp. 35, 36. Press, 1956.

OUR CONTRIBUTORS LEWIS W. SPITZ, professor, Concordia Seminary, St. Louts, Mo.

RALPH 1. MOELLERING, campus pastor, Berkeley, Calif.

FREDERICK W. DANKER, associate professor, Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.

ROBERT D. PREUS, assistant professor, Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.