7.1 TERRESTRIAL FLORA

The terrestrial flora assessment is focused on community structure, species diversity and biomass of trees at riparian within the Sg. Nenggiri river basin. The flora survey was based on plot studies that covered sampling area amounting to 0.6 hectare (12 plots of 20 m x 25 m) and also general flora surveys along selected rivers of the Sg. Nenggiri (Figure 7.1.1 & Table 7.1.1). Five study plots were located within the Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri, one sampling plot was within the Hutan Simpan Balah and another six sampling plots were within the Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah (Figure 7.1.2). The general flora survey was conducted within the riparian buffer zone of Sg. Perias, Sg. Jenera, Sg. Betis, Sg. Wias and Kg. Wias. An additional flora survey at Kg. Pasir Mayat and Kg. Pulau Setelu was conducted to represent the lower part of the proposed main dam area (Figure 7.1.1).

Species identification was made by a taxonomist and the nomenclature is referred to Tree Flora of Malaya (Whitmore 1972, 1973; Ng 1978, 1989), Foresters’ Manual of Dipterocarps (Symington 1943) and Flora of Peninsular (Kiew et al. 2010, 2011, 2012). Tree species abundance parameters that include the tree species frequency and density were determined based on Husch et al. (1972), while Species Importance Index was determined based on Curtis & Macintosh (1951) and Brower et al. (1998), and species diversity utilises Shannon Diversity Index (Spellerberg & Fedor 2003). Aboveground biomass was estimated using Kato et al. (1978) and Chave et al. (2005), whereas the belowground biomass was estimated using Niiyama et al. (2010). of rare, endemic (Turner 1995) and endangered (IUCN Red List & Chua et al. 2010) species is also determined.

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Figure 7.1.1 Flora Sampling Station within the 5 Km Zone of Impact of the Proposed Project

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Table 7.1.1 The GPS Location of Flora Survey Name Code Date Coordinate Elev. Remarks N5° 0' 37.2" Gua Cha, Hutan Simpan Ulu Plot 1 F1 10/08/2016 180 m E101° 45' 37.56" Nenggiri

N5° 0' 23.1" Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri; 1 Plot 2 F2 10/08/2016 163 m E101° 45' 51.18" km before reaching Gua Cha

N5° 0' 37.2" Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri; Plot 3 F3 10/08/2016 168 m E101° 45' 32.82" 50 m away from Gua Cha

N5° 6' 16.38" Hutan Simpan Balah; Sg. Plot 4 F4 11/08/2016 226 m E101° 40' 20.94" Lempai off Sg. Jenera;

N5° 0' 35.82" Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri; a Plot 5 F5 11/08/2016 169 m E101° 45' 9.66" few km away from Gua Cha

N5° 2' 15.9" Plot 7 F7 12/08/2016 145 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 55' 10.62"

N5° 2' 50.46" Plot 8 F8 12/08/2016 154 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 55' 13.98"

N5° 3' 21.06" Plot 9 F9 01/09/2016 107 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 54' 43.26"

N5° 1' 51.42" Plot 10 F10 02/09/2016 231 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 54' 58.86"

N5° 2' 14.16" Plot 11 F11 02/09/2016 148 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 55' 18.54"

N5° 3' 3" Plot 12 F12 02/09/2016 127 m Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah E101° 54' 45.84"

Flora N5° 0' 35.28" F13 10/08/2016 201 m Sg. Nenggiri Survey E101° 45' 10.68"

Flora N5° 5' 20.64" F14 10/08/2016 97 m Sg. Jenera Survey E101° 46' 12.24"

Flora N5° 2' 7.92" F15 11/08/2016 140 m Sg. Perias Survey E101° 44' 44.4"

Flora N5° 2' 6.48" F16 01/09/2016 180 m Balak Survey E101° 58' 18.12"

Flora N5° 1' 51.84" F17 01/09/2016 184 m Betau Survey E101° 55' 13.02"

Flora N5° 6' 28.74" F18 03/09/2016 96 m Sg. Wias Survey E101° 50' 32.22"

Flora N5° 5' 32.1" F19 03/09/2016 97 m Kg. Wias Survey E101° 50' 46.92"

Flora Survey 01/03/2017 Kg. Pasir Mayat

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Figure 7.1.2 Location of the 12 Sampling Plots (20 X 25 M) within Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri, Hutan Simpan Balah and Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah

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7.1.1 Overview of Terrestrial Flora at Sg. Nenggiri Basin

The vegetation is classified into riparian, limestone and secondary forests. Riparian occurred along the streams in the study area, especially along Sg. Nenggiri, whilst limestone forest is found near the limestone hills e.g. Gua Cha. Secondary forest occurred in the logged- over area or near the plantation of rubber, oil palm and orchards. In general, the common flowering families are , , Leguminosae and Sapindaceae.

Riparian forests in the upper stream of Sg. Nenggiri basin within the Hutan Simpan Ulu Nenggiri and Hutan Simpan Balah show that the most diverse families are Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Leguminosae, , , Moraceae, Myrtaceae and with the total number of species between 6 to 19 species. Meanwhile, in terms of density, the densest families are Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Sterculiaceae, Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae and Sapindaceae, with total number of density between 47 to 170 stems per hectare. Tall and large trees found in this area include Cynomtera malaccensis, Koompassia malaccensis, (Leguminosae), Bombax valetonii (Bombacaceae), Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, Dryobalanops oblongifolia, Shorea ovalis (Dipterocarpaceae), Ficus variegata (Moraceae), Syzygium griffithii (Myrtaceae) and Pometia pinnata (Sapindaceae). The largest tree is Bombax valetonii with a diameter of 139.0 cm DBH followed by Ficus variegata with 124.2 cm DBH. On the other hand, the main canopy and understorey are less dense than the forest floor. Dipterocarp tree stand is common especially along the Sg. Nenggiri, viz. Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, the riparian reophytes species. Another common dipterocarp species is D. oblongifolia, a common species near the stream and swampy area. Pioneer species are also common includes Hibiscus floccosus, H. macrophyllus, Macaranga tanarius, Mallotus leucodermis, M. peltatus, Neolamarckia cadamba and Trema cannabina. Most species are common along the roadside and open area with large forest gaps which is suitable for their growth (Appendix 1).

Riparian forests in the downstream of Nenggiri river basin within the Hutan Simpan Sg. Terah indicate that the largest families are Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Meliaceae, Leguminosae and Rubiaceae with the total number of species between 4 to 8 species. Meanwhile, in terms of density, the densest families are Sapindaceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, , Sterculiaceae and Meliaceae with the total number of density between 110 to 210 stems per hectare. Tall and large trees found in this area include Koompassia excelsa (Leguminosae), Neolamarckia cadamba, Timonius wallichianus (Rubiaceae), Pterospermum javanicum (Sterculiaceae) and Elateriospermum tapos (Euphorbiaceae). The largest tree is K. excelsa with diameter of 146.0 cm DBH, followed by N. cadamba with 84.3 cm DBH. The tallest tree is also K. excelsa with estimation height of 30 m tall. The most common species along the streams is Pometia pinnata (Sapindaceae) which also characterizes the riparian forest. Forest floor vegetation is dense with the saplings of Rubiaceae, Annonaceae and Euphorbiaceae. The pioneer species recorded in this area include Arthrophyllum diversifolium (Araliaceae), Macaranga conifera (Euphorbiaceae) and N. cadamba (Appendix 1).

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7.1.2 Tree Species Composition

From the 0.6 ha study plot, a total of 660 trees (DBH > 5 cm) representing 55 families, 157 genera and 241 species were enumerated (Table 7.1.2). Euphorbiaceae was the biggest family represented by 18 genera and 33 species, while Syzygium was the most specious genus with nine species recorded (Table 7.1.3). The full list of the tree species, their distribution and habitat are presented in Appendix 1.

Tree stand structure of Sg. Nenggiri riparian forest showed that 56.99% of the trees were in 5.0 cm – 14.9 cm diameter class. Total tree basal area (BA) was 61.10 m²/ha in which Leguminosae contributed the highest basal area of 8.43 m²/ha (Table 7.1.4a), whilst Bombax valetonii showed the highest basal area of 4.68 m²/ha (Table 7.1.4b), which was contributed by the large-size diameter of trees from this species (Table 7.1.5).

The total tree species density was 1100 ind./ha. Euphorbiaceae recorded the highest density of 232 ind./ha (Table 7.1.6a), whilst Pometia pinnata was the species with the highest density of 50 ind./ha (Table 7.1.6b). Leguminosae was recorded as the most frequentlycoccurred family in all 12 sampling plots. Euphorbiaceae was the most important family with Family Important Index (FIVi) of 13.21% (Table 7.1.7a), whilst Pometia pinnata (Sapindaceae) was the most important species with Importance Value Index (IVi) of 3.22% (Table 7.1.7b).

The Shannon Diversity Index value was 5.04 (Hmax=5.48). The tree species diversity of Nenggiri forest is higher than that of Taman Rimba Kenong, Pahang (H’ = 4.06) (Siti Sarah 2005) and Taman Negeri Belum, Perak (H’ = 3.95) (Norwahidah 2004).

The total estimated biomass from the 0.6 ha sampling plot was at 1034.33 tonnes/ha contributed by the above ground biomass (ABG) and below ground biomass (BGB) of 882.60 t/ha and 151.73 t/ha, respectively (Tables 7.1.8a & 7.1.8b). However, estimated average aboveground biomass of tropical lowland forests was 457.1 t/ha and dipterocarp stock decreased by 55-66% after selective logging. Since the study area are logged-over lowland dipterocarp forests and the estimated biomass was from small sampling plot area of less than 1 hectare in size, the reported value of 882.60 t/ha above ground biomass could have over- estimated the true value of total biomass of the study site. Saner et al. (2012) also reported that for a 22-years of post-logging forest, the total above ground biomass were 28% lower compared to unlogged forests.

Table 7.1.2 Species Composition of Tree Species from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Nenggiri River Basin No. of No. of No. of No. Family Genus Species Individuals 1 Actinidiaceae 1 1 1 2 Alangiaceae 1 1 4 3 Anacardiaceae 6 7 20 4 Annonaceae 13 17 46

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No. of No. of No. of No. Family Genus Species Individuals 5 Apocynaceae 4 4 11 6 Araliaceae 1 1 2 7 Bignoniaceae 1 1 2 8 Bombacaceae 3 3 6 9 Boraginaceae 1 1 1 10 Burseraceae 5 6 16 11 Chrysobalanaceae 1 1 2 12 Combretaceae 1 2 2 13 Compositae 1 1 1 14 Datiscaceae 1 1 3 15 Dilleniaceae 1 1 4 16 Dipterocarpaceae 6 11 36 17 Ebenaceae 1 7 11 18 Elaeocarpaceae 2 2 4 19 Euphorbiaceae 18 33 139 20 Fagaceae 1 4 6 21 Flacourtiaceae 4 7 14 22 Guttiferae 3 6 9 23 5 9 12 24 Lecythidaceae 1 2 3 25 Leeaceae 1 1 2 26 Leguminosae 10 12 51 27 Lythraceae 1 1 1 28 Magnoliaceae 1 1 1 29 Malvaceae 1 2 6 30 Melastomataceae 2 2 3 31 Meliaceae 4 13 19 32 Moraceae 3 11 35 33 Myristicaceae 4 5 9 34 Myrsinaceae 2 2 3 35 Myrtaceae 2 10 13 36 Ochnaceae 1 1 1 37 Olacaceae 1 1 1 38 Pandaceae 1 1 2 39 Passifloraceae 1 1 2 40 Polygalaceae 1 2 4 41 Rhamnaceae 1 1 1 42 Rhizophoraceae 2 2 7 43 Rosaceae 1 1 1 44 Rubiaceae 9 9 25

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No. of No. of No. of No. Family Genus Species Individuals 45 Rutaceae 3 3 5 46 Sapindaceae 4 4 38 47 4 6 7 48 Sterculiaceae 4 5 43 49 Theaceae 1 1 1 50 Thymelaeaceae 1 1 1 51 Tiliaceae 2 2 4 52 Trigoniaceae 1 1 1 53 Ulmaceae 2 3 5 54 Verbenaceae 3 4 9 55 Violaceae 1 3 4 TOTAL 157 241 660

Table 7.1.3 Ten Largest Genera Based on the Number of Species from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots Within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin Genus Family No. of species % of species Syzygium Myrtaceae 9 3.73 Macaranga Euphorbiaceae 8 3.32 Ebenaceae 7 2.9 Aglaia Meliaceae 6 2.49 Artocarpus Moraceae 5 2.07 Aporosa Euphorbiaceae 4 1.66 Dysoxylum Meliaceae 4 1.66 Ficus Moraceae 4 1.66 Lithocarpus Fagaceae 4 1.66 Lauraceae 4 1.66

Table 7.1.4a Ten Highest Basal Area (BA) of Tree Families from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of BA BA Family individuals (m2/ha) (%) Leguminosae 51 8.43 13.80 Euphorbiaceae 139 8.34 13.64 Sterculiaceae 43 7.10 11.62 Dipterocarpaceae 36 5.89 9.64 Moraceae 35 5.58 9.14 Bombacaceae 6 4.91 8.04 Rubiaceae 25 3.07 5.03 Sapindaceae 38 2.46 4.03 Myrtaceae 13 1.92 3.14 Anacardiaceae 20 1.69 2.77

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Table 7.1.4b Ten Highest Basal Area (BA) of Tree Species from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of BA BA Species Family individuals (m2/ha) (%) Bombax valetonii Bombacaceae 4 4.68 7.66 Koompassia excelsa Leguminosae 6 4.48 7.34 Pterygota alata Sterculiaceae 14 3.82 6.25 Ficus variegata Moraceae 6 3.65 5.97 Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae 30 2.18 3.57 Neolamarckia cadamba Rubiaceae 11 2.03 3.33 Sapium baccatum Euphorbiaceae 10 1.94 3.17 Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dipterocarpaceae 4 1.78 2.92 Elateriospermum tapos Euphorbiaceae 13 1.66 2.71 Pterospermum javanicum Sterculiaceae 11 1.65 2.70

Table 7.1.5 Ten Largest Tree Species Individuals Based on Tree Size in Diameter from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin

Species Family DBH (cm) Koompassia excelsa Leguminosae 146.0 Bombax valetonii Bombacaceae 139.0 Ficus variegata Moraceae 124.2 Pterygota alata Sterculiaceae 120.0 Koompassia excelsa Leguminosae 110.5 Ficus variegata Moraceae 110.0 Bombax valetonii Bombacaceae 96.5 Lagerstroemia floribunda Lythraceae 91.7 Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dipterocarpaceae 91.0 Syzygium sp. A Myrtaceae 88.0

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Table 7.1.6a Ten Most Abundant Families from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of Density Family individuals (ind./ha) Euphorbiaceae 139 232 Leguminosae 51 85 Annonaceae 46 77 Sterculiaceae 43 72 Sapindaceae 38 64 Dipterocarpaceae 36 60 Moraceae 35 58 Rubiaceae 25 42 Anacardiaceae 20 33 Meliaceae 19 32

Table 7.1.6b Ten Most Abundant Species from 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of Density Species Family individuals (ind./ha) Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae 30 50 Mallotus leucodermis Euphorbiaceae 18 30 Pterygota alata Sterculiaceae 14 23 Saraca cauliflora Leguminosae 14 23 Elateriospermum tapos Euphorbiaceae 13 22 Pterocymbium tinctorium Sterculiaceae 13 22 Cynometra malaccensis Leguminosae 12 20 Mallotus peltatus Euphorbiaceae 12 20 Cyathocalyx pruniferus Annonaceae 11 18 Neolamarckia cadamba Rubiaceae 11 18

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Table 7.1.7a Ten Most Important Families from 0.6 ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of R R R IVi Family f d D individuals (%) (%) (%) (%) Euphorbiaceae 139 5.05 13.53 21.06 13.21 Leguminosae 51 5.50 13.82 7.73 9.02 Sterculiaceae 43 4.13 11.64 6.53 7.43 Moraceae 35 4.59 9.15 5.30 6.35 Dipterocarpaceae 36 3.21 9.65 5.45 6.11 Sapindaceae 38 3.67 4.04 5.76 4.49 Rubiaceae 25 4.59 5.04 3.79 4.47 Annonaceae 46 4.59 1.83 6.97 4.46 Bombacaceae 6 1.83 8.05 0.91 3.60 Anacardiaceae 20 4.13 2.78 3.03 3.31

Table 7.1.7b Ten Most Important Species from 0.6 ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin No. of R R R IVi Species f d D individuals (%) (%) (%) (%) Pometia pinnata 30 1.54 3.58 4.55 3.22 Koompassia excelsa 6 1.03 7.35 0.91 3.09 Pterygota alata 14 0.51 6.26 2.12 2.96 Bombax valetonii 4 0.51 7.67 0.61 2.93 Ficus variegata 6 1.29 5.98 0.91 2.73 Mallotus leucodermis 18 1.29 2.32 2.73 2.11 Neolamarckia cadamba 11 1.03 3.33 1.67 2.01 Elateriospermum tapos 13 1.29 2.72 1.97 1.99 Saraca cauliflora 14 1.54 1.8 2.12 1.82 Sapium baccatum 10 0.51 3.17 1.52 1.73

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Table 7.1.8a Ten Families with the Highest Total Biomass from the 0.6 ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin AGB BGB Total Family (t/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha) Leguminosae 132. 90 24.58 157.47 Euphorbiaceae 108.25 17.27 125.52 Sterculiaceae 105.86 18.14 124.01 Moraceae 90.63 16.78 107.40 Dipterocarpaceae 89.23 15.00 104.22 Bombacaceae 86.48 16.69 103.17 Rubiaceae 46.36 7.84 54.20 Sapindaceae 30.80 4.77 35.56 Myrtaceae 29.91 5.18 35.09 Anacardiaceae 21.50 3.31 24.81

Table 7.1.8b Ten Species with the Highest Biomass from the 0.6 ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin AGB BGB Total Species Family (t/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha) Bombax valetonii Bombacaceae 83.55 16.24 99.79 Koompassia excelsa Legumonisae 82.12 16.72 98.84 Ficus variegata Moraceae 65.93 12.91 78.84 Pterygota alata Sterculiaceae 61.49 11.09 72.57 Neolamarckia cadamba Rubiaceae 30.95 5.21 36.16 Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dipterocarpaceae 28.61 4.93 33.54 Sapium baccatum Euphorbiaceae 28.41 4.63 33.04 Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae 27.76 4.31 32.07 Elateriospermum tapos Euphorbiaceae 25.22 4.17 29.39 Pterospermum javanicum Sterculiaceae 23.91 3.91 27.82

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7.1.3 Conservation Status a. Endemic and Rare Species

Out of the 241 species recorded from the 0.6 ha sampling plots of riparian forests within the Sg. Nenggiri basin, a total of 23 tree species are endemic to Peninsular Malaysia (Turner 1995). Eight out of the 23 endemic species have limited distribution in three states or less (Table 7.1.9). The most notable species is Suregada multiflora var. lamellata from Euphorbiaceae that is hyper- endemic, whereby it can only be found at Gua Musang, Kelantan (Turner 1995). Suregada multiflora var. lamellata (Euphorbiaceae) was recorded at Plot 4 in Hutan Simpan Hutan Simpan Balah at Sg. Lempai, off Sg. Jenera (Table 7.1.1). However, plot 4 was a control plot and is out of the Zone of Impact of the proposed project.

Other endemic species recorded in Peninsular Malaysia (distributed in four states or more) and can be found in the sampling plots are Barringtonia fusiformis (Lecythidaceae), Cyathocalyx pruniferus (Euphorbiaceae), Diospyros bibracteata (Ebenaceae), Lithocarpus curtisii (Fagaceae), Litsea spathacea (Lauraceae), Palaquium maingayi (Sapotaceae), Ptychopyxis caput-medusae (Euphorbiaceae) and magna (Annonaceae).

Rare species that are found in this study site includes Popowia fusca (Annonaceae), Scutinanthe brunnea (Burseraceae), Xylopia magna (Annonaceae) and Pterocymbium tubulatum (Sterculiaceae) (Whitmore 1972a, Whitmore 1972b, Whitmore 1973).

Table 7.1.9 Endemic Species Found from the 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots Within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin Species Family Distribution Suregada multiflora var. lamellata Euphorbiaceae Gua Musang, Kl Anaxagorea javanica Annonaceae Jh Hibiscus floccosus Malvaceae Ml utara Cyathocalyx scortechinii Annonaceae Pk, Ph nitens Dipterocarpaceae Pk and Ph south Sloanea malayana Elaeocarpaceae Ph, Sl Popowia fusca Annonaceae Pk, Ph, Sp Diospyros venosa Ebenaceae P. Langkawi, Pk, Ph Note: P.Langkawi-Pulau Langkawi, Pk-Perak, Ph-Pahang, Kl-Kelantan, Jh-Johor, Ml-Melaka, Sp- Singapura and Sl- b. Endangered and Threatened Species

Twenty-four species or 9.96% of all recorded tree species were listed in the IUCN Red List (Table 7.1.10). Two species, i.e. Lithocarpus curtisii from Fagaceae and Aquilaria malaccensis from Thymelaeaceae were listed as . Another 22 species from the families of Actinidiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Burseraceae, Chrysobalanaceae, Flacourtiaceae,

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Guttiferae, Leguminosae, Meliaceae, Myristicaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Rosaceae and Sapotaceae were listed as Least Concern.

Table 7.1.10 Conservation Status of Tree Species from the 0.6 Ha Sampling Plots within the Sg. Nenggiri Basin Based On Iucn Red List Species Family Status Saurauia pentapetala Actinidiaceae Least Concern Mangifera foetida Anacardiaceae Least Concern Cyathocalyx pruniferus Annonaceae Least Concern Cyathocalyx sumatranus Annonaceae Least Concern Popowia fusca Annonaceae Least Concern Xylopia magna Annonaceae Least Concern Dacryodes rostrata Burseraceae Least Concern Licania splendens Chrysobalanaceae Least Concern Lithocarpus curtisii Fagaceae Vulnerable Homalium longifolium Flacourtiaceae Least Concern Cratoxylum cochinchinense Guttiferae Least Concern Cratoxylum formosum Guttiferae Least Concern Koompassia excels Leguminosae Least Concern Koompassia malaccensis Leguminosae Least Concern Pongamia pinnata Leguminosae Least Concern Aglaia elliptica Meliaceae Least Concern Aglaia korthalsii Meliaceae Near Threatened Chisocheton tomentosus Meliaceae Least Concern Dysoxylum alliaceum Meliaceae Least Concern Knema scortechinii Myristicaceae Least Concern Pellacalyx saccardianus Rhizophoraceae Least Concern Prunus polystachya Rosaceae Least Concern Palaquium maingayi Sapotaceae Least Concern Aquilaria malaccensis Thymelaeaceae Vulnerable

Based on the Malaysian Plant Red List, there were no Critically Endangered species found in the project area during the flora surveys carried out in the study area, as shown in the checklist provided in Table 7.1.10. Three species fell under threatened category as proposed by Chua et al. (2010) that were listed as Vulnerable. The first tree species is Anisoptera scaphula (IUCN CR), a species with poor regeneration and scattered in semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest. Next is Hopea mengerawan (IUCN CR) that was reported to be scattered throughout lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. Lastly, Hopea pierrei (IUCN EN) distributed in ridges of hill forests and reduced by habitat reduction. This tree species was recorded at Plot 4 in Hutan Simpan Balah, next to Sungai Lempai, a tributary of Sungai Jenera that is the most upstream riparian area surveyed for this study.

It can be seen that although some species are Critically Endangered (CR) under IUCN, such as Anisoptera scaphula, Dipterocarpus cornutus, Hopea mengerawan, and Vatica bella; but the

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Table 7.1.11 Comparison of Tree Species Conservation Status based on Malaysian Plant Red List for Dipterocapaceae and IUCN Red List Malaysian Plant IUCN Red List Dipterocarpaceae species recorded Red List (Chua et (IUCN 2017) al. 2010) Anisoptera scaphula (Roxb.) Kurz Vulnerable Critically Endangered Dipterocarpus cornutus Dyer Least Concern Critically Endangered Dipterocarpus oblongifolius Blume Least Concern Least Concern Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dyer ssp. occidentalis Least Concern Endangered P.S. Ashton Hopea mengerawan Miq. Vulnerable Critically Endangered Hopea pierrei Hance Vulnerable Endangered Shorea leprosula Miq. Least Concern Endangered Shorea ovalis (Korth.) Blume ssp. ovalis Near Threatened Endangered Vatica bella Slooten Near Threatened Critically Endangered Vatica nitens King Near Threatened Endangered

7.1.4 Flora Survey at the Proposed Re-Regulating Dam Area

Flora surveys of the riparian buffer zone of the re-regulating dam area were conducted at Kg. Pasir Mayat due to limited accessability to other areas. Most of the species were orchard and forest fringe , and many were also common and typical riparian species (Table 7.1.12).

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Table 7.1.12 List of Flora Species at Kg. Pasir Mayat No. Species Family Vernacular name Habit 1 Lansium domesticum Corrêa Meliaceae Langsat Tree 2 Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Meliaceae Sentul Tree 3 Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen Leguminosae Jering Tree 4 Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Melastomataceae Senduduk bulu Shrub 5 Cocos nucifera L. Palmae Kelapa Palm 6 Durio zibethinus L. Bombacaceae Durian Tree 7 Parkia speciosa Hassk. Leguminosae Petai Tree 8 Alangium rotundifolium (Hassk.) Bloemb. Alangiaceae Mentulang Small tree 9 Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp. var. polyanthum Myrtaceae Salam Small tree 10 Callicarpa longifolia Lam. Verbenaceae Shrub 11 Costus speciosus (J. König) Sm. Costaceae Setawar Herb 12 Aporosa octandra (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) A.R. Vickery Euphorbiaceae Sebasah Small tree 13 Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Leeaceae Memali Shrub 14 Abroma augusta (L.) Willd. Sterculiaceae Shrub 15 Microcos tomentosa Sm. Tiliaceae Cenderai Small tree 16 Mischocarpus pentapetalus (Roxb.) Radlk. Sapindaceae Sugi Small tree 17 Bridelia insulana Hance Euphorbiaceae Kenidai Small tree 18 Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr. Dilleniaceae Akar mempelas Liana 19 Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. Rutaceae Hantu duri Small tree 20 Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. ex Kurz var. latifolia Hypoxidaceae Lemba Herb 21 Trichosanthes sp. Cucurbitaceae Climber 22 Rinorea sclerocarpa (Burgersd.) M. Jacobs Violaceae Small tree 23 Theobroma cacao L. Sterculiaceae Koko Small tree 24 Macaranga triloba (Blume) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Mahang merah Small tree 25 Hibiscus macrophyllus Roxb. ex Hornem. Malvaceae Tutor Tree 26 Vitex pinnata L. Verbenaceae Leban Tree

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No. Species Family Vernacular name Habit 27 Adiantum latifolium Lam. Adiantaceae Fern 28 Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson ssp. gangetica Acanthaceae Rumput israel Herb 29 Ficus hispida L.f. Moraceae Ara Small tree 30 Schizostachyum grande Ridl. Gramineae Buluh Herb 31 Callerya atropurpurea (Wall.) Schot Leguminosae Tulang daing Tree 32 Canthium horridum Blume Rubiaceae Shrub 33 Chassalia chartacea Craib Rubiaceae Beras -beras Shrub 34 Aglaia odoratissima Blume Meliaceae Bekak Small tree 35 Lygodium sp. Schizaeaceae Ribu-ribu Fern 36 Asplenium nidus L. Aspleniaceae Sakat-sakat Fern 37 Glochidion glomerulatum (Miq.) Boerl. Euphorbiaceae Ubah Small tree 38 Baccaurea motleyana (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Rambai Tree 39 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae Nangka Small tree 40 Alchornea rugosa (Lour.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Shrub 41 Scleria sumatrensis Retz. Cyperaceae Sendayan Herb 42 Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham Compositae Gambong Tree 43 Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. Taccaceae Janggut adam Herb 44 Friesodielsia sp. Annonaceae Akar mempisang Climber 45 Piper sp. Piperaceae Climber 46 Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep. Vitaceae Kesakitan burung Climber 47 Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don Araceae Keladi birah Herb 48 Boesenbergia sp. Zingiberaceae Herb 49 Dieffenbachia sp. Araceae Herb 50 Clerodendrum villosum Blume Verbenaceae Shrub 51 Lasianthus sp. Rubiaceae Sekentut Shrub 52 Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen Oleandraceae Fern 53 Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex Hassk. Euphorbiaceae Salang Small tree

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No. Species Family Vernacular name Habit 54 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Pulut-pulut Shrub 55 Selaginella willdenowii (Desv.) Baker Selaginellaceae Paku merak Fern 56 Litsea umbellata (Lour.) Merr. var. fuscotomentosa Lauraceae Medang Small tree 57 Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Getah Tree 58 Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume Moraceae Tree 59 Hedyotis sp. Rubiaceae Herb 60 Trevesia burckii Boerl. Araliaceae Tapak hantu Shrub 61 Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Mahang Small tree 62 Mangifera foetida Lour. Anacardiaceae Bacang Tree 63 Koompassia excelsa (Becc.) Taub. Leguminosae Tualang Tree 64 Firmiana malayana Kosterm. Sterculiaceae Tree 65 Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco) Merr. Sterculiaceae Mata lembu Tree 66 Areca catechu L. Palmae Pinang Palm 67 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae Kelempayan Tree 68 Casearia clarkei King Flacourtiaceae Small tree 69 Nephelium lappaceum L. var. lappaceum Sapindaceae Rambutan Tree 70 Annona muricata L. Annonaceae Durian belanda Small tree 71 Ficus glandulifera (Wall. ex Miq.) King Moraceae Ara Tree 72 Garcinia prainiana King Guttiferae Kecupu Small tree 73 Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda Gramineae Rumput buloh Herb 74 Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Mahang Small tree 75 Uncaria sp. Rubiaceae Climber 76 Micromelum minutum (G. Forst.) Wight & Arn. Rutaceae Cemamak Liana 77 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv Gramineae Rumput Herb 78 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Euphorbiaceae Naga buana Shrub 79 Christella sp. Thelypteridaceae Fern 80 Ruellia sp. Acanthaceae Herb

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No. Species Family Vernacular name Habit 81 Cyperus sp. Cyperaceae Herb 82 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae Climber 83 Musa sp. Musaceae Pisang hutan Herb

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7.2 TERRESTRIAL FAUNA

7.2.1 Introduction

This study describes the detailed methodology of data gathering, including data sources and data interpretation and analysis for prediction of impacts and mitigation. As much as possible, all baseline information will be statistically tested and presented in maps, figures, and tables. The baseline study of terrestrial fauna shall cover five terrestrial faunal groups, namely large mammals, small mammals, bats, birds, and Herpetofauna ( and reptiles).

7.2.2 Study Approaches

The study methods of all the terrestrial fauna groups are described below. The number and location of the study sites are the same among terrestrial fauna groups. Three (3) locations within the proposed development area (or ZOI) have been selected as study sites.

These locations were selected based on several criteria which are;

i. Areas that are predicted with major impacts on terrestrial fauna. Priority is given more to the areas that will be most impacted by the project.

ii. Areas that represent forest habitat. Within the impacted areas, important forest habitats were included as much as possible as part of the assessment areas. Priority is given to the primary forest and also the logged over forest which are still in good quality for wildlife. Note that assessment of the inundation area indicates that more than 80% of these areas are plantations (rubber and oil palm) and highly degraded logged over forest. Only some parts of the forest habitat are still pristine, especially around the Berangkat Forest Reserve and parts of Gunung Stong Selatan. These areas, however, are very difficult to access due to the high terrain and steep slope comprising karst and lime stone formation.

iii. Areas that represent forest quality. Within the proposed development area, as indicated above (ii) more than 80% of the forests have been logged over and some parts left for secondary vegetation and regeneration but most of the area have been converted to rubber and oil palm plantations.

iv. Areas far from Orang Asli Villages and other human habitation – The presence of wildlife are generally closely related to human habitation. The presences of Orang Asli villages within the forest areas generally have a direct negative impact on wildlife distribution and abundance. Wildlife hunting is a livelihood of Orang Asli and provides part of their needed source of protein. Avoiding the Orang Asli villages for wildlife survey is important to maximise the diversity of documentation and avoid conflicts with wildlife researchers.

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7.2.3 Study Sites and Trails

The selection of study sites were made after reconnaissance surveys made in July 2016 (for five days at Site A on land and by boat along Sg. Betis, and 4 days at Site B and Site C). Other considerations made (apart from the list above) in selection of these three sites are accessibility, safety, logging activities and wildlife conflicts. The locations of the study sites are shown in Figure 7.2.1. A 5-Km ZOI (Red) is indicated with a line surrounding the project area.

Detailed description and trails selected (or created) for the surveys are as follows;

Site A – This site is located within the Nenggiri Forest Reserve, mostly has been logged and estimated to be within the last 15 to 20 years, and many parts of the area at the southern and eastern side of this reserved forest have been converted to oil palm and rubber plantations. At the time of the first survey in August 2016 (for 10 days) one logging company had already started logging operation for at least one compartment within this reserve. Logging was still active in September 2016 during our second survey (for 5 days). At that time we were not certain when the logging will stop and when and how many compartments will be logged. Logging is known to have direct impacts on the distribution and abundance, and finally on the diversity of wildlife.

The location of the study sites and trails are shown in Figure 7.2.2. General surveys primarily for large mammals and birds by all terrain vehicles and on foot are as shown by the red and yellow line lines. Topographically, this area is undulating with the highest ridge at 330 m and the lowest around 120 m. Most of the trails were along old and new logging roads and along the main rivers. There are at least two Orang Asli villages located adjacent to this study site, namely Kg. Wias and Pos Pulat at the eastern part of the reserve and primarily old and new oil palm plantations at the south boardering the reserve.

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Site C

Site B

Site A

Figure 7.2.1 Location of the Proposed Study Sites for the Study of Terrestrial Fauna.

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Pos Pulat

Pos Tohoi

Figure 7.2.2 Location of Site A for the Study of Terrestrial Fauna.

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Logging Road to Pos Gob – See Fig 7.2.4

Pos Tohoi

Figure 7.2.3 Location of Site B for the Study of Terrestrial Fauna.

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Site B – This site is located within the Balah Forest Reserve and lies partly within the Perias Forest Reserve. This study area has been heavily logged and many parts of the area closer to the Pos Tohoi have been converted to rubber plantation (for timber) and other agricultural crops such as banana and paddy. Our surveys were primarily along the existing old logging road covering from the highest altitude at 500 m to the lowest, closer to the 140-meter elevation (Figure 7.2.3) as far away as possible from the Orang Asli villages. General surveys primarily for large mammals and birds by off road vehicles and on foot are as shown by the red line. The surveys were conducted for 8 days in April 2017 and 3 days in May 2017. Note that a reconnaissance survey was also conducted in August 2016 for 4 days along and within Site C.

Site C – Our initial plan was to focus on area at the north of the project area and within the Balah Forest Reserve and Berangkat Forest Reserve closer to two Orang Asli villages located within this study site, namely Kg. Gob (far from the ZOI) and Kg. Bering (close to Sg. Jenera). Judging by the condition of the forest, Balah Forest Reserve at the Pos Gob has been heavily logged at least once, with rampant hunting among the Orang Asli communities, and the northern part of this reserve has been converted into oil palm plantation. Due to these considerations, the survey sites were moved far away from the Orang Asli villages.

A new study site was selected, which was located further south of Pos Gob, within the ZOI and far from other Orang Asli villages, although this site has also been degraded and heavily logged (Figure 7.2.4). General surveys primarily for large mammals and birds by off road vehicles and on foot are shown by the red line. Yellow dots are location of elephant identified through foot prints and faeces. Other reasons why a new sudy site was selected were due to the Berangkat Forest Reserve which is primarily occupied by the lime stone (karst) formation and with steep slope and overhang. Areas further to the north and east of this reserve were also converted to plantation. Trapping of fauna may not be possible in this area. Furthermore, landslide and flood events during the last monsoon have made it impossible to use several main access roads and bridges. The survey at Site C was conducted concurrently by other wildlife research groups for 8 days in April 2017 and 3 days in May 2017, respectively. Note that a reconnaissance survey was conducted in August 2016 for 4 days along and within Site C.

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Pos Gob

Kg Chaler

Figure 7.2.4 Location of Site C for the Study of Terrestrial Fauna.

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Overall, it is important to note that none of the study sites selected for wildlife study are pristine forest habitats. Most of the forest located within the ZOI has been logged over at least once.

7.2.4 Terrestrial Mammals

7.2.4.1 Introduction

The total number of volant and non volant mammalian species (non-marine) in Peninsular Malaysia listed by Davidson and Zubaid (2005) was 229 species belonging to 32 families. From this total, 106 are bat species represented by 22 fruit bats and 84 insect bats. Shrews, treeshrews, rats and squirrels are represented by 62 spesies, followed by loris, pangolin and monkeys with 13 species, large herbivores with 11 species and carnivores with 28 species, respectively.

Many large and medium-sized mammalian species are considered rare and endangered, and protected under the law (Wildlife Act, 2010) in Peninsular Malaysia, such as the Sumatran Rhinoceros and Gaur. However, although many species of small mammals (which include bats) are considered rare and endangered, many species are not protected by the law (Wildlife Acts 2010).

With the new list generated from the study, at least the existing status and distribution of mammalian species in the study area are known and and if required, conservation effort can be made. Furthermore, from the recently gathered field data, migration (if available) and population of large mammals can be predicted. However, the exact (or reliable) migration pattern and population of large mammal species cannot be determined with the proposed method. Another method that can be used to estimate population is by using camera traps, but the method is not proposed in this study because it is expensive and time-consuming.

In this section, terrestrial (or non-volant) mammals considered were of those large, medium and small terrestrial species. Bat fauna is elaborated in a separate section below and is considered as flying (or volant) mammals. Generally, mammal species below 5 kg in body weight are considered as small mammals, while those above 5 kg are considered as medium and large mammals. In this report bats, shrews, treeshrews, rats and squirrels are considered as small mammals represented by 164 species, while the remaining are considered as medium and large mammals represented by 54 species.

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7.2.4.2 Study Objectives

The main objectives of this study are;

a. To establish the baseline information on the terrestrial mammals within the forest area and surrounding habitats. b. To identify the presence of any protected or rare species. c. To predict the possible migration route of large mammals (based on signs such as prints and observations in the field). d. To identify the potential impacts of the project on terrestrial mammals e. To predict and propose proper mitigating measures during and after the project.

7.2.4.3 Materials and Methods i. Large and Medium Sized Mammal Species

Terrestrial mammals in this study are grouped according to large, medium and small sized mammals. Large mammal surveys were conducted for at least 7 days at each study site along the trails of major streams and logging roads. At each study site, surveys were conducted along the trails within at least 2-5 km radius. Observations of were made with the aid of a pair of 40x10 binoculars and a spotting scope, and any individual species observed in these surveys were identified and noted. The survey routes are shown in Figures 7.2.1 to 7.2.4 above.

Mammals were identified through their footprints and droppings found during the surveys. Apart from these signs and direct observations, wildlife species were also identified through camera traps deployed at several localities according to suitability (See Figure 7.2.5 for camera traps locality). Each of the location of or markings found during the surveys was noted. Whenever possible, estimates of the total number of individuals were also made if the animals were in a group (e.g. Primates). Furthermore, any saltlicks and mud wallows found were also documented (if available). Reports from interviews with the locals and other agencies (which include the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Department of Forestry) were also included in the mammal species list. Species categories or status locally [Wildlife Act No 76 (2010) or internationally (IUCN)] are also included in the species lists.

Interviews with the plantation managers, district and state wildlife officers, locals and forestry officers were also conducted to assess the status of wildlife conflicts in the surrounding Proposed Project area, especially for elephants and other large mammal species. Locations of any signs of elephants and history of elephant conflicts surrounding the Proposed Project area were noted in a map for assessment of conflict pattern and prediction of future conflicts.

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Figure 7.2.5 Locations of Camera Traps for Each of the Sites

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For the study of small mammals, two common methods were used; trapping and field observations. Small mammal trappings were set up mostly along established trails along or near the Proposed Project site. Along the trails, 100 traps were laid (on the ground and in the trees up to 2 m above ground) at 10-15 m intervals. The traps were baited alternately either with banana, roasted coconut meat, or oil palm seeds. Traps were serviced twice a day (morning and evening) and left open for 5 continuous days and nights. Every trapped individual was examined for species identification, and released at the point of capture.

Field surveys (night and day) were also conducted along the trails, not only for small mammals but also for large and medium size mammals. Surveys were conducted at least along 1 km of the trails at each study site. Any small mammmal species observed (with the naked eyes, binoculars or spotting scope) was identified and noted.

Reports from interviews with the locals and other agencies were also included in the mammal species list. Conservation status based on the IUCN Red Data book and the Wildlife Protection ACT No. 716 (2010) were provided in the list.

7.2.4.4 Results and Discussion a. Large and Medium Sized Mammal Species i.Diversity and Distribution

This section describes the existing terrestrial fauna (mammals) in the project area. All the findings presented here are based on the data collected from our site visits and literature surveys on the fauna population conducted over discrete periods from September 2016 to April 2017. Wildlife surveys and inventories for this project are divided into three sites - Site A, which is nearby to the Sg. Nenggiri, located in the District of Kuala Betis, and primarily within the Nenggiri Forest Reserve. Meanawhile, Site B and Site C are located in the North Western segment towards the Sg. Nenggiri and primarily within the Balah Forest Reserve (Figure 7.2.1). Site C is supposed to be in the Perias Forest Reserve. However, due to lack of accessibility to this study site, it is considered as an elongated segment of Site B and in close proximity to the Balah Forest Reserve. Therefore, Site B and Site C fall within the Balah Forest Reserve.

The list of mammal species documented in these three locations are given in Table 7.2.1 for Site A (Nenggiri Forest Reserve), and in Table 7.2.6 for Site B and Site C (Balah Forest Reserve). Our study at Site A resulted in a total of 24 species, while Site B recorded 8 species and Site C with 15 species. Cumulative mammal species recorded at the Nenggiri Forest Reserve is 24 species from 15 families, while Balah Forest Reserve gives 19 species from 11 families.

The Nenggiri Forest Reserve (Site A) is a logged-over forest surrounded by oil palm plantations in the south and the Orang Asli settlements in the east (Pos Pulat and Kg. Wias).

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At this site, a total of 6 large and 5 medium mammal species were recorded, representing 5 Orders and 5 Families (Table 7.2.1). Species identification by camera trapping method at this site shows the most abundance and dominant species captured at study area were Sus scrofa with 39 independent images. The rare species photographed are Arctictis binturong, Cuon alpinus, Helarctos malayanus, Macaca nemestrina, Tapirus indicus and Prionailurus bengalensis which occurs only once in the camera trap. The highest occurrence was that of Sus scrofa (12 times), followed by Hystrix brachyura (seven times), Muntiacus muntjak (three times) and Elephas maximus (only twice). Calls of Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) and Lar Gibbon (Hylobates lar) were also heard at a distance from the survey trail at Site A. Note that the number of wildlife species reported at this location might have been higher if the surveys had not been conducted in the rainy season. However, this was unavoidable since the season during September until December is rather unpredictable.

At the Balah Forest Reserve, two sites were surveyed, i.e. the forested area towards Pos Tohoi (Site B) and the forested area towards Pos Gob (Site C). These two sites were considered as secondary forest and there were several signs indicating that it had been heavily logged before. The total number of large and medium sized mammal species documented from this location was 7 species representing 7 families and 4 orders (Table 7.2.2). There is no significant difference in terms of the number of species at Site C (13 species) compared to Site B (with only 11 species). The most commonly found wildlife species at both Site B and Site C were the Asian Elephant, Wild Pig and Barking Deer. These three species were found mostly based on the tracking of the animal’s foot prints which were photographed by installed cameras traps. The presence of elephant was detected at Site B when camera traps were deployed and one month later, a herd of elephants were found nearby to the cameras trap installed at Site C during the second visit for data retrieval process. Assessment of the location and size of foot prints and dungs suggested that this location was roamed by one herd of elephants consisting of at least 10 to 20 individuals with several baby elephants and this was rightly proven by images captured by the installed cameras. The presence of baby elephants suggests that this is a healthy breeding population.

Since Site B is an extension of a similar habitat at Site C (Balah Forest Reserve) albeit lower in altitude, almost similar number of species was recorded at this site except for two orders, i.e. Primates and Carnivora. Two primate species, the Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) were observed and photographed by installed cameras at Site B and Site C, respectively. For Carnivora, the Malayan Sunbear (Helarctos malayanus) was photographed only at Site C, while images of the Domestic Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and footprints of the Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata) were found only at Site B.

For comparison, there is a significant difference in terms of the list of wildlife species at Site A (Nenggiri Forest Reserve) compared to Site B and Site C (Balah Forest Reserve). Even though most of the habitats of Site A had been logged over, high wildlife diversity at Site A might have been associated with habitat quality at the study site, which suffered less human disturbance compared to Site B and Site C, both of which are located close to the Orang Asli

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-40 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment villages. Furthermore, there are some evidence (i.e. images) of the Orang Asli individuals captured by the installed cameras while they are collecting forest products at Site B. Most of the protected and endangered species are found at Site A, among which are the Elephant (Elephas maximus), Tapir (Tapirus indicus), Dhole (Cuon alpinus) and Lar Gibbon (Hylobates lar).

Among the large mammal species listed above, the most important species that need detailed attention is the elephant. Based on the dung distribution (regardless of individuals and age of dung) that was documented during our field surveys, it can be concluded that elephants are common within the project area, especially at the western part of the Proposed Project sites within the Nenggiri Forest Reserve (Site A), Perias Forest Reserve and Balah Forest Reserve (Site B and Site C) (Figure 7.2.6). The limit of distribution of elephants from the west does not pass the pink line to the east due to land use change. It is likely due to the fact that the areas in the eastern part of the project have already been converted into plantations (i.e. rubber and oil palm) and also into township. Note that the dam sites and major inundation areas are also located at the eastern part of the elephant range.

Further opening and clearing of the forest is predicted to force this protected species to further move out of range and will be displaced towards the neighbouring plantation and residential areas. This is a typical case of the elephant and human conflict that should be avoided. Between July 2016 and Mei 2017, several elephant conflicts have been reported by the locals, especially in areas near E9, E10 and E18, which are within the plantation, and E1 which is closer to Pos Pulat.

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Figure 7.2.6 Locations of Dungs (E1 until E21) Which Indicate the Distribution of Elephants within the Study Area.

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Apart from elephants, other species that are worth considering are tapir and tiger. Although both species are not common based on this study, one tiger conflict was reported by the locals to the north of Pos Pulat early this year (2017). These species were also recorded at the surrounding areas of the project site (e.g. Gunung Stong Forest Reserve at the northm reported by Zafir et al. (2005)). Other large mammal species noted by Zafir et al. (2005) were leopard, sun bear, tiger, binturung, barking Deer, serow, wild pig, dhole, and clouded leopard. ii. Ecology and Conservation

Based on the wildlife surveys that were documented during the site visits, it could be concluded that the most important large mammal species that could be impacted by the dam project are Elephant, followed by Lar Gibbon, Tapir and Dhole. These species were also recorded at the surrounding areas of the project site (e.g. Gunung Stong Forest Reserve at the north, as reported by Zafir et al. (2005)). Other large mammal species reported by Zafir et al. (2005) were Leopard, Sun Bear, Tiger, Binturong, Barking Deer, Serow, Wild Pig, and Clouded Leopard.

According to our interviews with the Orang Asli, Wild Pig and Elephant were found roaming around the forest patches adjacent to the plantations. Even though the Wild Pig is considered of least concern for conservation efforts as compared to Elephant, which is more crucial, these two species are considered as nuisance by the locals, causing conflicts with the plantation (rubber and oil palm) owners and workers. Based on the dung distribution (regardless of individuals and age of dung) that were documented during site visits, it can be concluded that elephants are common within the project area, especially at the western part of the Proposed Project sites within the Nenggiri Forest Reserve Reserve (Site A) and the Balah Forest Reserve (Site B and C).

Other species that are rarely found but important for conservation are the Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) and White-handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar). Among the primates, Siamang and White-handed Gibbon are crucial to the Proposed Project as these species are endangered and their existence may be affected by the proposed dam project. The other two primate species are the Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and the Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) which are categorised under Vulnerable and Least Concern, respectively. Although Siamang and Gibbons are highly mobile and can move freely within the forest, Marsch and Wilson (1981) suggested that logging, opening up of forests and poaching do have short and long-term effects on them. In this survey, Siamang and Gibbon were found at Site A and those two macaques had been found at Site B and C. Since the identification of these species are generally by calls, it is not known for certain how many members comprise the population since the calls were not heard very clearly in the early morning and late afternoon.

On the other hand, another large carnivore that has been reported to be found at Site A, B and C is the Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak), which is considered as a common ungulate species compared to deer and gaur. No sign of deer was sighted although the local Orang

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Asli had reported the presence of this species at this location. Excessive hunting probably may have reduced the population of the deer not only at this area but elsewhere in Peninsular Malaysia. The other ungulate that was identified through the footprints and images caught by the installed cameras was the Tapir. Signs of Tapir were found only at Site A, suggesting the low distribution (or possibly abundance) of this species. Compared to the Elephant, Tapir can easily adapt to the changing environment and forest patch (personal experience and observations).

Based on the IUCN Red Data Book, species categorized as Endangered, Near Threatened and Vulnerable are the main conservation concern. From the total of 43 mammal species recorded at the three study sites (A, B and C), five species have been classed as Endangered (Asian Elephant, Siamang, Lar Gibbon, Dhole and Malayan Tapir), three species are Vulnerable (Pig-tailed Macaque, Binturong and Malayan Sunbear) and one species is Near-Threatened (i.e. the Marbled Cat). Based on the local laws (Wildlife Act 2010), six species fall under Protected Species (Protected Wildlife, 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Part 1 or Part 2), and another 10 fall under Totally Protected species (2nd Schedule, Sec. 3, Totally Protected Wildlife). All of the Totally Protected species are the focal species that need conservation attention. Large mammal species are more important because they are predicted to be affected more adversely compared to small mammal species by any changing habitat.

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Table 7.2.1 List of Mammals Recorded at Site A (Nenggiri Forest Reserve) Order/ Family Scientific name English name Malay name Law Method Obs. Catch Total Notes ARTIODACTYLA SUIDAE: Pig Sus scrofa Wild Pig Babi Hutan P(I)/LC FP/O/C FP/C>20 CERVIDAE: Deer Muntiacus muntjak Barking Deer Kijang P(I)/LC I/FP/C FP>3 TRAGULIDAE: Mouse- Tragulus Lesser Mouse- Pelanduk P(I)/DD I/C deer kanchil/javanicus deer Greater Malay Tragulus napu Napuh P(I)/DD FP/C Mouse-deer PROBOSCIDEA ELEPHANTIDAE: FP, Elephas maximus Asian Elephant Gajah TP/EN FE/FP/C Elephant FE>10 PRIMATES CERCOPITHECIDAE: Macaca Pig-tailed Berok P(II)/VU O/C Monkey nemestrina Macaque Ungka HYLOBATIDAE: Hylobates lar Lar Gibbon TP/EN V Tangan Putih Gibbons Symphalangus Siamang Siamang TP/EN O/V 1 syndactylus RODENTIA HYSTRICIDAE: Common Hystrix brachyura Landak Raya P(I)/LC C Porcupines Porcupine Niviventer Dark-tailed Tree MURIDAE: Rats, Mice Tikus Akar -/VU CT 1 cremoriventer Rat Malaysian Wood Rattus tiomanicus -/LC CT 2 Rat Maxomys surifer Red Spiny Rat -/LC CT 2 SCIURIDAE: Squirrels, Callosciurus Plantain Squirrel Tupai Pinang -/LC O/CT 5 1 6 Flying Squirrels notatus

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Order/ Family Scientific name English name Malay name Law Method Obs. Catch Total Notes Callosciurus Prevost's Squirrel TP/LC O prevostii Three-striped Lariscus insignis -/LC O/CT 0 1 1 Ground Squirrel Unknown squirrel sp. - C SCANDENTIA Tupai Common TUPAIIDAE: Treeshrew Tupaia glis Moncong P(II)/LC O/CT 2 2 Treeshrew Besar CARNIVORA Prionailurus FELIDAE: Cats Leopard Cat Kucing Batu TP/LC C/FP 1 bengalensis VIVERRIDAE: Civets, Large Indian Viverra zibetha TP/LC C Binturong Civet Arctitis binturong Binturong TP/VU C Arctogalidia Small-toothed TP/LC C trivirgata Palm Civet CANIDAE: Dog Cuon alpinus Dhole Anjing Hutan TP/EN C Helarctos Beruang URSIDAE: Bear Malayan Sunbear TP/VU C malayanus Madu PERISSODACTYLA TAPIRIDAE: Tapir Tapirus indicus Malayan Tapir Tenuk, Cipan TP/EN FP/C 1 FP=1 7 Orders/ 15 24 Species Families Lagend: Law= Local Laws (Wildlife Acts 2010/IUCN). P(I) = Protected Wildlife, 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Part 1. P(II) = 1ST Schedule, Sec. 3, Protected Wildlife, Part 2. TP = 2nd Schedule, Sec. 3, Totally Protected Wildlife. I= Interview, FP = Foot print, FE = Feces, Obs. = Observation, V = Vocal, CT = Cage Trap, C = Camera Trap, EN= Endangered, VU=Vulnerable, LC= Least Concern. DD = Data Deficient

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Table 7.2.2 List of Mammals Recorded at Site B and Site C (Balah Forest Reserve) Order/ Family Scientific name English name Malay name Law Method SITE B SITE C Total Notes ARTIODACTYLA SUIDAE: Pig Sus scrofa Wild Pig Babi Hutan P(I)/LC FP/ C / / 17 Muntiacus CERVIDAE: Deer Barking Deer Kijang P(I)/LC I/FP/C / / >5 FP>3 muntjak CARNIVORA Helarctos Malayan URSIDAE: Bear Beruang Madu TP/VU C / 2 FP=1 malayanus Sunbear Canis lupus Anjing CANIDAE: Dog Domestic Dog -/- C / 1 familiaris Domestik Pardofelis FELIDAE: Cats Marbled cat Kucing Dahan TP/NT FP / 1 marmorata PROBOSCIDEA ELEPHANTIDAE: Elephas maximus Asian Elephant Gajah TP/EN O/FE/FP/C / / >20 FP, FE>5 Elephant PRIMATES Macaca Long-tailed P(II)/L Kera O/C / CERCOPITHECIDAE: fascicularis Macaque C Monkey Macaca Pig-tailed P(II)/V Beruk C / nemestrina Macaque U RODENTIA SCIURIDAE: Callosciurus Squirrels, Flying Plantain Squirrel Tupai Pinang -/LC O/CT / 1 SITE B =1 notatus Squirrels Callosciurus Prevost's TP/LC O / 1 SITE B =1 prevostii Squirrel MURIDAE: Rats, Unknown sp. - C / Mice

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Order/ Family Scientific name English name Malay name Law Method SITE B SITE C Total Notes Niviventer Dark-tailed Tree Tikus Akar -/NP CT / 1 SITE C = 1 cremoriventer Rat Malaysian Wood Rattus tiomanicus -/LC CT / 2 SITE C = 2 Rat SITE B =1 Maxomys surifer Red Spiny Rat -/LC CT / / 2 SITE C=1 Leopoldamys Long-tailed -/LC CT / 2 SITE C=2 sabanus Giant Rat Common Pencil- Chiropodomys tailed Tree- -/NP CT / 1 SITE C = 1 gliroides mouse Maxomys rajah Brown Spiny Rat - -/VU CT / 1 SITE B = 1 Sundamys Müller's Giant - -/LC CT / 1 SITE C = 1 muelleri Sunda Rat SCANDENTIA TUPAIIDAE: Common Tupai Moncong P(II)/L SITE B =1 Tupaia glis O/C / / 2 Treeshrew Treeshrew Besar C SITE C=1 6 Orders/ 11 19 Species 11 Sp. 13 Sp. Families Lagend: Law= Local Laws (Wildlife Acts 2010/IUCN). P(I) = Protected Wildlife, 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Part 1. P(II) = 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Protected Wildlife, Part 2. TP = 2nd Schedule, Sec. 3, Totally Protected Wildlife. O = Observation, I= Interview, FP = Foot print, FE = Feces, CT = Cage Trap, C = Camera Trap, EN= Endangered, VU=Vulnerable, LC= Least Concern, NT = Near Threatened, NP = Not Protected.

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Small mammal species recorded from the three study locations are listed in Table 7.2.1 and Table 7.2.2. The number of species reported at Nenggiri Forest Reserve (Site A) is 9 species, comprising 4 species of squirrels, 3 of rats/mice, 1 of treeshrew and 1 of porcupine. On the other hand, there is a significant difference compared with the Balah Forest Reserve (Site B and Site C) in which 11 species were represented by 8 species of rats, 2 of squirrels, and 1 of treeshrew. However, there is not much difference between Site B and Site C, in which 5 species were represented by 3 species of rats, 1 of squirrel, and 1 of treeshrew at Site B, while 8 species were represented by 6 species of rats, 1 of squirrel and 1 of treeshrew at Site C. Less number of rat species at Site A is highly likely due to the rainy season during the sampling period of September 2016. The Common Porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) that had been recorded only at Site A was not seen during the survey, but was reported by the locals as uncommon, although it would frequently occur during certain days of the month. Note that the Common Porcupine is commonly hunted by the locals as a source of protein food. Most of the small mammal species recorded from this study are listed as Least Concern (IUCN) and not protected (Wildlife Conservation Act 2010) except for two rat species, namely the Dark-tailed Tree Rat (Niviventer cremoriventer) and Brown Spiny Rat (Maxomys rajah), which fall under Vulnerable species (IUCN Red Data Book).

As for comparison, there is no previous record of small mammals from the study sites except for the closest forest habitat, which is the Gunung Stong as recorded by Shukor et al. (2005) and Zafir et al. (2005). Note that Gunung Stong Forest Reserve is located at the north of the project area. Mohd Zafir et al. (2005) recorded 19 species of non-volant small mammals which include the long-tailed giant rat, grey-bellied squirrel, banded linsang, yellow-throated marten, common palm civet, large Indian civet, masked palm civet, small-toothed palm civet, brush- tailed porcupine, Malayan porcupine, pig-tailed macaque, long-tailed macaque, Slow loris, dusky langur, siamang, barking deer, mouse deer, leopard cat, and golden cat. Likewise, Shukor et al. (2005) recorded six species of non-volant small mammals which include whitehead’s rat, brown spiny rat, red spiny rat, long-tailed giant rat, dark-tailed tree rat and black-banded squirrel. Both studies utilized different study methods where Mohd Zafir et al. (2005) primarily used camera traps. ii. Ecology and Conservation

It should be noted that more squirrels were documented at Site A (Nenggiri Forest Reserve) possibly due to the fact that the sampling time was during the rainy season, which limited the movement of rats. More rats were documented during the dry season at Site B and C (Balah Forest Reserve) whereby sampling and inventory had been conducted in April 2017. Squirrels which are mostly aboreals are possibly not affected by rain and flooding.

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One of the most widespread groups of mammals is the rodent. The total number of small mammal species (body weight of less than 5 kg) in Peninsular Malaysia was estimated at about 211 species consisting of the volant (flying) and non-volant (terrestrial). Among these species, 55 are non-volant (terrestrial) small mammals, which are divided into two families, i.e. Muridae (rats) and Scuridae (squirrels) (Medway 1985). Assessment of small mammals indicates that none of the species is considered as a commensal species, except for one species at Site A and Site C, namely Rattus tiomanicus. All the other small mammal species can be categorized as forest species, which require specific niches within the forest habitat.

It is also important to note that the diversity and abundance of small mammals are closely related to the diversity and abundance of civets and cats. Many civets and cats rely on the small mammals for their food sources and low abundance and diversity of small mammals could mean decreasing abundance and subsequently, diversity of civets and small cats. According to the list of mammal species, civet has been recorded at Site A and two species of cats, namely Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) and Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata) are found at Site A and Site B, respectively.

Compared to large mammals, however, the impacts of the Proposed Project is relatively less on small mammals due to less resource requirement such as food and shelter. Although the impact is relatively low on wildlife, among large and small mammals, the impacts are predicted to be less on small mammals as long as the adjacent forests are still available and can be maintained, while human disturbance such as poaching can be reduced. It is believed, however, that the main purpose of this EIA study is to predict and evaluate the environmental effects of the activities and the proposed dam project itself on wildlife for both small and large mammals in order to come up with various suitable mitigation measures that will be implemented to ameliorate some of the adverse effects.

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7.2.5 Bats

7.2.5.1 Introduction

Bats are difficult to identify without trapping, handling and identification using specific keys. Based on field observations and the condition of the forest habitat of the study areas, it is anticipated that bat species that generally dominate lowland and hill dipterocarp forest species might be present at the proposed dam area.

Kingston et al. (2006) and Francis (2008) estimated 106 species of bats for Peninsular Malaysia which were divided into two groups; plant visiting and insect eating bats, each of which was represented by 18 and 88 species, respectively. Although only flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus and P. vampyrus) are considered protected based on the Laws of Malaysia Act 716 (Wildlife Conservation Act 2010) for Peninsular Malaysia, however, internationally, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN (www.iucnredlist.org 2017) has listed at least 26 species of bats from Peninsular Malaysia that are being at some risks of extinction. By listing out the bat species found in the study area, conservation efforts can easily be made.

7.2.5.2 Study Objectives a. To establish the baseline information of bat species inhibiting the forest areas in the proposed dam area; b. To identify the presence of any protected or rare species; c. To assess and evaluate the association or relationship of the bats and their environment; d. To identify the potential impacts of the proposed dam project on bats; e. To predict and propose proper mitigating measures during and after the project development.

7.2.5.3 Materials and Methods a. Study Sites The study was conducted in three research zones identified from the topography map of the proposed dam area provided by the project proponent. The research zones are considered upstream of the proposed dam. These zones are: the Forested area near Kuala Betis (Site A), forested area towards Pos Tohoi (Site B) and forested area towards Pos Gob (Site C). b. Study Methods To study bats, field trapping was conducted using four-bank harp traps and mist-nets. Harp traps were set along the established trails at a distance of at least 25 m from each other. Two four-bank harp traps were used per trapping night. Mist-nets which were set at about 1.5 to 2 m above-ground were also used for bird sampling. However, the mist-nets were kept open for a

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-53 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment specific duration only and were checked in the evening between 6-11 pm and in the morning between 6-10 am to catch bats. There were at least 3 harp traps and 30 mist-nets set everyday for 4 trapping nights per site. Bats captured were examined for species identification following Kingston (2006) and Francis (2008), and were released at the point of capture within 12 hours. Species list was generated and species categories or status locally following the Laws of Malaysia Act 716 (Wildlife Conservation Act 2010) for Peninsular Malaysia and internationally following IUCN 2017 was included in the Final Report.

7.2.5.3 Results and Discussion a. Diversity and Distribution Bat species recorded from recent study at all three study sites are listed in Table 7.2.3, with the pictures of some examples of species given in Appendix 2. Study at Site A resulted in a total of 12 species, while Site B with 22 species and Site C with 13 species, respectively. Cumulative bat species recorded at all three studied dam areas yielded 28 species from 4 families. From 28 species caught, five of the species represent plant-visiting bats (family Pteropodidae), while the rest of the species are insect-eating bats from family Hipposideridae with 7 species, Rhinolophidae with 5 species, and Vespertilionidae with 11 species, respectively.

There were 50% differences in the number of species caught between site A and site B and between site B and site C. This is because of the rainfall which has reduced the effectiveness of the trapping methods. It was raining for two trapping nights at site C. When it was raining the harp-trap string would have water-drops on them and made them visible to the bats. Similarly with the mist-net, wetness also makes it more visible to the flying bats and reduces the chance of catching them.

Results from this study are considered comparable with those of other studies conducted at the adjacent habitats of the study area by Shukor et al. (2005) and Jayaraj (2012). Shukor et al. (2005) reported 21 species of fruit and insect eating bats from Gunung Stong Forest Reserve while Jayaraj et al. (2012) reported 11 species of either overlapping or newly recorded species which Shukor et al. (2005) had reported earlier. Comparison among these two bat studies shows that Shukor et al. (2005) have reported primarily insect-eating bats while Jayaraj et al. (2012) primarily reported on fruit-eating bats. It is due to the method of sampling, where Shukor et al. (2005) used harp traps while Jayaraj et al. (2012) only used mist-nets. b. Ecology and Conservation There are four species caught which are listed as near threatened by IUCN (the International Union for Conservation of Nature) 2017. These are Hipposideros dorie, Rhinolophus robinsoni, Kerivoula intermedia, Kerivoula minuta, and Kerivoula pellucida. The rest of the species are listed as Least Concern or not accessed. None of the species caught were listed under any schedule of Laws of Malaysia Act 716 (Wildlife Conservation Act 2010) for Peninsular Malaysia.

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However, there are a few species categorised as rare such as Harpiacephalus harpia, Hipposideros dorie and Hipposideros dyacorum. c. Diversity Measures The diversity indices of all sites studied are given in Table 7.2.4. The Shannon diversity index was high at Site B (H’=2.746) compared to Site C (H’=2.444) and Site A (H’=2.055). The high value of H’ at Site B indicates that the species composition of this site contains diverse bat species. However, the dominance index was recorded high at Site A (D=0.163) which inferred that this site contained several dominant species such as Balinycteris maculata, Hipposiderus dyacorum and Rhinolophus affinis. Meanwhile, Site C (D=0.096) and Site B (D=0.082) showed low value of dominance index compared to Site A. The species composition of Site B was evenly distributed (E=0.887) compared to Site B (E=0.708) and Site A (E=0.650). Species composition at Site B shows high abundance and a large number of species which affects the evenness index in the area.

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Table 7.2.3 Species Richness and Abundance of Bats in All the Study Sites Wildlife No Chiroptera / Family Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Site A Site B Site C Act Balionycteris 1. Spotted Winged Fruit Bat LC - 12 - - maculata Cynopterus 2. Lesser Short-Nosed Fuit Bat LC - 8 - - brachyotis PTEROPODIDAE Cynopterus 3. Horsfield’s Fruit Bat LC - - 4 2 horsfieldii 4. Eonycteris spelaea Cave Nectar Bat LC - - 5 - Macroglossus 5. Hill Long-tongued Fruit Bat LC - 2 18 - sobrinus Lesser Bicolored Leaf-Nosed 6. Hipposideros atrox NA - - 6 2 Bat 7. Hipposideros bicolor Bicolored Leaf-Nosed Bat LC - 1 1 - Hipposideros 8. Diadem Leaf-Nosed Bat LC - - 2 2 diadema 9. Hipposideros doriae* Bornean Leaf-Nosed Bat* NT - - 1 1 HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros 10. Dayak Leaf-Nosed Bat LC - 17 - - dyacorum Hipposideros 11. Cantor’s Leaf-Nosed Bat LC - - 4 - galeritus Hipposideros 12. Horsfield’s Leaf-Nosed Bat LC - - 18 4 larvatus 13. Rhinolophus affinis Intermediate Horseshoe Bat LC - 14 10 6 14. Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat LC - 1 9 4 RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus 15. Peninsular Horseshoe Bat NT - - 3 1 robinsoni 16. Rhinolophus stheno Lesser Brown Horseshoe Bat LC - - 10 4

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Wildlife No Chiroptera / Family Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Site A Site B Site C Act Rhinolophus 17. Trefoil Horseshoe Bat LC - - 2 - trifoliatus 18. Glischropus tylopus Common Thick-Thumbed Bat LC - - 2 4 Harpiocephalus 19. Lesser Hairy-Winged Bat LC - - - 3 harpia 20. Kerivoula hardwickii Hardwicke’s Woolly Bat LC - 2 2 - 21. Kerivoula intermedia Small Woolly Bat NT - 2 7 2 22. Kerivoula minuta Least Woolly Bat NT - 4 - - 23. Kerivoula papillosa Papillose Woolly Bat LC - 2 2 - VESPERTILIONIDAE 24. Kerivoula pellucida Clear-Winged Woolly Bat NT - 2 - - Round-Eared Tube-Nosed 25. Murina cyclotis LC - - 2 - Bat 26. Murina suilla Brown Tube-Nosed Bat LC - - 7 2 27. Myotis muricola Nepalese Whiskered Bat LC - - 3 - Tylonycteris 28. Lesser Bamboo Bat LC - - 1 - pachypus 12 Genus/28 12 Sp. 22 Sp. 13 sp 4 Families species 67 Ind. 146 ind 37 ind *species yet to be confirmed

LC = Least Concern, NR = Near Threatened and NA = Not Access

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Table 7.2.4 Diversity Indices of Bats in All the Study Sites Site A Site B Site C Species 12 22 13 Individuals 67 119 37 Dominance (D) 0.163 0.082 0.096 Shannon (H’) 2.055 2.746 2.444 Evenness (E) 0.650 0.708 0.887 d. Cluster Analysis Cluster analysis was conducted in order to seek sites similarity based on species composition. Among the three sites, Site B and Site C were similar to each other (52.2%). However, Site A was dissimilar to Site B or Site C, with low similarity value (0.198). This indicates that species composition at Site A is different compared to the other two sites (Figure 7.2.7).

Figure 7.2.7 Dendogram of cluster analysis based on species composition of bats at all the sampling sites studied by using Jaccard Coefficient based on UPGMA method.

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7.2.6 Birds

7.2.6.1 Introduction

Like most other areas in the tropics, Peninsular Malaysia, which has an average temperature of between 28-32 oC, annual rainfall between 2,000 - 3,000 mm and covering an estimated area of about 121,235 km2, is a haven for many migrant and resident bird species. The MNS Bird Conservation Council (2010) estimated a total of 662 bird species representing 88 families in Peninsular Malaysia. Bird distribution is generally influenced by their habitats and in this country, the bird inhabiting areas range from the shorelines to the mountain slopes. The total number of species in each of these habitats, however, varies among habitats such as mangroves, peat swamps, highland and lowland forests.

Bird community structure is influenced by habitat conditions, but there are shared species between habitats. Forest species would usually be composed of more forest-specialist species, compared to logged or degraded forests. Intrusion of the Common Myna, Starling and Crow is an indicator of a degraded habitat. In the urban areas on the other hand, bird diversity is composed of open-contry species such as the Magpie Robin, bulbuls and doves. Therefore, bird community can be used indirectly to predict the stage of habitat degradation.

7.2.6.2 Study Objectives

The objectives of this study are as follows; a. To establish the baseline information of bird species inhibiting the forest areas along the proposed upstream dam. b. To identify the presence of any protected or rare species. c. To assess and evaluate the association or relationship of the birds and their environment. d. To identify the potential impacts of the Proposed Project on birds. e. To predict and propose suitable mitigating measures during and after the project development.

7.2.6.3 Materials and Methods i. Study Sites The bird study was conducted at three sites located along the upstream of the proposed dam, i.e. the Nenggiri Forest Reserve (Site A), the forest north of Pos Tohoi (Site B) and the forest towards Pos Gob (Site C). Site A comprises different habitat gradients, i.e. rubber plantation, oil palm plantation and forest. In addition, this site is the nearest to the main road, and approximately 40 km away from Gua Musang town. During the surveys, it seemed that this site was undergoing intensive logging, as evidenced by the presence of several timber yards, as well

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-59 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment as timber trucks going in and out of the forest. Site B was an old logged-over forest at a higher altitude (200-500 meters asl) than Site A, while Site C, on the other hand, was located not very far from site B. However, our surveys were also conducted in the opposite direction from Site A (i.e. towards Pos Gob), with similar forest types, but at a lower altitude ca. 200 meter a.s.l. (Figure 7.2.1 to 7.2.4). ii. Study Methods The objective of the survey is to obtain an inventory of the avifauna of the study area, by using visual and audio identification methods besides mist netting. Survey was conducted within five days at each site, between September 2016 and April 2017. At each site, at least two trained persons were involved in observations for at least five days along selected established trails which include the existing tracts and access roads. Bird observations were made early in the morning at 7.00 am until 11.00 am, and between 2.00 pm to 7.00 pm. Analysis of the field data was made to identify critical habitats and endangered species, and identification of any possible threats.

Along randomly selected established trails, 20 mist-nets were set up for five continuous days. The nets were randomly set at about 1.5 m aboveground. Nets were inspected every two hours daily from morning to evening. Birds netted were released after identification (based on Robson, 2000; Strange and Jeyarajaingam, 2012). Location of each individual captured was recorded for distribution mapping.

7.2.6.4 Results and Discussion a. Diversity and Distribution Bird species recorded from this study covering the three sampling sites are listed in Appendix 2 and Table 7.2.5, with some examples illustrated in Photograph 3. A total of 130 species from 40 familes was recorded in all the study areas. The most dominant species were Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris), Black-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus atriceps), and Pin-striped Tit-babbler (Macronous gularis).

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Table 7.2.5 Abundance of Species According to Study Areas along the ZOI of the Proposed Dam Project Site Site Site No Family Species Common Name A B C 1 Turnicidae Turnix suscitator Barred Buttonquail 0 3 0 Black-thighed 2 Falconidae Microhierax fringillarius 0 0 1 Falconet 3 Nisaetus alboniger Blyth's Hawk-eagle 0 2 0 Crested Serpent- 4 Spilomis cheela 5 2 3 Accipitridae Eagle Changeable Hawk 5 Spizaetus cirrhatus 0 0 1 Eagle 6 Phasianidae Gallus gallus Red Junglefowl 10 2 4 White-breasted 7 Rallidae Amaurornis phoenicurus 5 0 0 Waterhen Chrysophlegma 8 Banded Woodpecker 0 1 0 miniaceum Picidae Buff-rumped 9 Meiglyptes grammithorax 0 2 0 Woodpecker 10 Picumnus innominatus Speckled Piculet 0 0 1 11 Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove 8 0 0 12 Geopelia striata Zebra Dove 12 0 0 13 Chalcophaps indica Green-winged Pigeon 6 5 4 Pink-necked Green- 14 Treron vernans 0 3 0 Columbidae pigeon Thick-billed Green- 15 Treron curvirostra 0 2 0 pigeon 16 Treron capellei Large Green-pigeon 0 0 2 17 Treron olax Little Green Pigeon 0 0 0 Blue-crowned 18 Loriculus galgulus 0 1 5 Psittacidae Hanging Parrot 19 Psittinus cyanurus Blue-rumped Parrot 0 2 0 20 Surniculus lugubris Drongo Cuckoo 8 18 12 21 Cuculus canorus Common Cuckoo 0 0 2 22 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal 2 2 2 23 Cuculus micropterus Indian Cuckoo 0 6 5 24 Cuculidae Cacomantis merulinus Plaintive Cuckoo 0 10 0 Rusty-breasted 25 Cacomantis sepulcralis 0 0 2 Cuckoo 26 Cacomantis sonneratii Banded Bay Cuckoo 0 4 0 27 Phaenicophaeus Chestnut-breasted 2 1 0

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Site Site Site No Family Species Common Name A B C curvirostris Malkoha 28 Phaenicophaeus diardi Black-bellied Malkoha 0 1 0 29 Phaenicophaeus javanicus Red-billed Malkoha 0 1 0 30 Phaenicophaeus tristis Green-billed Malkoha 0 0 1 Phaenicophaeus 31 Raffles' Malkoha 1 0 0 chlorophaeus 32 Tytonidae Phodilus badius Oriental Bay Owl 0 0 1 33 Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne comata Whiskered Treeswift 0 8 8 34 Coraciidae Eurystomus orientalis Dollarbird 0 0 1 Rufous-collared 35 Actenoides concreta 1 1 0 Kingfisher Alcedinidae Oriental Dwarf 36 Ceyx erithacus 1 0 0 Kingfisher Red-bearded Bee- 37 Nyctyornis amictus 0 2 0 Meropidae eater 38 Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater 0 3 0 39 Bucerotidae Buceros rhinoceros Rhinoceros Hornbill 4 2 0 Gold-whiskered 40 Megalaima chrysopogon 6 4 3 Barbet Megalaima 41 Red-throated Barbet 0 5 2 Megalaimidae mystacophanos 42 Megalaima australis Blue-eared Barbet 0 8 3 Yellow-crowned 43 Megalaima henricii 0 3 2 Barbet 44 Calyptomena viridis Green Broadbill 14 0 3 45 Eurylaimus javanicus Banded Broadbill 0 5 2 Cymbirhynchus Black-and-Red 46 Eurylaimidae 2 2 4 macrorhynchus Broadbill Black-and-Yellow 47 Eurylaimus ochromalus 3 3 4 Broadbill 48 Pericrocotus flammeus Scarlet Minivet 4 2 2 49 Campephagidae Pericrocotus divaricatus Fiery Minivet 2 0 0 50 Coracina fimbriata Lesser cuckooshrike 0 1 0 51 Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike 0 2 0 Laniidae 52 Lanius tigrinus Tiger Shrike 0 1 2 53 Oriolidae Oriolus xanthonotus Dark-throated Oriole 0 1 5 Greater Racket-tailed 54 Dicruridae Dicrurus paradiseus 0 1 6 Drongo 55 Corvidae Corvus macrorhynchos Large billed-crow 0 4 5

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Site Site Site No Family Species Common Name A B C 56 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora 4 0 0 Chloropseidae 57 Aegithina viridissima Green Iora 4 2 0 Rufous-winged 58 Vangidae Philentoma pyrhoptera 0 6 0 Philentoma 59 Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch 1 2 2 Monarchidae Asian Paradise 60 Terpsiphone paradisi 3 3 3 Flycatcher 61 Rhipiduridae Rhipidura javanica Pied Fantail 2 0 0 62 Chloropsis cyanopogon Lesser Green Leafbird 2 0 0 63 Chloropsis cochinchinensis Blue-winged Leafbird 4 3 3 Chloropseidae Greater Green 64 Chloropsis sonnerati 0 2 0 Leafbird 65 Prinia rufescens Rufescent Prinia 0 5 6 Cisticolidae 66 Prinia flaviventris Yellow-bellied Prinia 0 1 2 67 Pycnonotus squamatus Scaly-breasted Bulbul 6 2 0 68 Criniger phaeocephalus Yellow-bellied Bulbul 4 0 2 69 Pycnonotus brunneus Red-eyed Bulbul 2 2 4 70 Pycnonotus simplex Cream-vented bulbul 0 1 0 Pycnonotus 71 Spectacled Bulbul 0 1 2 erythropthalmos 72 Alophoixus bres Grey-cheeked Bulbul 0 3 2 73 Iole olivacea Buff-vented Bulbul 1 3 0 74 Hemixos flavala Ashy Bulbul 0 2 0 Pycnonotidae 75 Criniger ochraceus Ochraceous Bulbul 1 0 2 Pycnonotus 76 Streaked Bulbul 0 0 1 erythropthalmos 77 Hypsipetes criniger Hairy-backed Bulbul 3 0 0 78 Pycnonotus blanfordi Streak-eared Bulbul 1 0 0 79 Pycnonotus atriceps Black-headed bulbul 4 15 18 Striped-throated 80 Pycnonotus finlaysoni 0 5 7 Bulbul 81 Pycnonotus flaviventris Black-crested bulbul 0 7 8 82 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird 0 2 2 Dark-necked 83 Orthotomus atrogularis 0 3 4 Sylviidae Tailorbird Rufous-tailed 84 Orthotomus sericeus 0 2 0 Tailorbird Pin-striped Tit- 85 Timaliidae Macronous gularis 7 12 9 babbler

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Site Site Site No Family Species Common Name A B C Fluffy-backed Tit 86 Macronous ptilosus 2 0 0 Babbler 87 Trichastoma sepiarium Horsfield Babbler 3 0 0 88 Stachyris poliocephala Grey-headed Babbler 3 2 4 89 Trichastoma bicolor Ferruginous Babbler 2 0 0 Chestnut-winged 90 Cyanoderma erythroptera 0 5 0 Babbler Rufous-fronted 91 Cyanoderma rufifrons 0 3 0 babbler 92 Malacopteron magnirostre Moustached Babbler 0 4 0 Scaly-crowned 93 Malacopteron cinereum 2 0 0 Babbler 94 Trichastoma malaccensis Short-tailed Babbler 5 1 2 95 Pellorneum ruficeps Puff-throated Babbler 2 2 0 96 Stachyris nigriceps Grey-throated Babbler 0 0 1 97 Pellorneum capistratum Black-capped Babbler 0 1 3 White-chested 98 Trichastoma rosstratum 0 0 2 Babbler 99 Alcippe brunneicauda Brown Fulvetta 0 0 1 White-crowned 100 Enicurus leschenaulti 1 0 0 Forktail Chestnut-naped 101 Enicurus ruficapillus 2 0 0 Turdidae Forktail 102 Copsychus saularis Magpie Robin 5 3 4 103 Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama 0 5 3 104 Luscinia cyane Siberian Blue Robin 2 0 2 105 Irenidae Irena puella Asian Fairy-bluebird 2 3 4 106 Gracula religiosa Hill Myna 7 6 2 Sturnidae 107 Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna 3 0 0 108 Cyornis banyumas Hill Blue Flycatcher 2 0 1 Asian Brown 109 Muscicapa dauurica 4 0 0 Flycatcher Green-backed 110 Ficedula elisae 0 0 2 Flycatcher Muscicapidae Yellow-rumped 111 Ficedula zanthopygia 0 0 1 Flycatcher Tickell's Blue 112 Cyornis tickelliae 0 6 1 Flycatcher 113 Muscicapa williamsoni Brown-streaked 0 1 0

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Site Site Site No Family Species Common Name A B C Flycatcher Grey-headed Canary 114 Stenostiridae Culicicapa ceylonensis 0 1 0 Flycatcher Yellow-vented 115 Dicaeum chrysorrheum 2 0 0 Flowerpecker Orange-bellied 116 Dicaeum trigonostigma 0 1 3 Flowerpecker Dicaeidae Crimson-breasted 117 Prionochilus percussus 0 2 4 Flowerpecker Yellow-breasted 118 Prionochilus maculatus 3 0 4 Flowerpecker 119 Arachnothera longirostra Little Spiderhunter 10 7 5 Grey-breasted 120 Arachnothera modesta 0 1 2 Spiderhunter 121 Aethopyga siparaja Crimson Sunbird 0 0 2 122 Aethopyga temnickii Temminck's Sunbird 0 0 1 Ruby-cheeked 123 Nectariniidae Chalcoparia singalensis 0 2 2 Sunbird Hypogramma 124 Purple-naped Sunbird 0 1 2 hypogrammicum 125 Anthreptes simplex Plain sunbird 0 2 0 Long-billed 126 Arachnothera robusta 2 0 1 Spiderhunter 127 Lonchura punctulata Scaly-breasted Munia 7 0 0 128 Estrildidae Erythrura prasina Pin-tailed Parrotfinch 0 12 7 129 Lonchura leucogastra White-bellied Munia 0 5 0 130 Motacillidae Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit 2 0 0

The highest number of species was recorded in Site B, with 83 species, followed by Site C with 73 species, and the least was in Site A with 57 species. Similarly, Site B has the most abundant species with 286 individuals, followed by Site C and Site A (with 241 and 218 individuals), respectively. Figure 7.2.8 shows a rarefied species accumulation curve for each site. In general, sites B and C show a steady increase in species number, and the curve has not yet reached asymptote. Therefore, more species will be recorded if sampling is continued. However, Site A is approaching a plateu, indicating that sampling is nearly complete and the sampling has more or less covered a complete species community. Chao-1 estimate Index from analysis with PAST version 2.17c software estimates that Site A only has additional of 1 species, compared to Sites B and C with estimated increase of 7 and 3 species, respectively. Site B comprises the highest diversity with Shannon Index (H’) 4.107, followed by Site C with H’=4.036, while Site A shows

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-65 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment the lowest species diversity with H’=3.808. Dominance Index was highest in Site A with 0.027, followed by Site C (0.023) and lowest being Site B (0.022). Table 7.2.6 summarizes the results of the analysis. Figure 7.2.8 shows rarefied species accumulation curve of bird species in different ZOIs which are represented by sites A, B and C. Figure 7.2.9 on the other hand, show the cluster analysis of similarity among the study sites using Jaccard similarity. Sites B and C show the highest similarity with 45% similarity in species composition, whereby Site A only has a similarity of 26% compared to Sites B and C. This indicates that species composition is more similar in Sites B and C compared to Site A. This can be explained by the distance, location and habitat types of each of the sites.

Table 7.2.6 Analysis of Biodiversity Index in All the ZOIs Site A Site B Site C

Taxa 57 83 73 Individuals 218 286 241 Dominance Index (D) 0.02723 0.0221 0.02312 Simpson Index (1-D) 0.9728 0.9779 0.9769 Shannon Index (H’) 3.808 4.107 4.036 Evenness Index (e^H/S) 0.7902 0.7324 0.7752 Fisher alpha 25.11 39.25 35.61 Chao-1 58.47 90.31 76.5

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Figure 7.2.9 Rarefied Species Accumulation Curve of Bird Species in Different ZOIs Which Are Represented by Sites A, B and C.

The analysis shows that all the sites are particularly high in species richness and diversity, especially for the sites towards Pos Tohoi (Site B) and Pos Gob (Site C). These were old-logged forests, as indicated by the presence of a lot of mature bamboo trees. Apart from that, these forests are further away from the main roads and nearer to many Orang Asli (OA) settlements. Therefore, many parts of the forest have been planted with commercial crops for the local consumption of the Orang Asli. Some parts of the forest are more open due to encroachment by the local Orang Asli residents and/or the loggers. This can be seen from the presence of many open country birds such as the Greater Coucal (Centropus sinensis) and Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis). This is even more obvious in Site A, with additional open country

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-68 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment birds such as Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata) and Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis). High abundance of Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra) also indicates a regenerating forest. This zone is nearer to the main road, and timber collection stations (timber yards), apart from exhibiting different habitat gradients (rubber and oil palm plantations) before entering the forest zone. The logging activities contribute to higher disturbance to the fauna communities, thus demonstrating the lower species richness and diversity of birds compared to Site B and Site C.

In terms of species composition, Site B and Site C exhibit a similar pattern, with the abundance of similar species groups, such as the dominance of Black-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus atriceps), Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus flaviventris) and Stripe-throated Bulbul (Pycnonotus finlaysoni). These species generally inhabit the forest fringe, and their high dominance suggests that these forests are still undergoing regeneration as can be seen from mature bamboo trees and Macaranga sp. The Pin-tailed Parrotfinch (Erythrura prasina), which is very dominant in these sites, is also associated with the abundance of bamboo trees. Apart from that, these sites also have a high dominance of local commercial crops cultivated by the Orang Asli, which attract many species from Nectarinidae (sunbirds and spiderhunters) and Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers) families, particularly at Site C. Nectarinidae groups recorded for instance, were Ruby-cheeked Sunbird (Chalcoparia singalensis), Purple-naped Sunbird (Hypogramma hypogrammicum), and Grey-breasted Spiderhunter (Arachnothera modesta), whereas Dicaeidae groups include Orange-bellied Flowerpecker (Dicaeum trigonostigma), Crimson-breasted Flowerpecker (Prionochilus percussus) and Yellow-breasted Flowerpecker (Prionochilus maculatus). In addition, these forests also contained many bird groups of the native-forest species, such as Timaliidae, Muscicapidae, Monarchidae and Campephagidae. The presence and dominance of the Whiskered Treeswift (Hemiprocne comata) is a good representation of a broadleaf evergreen forest. However, Site B exhibits a richer representation of birds, with the presence of some birds not shared with the other sites such as the Blyth's Hawk-eagle (Nisaetus alboniger), Banded Bay Cuckoo (Cacomantis sonneratii), Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis) and White-bellied Munia (Lonchura leucogastra). The diverse array of species communities is possibly due to the different altitudinal gradients of the study site. Due to the close proximity with the Orang Asli settlement, some species which are common to the local villages were also recorded in Site B, such as the Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator).

Site A on the other hand, exhibits a different species composition compared to Site B and Site C. Although this site is subjected to higher disturbance, it is still dominated by some native forest species such as the Green Broadbill (Calyptomena viridis), Scally-breasted Bulbul (Pycnonotus squamatus) and Short-tailed Babbler (Trichastoma malaccensis). Due to its close proximity to the Orang Asli villages and some plantations, species like the White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Zebra Dove (Geopelia striata) and Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis) were also present. However, some native-forest species from the family Tiimalidae, such as Ferruginous Babbler (Trichastoma bicolor), Horsefield Babbler (Trichastoma

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-69 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment sepiarium) and Scaly-crowned Babbler (Malacopteron cinereum) were also recorded here. Nevertheless, there was a low representation of species from the families Muscicapidae (flycatchers) and Megalaimatidae (barbets) compared to Site B and Site C. Due to the sampling period at this site which coincided with the migratory season, there were several migrant birds recorded here such as the Asian Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa dauurica). Overall, this site has fairly low representation of native-forest species compared to Site B and Site C. However, this site also recorded an umbrella species such as Rhinocerous Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), apart from iconic bird species such as the Fiery Minivet (Pericrocotus igneus), which was not present in the other sites.

Overall, the surveys recorded a total of 20 species categorized as Near-threatened (NT) species (IUCN Red Data List). Among these species are the Blue-rumped Parrot, Rufous-collared Kingfisher, Rhinocerous Hornbill, Yellow Crowned Barbet, Green Broadbill, Black-and-Yellow Broadbill, Scaly-breasted Bulbul, White-chested Babbler, Fluffy-backed Tit-babbler, Chestnut- naped Forktail and the Leafbirds. Site A and Site B both recorded 12 species from this category, whereas Site C recorded 9 species from this category. Therefore, it indicates the significance of these forest sites as habitats for these near-threatened species. Many of these species play important roles as umbrella species, where protecting one species and its particular habitat could also save the habitat for other birds. This suggests that Site A and Site B in particular, are more critical for conservation. The construction of the proposed dam should take into account the presence of these species, by limiting the forest disturbance. However, it is presumed that upstream of the zone of impact is less likely to be affected by the construction and inundation, particularly the forested areas, since most of the logging for dam construction will mainly involve the plantation areas. The birds, in general, are particularly less impacted since they are able to fly off to escape the unfavourable conditions, provided there are other well preserved forested habitats nearby for bird colonisation and succession, and that the area should not face further disturbance to maintain the bird population, as well as that of the other fauna.

Habitat quality and the rate of disturbance (land clearing and loss of forest habitat) within the study areas are also reflected in the community structure and abundance of the bird species. Generally, if one area or habitat is already degraded and has lost the ‘forest characteristics’, then this area will also lose all the forest species and is replaced by the urban species. However, most of the study sites still maintain a healthy representation of avifauna, as not many of the non-forest birds have been recorded during the surveys.

b. Ecology and Conservation: In Peninsular Malaysia more than 60% of forest birds are either categorised as ‘Totally Protected’ or ‘Protected’ under the local law (Wildlife Act 2010). The results of this study indicated that more than 90% of the species captured in all of the study areas were either Protected of Totally Protected. Most of the species captured here were also resident birds. Since the study area is located mainly in the lowland area, between 70 and 90% of the species are lowland species. The proposed dam construction directly involves the riverine ecosystem, which

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-70 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment harbours a lot of freshwater species and urban birds. Habitat restoration and rehabilitation are essential to ensure the long-term conservation of the affected areas, and to maintain a healthy species composition, particularly for birds.

A total of 15% of the species is categorized as Near-threatened (NT), and the rest, as Least Concern (LC), which inhabit forests, forest fringes and plantations, as well as open areas. Therefore, the dam construction project should emphasize on habitat restoration in the impacted areas to ensure that these protected species would still have refuge sites that are well conserved. The ZOIs in general are composed of a mixture of habitat types, hence support different species composition.

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7.2.7 Herpetofauna

7.2.7.1 Introduction a.

About 6000 species of amphibians has been recorded worldwide (IUCN 2017). Order Anura ( and toads) contributes the biggest portion of this total (ca. 5100 species), followed by Urodela or salamanders (ca. 510 species) and Gymnophiona or caecilians (ca. 170 species). In tropical Asia, has the highest number of amphibian species with 340 species recorded, while Malaysia has 208 species including seven species of caecilians (Gymnophiona) (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997; Chan et al. 2010). There are six families of anurans in Malaysia which are Bufonidae or the toads, Dicroglossidae or fork-tongued frogs, Megophryidae or litter frogs, Microhylidae or the narrow-mouthed frogs, Ranidae or the true frogs and Rhacophoridae or Afro-Asian tree frogs. In Peninsular Malaysia, the total number of amphibians recorded is 116 species, in which Bufonidae accounts for 18 species, Dicroglossidae, 20 species, Megophryidae, 12 species, Microhylidae, 21 species, Ranidae, 17 species, Rhacophoridae, 21 and Caeciliidae, 7 species, respectively (Berry 1975; Inger & Stuebing 2005; Chan et al. 2010; Nurulhuda et al. 2014.).

Amphibians occur in a wide range of habitats such as the forest floor, tree canopies, tree holes, and many other sites. There has been a wide range of anatomical and behavioral specializations to suit their lifestyle. Many species have specific microhabitat preferences, for example, Megophrys nasuta (Megophryidae) is a forest floor specialist, while Phrynoidis asper (Bufonidae) is a riparian species and Chaperina fusca (Microhylidae) breeds in the tree and root holes and fallen palm fronds. b. Reptiles

There are about 9000 species of reptiles worldwide and they are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates. Reptiles are divided into four taxonomic groups, namely Crocodilia (crocodiles, caimans, gharials and alligators) about 23 species, Sphenodontia (tuataras) 2 species, Squamata (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids) about 7900 and Testudines (turtles and tortoises) 300 species, respectively. However, only three reptilian orders are present in Malaysia, namely Crocodilia, Squamata and Testudines and which account for about 400 species. These groups are, however, very difficult to study (especially snakes and tortoises) due to their discrete behavior. This is most probably the reason that much information on them is still lacking. Thus, the management and conservation of reptiles has generally fallen behind that of other species.

The diversity of reptilian species that inhabit the forested habitat is believed to be high because of the presence of moist habitats, intermittent or permanent water sources, and cover in the

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-72 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment form of leaf litter, vegetation, and rotting logs that provide a variety of microhabitats for these animals to utilize (Gibbons and Coker 1978). Reptiles also exhibit a diversity of adaptation to various microhabitats. They comprise nocturnal and diurnal species, fossorial, saxicolous, arboreal, lacustrine, forest floor dwellers, riparian specialists, habitat generalists, and many other types. Unlike the amphibians, most species are inconspicuous due to their cryptic coloration, rarity, and silence. They can, however, be seen basking under the sun (lizards and skinks), sleeping on leaves and branches near the river (agamid lizards), or on tree trunks and branches (snakes).

Amphibians and reptiles are important commercial and food resources for the people of the surrounding villages. Amphibians are particularly good indicators of the health of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems because they breathe and drink through their skin, thus absorbing and accumulating detrimental elements associated with environmental changes into their adipose tissues and organs. They are also the only vertebrate animals that produce unprotected or naked eggs, which could be exposed to these elements, especially the heavy metal pollutants. They occupy the upper levels of both the aquatic and terrestrial food chains, since they are food for the other vertebrate animals, such as birds of prey, bats, carnivores, etc.

7.2.7.2 Study Objectives

The objectives of this study are as follows; i. To describe the habitat of herpetofauna (amphibians and reptiles) species found in the project area. ii. To describe the presence of herpetofauna by providing a definitive list of species of the area and their conservation status both locally and internationally. iii. To identify the presence of species of conservational significance

7.2.7.3 Materials and Methods a. Sampling Methods

Visual Encounter Survey (VES) technique was used for this study in which animals were actively searched by a group of 3-4 people along suitable microhabitats, such as streams and creeks, forest trails, water pools and puddles, and around the base camp. Night searches were made with the aid of head-lamps and flashlights. Each individual found was caught and kept in separate plastic bags and brought back to the base camp for morphometric measurement and identification. All individuals were kept moist to prevent dehydration. The snout-to-vent length, tibia length and weight for each individual caught were recorded. The microhabitat in which the individual was found was also recorded. The specimens were then photographed. Species

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-73 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment identification was made following Berry (1975), Inger & Stuebing (2005), and Manthey- Grossman (1997). b. Preparation of Voucher Specimens

Selected individuals of each species of herpetofauna obtained were euthanized by injecting a small amount of Tricaine or ethyl 3-aminobenzoate methane sulfonate salt (C9H11NO2.CH4O3S). Muscle and liver tissues of each euthanized animal were extracted and kept in absolute alcohol of 90% in micro-vials. The specimens were fixed using 10% formalin, and kept in a plastic container for at least 24 hours. All specimens were then kept in a jar containing 10% Formalin for the remaining days in the field. In the UKM labpratory, the specimens were rinsed thoroughly and soaked in water overnight before being transferred to a permanent storage jar of 70% alcohol.

7.2.7.4 Results and Discussion a. Amphibian i. Species Composition A total of 16 species comprising five families was recorded at Nenggiri (Table 7.2.7). The five families are Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Microhylidae, Ranidae and Racophoridae. Among those sites, Site C recorded the highest number of species (10 species) compared to Site A (6 species) and Site B (5 species).

The conservation status based on IUCN Redlist of Threatened Species of amphibians in this study recorded only one species that was listed as Near Threatened (NT), i.e. Limnonectes blythii. Meanwhile, the other species were listed as Least Concern except for Polypedates discantus and Raochestes sp. which were not assessed. ii. Important Species One particular interesting species is from Raochestes sp. Species from this genus has been described only in small numbers and most of the species are rare. Some of the reasons as to why it is so difficult to find is because of its arboreal behavior, which means that this species stays on the forest canopy. Meanwhile, the other species are more common and can be easily found in any natural habitats. iii. Cluster Analysis Cluster analysis of amphibian composition at the three study sites is shown in Figure 7.2.10. All of the sampling sites recorded low similarity values. The species composition of the amphibians at Site A and Site C were similar to each other with low similarity (0.231). Meanwhile, Site B showed low similarity value among node Site B/Site C (0.147). The dissimilarity among the various study sites describes the different species composition inhabiting a particular habitat, in

UKM Pakarunding Sdn. Bhd. (561663-U) 7-74 THE PROPOSED NENGGIRI HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT Existing Biological Environment which all of these sites are important because most of the species representing each site are habitat specialists.

In general, it can be concluded that the diversity of amphibians at the three study sites is considered very low in comparison to over 100 species of amphibians recorded in Peninsular Malaysia (Chan et al, 2010), and representing only the common species. It is also low in comparison with the nearest pristine habitats of Gunung Stong and Gunung Basor Forest Reserves documented by Norhayati et al. (2005a, 2005b) and Sharma et al. (2005) with cumulative of 31 species. There are several possible reasons as to why the diversity of amphibians was low; namely (i) lost of suitable habitats for frogs, most likely due to excessive logging activities (which support the accelerated dryness of a microhabitat), and (ii) change in water quality with high sedimentation of streams that would not provide not a good habitat for amphibians.

Figure 7.2.10 Dendogram of Cluster Analysis of Amphibians Based on Species Composition of the Study Sites Using Jaccard’s Coefficient Based on UPGMA Method.

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Table 7.2.7 List of Amphibian Species Recorded From Nenggiri Forest Reserve (Site A) and Balah Forest Reserve (Site B And C) Wildlife No. ANURA /Family Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Site A Site B Site C Act Ingerophyrynus 1. Long-glanded Toad LC - √ quadripurcatus BUFONIDAE 2. Ingerophyrynus parvus Dwarf Stream Toad LC - √ 3. Phrynoidis aspera River Toad LC - √ √ 4. Asian Grass LC - √ √ √ DICROGLOSSIDAE 5. Limnonectes blythii Giant Asian River Frog NT P(1) √ √

6. Microhyla butleri Painted Chorus Frog LC - √ MICROHYLIDAE 7. Microhyla heymonsi Dark Sided Chorus Frog LC - √

8. Amolop larutensis Torrent Frog LC P(1) √

9. Chalcorana labialis White-lipped Frog LC - √

10. RANIDAE erythreae Common Green Frog LC P(1) √ √

11. Humerana miopus Diagonal-lined frog LC - √ 12. Pulcharana picturata Striped Stream Frog LC - √ 13. Odorrana hosii Poisonous rock frog LC - √ Malayan Slender Tree 14. Polypedates discantus NA - √ Frog RHACOPHORIDAE 15. Polypedates leucomystax Common Tree Frog LC - √ 16. Roarchestes sp Bush Frog NA - √ 6 5 10 5 Family 13 Genus/16 species Species Species Species Lagend: Law= Local Laws (Wildlife Acts 2010/IUCN). P(I) = Protected Wildlife, 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Part 1. P(II) = 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Protected Wildlife, Part 2. TP = 2nd Schedule, Sec. 3, Totally Protected Wildlife. LC = Least Concern, NT = Near Threatened, NA=Not Assess

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There were four families of Reptilia recorded (or reported) from the study sites (Table 7.2.8) namely Agamidae, Gekkonidae, Scincidae and Varanidae. Each of these families is represented by one to two species with cumulative of six species from all the study sites. Among these species, the most conservation important species are Gekko gecko (Tokey Gecko), Calotes emma (Emma Gray's Forest Lizard), and Varanus salvator (Monitor Lizard). These species fall under the First Schedule [part 2] or protected species (others) of the Wildlife Act 2010.

Skinks were observed at all sites while Tokey calls were heard at Site C, and a monitor lizard was observed at Site A. The reptilian diversity and density are considered low compared to the total of around 100 reptilian species found in Peninsular Malaysia (Grismer, 2011). It is also low if compared with the reptile species found at the nearest habitats of Gunung Stong and Gunung Basor Forest Reserves (Norhayati et al., 2005a, 2005b, and Sharma et al. 2005, respectively) with accumulative number of 38 species. The low number of species is possibly associated with habitat alteration, and weather conditions (Nurulhuda et al, 2014). Note that as indicated above, it is not easy to study reptiles and the rainy season might also be notable another factor that could limit the search for reptiles in the study area.

Table 7.2.8 Reptilian Species Reported at All the Study Sites Wildlife No. Species Common Name Method Site IUCN Act Family: Agamidae

Emma Gray's Forest 1 Calotes emma Observe A, C NA P(II) Lizard Bronchocela 2 Green Crested Lizard Observe A, C NA - cristatella Family: Scincidae

Eutropis A, B, 3 Common Sun Skink Observe NA - multifasciatus C A, B, 4 Lipinia vittigera Common Striped Skink Observe NA - C Family: Varanidae

5 Varanus salvator Monitor Lizard Observe A, C LC P(II) Family: Gekonidae 6 Gekko gecko Tokay Gecko Call C NA P(II) 4 Families/ 7

Species Lagend: Wildlife Acts 2010 - P(I) = Protected Wildlife, 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Part 1. P(II) = 1st Schedule, Sec. 3, Protected Wildlife, Part 2. TP = 2nd Schedule, Sec. 3, Totally Protected Wildlife IUCN- LC = Least Concern, NA=Not Assessed.

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7.3 FRESHWATER ECOLOGY

7.3.1 Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton are an important group of microorganisms thet live in the water column, and together with other organisms such as benthic algae and macrophytes, constitute the autochthonous primary producers in the aquatic ecosystems. Like plants, phytoplankton produces oxygen during photosynthesis. It has been estimated that, on a global scale, 50 – 60 % of all photosynthesis is performed by phytoplankton (Campbell, 1999). Phytoplankton is at the base of the food web supporting higher organisms within the water ecosystem (Hotzel & Croome, 1999). To understand the biological functioning of rivers and detect changes in them, it is essential to investigate the development of their phytoplankton populations. Phytoplankton is particularly sensitive to changes in nutrients, responding rapidly when levels increase. Due to their short life cycle, planktonic algae respond quickly to environmental changes and are thus a valuable indicator of water quality (de Ruyter van Steveninck et al. 1992; Hotzel & Croome, 1999). It is well-known that phytoplankton populations play a major role in the carbon cycle and thus, need to be assessed as part of an effective river management.

Phytoplankton is important indicator organisms for both marine and freshwater environments. Most studies on rivers and lakes have used the phytoplankton (rather than benthic) community for contemporary environmental assessment, since it is easy to sample across different types of sites and habitats, and many planktonic species have defined ecological preferences. Highly eutrophic water body can cause phytoplankton bloom, mostly due to anthropogenic nutrient input to the water body (Friedrich and Muller, 1984; Meybeck et al., 1988). A healthy algae population may play an important role in the ecosystem by supporting and expanding the niche of filter-feeding fauna. Algae may also enhance the organic nitrogen content of suspended matter in the river system (Meybeck et al., 1988; Admiraal et al., 1992). Analysis of the phytoplankton community from a number of sites across the aquatic systems may provides information about aquatic conditions in general, and is the basis of broad categorization of rivers and lakes in relation to water quality, particularly the trophic state.

7.3.1.1 Materials and Method a. Study Area This study was conducted along the Sg. Nenggiri and its tributaries, which was divided into 4 zones with 2 stations each (Figure 7.3.1). Zone 1 consists of Sg. Perias (St-1) and Sg. Beruk (St- 2), Zone 2 consists of Sg. Jenera (St-3) and Sg. Nenggiri (St-4), Zone 3 consists of Sg. Nenggiri (St-5) and Sg. Wias (St-6), and Zone 4 consists of Sg. Nenggiri (St-7 and St-8).

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Zone 2 Zone 3

Zone 4

Zone 1

Figure 7.3.1 The Study Areas Along Sg. Nenggiri (Zone 1 to Zone 4)

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The phytoplankton within the water column was collected using plankton net with mesh size of 20 m and mouth area of 0.07 m2. The net was anchored in the middle of the stream, just below the surface. Phytoplankton samples were taken in triplicates at each of the sampling station. The water current was measured using a flowmeter, and the volume of water passed through the net was determined. The phytoplankton samples trapped in the net were immediately transferred into sample bottles and 5% neutralised formalin was added for preservation. In laboratory, the phytoplankton were sorted and identified by using a microscope, to the lowest possible taxonomic level. The phytoplankton species checklist and their relative abundance were determined and analyzed.

For comparison, various parameters, indices and statistical tools were employed in order to assess the phytoplankton population studied. The diversity value was calculated using Shannon- Weiner diversity index (Shannon and Weaver, 1949), while species richness and evenness values were calculated using Margalef richness index (Margalef, 1958) and Pielou’s evenness index (Pielou, 1966), respectively. Calculation of these indexes was conducted using PAST (Palaentological Statistic) software. Apart from that, statistical analyses were also performed to investigate any significant differences between the mean values of both biological and environmental parameters of each sampling site. All analyses were conducted using the MINITAB® statistical package.

7.3.1.2 Results and Discussion

Results of the phytoplankton population sampled from the study area are presented in Table 7.3.1. In this study, a total of 714 phytoplankton individuals have been analyzed, which comprise at least 19 different algae species. Bacillariophyta was the most abundant group with 41.60% of total abundance, followed by Chrysophyta with 28.85%, Cyanophyta with 14.71%, Chlorophyta with 11.20%, Charophyta with 1.96% and Ochrophyta with 1.68%, respectively (Figure 7.3.2). Within the Bacillariophyta, a total of 7 algae species were identified, with Pinnularia spp, Fragillaria sp and Coscinodiscus centralis being among the most abundant. Figure 7.3.3 shows the relative composition of phytoplankton abundance at each sampling station. The Bacillariophyta was indeed the most abundant taxa at most stations except for St-5 (Sg. Nenggiri-2) and St-6 (Sg. Wias), being dominated by Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta, respectively, and both are in Zone 3.

The phytoplankton population characteristics and ecological indices all sampling stations are presented in Figure 7.3.4. The number of species was very low, ranging between 4.33 ± 0.33 in St-5 (Sg. Nenggiri-2) to 8.67 ± 0.67 in St-3 (Sg, Jenera). There was significant difference between stations where the number of taxa sampled from St-1 and St-5 was significantly lower than St-3 (P<0.05). However, there were no significant differences between all the other stations (P>0.05).

The phytoplankton densities ranged from 266 ± 43 in St-8 to 1151 ± 234 in St-8. The densities were also considered as low. There was significant difference between stations where the density value in St-8 was significantly lower than St-3 (P<0.05). However, there was no significant difference in phytoplankton densities between all the other stations (P>0.05).

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The phytoplankton diversity indices ranged from 1.09 ± 0.21 in St-5 to 1.74 ± 0.05 in St-3, which were considered as low. However, there was no significant difference in diversity values between all stations (P>0.05).

The evenness index ranged from 0.66 ± 0.02 in St-3 to 0.83 ± 0.08 in St-8. The values were relatively good, indicating that they were well distributed within the ecosystem. However, there was no significant difference in evenness index between all stations (P>0.05).

The dominance index ranged from 0.21 ± 0.01 in St-3 to 0.43 ± 0.12 in St-5. The values are also relatively good, which indicate no incidence of species dominancy. There was also no significant difference in dominance index between all stations (P>0.05).

In conclusion, the phytoplankton within the Sg. Nenggiri and its tributaries were in poor condition. There was low number of species, low densities, low diversity and low richness values, reflecting a disturbed condition. Nevertheless, the evenness and the dominance index values were still good, probably due to a continuous supply of phytoplankton from somewhere in the upper sections of the vast Sg. Nenggiri river system.

Table 7.3.1 Phytoplankton Species and Number of Individuals Sampled from the Sampling Stations at Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Division/species Total St-1 St-2 St-3 St-4 St-5 St-6 St-7 St-8 Bacillariophyta

Asterionella 1 1 farmosa Coscinodiscus 33 2 1 1 1 1 1 40 centralis Pinnularia sp1 34 11 36 19 3 7 29 2 141

Pinnularia sp2 23 5 7 17 7 59

Toxonidea insignis 1 2 3

Achnanthes 1 1 2 longipes Fragilaria sp 22 10 8 1 1 6 3 51

Charophyta

Hyalotheca sp 4 3 2 4 1 14

Chlorophyta

Closterium sp 6 2 5 1 14

Gonatozygon 4 7 6 4 21 brebissonii Nitzschia sp 1 4 1 6

Tabellaria sp 11 6 2 2 1 2 24

Mougeotia sp 1 1 2

Bambusina sp 1 1

Spirogyra sp 1 11 12

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Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Division/species Total St-1 St-2 St-3 St-4 St-5 St-6 St-7 St-8 Chrysophyta

Navicula distans 9 16 24 11 11 71

Navicula sp 26 5 45 19 10 2 23 5 135

Cyanophyta

Oscillatoria sp 11 19 20 1 36 3 4 11 105

Ochrophyta

Cyclotella comta 2 4 3 1 2 269

Total Individuals 153 77 169 58 63 41 114 39 714 Total Species 10 10 13 11 9 10 14 11 19

Figure 7.3.2 The Overall Phytoplankton Total Abundance Along the Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries.

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Figure 7.3.3 Relative Composition of Phytoplankton at Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries.

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Figure 7.3.4 The Phytoplankton Ecological Indices Of Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries.

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7.3.2 Zooplankton

Zooplankton is planktonic heterotrophs that constitute an important food source for many species of aquatic organisms (Guy, 1992). Most zooplankton are filter feeders, using their appendages to strain bacteria, algae and other fine particles in the water. Members of the freshwater zooplankton include the Protozoan, Cladocera, Copepoda, Rotifera, Crustacea and meroplankton organisms, including insect larvae (Parson, 1980). Zooplankton provides fish with nutrients since fish require proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts and water in the right proportion (Guy, 1992, Tucker 1992). The freshwater forms of zooplankton are generally smaller in size and are represented by fewer animal phyla compared to their marine counterparts (Parsons, 1980).

Zooplankton study is of necessity in environmental, fisheries, aquaculture and paleolimnological research (Guy, 1992; Ogbeibu and Edutie, 2002). They are globally recognized as pollution indicator organisms in the aquatic environment (Yakubu et al., 2000). According to Guy (1992), phytoplankton abundance fluctuates with changes in environmental factors and grazing by zooplankton. Trivedi et al. (2003) disclosed that places of low zooplankton population usually have rapidly multiplied phytoplankton population. Zooplankton distribution is non-homogenous. Some are mainly found in the littoral waters while others are in selected limnetic waters. Jeje and Fernando (1985) attributed this to food availability and avoidance of predators.

Zooplankton community in the Malaysian freshwater ecosystem, particularly in terms of taxonomic groups and biodiversity, has widely been studied (Dussart et al. 1984). Among the important taxonomic studies include the works by Fernando and Ponyi (1981), Fernando and Zankai (1981), Idris and Fernando (1981), Karunakaran and Johnson (1978) and Lai and Fernando (1978a, 1978b, 1979, 1980, 1981). Unfortunately, there is less publications regarding their ecology and functions within the ecosystems. Studies on the impacts of development such as deforestation and land clearing for agricultural and other activities are indeed very important for their conservation.

7.3.2.1 Materials and Method

The zooplankton was collected using plankton net with mesh size of 80 m and mouth area of 0.07 m2. The net was deployed in the middle of the stream, just below the surface. Triplicate samples of zooplankton were taken at each of the sampling station. The water current was measured using a flow meter and the volume of water passed through the net was also determined. Zooplankton that sampled was immediately transferred into sample bottles and 5% neutralized formalin was added for preservation. In the UKM laboratory, the zooplankton was sorted and identified under a dissecting microscope, to the lowest taxonomic level possible. The zooplankton species checklist and their relative abundance were determined and analyzed.

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7.3.2.2 Data Analysis

In order to assess and compare various parameters, appropriate indices and statistical tools have been used to describe the zooplankton population studied. The diversity was calculated using Shannon-Wiener diversity index (Shannon and Weaver, 1949), while species richness and evenness value were calculated using Margalef richness index (Margalef, 1958) and Pielou’s evenness index (Pielou, 1966), respectively. Calculation of these indexes was conducted using PAST (Palaentological Statistic) software. Apart from that, statistical analyses were also performed to investigate any significant difference between the mean values of both biological and environmental parameters of each sampling site. All analyses were conducted using the MINITAB® statistical packages.

7.3.2.3 Results and Discussion

In the present survey, a total of 141 zooplankton individuals from 11 different taxa have successfully been sampled and identified. The class Insecta was the most dominant taxa, which contributed more than 90% of the organisms sampled. They consist mainly of aquatic insects, which include Collembola (Isotomidae), Ephemeroptera (Baetidae and Heptageniidae), Plecoptera (Perlidae), Diptera (Chironomidae and Culicidae) and Trichoptera (Hydroptilidae and Polycentropodidae). Chironomidae was the most abundant insect group and contributed about 41.13% of the total abundance (Table 7.3.2, and Figure 7.3.5). Diptera, particularly the Chironomid larvae, were the most abundant taxa in all stations except for St-4, where Plecoptera was more abundant. Most of the plankton sampled were dominated by the meroplankton and temporary zooplankton, whilst the true plankton (holoplankton) contributed only 1.42% of the total abundance (Figure 7.3.6).

Table 7.3.2 Zooplankton Community at Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries in Kelantan Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Taxa Total St-1 St-2 St-3 St-4 St-5 St-6 St-7 St-8 Crustacea

Copepoda 2 2

Collembola Isotomidae 1 1 2

Coleoptera Psephenidae 1 2 3 Ephemeroptera Baetidae 6 5 8 2 5 3 29 Heptageniidae 2 1 5 1 9 Plecoptera Perlidae 3 3 4 6 2 2 2 22 Diptera Chironomidae 10 8 14 4 8 5 4 5 58 Culicidea 1 1 2

Trichoptera Hydroptilidae 1 2 1 2 1 7

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Polycentropodidae 1 1

Annelida Naididae 1 3 1 1 6

Total Individuals 23 20 39 18 17 8 7 9 141 Total Species 6 6 10 6 5 2 3 4 11

Figure 7.3.5 Percentage Composition of Zooplankton at the Study Sites.

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Figure 7.3.6 The Zooplankton Composition Based on Life History Pattern.

The zooplankton population characteristics and ecological indices at all sampling stations are presented in Figure 7.3.7. The total number of taxa sampled in this study was very low, ranging from 2.00 ± 0.01 in St-6 to 6.33 ± 0.67 in St-3. There was significant difference between stations where the number of taxa recorded in St-3 was higher compared with all the other stations (P<0.05). Apart from that, the number of taxa in St-6 and St-7 was significantly lower compared with St-4.

The zooplankton densities showed high variations between stations, ranging from 1.28 ± 0.48 ind/m3 in to 7.43 ± 00.57 ind/m3 in St-3. There was significant difference between stations where the density in St-3 was significantly higher compared with all the other stations (P<0.05). The density in St-2 was the second highest, and significantly higher compared with St-6 and St-7 (P<0.05).

The diversity indexes recorded in this study were relatively low, ranging from 0.58 ± 0.31 in St-7 to 1.64 ± 0.13 in St-3. However, the diversity index in St-3 was significantly higher compared with St-6, St-7 and St-8 (P<0.05). There was no significant difference between all the other stations (P>0.05).The richness index were also low, ranging from 1.09 ± 0.18 in St-6 to 2.10 ± 0.30 in St-3. There was however, no significant difference between all the stations (P>0.05).

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The evenness index was relatively good, ranging from 0.83 ± 0.04 in St-3 to 0.98 ± 0.02 in St-7. The values however, did not reflect the condition of the stations. Some of the stations were actually in very poor condition but recorded high evenness values due to low number of individuals with even distribution. Analysis showed no significant difference in evenness values between the stations (P>0.05).

The dominance index ranged from 00.23 ± 0.03 in St-3 to 0.63 ± 019 in St-7. The values were generally high, which indicated disturbed conditions. However, there was no significant difference in dominance index values between stations (P>0.05).

In summary, the zooplankton populations in Sg. Nenggiri can be considered as in disturbed condition. The low diversity and richness values may suggest that some species probably cannot survive in the present condition. This is further reflected by the low evenness and high dominance index values, particularly in the downstream stations.

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Figure 7.3.7 The Zooplankton Ecological Indices of Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries

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7.3.3 Fish

The development of the dam would change the natural habitats and with the possibility of associated potential adverse impacts to the freshwater communities. Study of freshwater communities such as fish, invertebrates and plankton prior to any development activities is very important to estimate the ecological value of the Proposed Project site.

Fish diversity, composition and distribution along Sg. Nenggiri and its tributaries was surveyed over a 12-month period. Samplings were conducted at four different times to represent the dry and wet periods. Fish diversity and distribution was estimated and its ecological importance was described. The survey was undertaken at the upstream and downstream parts of the proposed dam project. Since the impacted catchment is large, the survey was separated into four different zones (Figure 7.3.1) and the results for fish survey are shown in Table 7.3.3.

A total of 20 species was recorded, which included the freshwater prawns. The most dominant family recorded was Cyprinidae, being represented by eight species and most of the species were caught in higher composition compared to the other families. Cyprinids have been recorded as the most abundant family in the freshwater ecosystems (Mohsin & Ambak, 1983; Lee, 1989; Kotellat et al., 1993; Mohd-Zakaria, 1994; Ali and Lee, 1995; Mohd Zakaria & Lim, 1995; Rainboth, 1996). The most common cyprinids such as Cyclocheilighthys and Mystacoleucus were recorded in every sampling zone, while the other species from this family were recorded with lower composition.

Table 7.3.3 Fish Diversity and Distribution along the Sg. Nenggiri Local IUCN Name Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 name Status Cyprinidae Tor tambra Kelah DD + + Cyclocheilichthys apogon Mata merah LC ++ + + + Barbonymus gonionotus Lampam LC + + jawa Mystacoleucus Sia LC ++ + + + obtussirostris Rasbora sumatrana Seluang LC + + bada Barbonymus schwanenfeldii Lampan LC + + ++ sungai Hampala macrolepidota Sebarau DD + + + Hypsibarbus pierrei Krai kunyit DD + + Barbichthys laevis Petulu LC + + Neolissochilus Tengas NT + + + + hexagonolepis Osteochilus Macrocephalus Rong LC + +

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Local IUCN Name Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 name Status Labiobarbus lineatus Mengkawan LC ++ +

Anematicchthys apogon Keperas LC ++ +

Bagridae Hemibagrus wyckii Kelulang LC + + + Hemibagrus capitulum Baung LC +

Notopteridae Chitala lopis Belida LC + +

Pangasiidae Laides hexanema Patin batang ? ++ ++ + + Pangasius nasutus Patin buah LC

Sisoridae Bagarius bagarius Kenerak NT ++ + + +

Palaeimonidae Macrobrachium rosenbergii Udang galah LC ++ ++ + +

Atyiidae Udang putih LC + +

Note: XT=extinction, LC=least concern, DD= data deficient, NT= nearly threaten

Other families that exhibit good composition and distribution are Pangasiidae and Sisoridae. Both families were recorded at most of the sampling sites. However, these families are represented by a smaller number of species. The freshwater king prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) was recorded at high composition in every zone (Table 7.3.3).

Comparison between zones indicates that the most upstream zone (Zone 1) has better fish diversity and density compared to the other zones. This zone is located at the most upstream of Sg. Nenggiri and is represented by one large tributary named as Sg. Perias with several small tributaries. This zone can be considered as the most pristine, but recently it has been affected by logging activities, especially by severe sedimentation problems. This zone had been recorded to have the most diverse fish species and with good composition as well.

Zone 2 and zone 3 represent the middle part of Sg. Nenggiri stretch. These areas have been explored for the oil palm plantation project and are easily accessible using the existing plantation road. Physically, both zones are also affected by serious sedimentation. Zone 2 is represented by one large tributary, namely Sg. Jenera and a small river (Sg. Puian), whereby zone 3 is

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From 21 species recorded, only a few are listed as uncommon. The conservation status of all recorded species is based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. The Malaysian Masheer (Tor tambra) from Cyprinidae family is listed as data deficient (DD), whilst its nearest genus, namely Tor tambroides, which is not recorded during this survey, is also categorised as data deficient. Neolissochilus hexagonolepis is another species from Cyprinidae which is under nearly threatened category. This species looks almost similar to the Malaysian Masheer and has quite a high market value. Other than these two species, all cyprinid groups are abundantly found and of least concern (LC). Likewise, Bagarius bagarius from Sisoridae family is listed as nearly threatened (NT). This species is heavily fished by the local fishermen as the market price for this species could reach up to RM45.00/kg. However, this species has been recorded as highly abundant in the study area and occurs at every sampling station.

Various fish species are an important protein food source for the local community and they are marketed at a profitable price. The most highly demanded fish is the Malaysian Masheer followed by Krai, Kelulang, Kenerak, Baung and Udang Galah (the freshwater king prawn). Due to the high market price, these species are caught extensively by the locals and this has led to their rapid population decline. This could be seen by the low catch results, in which certain species are now very difficult to be hauled in. Results of our study demonstrate that Sg. Nenggiri supports quite low number of fish species and it is perceived that intensive anthropogenic activities such as logging and over harvesting factors could be the reasons for this. In general, most fish species exhibit a homogenous distribution along Sg. Nenggiri and do not differ significantly between zones.

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7.3.4 Benthic Macroinvertebrates

Benthic macroinvertebrates are organisms that inhabit the river bottom or are associated with the riverbed. These organisms are able to respond directly to any environmental changes such as increase in pollutants and changes in the surrounding landscape (Hellawell, 1986; Abel, 1989). According to the river continuum concept (RCC) proposed by Vannotte et al. (1980), rivers with different physical characteristics will have different aquatic communities, and this is due to food availability, habitat preferences and adaptations.

Results for the benthic macroinvertebrates surveys are presented in Table 7.3.4. Five replicates were collected from each zone and the highest proportion recorded was Arthropoda, followed by Mollusca. This is hardly surprising, since Arthropoda is the most dominant phylum in freshwater, contributing more than 90% of the collected samples. Arthropoda was represented by the class Insecta, which comprises 7 orders and 26 families. A total of 1370 individuals were recorded and aquatic insects (class: Insecta) were the most abundant with 1364 individuals. Three dominant orders recorded in this study are Trichoptera (4 families, or 50% of the total sample), followed by Ephemeroptera (7 families, or 20% of the total sample) dan Diptera (4 families, or 18% of the total sample), respectively. These three orders are representative bioindicators of clean to moderate water quality in the aquatic environment. Three dominant families from these orders are Baetidae (order: Ephemeroptera), Chironomidae (order: Diptera) and Hydrophychidae (order: Trichoptera). Baetidae and Hydrophchidae are clean water indicators, whereas Chironomidae is a good indicator for clean and polluted water. Generally, the results of this study indicate that upstream of Sg. Nenggiri has moderate water quality.

With regard to zonation, benthic macroinvertebrates exhibit approximately homogenous distribution and similar benthos exhibit good distribution and composition across zonation. A few families such as Baetidae, Chironomidae and Hydropsychidae demonstrate homogenous distribution and with fairly good composition. The number of families and individuals between zones did not differ significantly, i.e. between 17-18 and 160-531, respectively. This demonstrates that the ecosystem does not vary significantly between zones. As mentioned earlier, although zone 1 is located at the upstream part of Sg. Nenggiri, it receives severe sedimentation loads and the sediment is brought down the Sg. Nenggiri, making the riverbed more homogenous and likely the reason why more or less similar benthos have been recorded in each zone.

Ecological indices such as Shannon diversity index, Pielou index and Margalef richness index demonstrate that Sg, Nenggiri is in moderate stress. Sedimentation is the obvious reason for Shannon diversity index of less than 2. This index estimates the river condition according to the biotic species richness and composition. However, as regards to the various families recorded, there are several pollution sensitive organisms present in each zone, which could explain its condition as being in moderate stress.

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Table 7.3.4 Composition and Distribution of Benthic Macro-Invertebrates along the Sg. Nenggiri and Its Tributaries Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Order Family a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Ephemeroptera Baetidae 3 2 5 4 2 11 43 12 14 21 6 9 2 1 6 13 9 4 16 7 Caenidae 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 1

Heptageniidae 3 1 1 1 2

Leptophlebiidae 1 3 7 3 9 3 1 7 8 9 2 Neoephemeridae 3 3 Oligoneuridae 1 1 Potamanthidae 1 2 2 Coleoptera Hydrophilidae 1 1 3 1 1 Dytiscidae 4 1 Elmidae 4 1 2 1 5 4 1 5 2 17 6 1 4 1 3 Psephenidae 2 1 1 1 2 2 Scirtidae 1 Diptera Chironomidae 2 5 11 2 30 1 13 9 1 6 74 8 11 25 3 5 1 Ceratopogonidae 1 1 1 1 1 1 Simuliidae 2 1 7 1 2 1 Tipulidae 1 1 1 5 4 1 Hemiptera Aphaloceiridae 5 1 6 1 2 Odonata Cordulidae 2 Euphaidae 2 Gomphidae 1 1 1 Libellulidae 1 1 Plecoptera Perlidae 7 5 4 1 3 7 4 1 1 1 17 1 2 5 3 3 1 Trichoptera Hydropsychidae 1 65 51 1 15 1 53 146 2 157 20 4 83 6 30 1 2 1 Leptoceridae 1 1 Philopotamidae 1 1 1 Psychomyiidae 10 1 13 4 5

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Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Order Family a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Decapoda Palaemonidae 1 Mesogastropoda Thiaridae 1 1 6 9 2 1 TOTAL 10 98 84 15 59 30 141 196 18 28 20 285 55 28 143 40 67 7 29 17 17 266 18 413 18 531 18 160 No.of taxa 7 12 11 7 9 9 15 12 4 4 6 8 9 10 12 9 13 4 9 9

H' 1.83 1.38 1.43 1.78 1.41 1.65 1.78 1.1 0.76 0.76 1.62 1.29 1.74 1.9 1.48 1.89 1.86 1.15 1.6 1.84 J’ 0.94 0.56 0.6 0.92 0.64 0.75 0.66 0.44 0.55 0.55 0.9 0.62 0.79 0.82 0.59 0.86 0.73 0.83 0.73 0.84

DMg 2.61 2.4 2.26 2.22 1.96 2.35 2.83 2.08 1.04 0.9 1.67 1.24 2 2.7 2.22 2.17 2.85 1.54 2.38 2.82

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