MASARYK UNIVERSITY the Use of English Modal Verbs May, Might

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MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

The use of English modal verbs may, might, can, could by Czech speakers of English

Master’s thesis

Brno 2020

Supervisor: Author: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. Bc. Kristýna Kousalíková

Proclamation

Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou diplomovou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

I hereby declare that I have written this master’s thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

Brno, 20 April 2020 ………………………………………

Author´s signature

Acknowledgements

I would like to express thanks to my supervisor, Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D., for his valuable advice, constant guidance and generous assistance he provided me with.

I would also like to express my gratitude to my family, my boyfriend, friends and colleagues for their moral support and patience.

Anotace

Tato diplomová práce s názvem „Užívání anglických modálních sloves may, might, can, could českými rodilými mluvčími“ se zabývá různorodostí v užívání anglických modálních sloves u studentů anglického jazyka. Cílem této práce je analyzovat četnost a správnost užívání jednotlivých modálních sloves v běžné praxi. V teoretické části jsou vymezena základní gramatická pravidla pro užívání anglických modálních sloves, jejich historie a porovnání s českým překladem. Praktická část se věnuje kvantitativnímu šetření, jehož cílem je zjistit a dále analyzovat užívání anglických modálních sloves u žáků gymnázia ve Šlapanicích, a překladu modálních sloves do češtiny pomocí webové stránky Linguee.

Abstract

The present master’s thesis “The use of English modal verbs may, might, can, could by Czech speakers of English” deals with diverse use of modal verbs by students of English. The aim of the thesis is to identify frequency and correctness in the use of English modal verbs may, might, can and could. The basic grammar rules are defined in the theoretical part, along with their history and comparison with the Czech translation. The practical part includes the quantitative research which aims to analyse pupils’ use of English modal verbs along with the translation of modal verbs into Czech with the use of the web page Linguee.

Klíčová slova modální slovesa, anglický jazyk, čeští rodilí mluvčí, gymnázium, překlad, historické pozadí

Keywords modal verbs, English language, Czech native speakers, grammar school, translation, historical background

List of contents 1 Introduction ...... 7 2 Introduction to verbs ...... 9 2.1 The semantics of verbs ...... 12 2.2 Verb Patterns ...... 13 3 Auxiliary verbs ...... 15 3.1 Distinctive properties of an auxiliary verb ...... 16 4 Modal verbs ...... 17 4.1 Types of modality ...... 17 4.2 Distinctive properties of a modal verb ...... 19 4.3 Meaning of modal verbs ...... 22 4.3.1 Modals expressing ability ...... 22 4.3.2 Modals expressing possibility ...... 23 4.3.3 Modals expressing permission – can, could, may, might ...... 25 4.3.4 Unacceptability, prohibition – cannot, could not, may not ...... 27 4.3.5 Concession – may ...... 27 4.3.6 Conditionals ...... 27 4.3.7 Offers, orders and requests ...... 28 4.3.8 Modals introducing what we want to say ...... 28 4.3.9 Conclusion – past reference, negative ...... 29 4.3.10 Duty with reproach ...... 29 4.4 Important differences in the use between might and could ...... 29 5 History of English ...... 31 5.1 English as a global language ...... 31 5.2 Changes in English ...... 32 5.2.1 Old English ...... 32 5.2.2 Middle English ...... 34 5.2.3 Beginnings of Modern English ...... 36 6 English variations ...... 37 6.1 Variation in modal auxiliary verbs ...... 38 7 Czech translation of modal verbs ...... 39 8 Research at grammar school ...... 42 8.1 Grammar school in Šlapanice ...... 42 8.2 Testing students ...... 42 8.2.1 Test: Exercise 1 ...... 43 8.2.2 Test: Exercise 2 ...... 59 8.3 How modal verbs are taught at grammar school in Šlapanice ...... 67

8.4 Results of testing ...... 67 8.4.1 The correctness of the used modal verbs ...... 68 8.4.2 The choice of modal verbs ...... 70 8.4.3 Possible influence of textbooks on modal verbs ...... 72 8.4.4 Comparison with the British National Corpus ...... 74 8.4.5 Teaching modal verbs as a grammar feature ...... 74 9 Czech translation of modal verbs may, might, can, could by Linguee ...... 75 9.1 Linguee ...... 75 9.2 Translations at Linguee ...... 75 9.2.1 The modal verb can ...... 75 9.2.2 The modal verb could...... 76 9.2.3 The modal verb may ...... 77 9.2.4 The modal verb might ...... 77 9.3 Summary of findings from Linguee ...... 78 10 Conclusion ...... 79 Resumé ...... 81 Bibliography ...... 82 Appendices ...... 85

1 Introduction

In the present thesis I would like to focus on the use of English modal verbs may, might, can, could by Czech native speakers. In the thesis I analyse modal verbs as I find this grammatical item as a frequent and important part of English sentences which is also different from the Czech language. I have chosen this topic because I find it very interesting for me as I study English at the Faculty of Education. I also consider modal verbs to be very useful for all Czech learners who study English as a second language as they might enrich their use of modals in general.

The ultimate goal of the thesis is to look into the topic of use of modal verbs and try to describe the use of English modal verbs may, might, can, could by Czech learners and the possible translations into the Czech language, such as moci, být schopen, umět. Moreover, I will determine correctness of using the modal verbs by Czech native speakers and the frequency of using each modal verb can, could, may or might. These results could be useful for teachers who teach English as a foreign language as they might focus on the use of modal verbs and they could try to exercise them intensively with their students in order to enlarge their knowledge of English verbs. I also believe that my thesis might be helpful for students or non-native speakers themselves because they might focus on improving their use of English modal verbs. This thesis could also help me as I would like to become an English teacher in the future and I could use this information in my own future professional life.

Regarding the structure, the present thesis is divided into two parts. The first, theoretical part, is focused on the overall grammar concerning modal verbs. It means that it deals with introduction to verbs in general, their division, and finally with modal verbs, their rules, history and possible Czech translations.

The second – practical part is devoted to research of testing pupils learning English as a foreign language. The pupils who participated in the test were students of grammar school in Šlapanice, specifically students from the 5th (15-16 years old), 6th (16-17 years old) and from the 7th (17-18 years old) grade. Owing to the fact that three grades, with different level of knowledge, were tested, it is possible to analyse not only differences in use of modal verbs, but also to take notice of possible mistakes made for different sentences requiring modal verbs. The test, itself, was divided into 2 parts, where the

7 first one consisted of 10 sentences with empty gaps in which the students were asked to fill in with a suiting modal verb. The 3 out of 10 sentences tested also pupils’ knowledge of rules for using modal verbs (as it was possible to use only) which were further analysed with use of graphs. The second one included 4 sentences for translation from Czech into English. The given four sentences’ aim was to observe pupils’ choice of modal verbs along with their knowledge of general grammar rules. Students' answers in the whole test are demonstrated in tables and graphs which are consequently described by a commentary. Gradually, the thesis sums up and compares pupils' choice of modal verbs and describes the most and the least commonly used modal verbs and the ways it is used. On top of that, the thesis discusses the correctness of the use of modals in particular sentences and analyses whether the pupils might be familiar with a particular rule from lessons at grammar school. At last, the thesis analyses possible translations of the modal verbs can, could, may, might with the use of the web page Linguee.

2 Introduction to verbs

A sentence consists of a subject and predicate, while each predicate contains a verb (Feigenbaum 1985: 83). Alexander (1991: 159) describes verbs as words or phrases whose aim is to express the doing of an action (e.g. sing, draw) or the existence of a state (e.g. belong, have).

English verbs in general, provides us with information about not only time (which can be for example present, past or future), but also status (progressive/continuous, simple) and relevance (perfect, non-perfect) (Feigenbaum 1985: 89).

Verbs can consist of one or more words. In case of a verb formed from two or more words it means that one word is the main / principal verb and the other part is an auxiliary / helping verb (ibid.: 83).

Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 37) provide in their book the following classification of verbs (Fig. 1):

Modal can, may, must, will, shall, ought, need, dare

Auxiliary

Non-modal be, have, do

VERB

Lexical allow, bring, come, drink, eat, find, go, hold, invite, …

Fig. 1 Classification of verbs

For each sentence, there is a very important principle to be used: subject-verb agreement. It means that the subject used in a sentence pattern influences the verb form that is used within the sentence (e.g. subject she requires the verb form is => She is very pretty.) (Feigenbaum 1985: 86).

A verb distinguishes a time frame of the state or an action through tense which is also supplemented by adverbials of time or frequency (Alexander 1991: 159). In English, the two main tenses are: present and past. The tenses can either have a simple form or to be combined with perspective or progressive aspect (or both). When a sentence has a transitive verb, it can be converted into the passive voice. It means that the subject of a sentence become an object (Close 1990: 226, 241).

A verb belongs to open word class. It means that new words can be created and added to the class quite easily. Very often, a member of the class is identical in either pronunciation or spelling with a member of a different class (e.g.: Let’s drink (V) that special drink (N) together!) (Deuchar, Hoogenraad, Leech 1982: 41).

Verbs are considered to be variable lexemes. There is a number of varied inflectional forms which can be used in different grammatical contexts. In English, majority of verbs have paradigms which consist of six inflectional forms – preterite, third person singular present, plain present, plain form, gerund-participle and past participle (Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 29). Huddleston and Pullum (ibid.: 30) present possible differences in these inflectional forms with aid of the following table (Tab. 1) which includes examples:

EXAMPLE PARADIGM SENTENCE

Preterite walked She walked home.

3rd singular walks She walks home. PRIMARY FORMS present

Plain present walk They walk home.

Plain form walk She should walk home.

SECONDARY FORMS Gerund-participle walking She is walking home.

Past participle walked She has walked home.

Tab. 1 Inflectional forms

The previously used term preterite is described by Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 30) as follows: “The term preterite is used for an inflectionally marked past tense.”. It means that the preterite is a form of a verb which has in the past tense a specific inflectional form. However, preterite does not have to express only the past time (Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 31):

(1) You made the cake all by yourself? – the verb made refers to something in the past

(2) It would be better if you made it with your friend, next time. – the verb made refers to future because it is in the context of hypothetical sense

The plain present of a verb is identical to a lexical base of a lexeme, whereas the third singular present is a form of a verb with -s ending for the third person in singular (because a verb has to agree with a subject in a person and number) (ibid.) .

(3) I play (plain present) football but she plays (third singular present) basketball.

The plain form of a verb is identical to a lexical base of a verb and it is used to form imperative, subjunctive and infinitive (which has two variants: to-infinitive and bae infinitive). The next form of verbs is the gerund-participle, where a participle is similar (functionally) to an adjective, whereas a gerund is similar to a noun (ibid.)

(4) People hiding their history are a bit suspicious to me.

The past participle has two important constructions – perfect (which contains the auxiliary verb “have” along with the past participle) and passive (ibid.).

(5) She has already visited 30 countries during her life. (Perfect form of a verb)

(6) Paris is visited by many tourists every year. (Passive voice)

Sinclair (1990: 137-138) explains that we distinguish transitive and intransitive verbs. Intransitive ones are described to be used for intransitive clauses in sentences which include only a subject and a verb. Sentences with intransitive verbs can include also a prepositional phrase.

(7) John was sleeping.

(8) She is shopping in the mall.

If a sentence includes a subject, a verb (or a prepositional phrase), but also a person or a thing which is in a position of an object, the verb within the sentence is called a transitive verb. It could be a monotransitive or a ditransitive verb, according to objects which are included in the sentence. A direct object is a thing or an object which affects or somehow is involved in a situation (or even produces it) (Sinclair1990: 138).

(9) My mum opened a window.

Indirect objects follow direct ones and their appearance shows that a verb is a ditransitive verb. It describes an object as a benefit for someone or something as a result of an action or situation (ibid.).

(10) She gave me some money.

2.1 The semantics of verbs

According to Lobeck (2000: 109) verbs may be classed according to the fact if they are active or stative.

Some verbs referring to states (situations with no activity), which are called stative verbs, are not usually used in progressive forms. Even to describe a truthful situation at a specific moment, the stative verbs are used in their simple form. Common verbs used to describe states are for example: be, feel, have, love, prefer, smell, taste or want. Only in certain situations these stative verbs can be used progressively: to describe and action (e.g. We are having a great time today, riding all those roller-coasters!), to emphasise a temporary situation (e.g. I’m sorry, my son is being really grumpy today.) (Feigenbaum 1985:103).

Contrarily to stative verbs, dynamic verbs can refer to changing situations or actions that are voluntary or deliberate. These activities have their own beginning and end and the verbs can be used either in progressive and simple forms (Alexander 1991: 160). Examples are:

(11) Our neighbour likes rock music, believe me! ( => Describes a state over which the neighbour hasn’t any control)

(12) What am I doing now? I am listening to pop music. ( => Progressive form of a dynamic verb-action that is happening now)

(13) I listen to music every day. ( => Simple form of a dynamic verb – action that happens regularly)

Active verbs may refer to a subset of verbs of motion (e.g.: walk, climb), verbs of perception (e.g.: hear, watch), verbs of sense (e.g.: smell, taste) or emotive verbs (e.g.: bother, enjoy) (Lobeck 2000: 110).

2.2 Verb Patterns

Clauses create sentences which can consist of one or more clauses. Clauses are describes according to the clause elements, whether it is a finite, non-finite clause or in terms of function (Svartvik, Leech 1994: 245).

An English clause structure consists of several elements, which are a subject, a verb (a predicate), a complement and an object (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, Svartvik 1985: 49).

A subject is a part of a sentence or a clause which is typically a noun phrase and in statements, it goes before a verb phrase. Its general role is to express a “doer” of an action and situation (e.g.: My mum loves my dad.) (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 449-450, Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 67).

A verb within a sentence refers to the action or the state of a particular situation (e.g.: My mum loves my dad.) (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 499).

An object, usually in form of a noun phrase, typically follows a verb phrase and its aim is to describe a person or a thing to/for which/whom the action is done (e.g.: My mum loves my dad.) (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 300, Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 70).

A complement is a part of a sentence or a clause which follows a verb phrase and gives us more information about the nature of a subject. It can be an adjective, a noun phrase, a pronoun or a number. (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 89)

(14) You seem quite happy. – a complement is an adjective

(15) My aunt became a successful lawyer. – a complement is a noun phrase

(16) The laptop is yours. – a complement is a possessive pronoun

Finally, an adverbial is an element which can have semantic relations to space – position, direction, distance; time – position on a temporal scale, duration, frequency);

13 process – manner (e.g. slowly,quietly), means (e.g. by car), instrument (e.g. with a knife), agent (e.g. by him); respect; contingency – cause, reason, purpose, result, condition, concession; modality – emphasis, approximation, restriction and degree – amplification, diminution, measure (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, Svartvik 1985: 478- 485).

English language has seven basic verb patterns according to which a sentence is built. The first one of them, the simplest verb pattern, is a subject-verb pattern (SV), and it can also be called a two-element pattern. The subject-verb pattern requires an intransitive verb. The example of a sentence using the pattern is: Peter is dancing. The next patterns to mention are the three-element patterns. One of the is called a subject- verb-complement pattern (SVC), the next one a subject-verb-object pattern (SVO) and the last one a subject-verb-adverbial pattern (SVA). The last type of pattern are the four-element patterns – a subject-verb-object-object (SVOO), which requires a direct and indirect object, and a subject-verb-object-adverbial pattern (SVOA) (ibid.: 53).

(17) He became a dentist.(SVC)

(18) I need your help.(SVO)

(19) She came home. (SVA)

(20) Our uncle gave us a puppy. (SVOO)

(21) She put the toy into a basket. (SVOA)

3 Auxiliary verbs

In English, we distinguish primary and modal auxiliary verbs. These auxiliary verbs are usually used before other verbs in the base forms (e.g. I can swim.) and they form a verb phrase, along with other verbs (Leech 1997: 55).

The English auxiliary verbs are for example: be, have, do, can, may, must, will, shall, ought, need and dare (Huddleston, Pullum 2002: 92).

The main and auxiliary verbs differ as the main verb expresses not only tense, aspect, person and number, but it has also a lexical meaning which auxiliary verbs do not have (Lobeck 2000: 121).

Auxiliary verbs may exceptionally occur without main verbs, in case that the main verbs are omitted because of the previous context (e.g. She can ride a bike as well as her brother can.) (Leech, Svartvik 1994: 240).

A few auxiliary verbs can have a form of a contracted word instead of an uncontracted form (e.g. He is… => He’s…). These contracted forms are commonly used in informal and spoken language. They are used after pronouns, after short nouns, after short adverbs (such as here, there, now) or after introductory there (ibid.: 240-241).

Auxiliary verbs in general belong to morphologically closed class of words and that proves that no more primary or modal auxiliary are added to the English language (Lobeck 2000: 122).

Leech (1997: 55) illustrates the sorting of the auxiliary verbs via his table (Tab. 2):

Primary auxiliary BE – HAVE - DO verbs

WILL/WOULD – CAN/COULD – MAY/MIGHT – Modal auxiliary verbs SHALL/SHOULD – MUST/OUGHT TO/ USED TO

Tab. 2 Classification of auxiliary verbs

The three auxiliary verbs be, have and do have a grammatical function as they are used to form tenses, passives and questions. But modal auxiliary verbs, such as may, might, can, could, must, will, would, shall, should, ought to and need have more of a “dictionary meaning” (Swan 1990: 388).

A special example of verbs which can behave like both lexical and auxiliary verbs are the four main verbs: “do, have, need and dare” (Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 40-41).

3.1 Distinctive properties of an auxiliary verb

An auxiliary verb differs from a lexical verb in several features. The most important ways are negation and subject-auxiliary inversion (ibid.: 37-38). a) Negations

Auxiliary verbs have their negative inflectional forms which end in n’t and which can be found in the preterite and also in present tense (e.g.: She can’t read. / He wouldn’t let us go.) (ibid.). b) Subject-auxiliary inversion

To form an interrogative sentence with use of a lexical verb, the dummy auxiliary “do” has to be used (e.g.: You eat breakfast. => Do you eat breakfast?). Unlike for lexical verbs, forming an interrogation of auxiliary verbs requires a shift in word order. The subject of a sentence needs to follow a primary verb-form (e.g.: He has been to many countries. => Has he been to many countries?) (ibid.).

4 Modal verbs

Modal verbs can be used to be polite and tactful and also when to emphasize one’s feelings and attitude about what the speaker is saying. They are also used to prevent causing a wrong effect to the person a speaker / a writer is speaking or writing to (Sinclair 1990: 217). According to Feigenbaum, modals also describe attitude about a state or an action (1985: 115).

Modal auxiliary verbs do not express things which have definitely happened or which are definitely happening. They are used when something is expected to happen, it is possible, impossible, necessary, improbable or when it is not certain and sure if things happened in the past (Swan 1990: 388, Poslušná 2019: 12).

Modal verbs have the same form in all persons. It means that they have no -s ending for the third person singular and also no -ed and -ing forms. They are followed by a bare infinitive (infinitive without to) and for their past forms they are replaced by other expressions (Swan 1990: 388, Poslušná 2019: 12).

Typical feature of modal verbs in general is that they do not form imperatives or passive voice (with the exception of active predications, such as: You should follow the rules => The rules should be followed.) (Dušková 1994: 181).

Basic modal verbs are: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare and used to (ibid.: 180).

4.1 Types of modality

Three basic types of modality are called epistemic, deontic and dynamic and they differ in meaning, interpretations and ambiguity (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 179). Close is his book distinguishes primary and secondary use of modal verbs which can be considered corresponding to epistemic and deontic modality (Close 1990: 263).

Epistemic modality reflects the way a speaker is willing to believe to the truth of a proposition of something that is being expressed (what we know or believe). For the type of modality, there are judgements and evidentials that are distinguished when a judgement represents a straightforward assessment of something being true and an evidential is linked to the grounds on which a person makes judgements (Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 54-55, Cruse 2011: 307-308).

Deontic modality deals with something that is required or permitted (it means that it expresses obligation and permission) (Huddleston and Pullum 2005: 54-55, Cruse 2011: 307-308).

Finally, dynamic modality is connected to a person’s ability or inability to do something (in other words their properties and dispositions), which can be referred to in a clause (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 178). The difference is demonstrated by the sentences below:

(22) He must go to bed early today because he will get up early. DEONTIC MODALITY

(23) He must have gone to bed early because he looks really fresh. EPISTEMIC MODALITY

(24) He can ride a bike. DYNAMIC MODALITY

Modals can have three strengths of modality – low, median and high. High level of modality for epistemic modality means that the proposition is highly possible to be true. High strength of modality with connection to deontic modality designates a high degree of obligation. Low and high levels of modality can be easily distinguished from the median one when negative is added and its behaviour is observed. The negation of the modal and the negation of the proposition need to be distinguished: e.g. She must stay at home. – She must not stay at home. (negation of the proposition = She is obliged to not stay at home.) – She need not stay at home. (negation of the modal = She is not obliged to stay at home.) That implies that low value verbs are: may, might, can, could, median value ones: will, would, shall, should and high value verbs are: must, ought to, need, have, is to (Cruse 2011: 309-310).

4.2 Distinctive properties of a modal verb a) Modal negatives

When forming a negative from a modal verb – no auxiliary verb is used (such as do) but a negative word not is put immediately after the modal. It is usually shortened to n’t form (such as can’t, couldn’t, mightn’t), which is considered to be less formal and used in conversations. The only exception of forming a negative is the verb may, when its negative form may not cannot be shortened (Feigenbaum 1985: 116, Alexander 1991: 209).

(25) He could not climb the mountain. ~ He couldn’t climb the mountain.

(26) You may not go there. b) Questions

A question with use of a modal verb is not created with help of any auxiliary verb but by putting the modal in front of the subject. A frequent type of a question for which the rule is used is a “yes/no question” (Alexander 1991: 209).

(27) Could you please help me?

The same rule is applied also for “question-word questions”, where the modal is preceded by the question-word (ibid.).

(28) Where may I wait for you?

Negative questions with use of modals require adding negative not after a subject, but normally, a contracted form of the negative modal verb is used (e.g. cannot => can’t) (ibid.).

(29) Can you not go there? => Can’t you go there? c) Question tags

Modals may be also used in question tags. When forming a negative question tag, the shortened form of the negative is used (Sinclair 1990: 220).

(30) That could be possible, couldn’t it?

19 d) Passive voice

Modal verbs expressing possibility or permission are used also in passive voice which is formed in the following way: modal + be/have been + past participle (Alexander 1991: 241). Example of passive voice created form active one is:

(31) You may eat the pancake. – The pancake may be eaten.

Modal verbs in general, may have different forms in the past, present and future, which have different meanings and purpose (such as expressing ability, permission, probability,…). Feigenbaum (1985: 119) illustrates meaning of modal verbs via the following table (Tab. 3):

Speaker’s attitude or Present or future verb Past verb forms evaluation forms

Permission and ability

Permission (request, may, can, might, could was/were allowed to statements)

Ability (physical, mental, can, be able to could general)

Definiteness (degree of may have, could have, sureness) can, may, could, might might have Possibility

Probability (a conclusion, a must, should must have, should have deduction)

will (shall), will /shall) Certainty (a prediction, have (usual present tense usual past tense agreement, promise) forms)

Emphasized certainty do (does), shall (will) did

Advisability and necessity should, ought to, had better, should have, ought to have Advisability (choice) had best

Necessity (an obligation, no be supposed to, must, have had to choice) to (have got to), need to

Tab. 3 Meaning of modal verbs

4.3 Meaning of modal verbs

4.3.1 Modals expressing ability

Present ability/inability – can, cannot (can’t)

Natural ability of something is expressed by the use of can + a main verb (in present). For present sentences, the word can expresses a physical ability (e.g. I can run very fast.), a mental ability (e.g. Susan can solve a riddle without any problem.) or a general ability (e.g. His uncle can read French as he used to live in France.). In this case, the modal verb can is replaceable by a phrase to be able to when can is used more commonly (Alexander 1991: 212, Feigenbaum 1985: 120). Examples are:

(32) My brother has been learning English for 1 year and he can speak fluently.

(33) My brother has been learning English for 1 year and he is able to speak fluently.

The verb can, along with a verb, can also express a learned ability or know-how. These learned abilities are often indicated by verbs such as: speak, play, drive or understand (Alexander 1991: 213). Example:

(34) Can you play the piano?

Simultaneously, the negation of the modal verb can – cannot (or can’t) expresses that someone is unable to do something, therefore it demonstrates inability (Gethin 1992: 118-119).

Future ability – can, will be able to

To express ability in the future, will be able to is usually used within a sentence (e.g. The next year, I will be able to run a marathon.), but for present decisions about future ability, the modal verb can is used (e.g. Sorry, I am really busy now but we can discuss it later today.) (Swan 1980: 128).

Past ability – could, was able to, used to be able to

Verbs could, couldn’t and was/were able to express natural or learned ability in the past (which is not related to a specific event). When mentioning the acquisition of a skill

22 after effort, verbs could and was/were able to can be interchanged (Alexander 1991: 213).

(35) I could ride a bicycle when I was a little kid.

(36) I was able to ride a bicycle when I was a little kid.

When describing a past ability, it is also possible to use used to be able to instead of the modal verb could (Alexander 1991: 213).

(37) I used to be able to play the piano quite well, but I don’t have any time to practise so forgot everything.

According to Alexander (ibid.) an unreal past, which is a special case of past abilities, is also expressed with help of the modal could. For example:

(38) I am sure you could learn to play the piano (if you tried to).

4.3.2 Modals expressing possibility

Theoretical / general possibility – can, could

Theoretical possibility is expressed by a verb can or could when some situations or events are possible to happen. The word can usually indicates characteristic behaviour of things and people when it is transformed into the verb could in the past tense (Swan 1980: 130).

(39) Anyone can try to study at university. (general possibility)

(40) Our teacher at elementary school could be very strict. (behaviour in the past tense)

Swan (ibid.) mentions that to make suggestions about solutions or actions that are possible to be made (to a problem), the verb can is used, while it is transformed to the verb could for a suggestion that is less strong or definite. To express a request or order, a suggestion with use of the verb could is formed.

(41) We can either study for the test more or fail the test again. (suggestion)

(42) We could try asking our teacher to help us with practising for the test. (less strong suggestion)

The general impossibility is expressed by cannot, impossibility in the past by could not (Gethin 1992: 120). Example is:

(43) I can’t get used to the weather in Britain! (=it is impossible to get used to it as it rains a lot)

Chances – may, might, could, can

The verbs may, might and could express the fact that at the moment of speaking, something is possibly true => present possibility (Swan 1980: 130).

(44) It may be true.

(45) That could be his biggest mistake.

Swan (ibid.) describes that the verb can is used to form question and negative sentences for the present possibility and when there is a chance that something will happen, the use of the verbs may or might is very frequent (the verb can is not used) => future possibility.

(46) Can it be a lie? (question)

(47) You can’t be honest with me, I don’t believe you! (negative sentence)

(48) My nephew may go to university in France the next year. (future possibility)

(49) It could snow tomorrow. (future possibility)

According to Alexander (1991: 220), all the modals expressing possibility are used differently, based on certainty that something is happening/will happen. It is illustrated in the following table (Tab. 4):

She is cooking. A fact => certain

She could be cooking. Doubtful possibility

She may be cooking. Possible, but not certain

She might be cooking. Possible, less certain than may

She isn’t cooking A fact => certain

She can’t be cooking. Nearly certain

She couldn’t be cooking. Nearly certain, more tentative than can’t

She may not be cooking. Possible, but uncertain

She mightn’t be cooking. Possible, less certain than may not

Tab. 4 Modals can, could, may, might – on the scale of certainty

4.3.3 Modals expressing permission – can, could, may, might

All four modal verbs can, could, may and might are used to form sentences expressing permission. The verb can is considered to be the most frequently used, even though some people think that it is not really correct to use can for permission as it is the most informal (and may should be used instead) (Swan 1990: 131).

Asking for permission

According to Alexander (1991), the use of modal verbs for asking permission can be characterised on a hesitancy scale. The modal verb can is the commonest but at the same time the most informal one. Could is considered to be more polite and hesitant that the modal verb can. The modal may is more polite and hesitant that both can or could while the least commonly used modal verb might is the most polite and hesitant (ibid.: 216) Examples:

(50) Can we go to the park? (the commonest and the most informal)

(51) Could we go to the park? (more polite than can, more hesitant)

(52) May we go to the park? (more polite, formal and hesitant than both can and could)

(53) Might we go to the park? (the most hesitant, the most polite and the least commonly used one)

Giving and refusing permission

The two modal verbs can and may are used to give permission, as they are the most natural ones (could and might indicate respect and subsequently they are used in asking for permission rather than giving permission) (Swan 1990: 131).

(54) Could I borrow your pen? – Yes, you could can.

(55) Might I ask you for help? – Of course, you might may!

Permission can be also refused by negative forms of modal verbs cannot (formed from can) and may not (formed from may) as follows (Alexander 1991: 217):

(56) Could I borrow your pen? – I am sorry, but you could not cannot.

(57) Might I ask you for help? – Excuse me, you might not may not as I am in rush.

Reporting permission

To talk about permissions given in the past, the modal verb may is not really used, in this case we use the verb can. In reported speech, the modal verb might is also used (after a verb in the past tense) (Svartvik, Leech 1994: 163, Swan 1990: 131).

(58) It is great that you may can stay with us until 12. (permission given in the past)

(59) My grandpa told me that I might / could come by anytime I want to. (reported speech)

For situations in the past, we use the verb could, which cannot be used to mention permission for one particular situation in the past (Swan 1990: 131).

(60) When we were little, we could eat what we wanted when we visited our grandma.

(61) Yesterday, he could was allowed to visit us.

4.3.4 Unacceptability, prohibition – cannot, could not, may not

Modals used in their negative forms can indicate that an action or a situation is inacceptable or even forbidden. In this case, cannot/can’t explains that it is forbidden to do something (for example because a rule or a law forbids that). May not is used for the same context but it is more formal than cannot, some sources mention that the negative modal verb may not is used only as a quick response (e.g. May I…? No, you may not!). To say more firmly that an action or a situation is undesirable or unacceptable, the modal verb must not/mustn’t is used (Sinclair 1990: 227-228, Gethin 1992: 118-119).

(62) An online seller may not refuse to return money to a customer within a term of 31 days.

(63) You must not go there, it is dangerous! (indicates that an action is undesirable/unacceptable)

4.3.5 Concession – may

The modal verb may is used in certain types of sentences to express concession – even though something happens/is happening (that a speaker or a writer is not really happy about), it does not change the person’s opinion. The modal may does not express possibility in the sentence, but certainty. It is formed with use of the modal may and the conjunction but, which can be substituted by although (Gethin 1992: 122-124). An example is:

(64) She may be nice to the other, but I still don’t like her.

4.3.6 Conditionals

The verb could is also used for hypothetical sentences expressing permission (in English – the second conditional). Also, a perfect infinitive of the modal verb could means the same thing as “would have been allowed to” (in English the third conditional) (Svartvik, Leech 1994: 163, Swan 1990: 131).

(65) If you had better metabolism, you could eat whatever you want. (hypothetical permission)

(66) If I had wanted to visit you, I could have come by. (a perfect infinitive)

4.3.7 Offers, orders and requests

Modal verbs can be used for offering, suggestions, orders or requests along with use of gestures, intonation and stress which are particularly important. In this case, a sentence which seems like asking for permission is really an offer and sometimes even giving permission is in fact an order to do something. The modal verbs can and could are usually used in sentences offering to do things for someone or asking others to do things. Here, the verb could is considered to be more hesitant than can, more respectful and polite. Sentences can have a form of a question or a statement (Swan 1990: 132, Alexander 1991: 222).

(67) I can help you with your homework if you like. ( => offer)

(68) Can/May I pay for your ticket? ( => offer, use of the verb may in questions is also possible.)

(69) You can go for a walk with the dog, I will do cleaning at home. ( => offer, suggestion)

(70) He could/might find out if he can go with us tonight. (=> request/order, the verb might can be used instead of could.)

4.3.8 Modals introducing what we want to say

To refer to acts of saying something, the modal verbs along with a different verb (such as “say”, “confirm” or “ask”) can be used. This way of communication is considered to be more polite and formal. In this case, modal verbs can be also used with verbs like “believe” or “think” which refer to one’s opinion. For the structure of a sentence, the personal pronoun “I” is usually used as a subject. But also “it” and “you” might be used (usually in a passive voice). To emphasise that something is very important, the usage of the verb must is unavoidable. During a discussion, to express that someone wants to say something, the modal verb can is used. To be even more polite the verb could is a good choice to use (Sinclair 1990: 237).

(71) Perhaps I can describe how I meant it.

(72) If I could add something to the conversation…

4.3.9 Conclusion – past reference, negative

Conclusion is made based on particular occasions and experiences and therefore, it is considered to be more accurate than assumption. After certain amount of investigation before the use of can’t, can’t have, couldn’t have or must to express conclusion, the expressions do not allow being wrong, even though the information is not sometimes accurate. To express past reference of the conclusion, the modal verbs can’t or couldn’t are used with a perfect infinitive (Gethin 1992: 126-127).

(73) He can’t have given the book to his mother, as I saw it in his backpack.

4.3.10 Duty with reproach

The modal verbs could and might are possible to be used to express duty with reproach when a person is considered to fail in their duty. The phrases I do think, at least or an exclamation mark are usually used in the context along with strong intonation or the stress (ibid.: 132-133).

(74) He could at least try to pass the test!

4.4 Important differences in the use between might and could

Even though the use of the modal verbs could and might may sometimes similar, these two verbs are used differently. Firstly, the verb could is used to create a request (e.g. Could you buy me a drink?). The modal could is also more often used as a permission, but might as a possibility. It is important to note that their negative meanings are not the same (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 102-103):

(75) You could not have bought a new iPhone 6s, it was sold out. (=> It is impossible that you bought it.)

(76) You might not have bought a new phone. (=> It is possible that you have not bought it.)

The modal verb could is also used to express the past ability, in the meaning of was able to / would be able to (e.g. If I were a boy, I could play football better.). In if-clauses (for unreal meanings), there is also a difference in the use of could and might (Leech, Cruickshank, Ivanic 1997: 102-103):

(77) If the Sun should shine, the match could take place outdoors. (=> a general possibility)

(78) If the Sun should shine, the match might take place outdoors. (=>a present possibility)

5 History of English

5.1 English as a global language

When a language holds a special role and it is recognized in all countries, it can achieve a global status. But obviously, countries using a language as a mother-tongue are not able to give a language such a status. However, it can be done in two ways: a language can be made an official language of a country (“a second language”) or it can be the first foreign language that is taught at school in a country. Large amount of the world’s population is competent in English so it has already been considered to be a global language (Crystal 2003: 5-6). Recent language studies estimate the English langue to be a mother-tongue of over 750 million people (the British, Irish, Americans, Australians, New Zealanders, South Africans and Canadians) and not even a half of the number speak it as a mother tongue (Graddol, Leith, Swan 2005: 12). Furthermore, English is also considered to be the second language, as some countries use it as an official language for education, commerce, legal system or the media (e.g. Ghana, Nigeria). In most of the countries, the English language is learned as a foreign language in schools and other institutes as it is considered to be the dominant language of world communication (Crystal 2002: 1-7).

The English language comprises remarkable variety of spellings, sounds, grammar or vocabulary which differs across the world. These features are endorsed by distinction of geographical background (accents and dialects, differences in spelling) or social background and culture (style of speech and writing, slang) (ibid.: 87-94).

In general, English reflects long time of development, which comprises not only social events, but also many political moments which have affected the language. Not only the Roman Christianizing of Britain (which provided England with Latin civilisation) has changed the English language as it added many new word into its vocabulary, but also the Scandinavian invasion brought a mixture of peoples and languages. Moreover, after the Norman Conquest (when for two centuries people used mainly French), the English language had to regain its supremacy. The Hundred Years’ War and for example the expansion of the British Empire (and the growth of science, literature, commerce, industry) has both contributed to the development of English as a language (Baugh, Cable 1993: 2).

All in all, Old English, sometimes called Anglo-Saxon has changed drastically to become English of nowadays. Approximately 60% of the Old English vocabulary was replaced by totally different vocabulary while grammatical feature changed, too (Trask 1996: 94-99).

English histories divide the language into three major periods: Old English, Middle English and Modern English (which is sometimes divided into: Early Modern English and Late Modern English). The division was made according to both political and linguistic reasons (Blake 1996: 4). Graddol, Leith and Swann (2005) distinguish in their book even 7 ages of English: Pre-English period (– c. AD 450), Early Old English (450 – c. 850), Later Old English (c. 850 – 1100), Middle English (c. 1100 – 1450), Early modern English (c. 1450 – 1750), Modern English (c. 1750 – 1950) and Late modern English (c. 1950 – ) (ibid.: 41).

5.2 Changes in English

5.2.1 Old English

The Celts are the first about whose language we definitely know anything in England, as they invaded the islands long time before the Anglo-Saxon invasions. The Celtic languages were divided into: Gaelic or Goidelic branch and Brythonic branch. Latin was used since Britain became a province of the Roman Empire. In the early fifth century, the Roman legions left and the only things left after them were a few loan words and names of settlements. Many Celts have lost their identities within the Anglo- Saxon society and afterwards, the Celtic language of Roman Britain had hardly any influence on the language of Anglo-Saxons. The first manuscripts, from around AD 700, were Latin words glossaries which were translated into Old English and poems. The main literary work from the period is definitely the heroic poem Beowulf, the majority of manuscripts were destroyed during Viking invasions in the eight century. Owing to the Christian missionaries, a huge Latin vocabulary (around 450 new words) was brought to Old English. During this time, vast amount of Old English vocabulary got new meanings (e.g. gospel, Easter). After that, in AD 787 began Danish raids on Britain which continued for over 200 years and the result were many settlements with Scandinavian names (over 1500 names). Many Scandinavian words entered the

32 language and they are found in English today (Baugh, Cable 1993: 43, Crystal 2002: 170-175).

Old English is distinctive from English used today because of its different spelling, grammatical differences and plenty of unfamiliar vocabulary. But with small amount of training it is possible for an English-speaker to translate it as it shows certain features of similarity. Original manuscripts from the end of the ninth century demonstrate the use of no capital letters, punctuation marks, and variations in the spaces between words. A number of abbreviations were used in order to make the copying of manuscripts quick (Crystal 2002: 165).

Old English grammar was different from the present-day English regarding the word order. Nouns are preceded by adjectives, prepositions, articles or other similar words, such as this, the. But the placing of a verb within a sentence was different as a verb was often placed before a subject, for example when at the beginning of a sentence there is a word like then or when. It was also possible to put a verb at the end of a sentence, when it is preceded by an object and other parts. The Old English word order could be variable because it was an inflected language (while in English today, the inflections disappeared). Relationships in the sentence were given by other means – a word’s job within a sentence was given by the kind of an ending of a word which did not depend on the word order (ibid.: 168-169).

When dealing with the inflection of verbs in different languages, the Old English had only two simple tenses which were formed by the inflection: a past and a present (there were no inflectional forms for the passive voice, except for one word). The imperative, the indicative and the subjunctive moods were distinguished along with the three persons and two numbers. The Germanic languages were divided into two main classes – the strong and the weak verbs (later the irregular and regular ones), when an example of the strong ones is OE beran (bare) – bær (bore) (it means that its past tense is formed with vowel variation) and of the weak ones OE hīeran (hear) – hīerde (heard) (its past tense is formed with use of a dental element). The weak (regular) verbs were much more numerous than the strong ones, which were grouped in seven general classes. Both active and passive voice of verbs is distinguished along with many periphrastic forms. Future tense could be formed with willan (the first form of will/would) + infinitive or sċullan (the first form of shall/should) + infinitive – when it demonstrated sense of desire. (Baugh, Cable 1993: 58, Campbell 1959: 295).

Modal verbs are classed and described in the following sentence: “There is also a class of verbs known as the preterite-present verbs: they are not numerous, but most of them are very common. Originally strong past tenses of present meaning (like Lat. novi, Gr. οlδα) they developed a past tense with a dental formative element in Gmc., e.g. OE sċeal shall, sċolde should.” (Campbell 1959: 295).

The modal verb can had its earliest form in Old English – cunnan (infinitive), which is described as know or be able to. Its other forms were can(n) (1st and 3rd person singular), canst (2nd person singular), cunnon (1st-3rd person plural), cunne(n) (singular and plural subjunctive), cunnen (participle) (Quirk, Wrenn 1993: 57).

If the verb cunnan was followed by an infinitive, it was translated as to know how to do, to have power, to be able or can. In case of being followed by a noun phrase, it was translated as become acquainted with, to be or to know (Bosworth and Toller 1972: 174). The modal may has developed from its earliest Old English form magan (infinitive), which was translated “be able to”. Its forms were: mæg (1st and 3rd person singular), meaht/miht (2nd person singular), magon (1st-3rd person plural), mæge(n) (singular and plural subjunctive) and magende (participle) (ibid.).

5.2.2 Middle English

The transition between Old English and Middle English in the eleventh century is marked as a key period of the English language. The event that started great changes in English is called Norman conquest – Duke William of Normandy led in 1066 famous invasion to Britain (Graddol, Leith, Swan 2005: 59, Crystal 2002: 178).

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle illustrates the period of change. It comprises manuscripts describe Britain’s history from the invasions of Anglo-Saxons until the twelfth century (writing stopped because of civil war during the reign of King Stephen). When it began again, the style was different – vocabulary and grammar reflects the time along with fresh way of spelling. The language is very close to modern English and The Peterborough Chronicle is created in 1137 (Crystal 2002: 184-186).

The word order is similar to the word order that is used today. Several features of grammar still continue to copy the older patterns, double (or triple) negatives are frequently used which shows link to Old English. Many words from Middle English has disappeared, many of them were preserved with a different meaning and they therefore

34 represent “false friends”, such as tunes (villages) which later changed the meaning to towns. As the language did not really change that much, scholars have argued whether not to call the period “late Old English”. The language began moving which is confirmed by other texts from the twelfth century. The influence of French (introduced by Normans) was noticeable as very little use of English is recorded among the hierarchy. However, after conflict between King John of England and King Philip of France in 1204, a spirit of English nationalism grew. Around the year 1425, the English language was used in England universally (Crystal 2002: 188-190).

Not only English vocabulary was influenced by French, but also grammar changed during the period of time. Old English endings of nouns died away and prepositions were used along with word order with fixed patterns. What remained close to Old English, were the endings of verbs – for present tense: I play(e), thou playest, he/she playeth, we/you/they playe(n) and for past tense: I played(e), thou playedest, he/she played(e), we/you/they played(en). The system of verbs we know today was created after the Middle English period. Moreover, verb constructions to express future time began to appear (e.g. shal be – shall be) (ibid.: 192-195).

The best-known writings from the era are: Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight (after 1350, unknown author), the Pearl (around 1375, unknown author), Piers Plowman (by William Langland), The Canterbury Tales (by Geoffrey Chaucer). After 1400, great changes were applied to the language – “Great Vowel Shift”, when pronunciation of vowel drastically changed (ibid.: 197-202).

In Middle English, verb inflections levelled, and endings weakened, but the major changes were made as almost a third of all the strong verbs (from the Old English) have died out during this period and many verbs transformed from strong verbs to weak verbs. All in all, more than one hundred of strong verbs from the Old English were lost right in the beginning of the Middle English period and more strong verbs died out during the time, except in the dialects. Because of the fact that many verbs became weak verbs, it was easier to deal with verbs as it provided a fairly consistent pattern for the past participle and the past tense (Baugh, Cable 1993: 158-159).

Modal verbs in Middle English, still called preterite-present verbs, are considered to be a minor group of verbs. They can form an infinitive, a new weak preterite, a present participle and some verbs – a strong past participle. The verb can, in the Middle English

35 cunnen, had forms: can (1st person singular), canst (2nd person singular), can (3rd person singular), cunnen (plural), cunne (subjunctive), cunnand (participle). Another preterite- present verb – shall – had forms of schal (infinitive), schal (1st and 3rd person singular), schalt (2nd person singular), schulen (plural), schule (subjunctive). The modal verb may, in the Middle English could be found in a form of mai, translated as can, may or be able to. Its forms were mai (1st and 3rd person singular), mei (2ndperson singular), mowen/mawe (plural), muwe (subjunctive), mowende(e) (participle). The last mentioned modal verb (previously called preterite-present verb) mentioned is must – mōt (Wright, Wright 1923: 190-192).

5.2.3 Beginnings of Modern English

The mains dialects of the language correspond to the ones of Old English, they are only given different names. Proves of their existence are given in manuscripts through vocabulary, grammar and spelling. Dialects are: Kentish, Southern, Northern, East Midland, West Midland. Standard English is a mixture of those dialects with the most dominant influence of East Midland. In 1476 in Westminster, William Caxton set up a printing press and the language history quickens. Almost 20000 books are printed within 150 years and the difference between standard and non-standard English became more clear (Crystal 2002: 207-208).

The Modern Period began in 1500, when communication and its ways were increased, popular education was spread rapidly, specialized knowledge grew and consequently field of science, art and medicine were developing fast. A great number of people could read and write (Baugh, Cable 1993: 197-198, Crystal 2002: 209).

Modernity of the English language is connected to the intellectual movement – the renaissance (= “the revival of learning”) which, in the 15th century, started in Italy and spread across Europe. In the time, works of Greek and Roman authors were rediscovered and widely distributed thanks to the invention of printing (Graddol, Leith, Swann 2005: 137). As the main area of interest was vocabulary, the language started to borrow words from French (e.g. battery, chocolate, explore) Italian (e.g. design, giraffe, violin), Spanish (e.g. alligator, hurricane, tobacco), Latin (e.g. capsule), Greek (e.g. anonymous, catastrophe, skeleton) or Portuguese (e.g. banana, mosquito, potato). Instead of using borrowings, some writers decided to revive obsolete English words and they used equivalents for the classical terms (Crystal 2002: 210).

During the renaissance, verbs register certain differences in using. The progressive form of verbs is scarcely used which is noticeably distinct from later times (because of the large increase of using progressive forms of verbs). Verbs were used much more commonly in their impersonal constructions (e.g. It yearns me not…) and it was later replaced by personal uses. The period is different in the certain use of inflections, for example the ending for the present indicative of the third person singular, (which was originally –eth, which is gradually interchangeable with –s ending), sometimes the use of –s ending for the third person plural and many forms of strong verbs of past participle along with the past tense. The –s ending for the third person plural appears occasionally and infrequently instead of the characteristic East Midland –en, –e ending which disappeared. From the Bible as the main source, it is certain that the past tense and the past participle of some verbs differed from today as strong forms of verbs alternated with weak ones (e.g. past tense: sew beside sowed, holp beside helped, past participle: baken beside baked) (Baugh, Cable 1993: 240-242).

Gradually, only few changes were made regarding the grammatical forms were made during the last two centuries. In about 1820 you was is replaced by you were. In informal speech, there is a tendency toward loss of inflection (he don’t – demonstrates attempts to reduce the verb ending for the third person singular). (ibid.: 339-341).

6 English variations

As already mentioned, the English has multiple variations that are used in different parts of the world. Between different varieties of the language, there are no definite boundaries given. It comprises grammar diversity, vocabulary, pronunciation and other features which combine meaningful English for particular speakers or writers. The range of Englishes affected by geographical areas includes “traditional” dialects in the UK (including for example Irish English, which has been influenced by it) or other “native-speaker” varieties (e.g. US English) or even varieties affected by different languages that are spoken in a particular are, which can be called “non-native” varieties (e.g. Indian English) (Graddol, Leith, Swann 2005: 222).

English in general can vary not only according to geographical setting, but also by its user, their age, social-class membership (middle-class/working-class), gender, personal

37 characteristics. Person’s languages changes with time, one speaks differently in the beginning of life and differently we they grow older, when they move, get a new job. It changes with situation a speaker uses the language – conversation with a friend is not the same as with a boss or a stranger (tenor). It also varies through the way of communication (letter/face to face conversation/telephone – mode) (Deuchar, Hoogenraad, Leech 1982: 6-9).

On the other hand, standard English, which is used in dictionaries, media or taught at school, shows only the least possible variation between different geographical areas (Graddol, Leith, Swann 2005: 222).

6.1 Variation in modal auxiliary verbs

The use of English modal verbs is also considerably variable. Standard English has deontic, epistemic and dynamic modality which influence the use and the meaning of modal verbs. Indian English uses auxiliaries could and would, rather than can and will (e.g. I hope you could visit us.). It also uses the modal may to express obligation in a very polite form (e.g. Electrical appliances may be unplugged before leaving. – in standard English: should be unplugged). In non-standard Scottish English, the use of the modal verb must is more restricted. Must is used to express conclusion but for obligation, they tend to use have to or need to. In Scottish English, it is also possible to find “double-modal” constructions, for example “I will can visit you, tomorrow.” which means that I will be able to visit you. This type of construction can be found also in the English of the southern USA, Northumberland or Tyneside (ibid.: 237-238).

7 Czech translation of modal verbs

English semantic system of modal verbs differs from the Czech one a lot. Because of the fact that modal verbs can demonstrate different types of modality (deontic, epistemic, dynamic) they are also translated to Czech diversely (Dušková 1994: 185- 186).

Can, could, be able to

As mentioned in the thesis above, the modal verb can expresses ability (mental or physical) possibility and permission (used for both asking and reporting permission). That’s why the modal can corresponds to Czech verb moc or umět (ibid.: 186-188).

The online dictionary translates can as follows: moci (possibility), umět, dovést, dokázat (ability), smět, moci (permission). The same source translates its negative form cannot: nemoci, nebýt schopen (because of circumstances), určitě ne, nemůže být or nesmět (prohibition) (Anglicko-český slovník, n.d.). Examples of different translations are given below:

(79) I can play the piano. = Umím hrát na klavír. (80) How can I help you? = Jak vám mohu pomoci? (81) Can I visit her? Yes, you can. = Můžu ji navštívit? Ano, můžeš. (82) You cannot be serious! = To určitě nemyslíš vážně!

Skills expressed with use of the modal verb can which is used as ability for a certain situation is not translated into Czech by any specific word or modal verb (Dušková 1994: 188). Following sentences describe the situation:

(83) Can you reach the remote control on the table? = Dosáhneš na ten ovladač na stole? (84) I can’t lift the table. = Ten stůl neuzvednu.

The negative forms cannot/can’t describe impossibility or inability so it is translated as nemoci or neumět. Concerning impossibility, the negative modal verb can’t expresses high level of certainty jistě ne (ibid.: 187). Example:

(85) I can’t ski. = Neumím lyžovat. (86) She can’t be at home. = Nemůže být doma. / Jistě není doma.

The online English-Czech dictionary translated the modal verb could either as mohl, uměl, dovedl (ability) or mohl/a/i, mohl/a/i by (possibility or request). Its negative form is translated nemohl, nemohla, nemohlo, nemohli (impossibility) (Anglicko-český slovník, n.d.).

The modal verb could has the same meaning as can and it is translated either as mohl in general, mohl jsem or mohl bych. The minimal difference in translation is distinguished by the context of a sentence the modal verb takes part in. The modal could can be used as polite request as well as the verb can, in this case the use of the modal verb could is less certain (e.g. Could you help me, please? = Mohl bys mi prosím pomoci? / Can you help me? = Můžeš mi pomoci?). The modal verb could along with the past infinitive is used not only in questions and negative sentences, but also in positive declarative sentences (e.g. The fridge wasn’t closed properly, the food could have gone bad. = Lednice nebyla řádně dovřená, všechno jídlo se mohlo zkazit.). In the context, it means that something might have happened but it is not clear if it really happened or not. (Dušková 1994: 189).

May, might, be allowed to

May expresses both possibility and permission which are also expressed by the modal verb can. It means that their semantics are quite similar. May can be translated into Czech as smět, moci or even as adverbials asi or snad. May has no particular form for future or past, so tense is given by the context (past is expressed by the past infinitive may have, future with the use of adverbs of time) (ibid.: 190).

(87) He may help us tomorrow = Možná nám zítra pomůže. (88) He may have been sad when he saw that happen. = Byl možná smutný, když viděl, že se to stalo.

The online dictionary translates the modal verb may not only as moci or smět (possibility, permission) and možná, asi, snad (with reference to future), but also in optative sentences as ať, nechť, kéž (e.g. Long may it continue. = Ať to trvá dlouho.) The phrase may…but is translated in the dictionary as možná že…, ale (Anglicko-český slovník, n.d.).

The negative form of the modal verb used to express possibility is may not and it is translated either as možná, že ne or nemuset. May not used to express prohibition is translated nesmět and it is used mainly in administrative language (e.g. The exhibition room may not be entered without special footwear. = Do výstavní místnosti se nesmí vstoupit bez speciální obuvi.), more natural and common negative modal verb expressing prohibition is must not or can’t which are also translated as nesmět (e.g. You can’t/mustn’t go out unless your work is done. = Nesmíš jít ven, dokud nemáš hotovou práci.) (Dušková 1994: 191).

The modal verb might is in the online dictionary translated into Czech as možná, asi, snad (possibility in the future), mohl/a/o/i by (possibility in certain conditions). Its form might have is translated as mohl/a/i (it should have happened but it did not: e.g. He might have told me about that! = Mohl mi o tom říct!). The phrase might…but means možná že…, ale (Anglicko-český slovník, n.d.).

The use of the modal verb might is not restricted to affirmative sentences, it can also be used to form questions, the translation stays the same (e.g. Might it happen? = Mohlo by se to stát?). It is used either to express present, future and past, in the past tense it has a form of might have. The use of the modal verb might with past infinitive is realized when a speaker knows that the action was not fulfilled and it did not really happen in the past (unlike when the form may have is used because it is not really known if it happened or not.) (e.g. You might have been hit by the car! = To auto tě mohlo srazit! => it did not happen). The negative form might not can be translated into the Czech language as možná, že by ne or nemuselo by (e.g. She might not be so bad as I thought. = Možná, že není tak špatná, jak jsem si myslela./Nemusela by být tak špatná, jak jsem si myslela.) (Dušková 1994: 192).

8 Research at grammar school

8.1 Grammar school in Šlapanice

For the research concerning the use of modal verbs by Czech native speakers, I chose the grammar school “Gymnázium a ZUŠ Šlapanice, příspěvková organizace”. The main reason for my choice of school was the fact that I was a student of the grammar school for eight years and I know almost all of the teachers and their styles of teaching. The grammar school has been providing eight-year-education to students for almost 27 years now, as it was founded on the 1st September 1993. As for now, the school is attended by around 250 pupils who are taught according to the program called “Škola žije do večera” (in translation: “A school lives until the evening”). In the beginning of a school year, pupils (from the 6th grade and upper) choose some of the seminars fitting into a schedule according to their preferences, including language conversation lessons. During classes, pupils have opportunity to learn standard school subjects, English, as well as French, German, Russian and Latin, along with history of arts, informatics or for example descriptive geometry. In the two studied foreign languages, pupils achieve, at least, the level B2. The grammar school reports to be really successful regarding the result of pupils accepted for studies at university. The annual report from the school year 2018/2018 confirms that 27 out of 27 students applying to study at universities (pupils finishing their last grade at the grammar school) were accepted to a university. The success rate is therefore 100% (Gymnázium a ZUŠ Šlapanice, příspěvková organizace, n.d.).

8.2 Testing students

For the sake of finding out about the choices made between the modal verbs can, could, may, might by Czech native speakers, I decided to create a test comprising several sentences dealing with the issue of modals.

Firstly, I decided to test more than 50 or 60 people, to have a sufficient number of respondents to create a valid result and summary. The tested grades at the grammar school were the fifth (15 respondents), the sixth (26 respondents) and the seventh grade

(25 respondents) – all in all 66 pupils. The result might show a difference in answers between the grades but also to create a summary across the whole age range.

Secondly, the created test had two main parts: filling gaps within sentences and translating sentences from Czech into English. Both parts tested pupils’ choice in the use of modals within various sentences along with their knowledge of grammar rules for using modal verbs. The first part consisted of ten sentences, where the first three questions tested only pupils’ grammar knowledge (as there was no choice for filling modal verbs, only one or two possibilities were correct), the rest of the tested pupils’ preferences of chosen modal verbs. The second part consisted of four sentences for pupils to translate (of course with the use of modals). In general, most of the sentences were put together in a way to observe pupils’ choice of modal verbs (because more of them were possible to use), some of them had only one correct option and these types of sentences aimed to test the grammar knowledge of modals.

8.2.1 Test: Exercise 1

The assignment for the whole exercise was: “Fill in a modal verb can/could/may/might into sentences.” The first three sentences in the exercise test pupils’ knowledge of rules for using modal verbs (as there is only one possible modal verb to be filled in) and the following seven sentences analyse pupils’ preferences of modal verbs (as there are several possible modal verbs to be used).

Sentence 1: My mum has been learning Spanish for 5 years now and she ___ speak fluently.

The sentence deals with the use of modal verbs for present abilities. The only possible modal verb which is used for sentence dealing with present abilities is can, which can be also replaced by to be able to.

My mum has been learning Spanish for 5 years now and she ___ speak fluently.

can could may might no answer correct wrong

5th grade 14 1 0 0 0 14 1

6th grade 26 0 0 0 0 26 0

7th grade 24 0 1 0 0 24 1

Tab. 5 Results of testing sentence 1

Among the fifth-graders, 14 of the total 15 pupils filled in the modal verb can correctly. Only one of them filled could, maybe due to the fact that she/he was confused by the present perfect tense within the first part of the sentence (which gives the reference to the present). The success rate was therefore 93%.

All of the sixth-graders filled in the correct modal verb can and it means that their success rate was 100%.

Seventh-graders seemed to be aware of the rules for using modal verbs for present abilities. 24 of them filled in the verb can and only one of them may. The modal verb may is not suitable for the sentence describing present abilities so the answer is considered as incorrect. The success rate of the 7th grade is 96%.

To sum up sentence one and the filled modal verbs by Czech pupils from the grammar school in Šlapanice, the grammar rule of using the modal can for present abilities does not cause any serious problems. Only 2 of the total of 66 pupils filled the modal verb incorrectly and the rest – 97% knew the correct answer. One pupil might have been confused by the present perfect tense in the beginning of the sentence (and filled in the modal could) and the other one, who used the modal verb may, clearly did not know the rule. Because the sentence had only one correct verb to be filled in, the choice of modal verbs cannot be compared.

Sentence 2: Could I go there with you? Yes, you ___.

The sentence demonstrates the use of modal verbs for giving permission, where the most natural modals to be used are can and may. The two other modal verbs discussed in the thesis are not really used to report permission as they are used to ask permission and not to give permission (and they indicate politeness and respect). For the sentence, the most suitable modal verb reflecting the preceding question is the modal can (Could I go there with you? => Yes, you can.).

Could I go there with you? Yes, you ___.

can could may might no answer correct wrong

5th grade 8 7 0 0 0 8 7

6th grade 20 6 0 0 0 20 6

7th grade 16 7 1 1 0 16 9

Tab. 6 Results of testing sentence 2

The fifth-graders seemed to be guided by the fact that the question (Could I go there with you?) shows and leads them to use the modal could also for the answer to the question. As mentioned in rules for the use of modal verbs, much more natural and correct is to use can or may to give permission. None of them decided to use may or could as a possible answer. 8 out of 15 pupils chose the suitable modal verb can, their success rate was 53%.

Among the sixth-graders, 20 pupils chose to fill in the verb can into the answer. The rest – 6 pupils (23% of sixth-graders) thought the verb could should be the missing word.

Seventh-graders’ answers were the most diverse. 16 pupils were correct when they wanted to use the verb can. One answer of the verb may, is considered to be incorrect for the particular sentence, as it seems to be unnatural. The rest of the seventh-graders – 8 pupils chose the verb could or might to be the missing one into the sentence. All in all, the success rate was 64%.

In general, pupils are quite aware of rules of using modal verbs for giving permission. A few of them filled in an incorrect modal but it might have been influenced by the previous question (where the verb could was used) and therefore they applied the verb could into the answering sentence, as well. Pupils definitely preferred using the modal verb can. 44 out of 66 pupils (67%) applied the correct missing modal verb.

Sentence 3: Tom ___ play the piano when he was a little kid.

Sentence number three tests pupils’ knowledge of using the modal verb could for abilities in the past. The verb can may be interchanged only with expressions: was able to/used to be able to which are also possible and correct to be put in a sentence dealing with past abilities.

Tom ___ play the piano when he was a little kid.

can could may might no answer correct wrong

5th grade 1 12 0 1 1 12 3

6th grade 2 21 0 3 0 21 5

7th grade 2 21 1 1 0 21 4

Tab. 7 Results of testing sentence 3

Pupils from the fifth grade seemed to be quite aware of using the modal verb could for abilities in the past, as twelve of them filled in the correct word. One of the fifth-graders chose can as a missing verb, one the verb might and there was also one pupil who decided to leave the blank empty. The success rate for the fifth-graders was 80%.

As for the sixth-graders, 21 of them (81%) filled in the correct possibility – the verb could. Five pupils got the answer wrong when two of them chose the verb can and three the verb might as a missing word into the sentence.

Seventh-graders had the same number of pupils who answered correctly as the sixth- graders – it means that 21 pupils filled in the verb could. The others got confused – when 2 pupils filled incorrectly in the verb can, 1 pupil may and the last one of them the modal verb might. Their success rate was 84%.

All in all, sentence number three, dealing with past abilities and the use of the modal verb could for them, was more difficult for pupils. The pupils who chose the verb can to finish the sentence might have been mistaken by the fact that did not notice the past tense in the sentence. Five pupils answering the modal verb might, were probably not aware of using modals can and could for abilities. The total success rate for the sentence was 83%.

Sentence 4: I ___ help you with cleaning, if you like.

Sentence number four illustrates the use of modal verbs for offers which can either have a form of a statement or a question. The use of modal verbs can, could, may and might is possible so the sentence should analyse pupils’ choice of a preferred modal.

I ___ help you with cleaning, if you like.

can could may might

5th grade 3 3 6 3

6th grade 7 10 3 6

7th grade 10 12 3 0

Tab. 8 Results of testing sentence 4

The fifth-graders used various modal verbs to fill in the missing gap within the sentence constructed as an offer. Three of them (20%) decided to use the verb can, three of them (20%) the verb could, while six pupils (40%) chose the verb may and three the verb might.

Pupils from the sixth grade varied in their choice of modal verbs for the sentence. The majority of the sixth-graders – 10 pupils (38%) decided to use the modal verb could to finish the sentence. Then, seven of them (27%) filled in the verb can, three of them (12%) the verb may and the rest – 6 pupils (23%) the verb might.

Seventh-graders used as the most frequent verb could (12 pupils – 48%), ten pupils (40%) decided to fill in the verb can and three of them (12%) the verb may. None of them would like to choose the modal might as a possible missing part of sentence number four.

To sum up pupils’ choice of modal verbs for the sentence: the modal verb can was used 20 times (by 30% of pupils), the verb could 25 times (by 38% of pupils), the modal may 12 times (by 18% of pupils) and the verb might 9 times (by 14% of pupils). It is known that Czech people in general, prefer the use of the modal verb can. However, the tested pupils liked even more its more polite and hesitant option – the modal could.

30 25 25 20 20

15 12

10 9

Can Could May Might

Graph 1 The use of modal verbs in sentence 4 – Offer (in a form of a statement)

Sentence 5: ___ I help you?

Sentence number five is dealing with the choice of modal verbs for offers, similarly to sentence number four. The only difference is that the previous sentence was constructed as a statement and sentence number five is in a form of a question. Therefore, any of modal verbs can, could, may or might is possible to be used into the blank.

___ I help you?

can could may might

5th grade 14 0 1 0

6th grade 17 2 7 0

7th grade 20 0 5 0

Tab. 9 Results of testing sentence 5

Most of the fifth-graders chose the modal verb can as a missing verb and only one of them the verb may. It shows that 93% of them prefer the use of the modal can for offers constructed as questions.

Similarly to the fifth-graders, pupils from the sixth grade definitely preferred the use of the modal verb can into sentence number five. Seventeen of them (65%) chose it as a right option, two pupils put the verb could into the blank space and the rest – seven of them decided to use the verb may.

The seventh-graders reacted to the sentence in a similar way. Twenty pupils filled in the modal verb can into the sentence offering help and that is the whole 80% of the grade. The rest – five pupils (20%) used the modal may into sentence number five.

All in all, it seems that pupils definitely preferred the use of the modal verb can for sentence number five, which was dealing with offering in a form of a question. The total of 51 pupils out of all 66 tested pupils chose this verb, it is 77% of the whole number of tested pupils. Only two pupils (3%) chose to use the modal verb could and thirteen of them (19,7%) the verb may. None of the pupils wanted to use the modal might. They might have been influenced by the fact that the sentence is often used in restaurant, shops or public places in the form of: “Can I help you?” and it can be considered as prototypical phrase. Most of the textbook also prefer the use of the modal verb can to express offer, some of them even mention this exact sentence.

60 51 50

20 13 10 2 0 0

Can Could May Might

Graph 2 The use of modal verbs in sentence 5 – Offer (in a form of a question)

Sentence 6: ___ I go out with Susan?

Sentence number six is connected to the rule for asking permission. All the four modal verbs can, could, may and might are used according to the way we want to communicate. The verb can is the most commonly used one, but at the same time the least formal one, while the verb could is more polite and hesitant. The modal may is more polite than both can and could and might is the most formal and polite verb out of these four modal verbs. At the same time, it is the least commonly used variant.

___ I go out with Susan?

can could may might

5th grade 7 4 4 0

6th grade 13 0 12 1

7th grade 10 1 14 0

Tab. 10 Results of testing sentence 6

The fifth-graders used most commonly the modal verb can as seven of them (47%) filled in this option. Four pupils (26.5%) chose the verb could as a correct missing verb and four of them the verb may.

Results of testing sentence number 6 in the sixth grade were different from the results of the fifth-graders. Most of the pupils – 13 of them (50%) filled in the modal verb can and it means that they are used to the most informal option of the modal verbs. 12 pupils (46%) chose the verb may to complete the sentence and only 1 pupil decided to use the most formal and hesitant modal verb – might.

The seventh-graders‘ most frequent choice of a verb for sentence number six was the modal may. It was used by 14 pupils – 56%. Ten pupils (40%) decided to use the informal can and only one of them chose the modal could. Nobody filled in the modal verb might.

To sum up the results of testing sentence number six, dealing with the use of modal verbs for asking permission, it seems that the most natural verbs to be used by pupils in general were the modal verbs can – used by 45% of all pupils (which is at the same time the least formal one) and may – also used by 45% of pupils (which can be classified as more hesitant and polite than the modal verb can). The other ones, could and might, were not really used (only by 6 out of 66 pupils). The observed results may be interpreted that pupils prefer to use the “basic forms” of modal verbs can and may and not their more polite and hesitant forms.

35 30 30 30

10 5 5 1 0

Can Could May Might

Graph 3 The use of modal verbs in sentence 6 – Asking permission

Sentence 7: It ___ be true.

The sentence deals with modal verbs used within sentences expressing possibilities. A modal verb which is chosen into a sentence shows certainty that something will happen or that something is currently happening. The three modal verbs could, may and might are used with different level of certainty to express possibility. The verb can is not really used for the sentence like “It can be true.” unless it is meant in a sense of an answer to a question (e.g. Can it be true? – It CAN be true.) but in this case, it would rather be used in a shortened form (e.g. Can it be true? – Yes, It can./It can.).

It ___ be true.

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 0 0 7 8 15 0

6th grade 3 9 6 8 23 3

7th grade 1 2 6 16 24 1

Tab. 11 Results of testing sentence 7

The tested fifth-graders seemed to know the rule of not using the verb can to express that something is possible to happen. Seven pupils (47%) filled in the modal verb may and eight of them (53%) the verb might. It means that the majority of the pupils from the fifth grade chose the modal verb (might) which expresses that something is less certain (than an action expressed by the verb may).

Among the sixth-graders, there were three pupils who decided to fill in the modal verb can (which should not really be used in this case). Nine pupils (35%) chose the verb could, six of them (23%) the verb may and the rest – eight pupils (31%) the least certain might.

Pupils from the seventh grade differed in filling the blank space in sentence number seven. The majority of them – 16 pupils (64%), chose the modal verb might to finish the sentence. Six pupils answered may, two of them the verb could and only one pupil chose as his/her answer the verb can.

All in all, the sentence showed that Czech pupils prefer to use the least certain modal verb might (out of the four modal verbs can, could, may, might) as 48% of pupils filled it in. They might have felt or known that it is possible to use any of the tested modal verbs and consequently they might have chosen the one that they use the least often to vary in their answers. The next verb which was used quite often was the modal may (19 pupils – 29%) and then the verb could (11 pupils – 17%). The modal verb can, which should not really be used for the sentence, was used only by 4 pupils.

35 32 30

25 19 20

15 11 10 4 5

can could may might

Graph 4 The use of modal verbs in sentence 7 - Possibility

Sentence 8: My niece ___ go to university in the US the next year.

The sentence illustrates the use of modal verbs to express future possibility. For the case, it is possible to use the modal verb may, might and could when for example the verb may expresses the higher level of certainty that the verb might. The verb can is used for general possibilities (e.g. It can snow in winter, in the Czech Republic.) but in this case – it should not be used.

My niece ___ go to university in the US the next year.

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 2 1 5 7 13 2

6th grade 4 1 11 10 22 4

7th grade 0 3 10 12 25 0

Tab. 12 Results of testing sentence 8

The fifth-graders seemed to prefer the use of the modal verb might to complete the sentence as seven pupils (47%) from the fifth grade filled it in. Five pupils (33%) filled in the modal verb may, one of them the verb could and only two pupils were wrong when they chose as the missing verb can. They might have been mistaken by the translation of the verb can (which is usually translated in Czech as moci) or by the possibility to use the modal verb can to mention things or actions that are possible to happen in the future.

Pupils from the sixth grade were more often wrong when they chose the verb can into sentence number eight. Four pupils decided to fill it in the sentence and again, the might have been mistaken by several factors. Essential part of the sixth-graders (may: 11 pupils – 42%; might: 10 pupils – 38%) decided to use either the modal verb may, or its less certain option might. Only one pupil filled in the verb could.

The oldest tested group of pupils – the seventh-graders, seemed to be the most familiarized with the rule of not using the modal verb can for future possibilities (as no one used it). The majority of the grade – 12 pupils, filled in the modal verb might, ten pupils chose the verb may and only three seventh-graders decided to use the verb could to complete the sentence.

To sum up the results regarding sentence number eight, dealing with the use of modal verbs to express future possibility, a few pupils were wrong with their choice of the verb can. The majority of pupils filled in the modal verbs might (29 out of 66 pupils) or may (26 out of 66 pupils). The most commonly used modal verb might expresses at the same time the least certain possibility. The choice of the use of modal verbs for the sentence seemed to be quite random and pupils might just guess the missing modal following their intuition.

35 29 30 26 25

10 6 5 5

can could may might

Graph 5 The use of modal verbs in sentence 8 – Future possibility

Sentence 9: If I ___ add something to the conversation…

The sentence demonstrates the use of modal verbs can and could which can help a participant of conversation to be polite even if he/she wants to interrupt anyone and say something to add it to the conversation. In this case, the use of the modal verb could is even more polite than use of can during any conversation.

If I ___ add something to the conversation…

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 4 6 1 4 10 5

6th grade 6 11 5 4 17 9

7th grade 6 11 4 4 17 8

Tab. 13 Results of testing sentence 9

Pupils from the fifth grade preferred the use of the modal verb could (as 6 of them filled it in the gap). Four fifth-graders (27%) wanted to use the modal verb can and the same amount the modal might. The last one person chose the verb may as to be a missing word.

Results of the sixth-graders were much more clear as eleven pupils (42%) used the verb could in sentence number nine. Six of them chose the verb can, five pupils the modal verb may and four might.

The oldest pupils from the grammar school filled in the sentence almost identically to the sixth-graders. The only difference was that not five, but four students used the modal verb may as a missing verb. All in all, six pupils (24%) chose the modal verb can, eleven (44%) the verb could, four (16%) the verb may and four (16%) might.

To sum up the sentence dealing with the use of modal verbs to introduce what we want to say, 67% of all tested pupils knew how to use them correctly (as they chose either the modal verb can or could as a correct answer). The favourite modal verb to use was the verb could (used by 28 pupils), then the verb can (used by 16 pupils). May was used by 10 pupils and the modal verb might by 12. The use of modals for introduction is not really taught during lessons at school so pupils must have guessed a suitable modal for the sentence.

30 28

20 16 15 12 10 10

can could may might

Graph 6 The use of modal verbs in sentence 9 – Introducing what we want to say

Sentence 10: My mother told me that I ___borrow her clothes anytime I want to.

The sentence describes reported permission for which the modal verbs could and might can be used. Because of the rules for reported speech, the verbs can or may cannot be used (as their sense is shifted: can changes to could, may changes to might and both could and might stay in the same form).

My mother told me that I ___borrow her clothes anytime I want to.

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 11 1 3 0 1 14

6th grade 16 6 1 3 9 17

7th grade 17 5 3 0 5 20

Tab. 14 Results of testing sentence 10

The issue of reported permission seems not to be really familiar to pupils from the fifth grade. The absolute majority of 73% determined the modal verb can to be the missing word in the sentence. Three other pupils filled in the modal may and only one of them used a correct option – the modal verb could.

The sixth-graders seemed to be more successful when dealing with the choice of modal verbs for reported permission. Nine pupils (35%) chose a correct option (either the modal verb could or might) while the rest of them – 17 pupils (65%) were wrong as they wanted to use modal verbs can or may.

Pupils of the seventh grade preferred to use the modal verb can for the sentence number ten as 17 pupils out of 25 (68%) used it. Five pupils (20% of the seventh grade) used the modal verb could to complete the sentence and three of them the verb may.

All in all, surprisingly, the majority of all pupils (67%) obviously preferred using the modal verb can. Only twelve pupils (18%) chose to use the modal could, seven of them (11%) the verb may and the rest – three pupils filled in the modal verb might. Regarding the correctness, only 23% of all tested pupils completed sentence number ten (dealing with the use of modal verbs for reported permission) correctly with the use of the modal could or might. The sentence proves the fact that pupils learning English follow their instincts rather than learning exact rule for using modal verbs or the fact that they did not learn the rules previously during lessons.

50 44 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 12 10 7 5 3 0

can could may might

Graph 7 The use of modal verbs in sentence 10 – Reporting permission

8.2.2 Test: Exercise 2

Exercise number 2 comprised four sentences for translation from Czech into English. The sentences aimed to test pupils’ choice of modal verbs can, could, may or might (or their negations).

Sentence 1: Můžu si půjčit tvou knihu ?

Sentence number one tested translation of a sentence dealing with the use of modal verbs for asking permission. Use of all four modal verbs can, could, may and might is possible and depends only on speaker’s or writer’s aim to be polite or hesitant.

Můžu si půjčit tvou knihu ?

can could may might

5th grade 14 0 1 0

6th grade 19 1 6 0

7th grade 15 2 7 1

Tab. 15 Results of testing sentence 1 (Ex. 2)

The most preferred modal verb for the sentence was the verb can. Fifth-graders used it 14 times (93% of pupils used it) and only one of them translated the sentence with the use of the modal verb may, which can be also considered as more hesitant and polite than the verb can.

Similarly to the fifth-graders, pupils from the sixth grade used the most often the modal verb can – 19 pupils (73%). One pupil wanted to be a little more polite so she/he decided to fill in the verb could and six other pupils from the sixth grade (23%) chose the use of the modal verb may.

One of the sixth-graders used the most hesitant modal verb might to translate the sentence number one. Two pupils used the verb could, seven of them the verb may. The majority – 15 pupils (60%) preferred the modal verb can to translate the sentence dealing with asking permission.

To conclude translation of the sentence number one, dealing with asking permission, the great majority of all tested pupils decided to translate the sentence with the use of the modal verb can (as 48 out of 66 pupils used it = 73%). It means that they are used to employ the least polite and hesitant modal verb out of all four. This type of a sentence, which is asking for permission, is quite commonly used and learnt within English lessons when the phrases are often repeated. Therefore, pupils might be influenced by their tutors’ choice of modal verbs during lessons and conversations. Fourteen tested pupils (21%) chose to use the modal verb may for the sentence. Their use of the modal verb may be considered as more polite and respectful than use of can. Only three pupils would use the modal could and the remaining one pupil the modal verb might. Pupils’ translations of the first sentence were consequently: “Can/could/may/might I borrow your book?”

50 48

20 14

10 3 1 0

can could may might

Graph 8 The use of modal verbs in sentence 1 (Ex.2) – Asking permission

Sentence 2: Mohla by to být velká chyba.

The sentence number two demonstrates the use of modal verbs to express present possibility, in other words, the fact that something is possibly true, now. It is possible to use modal verbs could, may and might.

Mohla by to být velká chyba.

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 0 7 2 6 15 0

6th grade 1 14 4 7 25 1

7th grade 0 11 1 13 25 0

Tab. 16 Results of testing sentence 2 (Ex. 2)

The fifth-graders used the most the modal verb could (47% of the fifth-graders). Six of them (40%) preferred use of might, only two pupils chose the modal verb may.

The great majority of the grade – 14 pupils (54%) preferred the use of the modal verb could, half of the amount (7 pupils – 27%) translated the sentence with the use of the modal might. Only four pupils chose to use the verb may and one used incorrectly the modal can.

Pupils from the seventh grade translated the sentence mainly with the modal verb might (13 pupils – 52% of the grade) and could (11 pupils – 44%). The modal verb may was used only by one pupil, none of them translated the sentence with the use of can.

To sum up pupils’ choice of modal verbs for the sentence dealing with present possibility, the most often used modal was the verb could, which was used by 32 tested pupils (by 48%). The second modal verb was might which pupils chose to use 26 times (by 39% of pupils), then the modal may (which was used by total of 7 pupils – 11%). Can was used only by one pupil, which is in this case considered to be used incorrectly. After being familiarized with the rule of using modal verbs to express the present possibility, pupils seem to randomly pick one of them just according to their own feeling.

Pupils translated the sentence the most often as follows: “It can/could/may/might be a big mistake/fault.” Their translations differed in use of an indefinite article or zero article, use of English translation for the Czech word chyba which varied from mistake, fault or even some made up vocabulary (such as fehl or foul). Pupils also used different translations for the word velká, such as big, huge or great.

35 32

30 26 25

10 7

5 1 0

can could may might

Graph 10 The use of modal verbs in sentence 2 (Ex.2) – Present possibility

Sentence 3: Pojďme ji navštívit, myslím si, že je možná doma.

The sentence analyses the use of modal verbs for present possibility (again), this time in combination with introductory part of a sentence. For this type of epistemic modality, there may be used three modal verbs: could, may and might whose use can be evaluated on the scale of certainty.

Pojďme ji navštívit, myslím si, že je možná doma.

can could may might correct wrong

5th grade 2 4 2 7 13 2

6th grade 1 8 3 14 25 1

7th grade 0 8 4 13 25 0

Tab. 17 Results of testing sentence 3 (Ex. 2)

Pupils from the fifth grade used the most often the modal verb might as seven pupils (47%) translated the sentence with it. Four pupils (27%) used the modal could, two of them (13%) the verb can and the same number of the fifth-graders the verb may.

The sixth-graders preferred use of the modal verb might for the sentence dealing with possibility in the present, 14 of them (54%) used it for translation. Eight pupils (31%) chose to use the modal verb could, three pupils (12%) used the modal may and only one the modal verb can.

Seventh-graders’ use of modal verbs was almost identical to sixth-graders’. 13 pupils (52% of the seventh-graders) translated the possibility sentence using the modal verb might. Eight pupils (32%) decided to use the modal verb could and the rest – four pupils (16%) chose the modal may.

All in all, the most preferred modal verb, which demonstrates present possibility, was the modal might which was used 34 times – in 52% of cases. The verb is at the same time the least certain option out of all the four modal verbs can, could, may and might. The second most frequently used modal verb was could which was used by 20 tested pupils (30% of tested pupils). Only nine pupils (14%) decided to use the modal may to translate the sentence and the rest – three pupils chose can, which is the most certain to express possibility. The repeated occurrence of a sentence expressing present possibility was applied to observe pupils’ behaviour in translating the same rule twice in a row. According to the results, their use of modal verbs was almost identical to the previous sentence dealing with present possibility.

The majority of all tested pupils translated the third sentence as follows: “Let’s visit her, I think that she could/may/might be at home.” Of course, a few sentences were formed incorrectly – with a grammar mistake.

35 34

25 20 20

10 9

5 3

can could may might

Graph 11 The use of modal verbs in sentence 3 (Ex.2) – Present possibility

Sentence 4: Nemohl ten telefon koupit, neměl dost peněz.

Sentence number four might have been tricky for some pupils as it tested wider knowledge of modal verbs. The sentence expresses negative possibility in the past, it means that only two versions of modal verbs may be used – could not/couldn’t and might not/mightn’t. However, the two modals differ in meaning. While “He couldn’t buy the phone.” means that it was impossible for him to buy the phone, the translation “He mightn’t buy the phone.” means that it is possible that he did not buy it. That implies that for the fourth sentence, the modal verb couldn’t should have been used.

Nemohl ten telefon koupit, neměl dost peněz.

can’t couldn’t may not mightn't anything else correct wrong

5th grade 3 12 0 0 0 12 3

6th grade 2 23 1 0 0 23 3

7th grade 1 23 0 0 1 23 2

Tab. 18 Results of testing sentence 4 (Ex. 2)

From the table, it is clear that the fifth-graders preferred to translate the sentence with the modal verb couldn’t (as 80% of pupils from the fifth grade used it). Only three pupils (20%) used can’t and it means that they chose an incorrect option.

The majority of the pupils from the sixth-grade – 23 people (88% of the sixth-graders) used the modal verb couldn’t to translate the sentence dealing with negative past possibility. Only two pupils from the grade used the modal can’t and the last one of them may not.

23 pupils (92%) from the seventh grade translated the sentence using the negative modal verb couldn’t, only one pupil (4%) can’t and there was also one pupil who ignored the instructions for the exercise (to use modal verbs can, could, may, might or their negative forms). One pupil translated the sentence “Nemohl ten telefon koupit…“ as follows: “He hasn’t bought the phone….” It means that he/she did not follow the instructions and the sentence was not translated correctly as it does not have the same meaning as its Czech version.

To sum up translations of sentence number four, the great majority of all tested pupils knew that it is correct to use the option couldn’t – 58 pupils (88%) chose it. Six other pupils (9%) translated the sentence with use of can’t and only one pupil may not. The last one person used an extra translation which was not meant to be used. It is clear that pupils are aware of the fact that the past can be expressed either by the verb could or might (or their negative forms).

The most frequent translation of the sentence was therefore: “He couldn’t/could not buy the phone, he didn’t/did not have enough money.” A few pupils made mistakes in the rest of the sentence (besides the modal verb), such as incorrect tense in the second part of the sentence, wrong spelling of the word “enough” or translation which did not correspond to the Czech version of the sentence (e.g. “He hasn’t bought the phone ≠ Nemohl ten telefon koupit.”).

60 58

10 6 1 0 1 0

can't couldn't may not mightn't anything else

Graph 12 The use of modal verbs in sentence 4 (Ex.2) – Past impossibility

8.3 How modal verbs are taught at grammar school in Šlapanice

According to School Education Programme placed in the grammar school’s web page, pupils learn modal verbs almost from the beginning. Pupils work with set of textbooks called Maturita Solutions (different levels) by the Oxford publisher. The way of teaching and learning modal verbs at school influences pupils’ use of modals in their everyday life.

In the second grade (pupils around 13 or 14 years of age), they mention modal verbs in general and the verb can along with adverbs. They can express how they can do anything (e.g. I can run fast.), so pupils in the second grade learn how to use the modal can for abilities in affirmatives, negatives and questions. During the third grade at the grammar school, pupils talk about modal verbs and present tenses expressing future. Fourth-graders get the opportunity to learn a little bit more about modal verbs in general, than the fifth-graders discuss the use of modal for future and also conditionals (where a conditional could is also used). In the sixth-grade, pupils deal with reported speech, along with the revision of modal verbs, again. The reported speech shows them tense shift used for the reported speech, including tense shift of modals. The seventh- grade provides pupils with past tenses in general, along with modals and the phrase used to which is used for events in the past that are no longer true. The last – eight-grade enriches pupils with knowledge of the use of modal verbs to express probability and certainty.

8.4 Results of testing

The test was used not only to obtain information about pupils’ knowledge of English modal verbs, but mainly to analyse their choice of a preferred modal. The sentences which had the only one possible modal verb to be used won’t be assessed according to pupils’ choice but according to the correctness of their choice. The rest of the sentences (which had more possible modals) will be analysed through pupils’ choice of a modal verb. It means that the frequency of choosing a particular modal verb will be analysed only for the sentences allowing the use of multiple modal verbs in order to observe pupils preferences.

To sum up pupils’ attitude towards the test, they seemed to follow the given instructions. They had no problem in filling the exercise one, almost all the gaps were filled in with a modal verb (except for one gap). Concerning the exercise two, pupils tried to be creative when translating the sentences from Czech to English, but at the same time exact and correct. Only a few pupils used wrong words (or even no modal verb) when translating sentences and only one of them did not follow the instructions, at all.

8.4.1 The correctness of the used modal verbs

For the sake of analysing the correctness of the used modal verbs, only sentences with restricted option of modal verbs can be utilised. From the exercise one, sentences one, two, three, seven, eight, nine and ten will be evaluated according to pupils’ correct or incorrect use. From the exercise two focused on translation, all of the sentences can be analysed, except for the first one.

All in all, the results of testing proved that the age and level of learners affect their knowledge of English modal verbs. The youngest pupils (from the fifth grade) had the total success rate of 75.4% regarding the correctness of modal verbs used into sentences with various rules. The sixth-graders filled a modal verb successfully in 81.1% cases, while the seventh-graders’ total success rate was 82%. It shows that pupils gradually learn the grammar of modal verbs and with time they become stronger.

The sentence with the highest percentage of the success rate was sentence number two from Exercise 2 which was dealing with present possibility. The success rate for the sentence was 98.7% (65 pupils used a correct modal, 1 pupil used a wrong one). The next very successful sentence was sentence number one from the Exercise 1. The sentence dealing with the use of the modal verb can for present abilities was filled in correctly by 64 pupils, it means that its success rate was 96.3%. The third most successful sentence (regarding the correctness) was sentence number seven from the exercise one. The use of modal verb could, may or might seemed to be quite familiar to pupils, as 94.7% of the tested pupils filled the gap with a correct option. With almost identical success rate as the previous sentence (94,3%) pupils managed to translate the sentence 4 from Exercise 2 which was dealing with the use of modal verbs to express past impossibility. Fifty-eight pupils were able to use the negative forms of either could or might and thus the rule of using the two modals to express the past tense seemed to be familiar to them.

As the least successful sentence can be considered sentence number ten from the exercise one which covers the rule of using modals for reported permission. Pupils were lost when dealing with tense shift used for reported speech. In the sentence, only 20.7% pupils filled in a correct modal verb which means that 15 pupils were correct and 51 wrong when choosing a suitable modal into the sentence. The other sentences might be considered as successfully filled in because more than a half of the pupils used a correct modals for them. However, the sentence dealing with giving permission had the success rate 64.7%. The pupils seemed to have a problem choosing a modal verb to be used as an answer to a question: “Could I go there with you?”. The most frequently, they got confused by the use of the modal could which might have been supported by the preceding question. The next problematic sentence was sentence nine from Exercise one, which was dealing with the use of modals for introducing what we want to say during conversation. Its incorrectness might have been caused by the fact that the rule for using modals for such situations is not really taught at schools. Lastly, in sentence number three from the Exercise 1, twelve pupils used incorrectly the modal verbs can, may or might. The sentence “Tom ___ play the piano when he was a little kid.“ expressing the past ability requires the use of the modal could. For this sentence, I am not really sure what could have caused pupils‘ confusion about the correct use of a modal verb in the past ability sentence.

70 65 64 62 63 60 58 60 54 51 50 44 44 40

30 22 22 20 15 12 8 10 4 6 2 1 3 0 Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence 1 2 3 7 8 9 10 2 (Ex.2) 3 (Ex.2) 4 (Ex. 2)

correct wrong

Graph 13 The correctness of the used modal verbs

8.4.2 The choice of modal verbs

The most common perception of the use of modal verbs by Czech people learning English is that they most often use the modal can (or its negative form cannot) even when the use of can is considered to be incorrect for the sentence. It is the first modal to be taught during English lessons at school or in textbooks and subsequently used the most naturally in conversations.

To make conclusion of testing, only the sentences with several possible choices of modal verbs were used for the analysis. They were chosen in such a way that pupils could choose their preferred modal verbs according to their own feeling, intention and the way they wanted the modal verb to give the sentence a particular meaning.

On the basis of the obtained results of testing, it has been proved that the most used modal verb out of can, could, may or might is the modal can or its negative form (pupils decided to use it in the tested sentences 229 times). The modal verb could/could not was used altogether 201 times in several sentences so it was the second most often used modal verb out of the tested ones. The next place belongs to the modal may/may not which was used 148 times within the constructed test. The least common modal verb to be used was the verb might/might not – it was chosen only 147 times within the test but there was almost no difference in the use of modal verb may or might.

The great majority of pupils used the modal verb can in sentence number five as it was used 51 times out of the total 66 times. It means that the prototypical phrase: “Can I help you?” really influences pupils’ choice of a modal verb for this particular situation – offering help. The second case of the most common usage of the modal can was in sentence ten which is dealing with reported permission. Surprisingly, even though the modal verb can was used very often in the sentence, it is considered to be incorrect. Because of the tense shift, the modals could or might are used for reported speech so the sentence proves that pupils do not have general knowledge of the grammar. However, from the School Education Programme of grammar school in Šlapanice, pupils should learn reported speech along with modal verbs in the sixth-grade. The sixth and seventh- graders should therefore be familiar with the grammatical rules for the reported speech. Another sentence with high occurrence of the verb can was the first sentence from exercise two where a modal verb expresses asking for permission. As mentioned before, the use of any modal verb can, could, may or might is possible and it expresses speaker’s/writer’s intention to be polite and hesitant. The sentence proves that pupils 70 used to the least polite and hesitant modal can for asking permission. Contrarily, the modal verb can was used only once in sentence two from Exercise 2 – dealing with the choice of a modal verb to express present possibility. Pupils showed that they are familiar with the fact that can should not be really used when applying this rule. Sentence 6 showed that the modal verb can is used with the same frequency (by 30 pupils) as the modal could. The sentence ___ I go out with Susan?, which is dealing with the use of modal verbs to ask permission proved that pupils prefer to use the least polite modals can and could, even when there is a possibility to use all can, could, may or might.

According to the test performed at grammar school Šlapanice, the findings are that the modal verbs may and might are the least used ones (as the modal may was used only 148 times and might 147 times). On the basis of my observations of the School Education Programme the two least used modal verbs are least often discussed, unlike the modal verb can.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

can/cannot could/could not may/may not might/might not anything else

Graph 14 Total use of modal verbs and their negative forms in the sentences

250 229 201 200 148 147 150

100

can/cannot could/could not may/may not might/might not

Graph 15 Total use of each modal verb by tested pupils

8.4.3 Possible influence of textbooks on modal verbs

The way of using modal verbs by pupils is definitely influenced not only by teachers, but also by textbooks which are used for learning the language. For the sake of finding out the possible impact of textbooks on pupils’ use of modal verbs, three textbooks are analysed: Maturita Solutions – Intermediate Student’s Book, New Headway – Intermediate Student’s Book and New English File-Intermediate Student’s Book. Randomly selected numbers of units (1 and 4) aimed to analyse the occurrence of modal verbs can, could, may and might in the textbooks.

Units 1 (called “Caught on camera”) and 4 (called “Body and mind”) from Maturita Solutions showed that the modal verb can (or its negative form) is the most frequently used modal in the book. It was used in the two units 36 times, while the modal verb could only 9 times, the modal may once and might 5 times. The modal verbs can, could, may and might in general, were used to give instructions, in texts, dialogues, to describe grammar rules and in exercises. Their aim was to express ability, possibility, permission or offer.

New Headway – Intermediate Student’s Book, in which the analysed units were unit 1 (called “It’s a wonderful world”) and unit 4 (called “Doing the right thing”), showed similar results as the first textbook – Maturita Solutions. The modal verb can (or its negative form) was used the most frequently – in total 27 times. It was used to express abilities, giving permission, offers, requests and the most commonly to express possibility. The modal could was used 6 times, and both may and might only once. All modal verbs were found in various exercises, when giving instructions to learners or 72 when describing rules. In unit four, which was dealing with modal verbs, only the modal verb can was introduced to learners for describing possibility.

The third analysed textbook – New English File showed that the most frequently used modal verb in the book is definitely can along with its negative form can’t/cannot, which was used within the two units 39 times. The modal verb could was used 15 times, may 3 times and the modal might only twice. The modal can was used not only to express abilities and requests, but also and most often to express possibilities. It was frequently used in the instructions, exercises or texts.

To sum up the use of modal verbs in textbooks, it seems that can is preferred in all the units and it is used the most frequently. In comparison with the previously made evaluation of the tested pupils from grammar school in Šlapanice (which clearly showed up that pupils use the modal verb can the most frequently) – this analysis proves that pupils might be noticeably influenced by occurrence of modal verbs in textbooks. The majority of textbooks provide learners with inclination to use the modal verb can or could in their everyday life as they use these modals the most often. The following graph showing the frequency of used modal verbs in textbooks corresponds to the results of testing pupils at grammar school in Šlapanice.

120 102 100

40 30

20 5 8 0

can/cannot could/could not may/may not might/might not

Graph 16 Total use of each modal verb in the textbooks

8.4.4 Comparison with the British National Corpus

Desagulier (2017: 3) describes a corpus as follows: “A corpus (plural corpora) is a body of material (textual, graphic, audio and/or video) upon which some analysis is based. Several disciplines make use of corpora: linguistics of course, but also literature, philosophy, art, and science.” Each corpus has to be relevant, natural, balanced and representative (ibid.) The British National Corpus is a collection of both written and spoken language from variety of sources, comprising 100 million words (British National Corpus, n.d.)

The results from the research made at grammar school in Šlapanice along with the analysis of frequency of modal verbs in textbooks can be compared to the British National Corpus and its results connected to the frequency of using modal verb can and could. A little difference was in the use of the modal verbs may and might when the occurrence of the verb might was the least frequent. The modal can is in the corpus also considered to be the most frequent one – used 229, 823 times. The modal could is in the British National Corpus described to be used 158, 325 times, the modal verb may 125, 565 times and might 58, 817 times.

8.4.5 Teaching modal verbs as a grammar feature

Teachers and pupils should concentrate on teaching and learning modal verbs which might seem difficult or not really important for Czech native speakers. Contrarily, it is necessary to immerse in the grammar of English modal verbs as it may be mixed up with the Czech language and it rules for using modal verbs. The efficiency is very important for teaching grammar at school because of the limited time given in lessons for each part of grammar or vocabulary. It is connected to pupils’ motivation to learn, their attention, understanding and memory. Another principle for grammar teaching is the appropriacy including the level and age of the learners, their needs, interests, the size and the constitution of the group, etc. Each teacher or tutor can decided whether to teach grammar deductively or inductively and consequently to choose different steps and methods (Thornbury 2000: 25-29). They may utilize a variety of books which provide them with plenty of exercises along with summary of grammar rules, such as: Basic grammar in use by Murphy and Smalzer, English grammar in use by Murphy or Nejčastější chyby v angličtině: a jak se jich zbavit by Poslušná.

9 Czech translation of modal verbs may, might, can, could by Linguee

9.1 Linguee

Linguee is a bilingual online translation aid which provides people with possibility to search in certain sources for a text which have 2 parallel translations in two languages. After typing a word, the system searches through reliable sources to find a translation along with the context the word is located in. It provides translation from English to German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Czech and many other languages (Linguee: Dictionary for German, French, Spanish, and more, n.d.)

9.2 Translations at Linguee

For this part of research, I used the web page Linguee: Dictionary for German, French, Spanish, and more which allowed me to observe and analyse the most frequent translations of modal verbs can, could, may and might from English into the Czech language. The translations from reliable sources provided me with the context of the translations for me to be able to compare their possible differences.

9.2.1 The modal verb can

Can was translated as může or lze (whose occurrence was the highest in translations), in the sentences expressing present or general possibility. Another possible translation into Czech was může – again to express possibility. Because the texts are taken from The Official Journal of the European Union, the modal verb can was not used as an indicator of ability or permission but mainly to describe possibilities. The results of searching for the modal can showed connection of the modal with the conditional word if and therefore translated as lze-li. Its negative form cannot/can’t is through the web page translated into Czech as nelze, nemohou, nemůže, nesmí when I can claim that the translation nemůže is used the most frequently. Apart from the former translations, cannot can be translated into the Czech language by totally different words (not including anything like nemůže, nelze, etc.), due to some established phrases and collocations used in the official style. The example of the given translation from

Linguee (Linguee: Dictionary for German, French, Spanish, and more, n.d.) is given below:

“... and thereby making a transaction that is subject to value added tax under that directive subject also to those other taxes, provided that the latter cannot be characterised as turnover taxes.”

“… budoucí stavební práce a aby tím operaci, která podle šesté směrnice podléhá dani z přidané hodnoty, zatížil těmito dalšími daněmi, pokud tyto daně nemají povahu daní z obratu.” (ibid.)

9.2.2 The modal verb could

Linguee mentions the modal verb could mainly in sentences expressing possibility. Czech translations use the words mohl (by), mohla (by), mohlo (by), mohly (by), může, lze but the source provides us with different translations of the modal verb could, for which no particular pattern can be given:

“…in which it is proposed that the Regional Initiatives could play a key role…” ~ “…v němž navrhla, aby regionální iniciativy hrály klíčovou roli…” (Linguee.com, n.d.)

Its negative forms could not/couldn’t Linguee translates as nemohl (by), nemohla (by), nemohly (by), nemůže, nelze, nebylo možné. Again, the modal verb is used within texts to describe a certain level of possibility – in this case, impossibility, as demonstrated below:

“…in order to respect the dignity of persons who could not provide readable fingerprints…” ~ “…aby byla respektována důstojnost osob, které by nemohly poskytnout čitelné otisky prstů…” (ibid.)

9.2.3 The modal verb may

The modal verb may is very frequently translated from English into Czech as může. Other translations that are mentioned at the web page are: lze, mohou, mohla být. An example of a different Czech translation is stated below:

“…preclude the possibility that a third country national illegally staying in a Member State may be sentenced to a term of imprisonment of up to four years…” ~ “…aby státnímu příslušníku třetí země, jehož pobyt na území členského státu je neoprávněný, byl uložen trest odnětí svobody až na čtyři léta…“ (Linguee: Dictionary for German, French, Spanish, and more, n.d.)

Linguee provides readers with texts that translate the negative form may not as nemůže, nesmí, nemusí, nemusejí, nesmějí, nemohou either unacceptability/prohibition but in some context even the fact that something does not have to be the way it seems to be. The translation is given in the example:

“…the court may not take into account the temporary storage status…” ~ “…soud nesmí při svém posouzení zohlednit, že se zboží nachází v dočasném uskladnění…” (ibid.)

9.2.4 The modal verb might

The modal verb might translated by Linguee as mohou, může, mohly (by), mohlo (by), měla (by) which are used in the texts in order to express present possibility with the smallest level of certainty out of all four modal can, could, may or might.

The negative form of the modal verb might not/mightn’t the texts translate: nemusí, nebylo možné, nemusely, nemuseli, nemusejí, možná ne when the Czech version nemuseli/nemusely is the most frequent one. Might not is at the web page also expressed differently, it can be for example lexicalised as an adjective, as demonstrated in the following example:

“…the Commission does not see a risk that the two other layers might not be operated profitably.” ~ “…je podle Komise nepravděpodobné, že by ostatní dvě vrstvy nebyly provozovány ziskově.” (ibid.)

9.3 Summary of findings from Linguee

The texts including modal verbs may, might, can and could, at the web page Linguee, proved that each modal verb and its negative forms can be translated into Czech by more translations (either literal or non-literal) according to the type of a text, its context or other factors.

The modal verb can is often translated into Czech as lze or může, expressing general or present possibility. Its negative forms cannot and can’t mean in the most cases nemůže, but also nelze, nesmí, nemohou. The modal verb could is translated into the Czech language as mohl/a/o/i/y (by), může and lze when expressing certain level of possibility. Could not or couldn’t are used in the meaning of nemůže, nelze, nemohl/a/o/i/y (by). The next modal – may is frequently translated into Czech as může, but also lze, mohla být or mohou. Again, the style allows the translations to be more diverse than only word-by-word translations. The modal verb might, which expresses being the least certain out of the modal verbs, is translated at Linguee as mohou, může or mohl/a/o/i/y (by). Its negative forms might not and mightn’t are expressed in Czech by nemuseli, možná ne, nebylo možné or even by different translations which do not correspond with the mentioned ones (it may be for example lexicalised as an adjective).

10 Conclusion

The present master’s thesis deals with the use of English modal verbs may, might, can and could by Czech speakers of English. The choice of modals was analysed and tested in the thesis along with frequent translations of the English modal verbs into Czech.

The thesis is divided into two main parts. The first, theoretical part, is devoted to the introduction to verbs, basic information about verbs in general and finally to the modal verbs can, could, may and might. The information is supplemented with examples for better understanding of the topic.

Besides general information which is included in the theoretical part, the thesis deals with classification of verbs, its semantics and verb patterns. After that, it provides information about auxiliary verbs, followed by detailed description of modal verbs, themselves. It means that the thesis describes types of modality, negative forms of modal verbs, forming a question and different situations for using modal verbs in general. In addition to this, this part also deals with history of modals along with the translation into the Czech language.

The second, practical part of the thesis, deals with testing pupils and analysing their use of modal verbs in various sentences. The test consisted of two exercises dealing with modals. The first exercise, comprising ten sentences, had a form of sentences with a gap where pupils were asked to fill in a suitable modal verb. The second exercise included four sentences for translation from Czech to English.

All in all, the modal verb can was the most frequently used modal verb out of the four tested ones – can, could, may, might. It was used 229 times out all counted 726 possibilities to use modal verbs in the constructed test. When analysing the sentences with most frequent use of the modal can, pupils used it the most in three sentences: sentence five dealing with offering help to someone, sentence number ten demonstrating the use of modal verbs for reporting permission (where the verb can was used rather incorrectly) and finally sentence one from exercise two. The sentence, containing modal verbs used to ask permission showed that pupils prefer the least polite and hesitant verb out of the four tested ones. The frequency of using the modal verbs may and might, which were apparently less used that the other two modals, is most likely influenced by the approach of the teachers and the textbook, where they are dealt with less often.

The use of modal verbs by Czech learners is greatly influenced by textbooks that are used within lessons and the frequency of using particular modal verbs. Textbooks Maturita Solutions, New Headway and New English File – Intermediate student’s textbooks showed that the modal verb can is used the most in the units (in Maturita Solutions 36 times within two units, in New Headway 27 times within two units, in New English File 39 times).

In general, the correct use of modal verbs across various grammar rules was summarized by the success rate. The fifth-graders – the least successful grade were able to fill in correct modal verbs with success rate 75.4%. The sixth-graders’ success rate was 81.1% while the success rate of the oldest pupils was 82%.

Another part of the practical research, based on the web page Linguee and its literal and non-literal translations of the English modal verbs can, could, may, might into Czech, revealed that the modal can is very often translated as lze or může. The modal verb could means frequently mohl/a/o/i/y and may is translated into Czech as může. The last modal verb – might represents most frequently the verb mohl/a/o/i/y by. All in all, translations at Linguee contain mainly modal verbs expressing possibility or impossibility due to the fact that it is based on official documents from The Journal of the European Union.

This master’s thesis might be useful for me, as I could use the obtained result in my future personal and mainly professional life. It might show me the way I could work with modal verbs in general and possibly also some problematic features I must work on even more. It could also be helpful for English teachers because it might show them what to improve in teaching and what they should concentrate on due to the frequent confusion and misapprehension of the pupils. Finally, the thesis might help pupils or people learning English as a foreign language in general. It could give them an impulse what to work on and in which way to enrich one’s lexicon and knowledge of grammar rules.

Resumé

Tato práce pojednává o využívání anglických modálních sloves českými mluvčími, a to u studentů gymnázia ve Šlapanicích, které bylo analyzováno pomocí testu, který byl na tuto problematiku zaměřen. Teoretická část práce obsahuje uvedení do tématu sloves, modálních sloves a pravidel pro jejich užívání, historii a možný překlad do českého jazyka. V následující, tedy praktické části, byla zkoumána četnost užívání jednotlivých modálních sloves a správnost jejich užívání. Tato část obsahuje tabulky, znázorňující četnost užití modálních sloves v celkem 14 větách rozdělených do 2 cvičení. Zjištěné poznatky jsou následně popsány pomocí komentářů a lépe znázorněny grafem. Závěrečné grafy porovnávají četnost užití jednotlivého modálního slovesa, zahrnující také detailnější popis problematické gramatiky modálních sloves. V práci je také porovnáván výskyt modálních sloves v učebnicích anglického jazyka a Britském národním korpusu a možnost, jak tato četnost pravděpodobně ovlivňuje užívání modálních sloves studenty, je následně shrnuta. Diplomová práce se dále zabývá nejčastějšími překlady anglických modálních sloves do češtiny, a to pomocí webové stránky Linguee. Další důležité poznatky, které vyplynuly z praktické části práce, jsou uvedeny v konečném závěru.

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Appendices

Appendix 1

The test distributed to students of the grammar school in Šlapanice

Modal verbs can, could, may, might – TEST

Exercise 1 Fill in the blank with a suitable modal verb can, could, may or might:

1) My mum has been learning Spanish for 5 years now and she _____ speak fluently. 2) Could I go there with you? Yes, you _____. 3) Tom _____ play the piano when he was a little kid. 4) I _____ help you with cleaning, if you like. 5) _____ I help you? 6) _____ I go out with Susan? 7) It _____ be true. 8) My niece _____ go to university in the US the next year. 9) If I _____ add something to the conversation… 10) My mother told me that I _____ borrow her clothes anytime I want to.

Exercise 2 Translate the sentences into English with the use of modal verbs and their negative forms: 1) Můžu si půjčit tvou knihu? 2) Mohla by to být velká chyba. 3) Pojďme ji navštívit, myslím si, že by mohla být doma. 4) Nemohl ten telefon koupit, neměl dost peněz.