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WORKING PAPER 2018-08

Compatibility of mid-level blends in in

Authors: Stephanie Searle & Kristine Bitnere Date: April 16, 2018 Keywords: , emissions, methyl esther (FAME), policy, ,

Executive summary these effects appear to differ with components. The negative impacts sulfur content; palm biodiesel tends to of corrosion are partially offset by Indonesia strongly promotes palm increase emissions when blended in improved lubricity with biodiesel biodiesel consumption with a current low-sulfur diesel (<50 ppm) but can blends, which can reduce wear in target of 20% biodiesel blending at decrease emissions in higher-sulfur moving parts. Biodiesel also present, increasing to 30% in 2020. If diesel (>50 ppm). High-sulfur diesel degrades some types of elastomers met, these targets would require the use is widespread today in Indonesia. and leads to greater deposit forma- use of high biodiesel blends, raising Fuel sulfur content could be an indica- tion and plugging of some vehicle concerns about compatibility with tor of other fuel quality properties that components compared to fossil diesel. Indonesia’s current vehicle fleet. In could influence the effect of biodiesel Overall, studies on whole fuel/ this study, we review evidence on the and vehicle systems find that more impact of biodiesel on emissions of blends on emissions. Indonesia is frequent replacement of various harmful pollutants from vehicles and making a commendable step in moving components such as fuel filters, fuel on vehicle material compatibility. toward cleaner and vehicles with its expected adoption of Euro 4/IV injector nozzles, and seals, as well as Previous reviews have reported that standards starting in 2021, which will potentially more costly components soy and biodiesel increase deliver substantial air quality benefits. central to diesel , is required when operating vehicles on bio- nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions However, our findings suggest that bio- compared to fossil diesel, but that diesel consumption will detract from diesel blends. Based on the available evidence, it thus appears likely that palm biodiesel reduces NOX emis- the air quality benefits of using cleaner sions due to its high level of saturated . We also find that, when meeting Indonesia’s goals to blend compounds. These reviews also report including recent evidence from studies 20%–30% palm biodiesel in its diesel that all types of biodiesel reduce using low-sulfur diesel, rapeseed bio- supply will result in increased vehicle particulate matter (PM), carbon diesel worsens CO and PM emissions maintenance costs. monoxide (CO), and unburned hydro- compared to fossil diesel, and carbon (HC) emissions compared to biodiesel does not provide any benefit Introduction diesel. On the contrary, we find that, with regard to these pollutants. on average, palm biodiesel increases The government of Indonesia has Biodiesel also affects materials used NOX and PM emissions compared to required the blending of biodiesel in fossil diesel when conducting a meta- in vehicle components differently diesel fuel since issuing its first set analysis that includes evidence from than fossil diesel. Compared to diesel, of blending targets in 2008 for the a number of recent studies. There is biodiesel causes greater corrosion in 2008–2025 time frame in its Ministry of substantial variation in results, and several types of metals used in vehicle Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR)

Acknowledgments: This work was generously supported by the Foundation and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. Thanks to Anastasia Kharina, Francisco Posada, Tim Dallman, Ray Minjares, and Felipe Rodriguez for helpful input and reviews.

© INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION, 2018 WWW.THEICCT.ORG COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

Regulation No. 32/2008. The targets B20 or B100, are available, but typi- examines the interaction of fuel quality have been revised several times, and cally at a higher price. and vehicle operation with biodiesel Indonesia currently requires 20% bio- effects on emissions to understand diesel blending, increasing to 30% This study reviews the likely impacts what the likely impacts are of increas- starting in 2020, per MEMR Regulation of Indonesia’s biofuel policy on vehicle ing biodiesel blending in Indonesia No.12/2015. Historically, these targets consumers. Whereas previous studies and how those effects may change in have been missed by half or more, have reviewed the impacts of biodiesel the future. and the actual biodiesel blend level in on vehicle emissions and the durability 2016 was around 11% (U.S. Department of components (Hoekman & Robbins, of Foreign Agricultural 2012; U.S. Environmental Protection Effect of biodiesel on , 2017). In October 2017, the Agency [EPA] et al., 2002; Lapuerta, conventional pollutant Indonesian government indicated the Armas, & Rodriguez-Fernandez, 2008; emissions from vehicles move to 30% blending in 2020 may be Haseeb, Fazal, Jahirul, & Masjuki, 2011; Biodiesel has several properties that delayed (Rachman, 2017). Singh, Korstad, & Sharma, 2012), most empirical evidence included in these influence its effect on vehicle emis- The high biodiesel blending levels reviews is from vehicles and fuels in sions. In particular, it has a higher targeted by the government of Europe and the United States, and content, , Indonesia may raise concerns of none of these reviews have addressed density, and , and lower compatibility in vehicles. Although vehicle impacts specifically in the sulfur than diesel (Sivaramakrishnan & biodiesel has some positive charac- Indonesian context. Indonesia’s case Ravikumar, 2012). Review studies gen- teristics for use in diesel vehicles, it is different from biodiesel impacts erally agree that biodiesel usage leads reduces fuel economy, can degrade studied in Europe and the United to a decrease in emissions of CO, PM, and HC, and a modest increase in NO some vehicle components and materi- States for several reasons: X als, and may affect vehicle emissions. emissions (Hoekman & Robbins, 2012; Vehicle manufacturers recommend • The vast majority of biodiesel con- EPA, 2002; Lapuerta et al., 2008). the use of biodiesel blends only up sumed in Indonesia is produced to 5% in the United States and 7% in from , rather than soy oil EFFECT OF BIODIESEL ON NO Europe and Malaysia in regular diesel or rapeseed oils, which are the X EMISSIONS vehicles, and use of higher biodiesel dominant biodiesel feedstocks in blends may void customer warran- many other countries; Whereas most studies measure increases in NO in biodiesel blends ties (, 2005; • Indonesia has a warm climate, X compared to diesel, some studies , n.d.; “ warranty,” 2017). In which has different effects on the addition, the Worldwide Fuel Charter report the opposite. Overall, a viscosity of biodiesel compared to only allows up to 5% biodiesel blending review by EPA (2002) found that countries in cooler climates; in fossil diesel (European Automobile a blend of 20% biodiesel in diesel • Indonesian vehicles tend to have Manufacturers’ Association [ACEA] (B20) increases NOX emissions by et al., 2013). The Indonesian Trucking older than in Europe 2%. This finding was supported by Association Drs Gemilang Tarigan has and the United States; and a later meta-analysis by Hoekman stated that warranties extend to B20 • Indonesia has lower fuel quality, and Robbins (2012). The measured impacts of palm biodiesel on NO for all included in the association in particular higher sulfur content, X (“Greater push,” 2017). However, the than fuel in Europe and the United have been mixed. Some studies have Association of Indonesian Automotive States. reported that palm biodiesel in par-

Manufacturers (Gaikindo) has stated ticular results in a decrease in NOX, that not all vehicles can accept B15 Here, we review the effects of bio- postulating that the high saturation or higher biodiesel blends, and PT diesel—specifically, fatty acid methyl level and cetane number of palm bio- Pertamina, the largest fuel esther—on vehicle component dura- diesel may contribute to this ben- in Indonesia, reports receiving com- bility and conventional pollutant eficial effect (Wirawan et al., 2008; plaints from automotive producers emissions. We do not address other Ng et al., 2011; Kinoshita, Hamasaki, that engines are limited to biodiesel renewable diesel substitutes such as & Jaqin, 2003). On the other hand, blends as low as 12.5% (Cahyafitri & hydrotreated (HVO). others have reported that palm bio-

Yulisman, 2015). Vehicles specially This study focuses on palm biodiesel diesel increases NOX compared to designed for higher blends, such as where information is available, and fossil diesel (Acevedo & Mantilla,

2 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

2011; Vedaraman, Puhan, Nagarajan, & 140% Velappan, 2011; Fattah, Masjuki, Kalam, Mofijur, & Abedin, 2014; Karavalakis, 120% Bakeas, Fontaras, & Stournas, 2011). 100% In particular, Acevedo and Mantilla (2011) measured 30%–130% higher 80% NO compared to fossil diesel when X 60% combusting 100% palm biodiesel in a heavy-duty . We identi- compared to diesel 40% X fied and reviewed eight studies that 20% specifically tested exhaust emis- sions using palm biodiesel in light- 0% duty vehicles or engines and one study that tested palm biodiesel in a Change in NO -20% heavy-duty engine (references listed -40% in Appendix). We compared emis- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% sions of NO and other pollutants X Biodiesel blend from combusting biodiesel blends to Figure 1. Effect of palm biodiesel on NO emissions at varying blend levels compared to those of pure diesel in each study, X and listed all combinations of blend fossil diesel in light-duty vehicles and engines. level, engine or vehicle, and test cycle 60% as separate observations. The differ- ence in NOX between biodiesel blends 40% and fossil diesel is shown in Figure 1. Positive values indicate the bio- 20% diesel blend resulted in higher NOX than fossil diesel, whereas negative 0% values indicate biodiesel reduced NOX

compared to diesel -20% compared to diesel. We perform a X Rapeseed linear regression with the change in -40% Soy NOX emissions using the biodiesel blend compared to diesel and the -60% Linear (Rapeseed) biodiesel blend level. For all similar Linear (Soy) regressions presented in this study, Change in NO -80% we fix the intercept at 0 and consider 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% significant relationships to be indi- Biodiesel blend level cated when p<0.05, and only present Figure 2. Efect of soy and rapeseed biodiesel on NOX emissions at varying blend levels regression lines in our figures where compared to fossil diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines. such relationships are statistically sig- nificant. We find a statistically sig- compared to fossil diesel. However, it from soy oil and soy oil blends (e.g., nificant positive relationship between should be noted that this regression ) significantly increase palm biodiesel blend level and NOX is heavily influenced by the results NOX compared to fossil diesel when emissions in these compiled results in Acevedo and Mantilla (2011), and examining data from both light-duty (Figure 1), although similar to other that if the data from that study were and heavy-duty vehicles and engines reviews, we find high variability in omitted, we would find no relation- (Figure 2). The effect of soy biodiesel results. In contrast to conclusions on NO emissions appears to be ship between the biodiesel NOX effect X drawn from some of the few indi- and palm biodiesel blend level. stronger than the effect for rapeseed vidual experimental studies listed oil, in agreement with previous previously, when examining all of the Similar to the effects of palm biodiesel research reviewed in Hoekman and available data, it appears that palm blends, we find that biodiesel blends Robbins (2012). Although we have biodiesel increases NOX emissions produced from rapeseed oil and included many studies on the effects

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 3 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

of soy and rapeseed biodiesel on to overall higher NOX formation have been shown to exhibit higher exhaust emissions, we do not consider compared to the more drawn adiabatic flame temperature than our review to be exhaustive for these out and softer tem- saturated compounds, but there feedstocks. There is some evidence perature peaks that would be is little evidence showing that this concerning emissions for biodiesel expected with delayed injection. is a significant effect in NOX emis- produced from other feedstocks, such Supporting this theory, Monyem sions with biodiesel. as used and animal , but and Gerpen (2001, as cited • “Prompt NO ” formation. “Prompt there are not sufficient data to justify in Lapuerta et al., 2008) found a X NOX” is caused by the reaction of a meta-analysis for these feedstocks. correlation between the start of HC fragments with nitrogen (N ), injection and NO emissions, inde- 2 X typically under fuel-rich condi- pendent of the fuel used. In fact, POTENTIAL MECHANISMS OF tions. There is theoretical reason delayed injection has been used as NO EFFECTS to expect unsaturated compounds X a strategy for reducing NO emis- X to produce more HC radicals, and It is not well understood why biodiesel sions in diesel vehicles (Minami, thus for biodiesel—especially that blending affects NO . The increase in X Takeuchi, & Shimazaki, 1995; which has been produced from NO with biodiesel content that is X Tanabe, Kohketsu, & Nakayama, feedstocks with a high proportion observed in most studies is likely due 2005). However, Lapuerta et al. of unsaturated fats, such as soy to a combination of effects that are (2008) report that other experi- oil—to produce more NO from reviewed in Lapuerta et al. (2008) X ments maintaining constant injec- HC radicals. However, there is little and Hoekman and Robbins (2012): tion timing still find higher NO for x experimental evidence to support biodiesel, suggesting that injec- this theory. Moreover, as discussed • Advanced . tion timing cannot be the only in more detail below, total HC emis- Biodiesel has lower compress- for higher NO . ibility and higher speed of sound X sions for biodiesel are less than than diesel. As a result of these • Reduced radiative heat loss those of fossil diesel fuel. factors, in mechanically operated through lower soot formation. As • Higher oxygen availability during fuel injection systems (the most further described below, biodiesel combustion. Biodiesel contains popular among pre-Euro 4/IV produces less particulate matter, more oxygen than diesel fuel, systems) increases more or soot, than fossil diesel. Soot which may increase the reaction formation absorbs heat and thus quickly with biodiesel, forcing of oxygen with N2 to produce NOX. the valve to respond to some extent reduces There is some evidence, reviewed more quickly and ejecting the temperature during and after com- in Lapuerta et al. (2008), that fuel into the cylinder earlier than bustion. As reviewed in Hoekman enriching air with oxygen and Robbins (2012), there is some with regular diesel. Because of a increases NOX. However, this rela- slightly earlier injection, biodiesel experimental evidence to support tionship is weaker, or nonexistent, has a longer residence time in this theory. However, Schonborn for increased oxygen contained the cylinder before compression (2008, 2009, as cited in Hoekman within fuel molecules compared begins and the fuel ignites. This and Robbins, 2012) found simul- to enriched oxygen content of air. additional residence time allows taneous increases in both PM and NO with the combustion Understanding these mechanisms may the fuel and air to mix more thor- X of some biodiesel species, sug- help elucidate why there is so much oughly, leading to more intense variability in NO emissions from palm gesting that reduced soot forma- X combustion, and thus heat release, biodiesel. Although the available data tion cannot be the sole mecha- once ignition begins. This period indicate that palm biodiesel increases nism of increased NO emissions. of intense heat release leads to X NO emissions overall, compared to Furthermore, across the studies X higher peak temperatures in the fossil diesel, some studies report a cylinder, although the duration of analyzed here, we do not observe NOX reduction with palm biodiesel. heat release and high tempera- any relationship between PM and NO . A negative correlation would tures is likely shorter compared X • Higher cetane number (CN) off- be expected if reduced PM were to later injection. NO formation setting advanced injection. The X a strong driver of increasing NO . increases exponentially with tem- X high CN of palm biodiesel may perature, and thus a short period • Higher adiabatic flame temper- partially or completely mitigate of very high temperatures leads ature. Unsaturated compounds advanced fuel injection. CN is

4 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

defined as the inverse of the time NOX formation, are thought to be saturated than soy and rapeseed oils; delay between the start of fuel a result of the high level of unsat- however, we find a greater increase

injection and the start of com- urated fatty acids in some feed- in NOX emissions with palm bio- bustion; higher CN thus indicates stocks (e.g., soy). These effects diesel compared to diesel than with a shorter delay from injection to potentially could be mitigated or soy biodiesel or rapeseed biodiesel combustion (ignition delay). It erased with the relatively high compared to diesel, so other factors should be understood, however, saturation level of palm oil when must be determining the relationship

that CN is not necessarily com- used as a feedstock for biodiesel. between feedstock and NOX effect. pletely correlated with actual ignition delay. CN is determined Regardless of the specific mecha- Other factors such as the quality of by the chemical composition of nism involved, saturation level of bio- the base diesel fuel may affect the fuel, and the actual ignition delay diesel feedstocks appears to be tied relationship between biodiesel and may vary for any given CN fuel if to NOX. Several studies find higher NOX. In its 2002 review, EPA found injection timing is changed. For NOX with lower saturation level and greater NOX increases when biodiesel example, rapeseed, which is also shorter fatty acid chain length when was blended into “clean” diesel fuels known as canola, or soy biodiesel testing multiple biodiesel feedstocks with lower aromatics, higher cetane with a CN similar to diesel, per (Graboski, McCormick, Alleman, & number, lower density, and lower dis- Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar Herring, 2003; McCormick, Graboski, tillation temperatures compared to (2012), would be expected to Alleman, & Herring, 2001; Lapuerta “average” fuels. In our analysis, we result in a longer ignition delay et al., 2008; Pala-En, Sattler, Dennis, find a particularly strong influence of than fossil diesel because of Chen, & Muncrief, 2013). Saturation the base fuel sulfur content on the advanced injection. Palm bio- level may be directly related to some biodiesel NOX effect: biodiesel results diesel has a higher CN than fossil potential mechanisms of NOX effects in the greatest increase in NOX when diesel, and so ignition would be previously discussed, such as adia- blended in low-sulfur fuels (<50 ppm expected to occur sooner than batic flame temperature and prompt S), with a reduced NOX increase for for diesel for any given injection NOX, and also is correlated with CN. biodiesel blended in moderately high- timing. The higher CN of palm can serve as an indica- sulfur fuels (50–500 ppm S) and a NOX biodiesel may thus partially or tor for saturation, and several studies reduction when biodiesel is blended in fully offset the earlier timing of have found a relationship between very high-sulfur fuels (>500 ppm S) injection, resulting in a shorter iodine number and NOX (Hoekman (Figure 3). This figure shows data only residence time, and thus lower & Robbins, 2012). Palm oil is more from studies on heavy-duty vehicles or temperature peaks and NO for- X 140% mation, compared to biodiesel Very high sulfur Linear (Very high sulfur) produced from other feedstocks. 120% For fossil diesel fuel, higher CN High sulfur Linear (High sulfur) 100% has been linked with lower NOX Low sulfur Linear (Low sulfur) formation (Lapuerta et al., 2008). 80% Independent of other factors, higher CN for diesel fuel should 60% have an effect similar to delayed 40% in biodiesel vs. diesel

injection in reducing precom- X bustion residence time and thus 20% fuel-air mixing, producing more spread out heat release, softer 0% temperature gradients, and lower -20% Change in NO NOX formation. • High saturation level. Some -40% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% other theoretical mechanisms for Biodiesel blend level increased NOX formation with bio- diesel, including higher adiabatic Figure 3. Effect of base fuel sulfur content on the biodiesel NOX effect in heavy-duty flame temperature and prompt vehicles and engines.

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 5 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

engines, in contrast to the data shown 1.4 High sulfur Low sulfur Linear (Low sulfur) in Figure 1 and Figure 2, which was for 1.2 light-duty vehicles and engines only, because almost all studies included 1 in our light-duty dataset blended 0.8 biodiesel in very low-sulfur diesel. 0.6 We similarly find that with palm bio-

diesel specifically, biodiesel is asso- compared to diesel 0.4 X ciated with greater NO emissions X 0.2 when compared to low-sulfur diesel, but there is no relationship between 0 biodiesel blend level and NOX emis- -0.2

sions when compared to high-sulfur Change in NO -0.4 diesel (Figure 4). Although studies 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% using lower sulfur diesel also tend to Biodiesel blend use emission control — Figure 4. Efect of base fuel sulfur content on the biodiesel NO effect in light- and selective catalytic reduction (SCR), x for example—compared to studies heavy-duty vehicles and engines with palm biodiesel. using higher-sulfur diesel, this did not 40% appear to be a factor in our dataset; in five studies that specifically tested 35% the effect of emission control devices 30% on the biodiesel NOX effect, there was no significant or consistent change in 25% the biodiesel NOX relationship (Sharp, 1996; Sharp, Howell, & Jobe, 2000; 20% compared to diesel

Czerwinski, 2013; Mizushima & Takada, X 15% 2014; Peterson, Taberski, Thompson, & Chase, 2000). Diesel sulfur content 10% could be correlated with the other factors EPA used to identify “clean” 5%

Change in NO B20 B100 Linear (B20) Linear (B100) fuel, listed above, and could be indica- 0% tive of other fuel quality characteristics 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 that affect NOX and other pollutants. In RPM any case, it is not mechanistically clear Figure 5. Effect of engine speed on the biodiesel NO effect in Fattah et al. (2014). why base fuel sulfur content should x affect the relationship between bio- versus diesel depends on engine (Figure 6). Kinoshita et al. (2003) diesel and NOX. speed. Fattah et al. (2014) tested tested both palm and rapeseed bio- 20% and 100% palm biodiesel and diesel and found that palm biodiesel There may be reason to believe that measured increased NO emissions had lower NO than gas oil, which is vehicle operation can change the X X compared to diesel with both blend similar to diesel. Rapeseed biodiesel biodiesel NO effect, although few X levels. The difference in NO emis- had lower or higher NO compared studies have specifically investigated X X the effect of vehicle load or test sions between biodiesel and diesel to gas oil depending on the type increased with engine speeds ranging of engine tested. In Kinoshita et al. cycle on the biodiesel NOX effect. In from 1000 to 4000 rpm (Figure 5). (2003), the NOX benefit of palm bio- general, NOX increases with both load and engine speed. Here, we discuss Like other studies, Fattah et al. (2014) diesel declined with increasing load; whether these relationships change measured a decrease in CO and HC palm biodiesel performed worse in with biodiesel blends compared to with biodiesel compared to diesel. terms of NOX emissions at high loads fossil diesel. Both Fattah et al. (2014) Acevedo and Mantilla (2011) also compared to low loads. However, and Acevedo and Mantilla (2011) found measured the greatest biodiesel NOX Vedaraman et al. (2011) also tested that the change in NOX with biodiesel effect at the highest engine speed palm biodiesel at varying loads and

6 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

did not measure a change in the NOX 140% effect with load. Similarly, load did not have a clear effect on the biodiesel 120%

NOX effect in Acevedo and Mantilla (2011). Thus, although the biodiesel 100% NOX effect appears to worsen with increasing engine speed, it does not 80% appear to depend on load.

These findings may be relevant for compared to diesel 60% X two reasons. NOX emissions in general increase with both load and engine 40% 10% load speed, and this problem could be exac- 25% load erbated if biodiesel NO emissions X 20% 50% load

worsen in particular at high engine Change in NO speed. Secondly, real-world drivers 75% load tend to experience higher engine 0% speeds overall than in commonly used 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 test cycles such as the New European RPM

Driving Cycle (NEDC). Karavalakis, Figure 6. Effect of engine speed on the biodiesel NOx effect in Acevedo and Mantilla (2011). Alvanou, Stournas, and Bakeas (2009) measured the effect of bio- 150% diesel produced from a blend of palm and oils on NO emissions X 100% under two different cycles: the NEDC and the Athens Driving Cycle, which much more closely approxi- 50% mates real-world driving conditions (Tzirakis, Pitsas, Zannikos, & Stournas, 2006). In most cases in Karavalakis et 0% al. (2009), NOX emissions were higher with biodiesel blends compared to -50% diesel, and this effect was greater when using the Athens Driving Cycle

compared to the NEDC. This result Change in HC compared to diesel -100% Palm Rapeseed Soy suggests that biodiesel NOX effects could be worse under real-world Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed) Linear (Soy) driving conditions compared to labo- -150% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% ratory tests, but there is not enough evidence available on the effect of Biodiesel blend driving cycle to draw conclusions. Figure 7. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on HC emissions at varying blend levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines.

PM, CO, AND HC including data from both light- and likely explanation for the reduction Biodiesel also has been known to heavy-duty vehicles, we find a more in HC emissions with biodiesel is that affect other types of pollutant emis- modest but still statistically significant the higher oxygen content of bio- sions (EPA, 2002; Lapuerta et al., reduction in HC of around 20%–40% diesel compared to diesel enables 2008; Hoekman & Robbins, 2012). for biodiesel produced from palm, more complete combustion of the fuel In its review, EPA (2002) found soy, and rapeseed oils when outliers (Lapuerta et al., 2008). that 100% biodiesel (B100) reduces are excluded (Figure 7), although as

HC emissions by around 60%–70% for NOX emissions, there is consid- We also find that CO decreases with compared to diesel. In our analysis, erable variability among studies. A palm biodiesel compared to diesel

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 7 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

(Figure 8). However, contrary to 250% Palm Rapeseed Soy previous findings, we find no statisti- Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed) cally significant response of CO to 200% soy biodiesel blends and detect a sig- nificant increase in CO with rapeseed 150% biodiesel compared to diesel. In its 100% 2002 review, EPA found that biodiesel reduces CO emissions by around 50% 40%–50% compared to diesel. The dataset used in that study included 0% results mainly from soy and rapeseed biodiesel. We note that almost all of -50% the observations finding an increase

Change in CO compared to diesel -100% in CO emissions with biodiesel compared to diesel in our dataset -150% are included in papers published 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% after EPA’s review. Our analysis thus Biodiesel blend suggests that, taking recent data into account, it is not clear that soy and Figure 8. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on CO emissions at varying blend rapeseed biodiesel decrease CO, and levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines in some cases may actually increase 1400% CO. Palm biodiesel, on the other hand, Palm Rapeseed Soy almost uniformly results in lower CO Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed) 1200% compared to diesel, although this overall effect is rather modest, on the order of a 20%–30% reduction. 1000%

PM has also been reported to decrease 800% with biodiesel blends in previous reviews. In a meta-analysis of results 600% from several studies using mostly soy and rapeseed biodiesel, EPA 400% (2002) had also reported a 40%–50% decrease in PM emissions with bio- 200% diesel compared to diesel. Biodiesel Change in PM compared to diesel has been thought to reduce PM in 0% part due to its low sulfur content and also because its higher oxygen -200% content enables more complete com- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% bustion of the fuel (Lapuerta et al., Biodiesel blend 2008). However, we find a statistically Figure 9. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend significant increase in PM emissions levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines. with palm biodiesel and, to a lesser extent, rapeseed biodiesel. We find no Lapuerta et al. 2008 review, which and with around a 500% increase with relationship between biodiesel blend supported EPA’s conclusion that bio- palm biodiesel. These results for palm and PM with soy biodiesel (Figure 9). diesel reduces PM. Although there is biodiesel are heavily influenced by the Again, almost all of the positive very high variability in results on PM data presented in Acevedo and Mantilla responses we saw of PM to biodiesel emissions, the increase in PM with (2011), who report far higher PM emis- were reported in studies more recent rapeseed and palm biodiesel appears sions with palm biodiesel compared than EPA’s 2002 review. Most of these to be rather high, with B100 associ- to diesel. The authors believe that this results are also more recent than the ated with around a 50% increase in PM is because of incomplete combustion

8 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

with palm biodiesel, and speculate 1500% high sulfur low sulfur that other studies may have found Linear (high sulfur) Linear (low sulfur) PM reductions with palm biodiesel 1300% because they may have used filters that only capture larger particles (>2.5 1100% or 10 μm). Palm biodiesel has been found to produce high amounts of 900% particles in a in the range 0.056–0.31 μm, but produced 700% lower PM than diesel if only particles larger than 0.18 μm are considered 500% (Lin, Lee, Wu, & Wang, 2006). If early studies used filters that only captured 300% larger particles, this could explain Change in PM compared to diesel why EPA (2002) and Lapuerta et al. 100% (2008) found that biodiesel reduces

PM overall. -100% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% In fact, when we narrow our analysis Biodiesel blend for rapeseed and soy biodiesel to include only studies published after Figure 10. Effect of biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend levels when compared to EPA’s 2002 review, we observe very high- or low-sulfur diesel in light- and heavy-duty vehicles and engines. different trends from those reported in EPA (2002). For both rapeseed 14 high sulfur low sulfur and soy biodiesel, we find no sig- 12 nificant change in HC with biodiesel Linear (high sulfur) Linear (low sulfur) compared to diesel, and significant 10 positive responses of CO and PM, as 8 well as NOX, with biodiesel compared to diesel. The increases in CO and PM 6 observed across these more recent 4 studies is non-negligible, with emis- sions on the order of 50% greater for 2 B100 compared to diesel. 0 Change in PM compared to diesel We hypothesize that the change in -2 results for soy and rapeseed biodiesel 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% from earlier studies to later studies Biodiesel blend stems from improvements in fuel Figure 11. Effect of palm biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend levels when quality and vehicle technology over compared to high- or low-sulfur diesel in light-duty vehicles and engines. time. For example, biodiesel provides a PM benefit compared to low-quality biodiesel blend and PM compared to We observe a similar effect when diesel with high sulfur content, because diesel when biodiesel is compared to examining only results using palm fuel sulfur content is strongly linked to high-sulfur fuels (>50ppm), and a sta- biodiesel. A PM reduction is observed PM generation. Because biodiesel has tistically significant positive relation- when palm biodiesel is compared to a very low sulfur content, biodiesel ship when biodiesel is compared to high-sulfur diesel, but a PM increase would be expected to produce less low-sulfur fuels (<50ppm) (Figure 10). occurs when comparing palm bio- PM than diesel, especially high-sulfur This finding supports the idea that diesel to low-sulfur diesel (Figure 11). diesel. In fact, pooling data across all the PM reduction benefit of biodiesel Some studies using palm biodiesel feedstocks, we find a statistically sig- disappears and may even be reversed did not specify the base diesel sulfur nificant negative relationship between with lower sulfur, cleaner fuel. content, so for Figure 11 we assumed

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 9 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

that the diesel used in studies con- Furthermore, there is reason to expect moves toward more advanced vehicle ducted in Malaysia and had the effect of palm biodiesel on exhaust technology, the effect of palm bio- sulfur content >50ppm, because at emissions to worsen in the future as diesel on NOX compared to fossil the time the research was likely done, Indonesia moves toward cleaner fuel diesel may worsen. the fuel standards in these countries and vehicles. Indonesia has estab- specified a maximum of 350 or 500 lished a schedule to reduce fuel sulfur It is important to note that conven- ppm sulfur in diesel (Platts, 2017; over time, with a goal to limit sulfur tional pollutant emissions in general India: Fuels: Diesel and , n.d.). in diesel to 50 ppm starting in 2025. will substantially decline as Indonesia (Indonesia: Fuels: Diesel and gasoline, moves to the Euro 4 standard and n.d.) Our analysis finds that the effect lower sulfur fuel. It is very likely that IMPLICATIONS OF EMISSION of palm biodiesel and biodiesel more Indonesia will benefit from a reduction TESTING RESULTS FOR generally on NO and PM emissions in transportation regardless INDONESIA X worsens considerably with lower sulfur of biodiesel. Increased use of palm When considering all available fuel, and we would expect emissions of biodiesel, though, could potentially evidence, palm biodiesel has mixed these pollutants to worsen with palm reduce those air quality gains. effects on harmful pollutant emis- biodiesel blends compared to fossil sions from vehicles, increasing NOX diesel as Indonesia moves toward and PM but decreasing CO and HC Compatibility of biodiesel cleaner fuel. The NOX increase with emissions compared to diesel. At biodiesel blends is likely to be more with vehicle components present, palm biodiesel may offer pol- pronounced in vehicles with older In addition to affecting vehicle fuel lution benefits in Indonesia specifi- technology compared to vehicles with consumption and exhaust emissions, cally due to the high sulfur content of newer technology, because emission biodiesel can directly affect com- diesel fuel in that country. However, control systems may help mitigate ponents of the vehicle that come in there are several reasons to believe higher NO emissions with biodiesel; X contact with the fuel. These compo- that the harmful effect of palm bio- this may thus remain a significant nents include: the , fuel feed diesel on emissions may be under- problem for a number of years as , fuel lines, , , stated in the studies we analyzed and Indonesia’s fleet gradually turns over fuel injector, , and exhaust may worsen compared to fossil diesel to Euro 4/IV-compliant vehicles. system. Many of these components are as Indonesia moves toward cleaner made of metal and elastomers. In this fuels and vehicles. However, there is also reason to believe that the relative emissions section, we review how biodiesel can There is some reason to believe that performance of biodiesel compared affect vehicle components through the emissions benefits conferred by to fossil diesel also may worsen as corrosion, changes in mechanical palm biodiesel may be lower under Indonesia’s fleet transitions to more wear, elastomer degradation, and real-world conditions compared to modern vehicle technology. Indonesia deposits. It is important to note that in the studies reviewed here, which for is scheduled to move to Euro 4 stan- all the studies reviewed here, the bio- the most part conducted measure- dards for both light-duty and heavy- diesel tested met commonly used fuel ments in the laboratory. The biodiesel duty diesel vehicles starting in 2021. quality specifications, such as ASTM D6751 and EN 14214, and that impacts NOX effect in particular appears to be (Indonesia: Light-Duty: Emissions, worse when vehicles are operating at n.d.) Some studies find that higher on materials could be worse if poor- high engine speeds or in test cycles saturation of biodiesel feedstocks is quality biodiesel is used. that better represent the real world. associated with a reduction in NOX, Not enough evidence is available at so the relatively high saturation level FUEL PROPERTIES AND present to draw conclusions on this of palm biodiesel may blunt its effect STABILITY hypothesis, but it raises an important on NOX emissions. McCormick et al. Biodiesel differs from fossil diesel in question. If the biodiesel NOX effect (2001) found that the benefit of feed- several ways that affect its impact on is indeed systematically worse in the stock saturation on NOX emissions was real world compared to laboratory less significant when using common vehicle components: It is more able tests, then consuming palm biodiesel rail fuel injectors—which would be to absorb water from the air; has may exacerbate NOX emissions in necessary to comply with the Euro 4 higher viscosity, electrical conductiv- Indonesia even when compared to vehicle emission standard—than with ity, polarity and solvency; has lower high-sulfur diesel. older vehicle technology. As Indonesia stability; and is more sensitive to light,

10 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

temperature, and metal ions compared metals in biodiesel. Stainless biodiesel, leading to copper ions in the to fossil diesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., and carbon steel have been found fuel and an increase in the total acid 2011; Fazal, Haseeb, & Masjuki, 2011, to experience little to no corrosion in number, whereas these effects were 2014; Jakeria, Fasal, & Haseeb, 2014). biodiesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; not observed with fossil diesel. The Fazal, Haseeb, & Masjuki, 2011, 2014; presence of metal also can accelerate Biodiesel tends to degrade through Singh et al., 2012). Although many water contamination, as water con- oxidation over a period of days to studies test the effects of 20% or denses on metal components and thus months. When biodiesel is exposed 100% biodiesel, increased corrosion enters the fuel (Fazal et al., 2010). to oxygen, oxygen attaches to bio- has been detected with as low a bio- diesel molecules at sites adjacent to diesel concentration as 2%, compared The possibility of adding corro- double bonds, leading to oxidation to diesel (Tsuchiya, Shiotani, Goto, sion inhibitors to biodiesel has been products including peroxides, alde- Sugiyama, & Maeda, 2006). explored, although further research hydes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and is needed in this area (Haseeb, Fazal, sediments (Jakeria et al., 2014). These Palm biodiesel has been found to lead et al., 2011; Fazal et al., 2011; Singh et oxidation products can lead to corro- to corrosion in copper and aluminum al., 2012). It does not appear that any sion and deposit formation. Because at roughly double the rate of fossil particular corrosion inhibitor has been unsaturated vegetable oils have more diesel, while also increasing corrosion widely recommended for use. double bonds compared to saturated in brass and cast , but not stainless vegetable oils, biodiesel produced steel, compared to fossil diesel (Fazal WEAR from feedstocks such as soy, rapeseed, et al., 2010, 2012). and sunflower oils are thought to be Wear is the removal of metal from less stable, whereas palm biodiesel is Biodiesel is thought to be more cor- surfaces due to mechanical rubbing. thought to be relatively more stable rosive than fossil diesel because of Although wear is typically thought because it is produced from a more several of its properties: It is more of as distinct from corrosion, which saturated oil. However, in laboratory prone to absorb water, has higher is caused by chemical reactions, in tests palm biodiesel has been found to polarity and solvency, and contains reality wear and corrosion often occur degrade at a similar rate as biodiesel more impurities than fossil diesel. simultaneously. Wear typically is produced from other feedstocks, and Water itself is corrosive, but it also can measured using laboratory tests that a one-month storage time limit has allow the growth of micro-organisms, simulate mechanical rubbing (e.g., the been suggested for palm biodiesel which can further contribute to corro- four-ball wear test) and by testing (Jakeria et al., 2014). sion (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal metal concentrations in lube oil, which et al., 2014; Jakeria et al., 2014). The is thought to indicate the degree of higher solvency of biodiesel allows metal removal through wear. CORROSION it to dissolve paints and coatings on Metals always have a tendency to pass vehicle components, which can bring Biodiesel tends to provide better into solution, but this effect can be the metal underneath into direct lubricity than fossil diesel, which in exacerbated by fuel type. Corrosion is contact with the fuel, accelerating cor- turn should reduce wear. The lubric- typically tested by immersing materi- rosion (Fazal et al., 2011). Some of the ity benefit of biodiesel is thought als in fuel for a period of time and impurities common in biodiesel also to occur because the fatty acids in measuring weight change, the degree can react with metals, including unre- biodiesel form a soap film against of tarnish, or by visual inspection. acted , catalytic sodium or metal surfaces (Masjuki & Maleque, Biodiesel is almost universally found potassium, and free (Haseeb, 1996). Several studies have found that to be more corrosive than fossil diesel. Fazal, et al., 2011). Furthermore, the wear decreases with increasing bio- A significantly greater degree of cor- presence of water can hydrolyze bio- diesel blend when using laboratory rosion has been tested and found diesel, resulting in the presence of tests such as the four-ball wear test in copper, copper alloys (brass and free fatty acids, which cause corrosion (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal et al., bronze), lead, tin, zinc, aluminum, and (Singh et al., 2012). 2011, 2014). Wear has been found to cast iron when soaked in biodiesel be greater when biodiesel is oxidized compared to fossil diesel. Copper and Corrosion also accelerates fuel deg- (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal et al., its alloys have generally been found radation, creating a positive feedback 2011). This finding highlights the inter- to be the least resistant to corrosion; loop. For example, copper has action that can occur between wear cast iron is the most resistant of these been found to enhance oxidation of and corrosion, as oxidation can cause

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 11 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

corrosion, which accelerates metal loss; not appear to affect metal concentra- nitrile rubber and polychloroprene, in addition, corrosion can increase oxi- tions in lube oil differently than bio- weight loss in polytetrafluoroethyl- dation of biodiesel. Results for metal diesel produced from other feedstocks ene, and no change in ethylene pro- concentrations in lube oil, which likely (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011). pylene diene monomer and reflects to some extent the combined rubber. As with corrosion, oxidation effects of wear and corrosion, are In a review, Fazal et al., (2011) found that of biodiesel appears to worsen elas- mixed, with various studies finding studies reporting lubricity benefits of tomer degradation: Greater dimen- lower or higher metal concentrations biodiesel are generally very short term, sional changes have been observed in biodiesel and biodiesel blends such as one hour, but that lubricity with oxidized biodiesel compared benefits appear to disappear in long- compared to fossil diesel. In agreement to biodiesel that meets specifica- term field trials, which are discussed with the results reviewed on corrosion, tions (Terry, 2005). It has generally below. One potential explanation is concentrations of copper and copper been concluded that nitrile, natural that biodiesel leads to more deposits alloys in particular tend to be higher rubber, chloroprene, neoprene, poly- than fossil diesel, which would reduce in biodiesel compared to fossil diesel. propylene, polyethylene, and some lubricity over time (Fazal et al., 2014). In contrast, iron concentrations are other materials are not compatible generally lower in biodiesel compared with biodiesel, although fluorinated to fossil diesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., ELASTOMER DEGRADATION elastomers, Viton, and Teflon are not 2011). These results suggest that the significantly affected by biodiesel Elastomers are polymers with viscos- combined effects of wear and corro- (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Singh ity and elasticity that often are used sion are complex, and that the lubric- et al., 2012; Mofijur et al., 2013). It to manufacture seals and hoses found is thought that biodiesel leads to ity benefits of biodiesel may offset to in vehicles. Common elastomers used some extent the increased corrosion elastomer degradation because of in vehicle components include nitrile its increased polarity and solvency potential of biodiesel. rubber, natural rubber, neoprene, compared to fossil diesel (Fazal et Viton®, silicone, and other materials. The degree of saturation in biodiesel al., 2011). Biodiesel can affect elastomers by dis- has been negatively correlated with solving them; some elastomers also Elastomer swelling has been shown to lubricity (Geller & Goodrum, 2004), swell as a result of absorbing liquid be slowed by the addition of peroxide so in theory the lubricity benefits of (Singh et al., 2012). The compatibility (van Duin et al., 2010). However, palm biodiesel may be lower than for of elastomers with biodiesel usually is peroxide contributes to corrosion of rapeseed or soy biodiesel, although tested by soaking these materials in metals, as previously discussed. this effect has not been clearly demon- biodiesel for a period of time and mea- strated for palm biodiesel specifically. suring weight change, tensile strength, To the best of our knowledge, wear has DEPOSIT FORMATION elongation, and hardness. not been directly compared in palm Biodiesel has been found to result in biodiesel versus biodiesel produced Studies have found various elas- higher rates of deposit formation on from other feedstocks in the same tomers to decrease, increase, or vehicle components compared to fossil study. Masjuki and Maleque (1996) maintain weight when exposed to diesel. Several studies have reported measured reduced wear with 5% palm biodiesel. In addition, dimensional fuel filter plugging with biodiesel. In biodiesel compared to fossil diesel changes and a reduction in tensile addition, trucking associations and in a mechanical sliding test on cast strength have been observed in state transportation agencies in the iron, but higher wear in 7%–10% palm some types of elastomers. One study United States have reported problems biodiesel compared to fossil diesel. measured significantly lower tensile with fuel filter plugging when using The authors hypothesized that higher strength, elongation, and hardness biodiesel or biodiesel blends (often oxidation in the higher palm biodiesel for nitrile rubber and polychloro- 20%) in surveys. Other problems asso- blends may have increased corrosion, prene when soaked in palm biodiesel ciated with deposit formation include which in turn increased wear. Similarly, compared to fossil diesel, but did fuel injector plugging, Terry (2005) measured significantly not find an effect of biodiesel on flu- sticking, and injector cocking (Fazal et higher wear using B20 produced from oro-viton (Haseeb, Masjuki, Ann, & al., 2011; Mofijur et al., 2013). Potential soy and rapeseed compared to fossil Fazal, 2010). In another study using mechanisms for increased deposit diesel, but no effect comparing B5 palm biodiesel, Haseeb, Jun, Fazal, formation with biodiesel include the to fossil diesel. Palm biodiesel does and Masjuki (2011) found swelling in higher viscosity of biodiesel (Knothe,

12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

2005) and dissolved elastomers in the ($0.05/mile) due to required replace- Biodiesel generally has better lubric- fuel (Fazal et al., 2011). ment of components including fuel ity than fossil diesel, but the beneficial injectors and cylinder heads in the effect this property has on wear in biodiesel-run vehicles toward the end the short term appears to be offset ENGINE DURABILITY AND of the experiment. by the effects of increased corrosion FIELD TESTS and deposit formation in the longer A number of studies have tested the Rig tests and tests have been term. Studies on whole engine/fuel effects of biodiesel on entire engine performed in Indonesia, presumably systems and vehicles have found systems (rig tests) or vehicles (road all using palm biodiesel. Across these overall negative effects of B20 on tests), sometimes over several years. studies, some material compatibil- vehicle components. It is not clear The National Biodiesel Board com- ity issues were found. In a road test, that palm biodiesel will differentially missioned two 1,000-hour laboratory fuel filter clogging occurred in an affect vehicles compared to biodiesel studies on the effects of B20 on heavy- “older” vehicle fueled with B20 after produced from other feedstocks. Due duty engines. In one 1995 study by 7,500 km. The only other problem to its relatively high level of satura- Ortech Corporation, cited in Fazal et detected in this 40,000 km road tion, there are theoretical reasons to al. (2011), the fuel lines, fuel filters, and test was swelling of a rubber ring expect palm biodiesel to affect cor- fuel transfer pump had to be replaced on the fuel filter (Gaikindo, 2015). rosion and wear less than biodiesel after 700 hours due to deposits. At the However, in a rig test, no deposits produced from other feedstocks, end of the experiment, the researchers were detected on the sliding injector, when compared to fossil diesel. found substantial deposits on many the sliding pump supply, or the However, measurements of corrosion components, deteriorated seals, broken inside of the (Ministry and wear with palm biodiesel have rings, and severe degradation of the of Energy and Mineral Resources of generally produced similar results as fuel injector. In the other study from the Republic of Indonesia [KESDM], for other types of biodiesel. Studies 1995 by Fosseen, again as cited in Fazal 2015). In another test, zinc from the using B20 in Indonesia specifically et al. (2011), the test was terminated fuel tank eluted with use of B20, have observed several of the same after 650 hours due to failure of the leading to injector deposits and problems reported from studies in engine pump caused by a buildup of reduced jet volume (Komatsu, 2015). other regions. There are not sufficient residue in the pump. The fuel filter also Komatsu noted zinc-coated fuels data available to draw firm conclusions was plugged in this test. tanks may need to be replaced to be on the maximum blend of biodiesel compatible with B20, and that there that can be tolerated by conventional Long-term field trials have had varied are more than 30,000 such tanks in vehicle components. Negative effects results. Chase et al. (2000) found no Indonesian vehicles. Komatsu (2015) of biodiesel on corrosion have been significant changes except higher NO x also observed degradation of several observed with biodiesel blends as and PM emissions when performing a elastomers with use of B20, including low as 2%. Some studies have found 322,000 km long-haul test using B50 nitrile rubber and chlorosulfonated greater damage with biodiesel blends produced from used cooking oil in a polyethylene rubber. higher than 5% compared to B5. heavy-duty . On the other hand, in a long-term 4-year study, Fraer et Based on the available evidence, it thus al. (2005) found a higher frequency of IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIAL appears likely that meeting Indonesia’s fuel filter plugging and injector nozzle COMPATIBILITY RESULTS FOR goals to blend 20%–30% palm bio- replacement in and oper- INDONESIA diesel in its diesel supply will result ating on B20 compared to fossil diesel. Biodiesel affects vehicle compo- in increased vehicle maintenance In a 2-year study, Proc, Barnitt, Hayes, nents differently than fossil diesel costs, with more frequent replacement Ratcliff, and McCormick (2006) expe- in several ways. Biodiesel leads to needed of various components such rienced overall greater maintenance increased corrosion and deposit for- as fuel filters, fuel injector nozzles, and costs with operating on B20 mation and degrades some types of seals, as well as potentially more costly ($0.07/mile) compared to fossil diesel elastomers compared to fossil diesel. components central to diesel engines.

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 13 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

Appendix The studies used in this analysis are listed below, grouped by general vehicle classification.

STUDIES ON LIGHT-DUTY (PASSENGER) VEHICLES AND ENGINES

Study FAME feedstock Pollutants measured

Jansen et al. (2014) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM

Serrano et al. (2015) 84% soybean and 16% palm oil NOx

Bielaczyc et al. (2009) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM

Kinoshita et al. (2003) Palm oil and rapeseed HC, CO, NOx

Karavalakis et al. (2009) Palm oil and blend HC, CO, NOx, PM

Karavalakis et al. (2011) Palm oil, soybean, rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM Bakeas, Karavalakis, & Stournas Oxidized used cooking oil HC, CO, NO , PM (2011) x Rapeseed, a blend of soybean and Martini et al. (2007) HC, CO, NO , PM sunflower (50/50), palm oil x Rapeseed/ soybean (75/25), rapeseed, rapeseed/ palm oil Krahl et al. (2005) HC, CO, NO , PM (45/55), rapeseed, soybean, palm x oil (60/12.5/27.5) Bakeas, Karavalakis, Fontaras, & Palm oil, soybean and oxidized HC, CO, NO , PM Stournas (2011) UCO x

Macor, Avella, & Faedo (2011) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM

Fontaras et al. (2009) Soybean HC, CO, NOx, PM Tatur, Nanjundaswamy, Tomazic, Soybean NO & Thornton (2008) x Prokopowicz, Zaciera, Sobczak, Not indicated HC, CO, NO , PM Bielaczyc, & Woodburn (2015) x Soybean, canola, cooking oil Pala-En et al., 2013 HC, CO, NO , PM and animal x

Wirawan et al. (2008) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Vedaraman et al. (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx

Fattah et al. (2014) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx

Ng et al. (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx

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STUDIES ON HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES AND ENGINES

Study FAME feedstock Pollutants measured Nikanjam, Rutherford, Byrne, Soybean HC, CO, NO Lyford-Pike, & Bartoli (2009) x Soybean, LFFAG (low free fatty acid grease), inedible , methyl linolenate, methyl oleate, ethly oleate, methyl linoleate, methyl laurate, methyl soy (soyagold), oxidized methyl soy ester, ethyl linoleate Graboski et al. (2003) HC, CO, NOx, PM ethyl linseed, 2:1 methyl stearate: methyl linseed, 1:2 methyl stearate: methyl linseed, ethyl stearate, methyl palmitate, ethyl soy ester

Olatunji et al. (2010) Animal fat and HC, CO, NOx, PM

Czerwinski et al. (2013) Rapeseed HC, NOx, PM Methyl-, methyl-soy, methyl-canola, methyl inedible- tallow, methyl edible-tallow, methyl-low free fatty acid grease, methyl-high free acid grease, methyl-laurate (C12:0), methyl-palmitate (C16:0), methyl-stearate (C18:0),

McCormick et al. (2001) methyl-oleate (C18:1), methyl-linoleate C18:2), methyl- NOx, PM linolenate (C18:3), methyl soy (soyagold), 1:2 M-terate: M-linseed, methyl-hydrogenated soy, ethyl-stearate (C18:0), ethyl-linoleate (C18:2), ethyl-linseed, ethyl-soy, ethyl-hydrogenated soy Methyl soyate (commercial biodiesel), methyl oleate, Knothe, Sharp, & Ryan (2006) HC, CO, NO , PM methyl pamitate, methyl laurate ( biodiesel) x

Lopez, Jimenez, Aparicio, & Flores (2009) Not indicated HC, CO, NOx, PM

Wang, Lyons, Clark, Gautam, & Norton (2000) Soybean HC, CO, NOx, PM Schumacher, Borgelt, Hires, Wetherell, & Nevils Soybean oil HC, CO, NO , PM (1996) x

Marshall, Schumacher, & Howell (1995) Transesterified soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Sharp et al. (2000) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Starr (1997) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Graboski, Ross, & McCormick (1996) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Hansen & Jensen (1997) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Clark, Atkinson, Thompson, & Nine (1999) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Manicom, Green, & Goetz (1993) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx

Schumacher, Borgelt, & Hires (1995) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Sharp (1996) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Mizushima & Takada (2014) Used cooking oil NOx, PM Colorado Institute for Fuels and High Altitude Soybean oil HC, CO, NO , PM Engine Research (1994) x

Ullman, Hare, & Baines (1983) Once refined soybean oil heated 145 °C HC, CO, NOx, PM

Rantanen et al. (1993) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM Acevedo & Mantilla (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

McCormick et al. (1997) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

Sharp (1994) Not indicated HC, CO, NOx, PM

Peterson, Taberski, Thompson, & Chase (2000) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM

WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 15 COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA

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