The Record of the Past

Answering Questions Archaeological Research Interpretations About Paleoanthropological Dating Methods the Past Study CHAPTER OUTLINE CHAPTER OUTLINE

MM02_SCUP1025_07_SE_C02.indd02_SCUP1025_07_SE_C02.indd 1919 66/16/11/16/11 11:5011:50 PMPM Chapter Questions By the late eighteenth century, scholars started to move beyond the simple description of objects to an í How can we learn about the past from fossil evidence? increasing appreciation of the significance of fossil remains and the material traces of ancient human societ- í What is the archaeological record? ies. This appreciation fell within the context of a host of new observations in the natural sciences, including í What does the archaeological record tell us about many about the geological record and the age of the past societies? Earth. In 1797, an English country gentleman named John Frere published an account of some stone tools he í How does prehistoric archaeology differ from historical had found in a gravel quarry in Suffolk. Although brief, archaeology and ethnoarchaeology? the description is tantalizing in terms of the changing at- í What are some of the basic techniques of locating titude toward traces of the past. Fossilized bones of ex- archaeological sites? tinct animals and stone tools—actually Paleolithic hand axes—were found at a depth of more than twelve feet í What are the basic techniques of archaeological in a layer of soil that appeared undisturbed by more excavation? recent materials. Frere correctly surmised that the tools were “from a very remote period indeed, even beyond í How do archaeologists date their artifacts? that of the present world” (Daniel 1981:39). This was a recognition of prehistoric archaeology. The nineteenth century saw the first fossil finds Listen to the Chapter Audio on myanthrolab.com of ancient human ancestors. They included the bones found in the Neanderthal Valley of Germany in 1856, hy study the human past? During the early now recognized as an archaic human species, Homo history of anthropology, the answer to neanderthalensis , or Neandertal man (see Chapter 5). this question was straightforward. Although this was a historic discovery, the signifi- W The study of fossils and artifacts cance of the fossils was not realized at the time. of the past sprang out of a curiosity about Interpretations were diverse. Some scholars the world and the desire to collect and or- correctly interpreted the finds as an early ganize objects. This curiosity was, in part, human ancestor, but others variously dis- a reflection of the increasing interest in the missed the bones as those of a Cossack sol- natural world that arose with the Western dier, an elderly Dutchman, a powerfully built scientific revolution beginning in the Celt, or a pathological idiot (Trinkaus and fifteenth century (see Chapter 3). For Shipman, 1993)! Information continued to early collectors, however, the object accumulate, however, and by the end of was often an end in itself. Items were the nineteenth century, the roots of mod- placed on shelves to look at, with little ern archaeological and paleoanthropo- or no interest expressed in where the logical study were well established. fossils might have come from or what This chapter examines the mate- the artifacts and their associated rial record of the past and some of materials might tell about the peo- the techniques used by modern ple that produced them. Collectors anthropologists to locate, recover, of this kind are called antiquaries . and date their discoveries. On one Early antiquarian collections often hand, this includes the bones and pre- incorporated many different items in addition to fossils served remains used by paleoanthropologists to trace and archaeological materials. For example, the museum human origins. On the other hand, it deals with the of Olaus Wormius, a seventeenth-century Danish scholar, material traces of human behavior which archaeolo- included uniquely shaped stones, seashells, ethnographic gists focus on to interpret past cultures. In reality, the objects, and curiosities from around the world, in addition subdisciplines are often intertwined. Paleoanthropolo- to fossils and ancient stone tools. While these objects were gists use excavation and surveying techniques simi- sometimes described and illustrated with great care, they lar to those used by archaeologists—or they rely on were not analyzed or interpreted to shed light on the evolu- archaeologists—to locate and recover their finds. As tion of life or on the lifeways of ancient humans. Of course, to be discussed in Chapter 25, archaeological meth- ancient coins, metal artifacts, and jewelry were recognized ods have also played an important role in forensic for what they were, but stone tools and even ancient pot- anthropology. tery were generally regarded as naturally occurring objects This book provides an overview of some of the or the work of trolls, elves, and fairies (Steibing 1994). techniques used and current interpretations. In reading

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these discussions, it is important to remember that inter- Research is guided by the questions about the past pretations are constantly being revised. New fossils are that the anthropologist wants to answer. In order to constantly uncovered and archaeological sites exposed. formulate these, the researcher reviews existing data Improved methods also modify the amount and kind of that help place their research in wider context. The information available to researchers. Each of these dis- anthropologist also begins by being well-grounded in coveries adds to the amount of information available to the different theoretical perspectives of anthropology interpret the past—and to evaluate and revise existing that shape their questions. With this background, the interpretations. anthropologist plans a research project. This is done in a systematic way, as outlined in the discussion of the scientific method in Chapter 1. To ensure that the Answering Questions data recovered are relevant to their questions, paleo- Few modern archaeologists or paleoanthropologists anthropologists and archaeologists begin a project by would deny the thrill of finding a well- preserved fos- preparing a research design in which the objectives sil, an intact arrow point, or the sealed tomb of a of the project are set out and the strategy for recov- king, but the romance of discovery is not the ering the relevant data is outlined. The research primary driving force for these scientists. design must take into account the types of data In contrast to popular movie images, mod- that will be collected and how those data relate ern researchers are likely to spend more to existing anthropological knowledge. Within time in a laboratory or in front of a word the research design, the anthropologist speci- processor than looking for fossils or ex- fies what types of methods will be used for the ploring lost cities. Perhaps, their most investigation, what regions will be surveyed, fundamental desire is to reach back in how much of a site will be excavated, and time to understand our past more fully. how the artifacts will be analyzed. Gen- This book deals with some of the major erally, the research design is then re- questions that have been addressed viewed by other anthropologists, who by paleoanthropologists and archae- recommend it for funding by vari- ologists: the evolution of the hu- ous government or private research man species, the human settlement foundations. of the world, the origins of agriculture, and the rise of complex societies and the state. Although anthropologists make Paleoanthropological an effort to document the record of bygone ages as fully as pos- Study sible, they clearly cannot locate Paleoanthropologists study the traces of every fossil, document every ar- ancient humans and human ancestors to chaeological site, or even record comprehend the biological evolution of the every piece of information about each artifact human species and to understand the lifestyles of recovered. Despite decades of research, only a minute these distant relations. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, portion of such important fossil localities as those in the behavior, diet, and activities of these early humans the Fayum Depression in Egypt and Olduvai Gorge in were very different from those of modern humans. De- Tanzania have been studied (see Chapters 4 and 5). termining their behavior, as well as the age of the finds In examining an archaeological site or even a particu- and the environment in which early humans lived, is de- lar artifact, many different avenues of research might pendent on an array of specialized skills and techniques. be pursued (see the box “Engendering Archaeology: Understanding depends on the holistic, interdisciplinary The Role of Women in Aztec Mexico” on page 22). approach that characterizes anthropology. For example, when investigating pottery from a par- As in all anthropological research, a paleoanthro- ticular archaeological site, some archaeologists might pological project begins with a research design outlin- concentrate on the technical attributes of the clay and ing the objectives of the project and the methodology the manufacturing process (Rice 1987). Others might to be employed. This would include a description of focus on the decorative motifs on the pottery and the region and the time period to be examined, the how they relate to the myths and religious beliefs of data that will be recovered, and an explanation of the people who created them. Still other researchers how the proposed research would contribute to exist- might be most interested in the pottery’s distribution ing knowledge. For example, researchers might target (where it was found) and what this conveys about an- geological deposits of a specific location and age for cient trade patterns. examination because of the potential to discover the

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Critical Perspectives

Engendering Archaeology: The Role of Women in Aztec Mexico

he interpretation of the material record poses a challenge to T archaeologists. It provides ex- cellent evidence on some subjects— ancient technology, diet, hunting techniques, and the plan of an ancient settlement—but some topics are more difficult to address. What were the marriage customs, the political system, or the religious beliefs of the ancient inhabitants of a site? These factors are by nature nonmaterial and are not pre- Aztec codex showing women weaving. served archaeologically. Even documentary records may offer only limited insight on some topics. was an impressive religious center built Fray Bernardino de Sahagun (Brumfi el In a fascinating study of gender on an island in Lake Texcoco. The city’s 1991). It is the most exhaustive record among the Aztec of ancient Mexico, population numbered tens of thousands of a Native American culture from the archaeologist Elizabeth Brumfiel uti- when the Aztec leader, Montezuma, earliest years of European contact. lized both the archaeological and the was killed during fi ghting with Spanish For this reason, it has been a primary documentary record to provide new conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés in source of information about Aztec life insights into the past (Brumfi el 1991, 1520. Within decades of the fi rst Span- and culture. 2005). The Aztec civilization was ish contact, the traces of the Aztec Brumfi el was particularly interested fl ourishing in central Mexico when the empire had crumbled and been swept in reconstructing the roles of women in Spanish reached the Americas. It had aside by European colonization. Aztec society. Sahagun’s description of emerged as the principal state in the Records of the Aztec civilization women focuses on weaving and food region by the fi fteenth century, eventu- survive in documentary accounts preparation. Regrettably, as Brumfiel ally dominating an area stretching from recorded by the Spanish. The most points out, his work offers little insight the Valley of Mexico to modern-day comprehensive is a monumental trea- into how these endeavors were tied to Guatemala, some 500 miles to the tise on Aztec life, from the raising of other economic, political, and religious southwest. The capital, Tenochtitlán, children to religious beliefs, written by activities. In addition, Sahagun does

origins of the common ancestors of humans and apes the paleoecology of the region and, hence, the envi- (see Chapter 4), the earliest branches on the human ronment in which early human ancestors lived. Paleo- lineage, or the fossil record of the first modern humans ecology (paleo , from the Greek, meaning “old,” and (see Chapter 5). ecology , meaning “study of environment”) is the study The initial survey work for a paleoanthropological of ancient environments. project often relies on paleontologists and geologists, Based on the information provided by paleontolo- who provide an assessment of the age of the deposits gists and geologists, more detailed survey work is un- within the region to be studied and the likely condi- dertaken to locate traces of early humans. Looking for tions that contributed to their formation. Clues about such traces has been likened to looking for a needle in the age may be determined through the identification a haystack, except in this case the “looking” involves the of distinctive geological deposits and associated flo- scrutiny of geological deposits and the careful excava- ral and faunal remains (see the discussion of dating tion of buried skeletal remains and associated material. methods and faunal correlation later in this chapter). This stage of the research may draw on the skills of the Such information also helps in the reconstruction of archaeologist, who is trained to examine the material

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not comment on some of his own cooking pots, jars, and stone tools borne out at sites further away from illustrations that show women involved used in the gathering and preparation the Aztec capital. In more distant sites, in such undertakings as healing and of food. women intensified the production marketing. Interpretations based solely Brumfi el notes that the most inter- of tribute cloth with which the Aztec on Sahagun’s descriptions seemed to esting aspect of archaeological data empire transacted business. marginalize women’s roles in produc- on both weaving and food preparation Brumfiel’s research provides tion as non-dynamic and of no impor- is the variation. Given the static model insights into the past that neither tance in the study of culture change. of women’s roles seen in the docu- archaeological nor documentary infor- To obtain a more holistic view of mentary records, a uniform pattern mation can supply on its own. She was women in Aztec society, Brumfiel might be expected in the archaeo- fortunate to have independent sources turned to other sources. The Aztecs logical data. In fact, precisely the op- of information that she could draw on also possessed their own records. posite is true. Evidence for weaving to interpret and evaluate her conclu- Although most of them were sought and cooking activities varies in differ- sions. Her interpretation of Aztec life out and burned by the zealous Span- ent sites and over time. Brumfi el sug- provides a much more dynamic view ish priests, some Aztec codices sur- gests that the performance of these of women’s roles. The observations vive. These sources indicate that activities was infl uenced by a number are also consistent with the view of the textiles were essential as tribute, reli- of variables, including environmental household as a flexible social institu- gious offerings, and exchange. Many zones, proximity to urban markets, tion that varies with the presented op- illustrations also depict women in food social status, and intensifi ed agricul- portunities and constraints. Brumfi el’s production activities. In addition to tural production. work underscores the importance of various categories of food, the codices Food preparation, essential to the considering both women’s and men’s show the griddles, pots, and imple- household, was also integral to roles as part of an interconnected, ments used in food preparation. the tenfold increase in the population dynamic system. Independent information on these of the Valley of Mexico during the four Points to Ponder activities is provided by the archaeo- centuries preceding Spanish rule. As 1. In the absence of any documentary logical record. For example, the rela- population expanded during the later or ethnographic information, how tive importance of weaving can be Aztec period, archaeological evidence can archaeologists examine the assessed by the number and types indicates that there was intensified gender of past societies? of spindle whorls (perforated ceramic food production in the immediate hin- disks used to weight the spindle during terland of Tenochtitlán. Conversely, 2. Can we automatically associate spinning) that are found in large num- the evidence for weaving decreases, some artifacts with men or with bers on archaeological sites. Archaeo- indicating that women shifted from women? logical indications of dietary practices weaving to market-oriented food pro- 3. Would interpretations vary in differ- can be inferred from ceramic griddles, duction. These observations are not ent cultural settings?

remains of past societies (see discussion of “Archaeologi- been altered in some way, the decayed parts of bone or cal Excavation” below). shell having been replaced by minerals or surrounding sediment. Even in cases in which fragments of bone or shell are present, they have often been broken or de- Fossils and Fossil Localities formed and need to be carefully reconstructed. The chal- Much of paleoanthropological research focuses on the lenge faced by paleoanthropologists is what criteria to locating and study of fossil remains. Fossils are the pre- use to distinguish species from a number of closely re- served remains, impressions, or traces of living creatures lated taxa on the basis of fragmentary skeletal remains. from past ages. They form when an organism dies and The unraveling of the genetic codes of living species has is buried by soft mud, sand, or silt ( Figure 2.1 ). Over also led to debate over the classification. Despite the im- time this sediment hardens, preserving the remains of perfection of the fossil record, a striking history of life on the creature within. Occasionally, conditions may be Earth has survived. such that actual portions of an organism are preserved— Paleoanthropologists refer to places where fos- fragments of shells, teeth, or bones. But most fossils have sils are found as fossil localities . These are spots

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3 4

Figure 2.1 Only a small number of the creatures that have lived are preserved as fossils. After death, predators, scavengers, and natural processes destroy many remains, frequently leaving only fragmentary traces for researchers to uncover.

where predators dropped animals they had killed, natural and behavioral processes that led to the forma- places where creatures were naturally covered by sedi- tion of the deposits uncovered. As seen in Figure 2.2 , ments, or sites where early humans actually lived. Of the taphonomy of an individual fossil locality may be particular importance in interpreting fossil localities is complex and the unraveling of the history that con- the taphonomy of the site—the study of the variety of tributed to its formation very challenging indeed

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Figure 2.2 A variety of different activities and events contribute to the formation of an individual fossil locality. These include activities by the early human ancestors, but also such natural processes as decomposition and decay, erosion by wind and rain, and movement of bones and artifacts by animals. Paleoanthropologists must try to decipher these different factors in interpreting the behavior of early human ancestors.

(Blumenschine 1995; Lyman 2002). The fossil locality erosion by wind or water exposes underlying layers of may include traces of the activities of early humans— rock that contain fossils, thus providing the paleoanthro- the artifacts resulting from their behavior, tool manu- pologist the chance to discover them—even as they are facture, and discarded food remains, as well as the weathering away. remains of the early humans themselves. On the other Once a fossil locality is found, systematic excavations hand, these traces may have been altered by a host of are undertaken to reveal buried deposits. In excavating, disturbances, including erosion by wind and rain and paleoanthropologists take great pains to record a fossil’s destruction and movement by wild animals. context. Context refers to a fossil’s or artifact’s exact po- Only a small number of the once-living creatures are sition in relation to the surrounding sediments and any preserved in the fossil record. After death, few animals associated materials. Only if the precise location and as- are left to lie peacefully, waiting to be covered by lay- sociations are known can a fossil be accurately dated and ers of sediment and preserved as fossils. Many are killed any associated archaeological and paleontological materi- by predators that scatter the bones. Scavengers may als be fully interpreted. carry away parts of the carcass, and insects, bacteria, After fossils have been removed from the ground, and weather quickly destroy many of the remains that the detailed analysis of the finds begins. This starts are left. As a result, individual fossil finds are often very with the careful cleaning of fossil remains and asso- incomplete. Some areas might not have had the right con- ciated materials. Fossils are generally preserved in a ditions to fossilize and preserve remains, or the remains hardened, mineralized deposit, and cleaning may be of early human ancestors that may be present might be tedious and time-consuming. Careful study of fine- so fragmentary and mixed with deposits of other ages to grained sediments sometimes reveals the preserva- be of limited use. Another consideration is the accessibil- tion of minute fossils of shellfish, algae, and pollen. ity of fossil deposits. Fossils may be found in many areas, Improved techniques, such as computer and elec- but they often lie buried under deep deposits that make tronic scanning equipment, have revealed that images it impossible for researchers to study them and assess of the delicate structure in bones or the interior of a their age and condition. In other instances, however, skull may be preserved in a fossil. Artifacts and faunal

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remains from the excavations are labeled and carefully that represent the patterned ways of thinking and acting described and any fossil remains of early humans are within past societies. reconstructed. Archaeological interpretation has historically been Drawing on all of the geological, paleontological, strongly influenced by cultural anthropology theory archaeological, and physical anthropological informa- (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1989; Trigger 1989). Cultural tion, the paleoanthropologist then attempts to place the anthropology —the study of modern human populations— discoveries in the context of other discoveries and inter- helps archaeologists understand how cultural systems pretations. The anatomical characteristics of the fossils of work and how the archaeological record might reflect the early humans will be compared to other fossils to try portions of these systems. On the other hand, archae- to assess their evolutionary relationship, and the other ology offers cultural anthropology a time depth that data will be brought to bear on the reconstruction of the cannot be obtained through observations of living pop- ancient environment and models of the way they lived. ulations. The archaeological record provides a record As more evidence is uncovered, the original interpreta- of past human behavior. Clearly, it furnishes impor- tion may be confirmed, reinterpreted, or declared false in tant insights into past technology, providing answers light of the new findings. to such questions as “When did people learn to make pottery?” and “How was iron smelted?” However, artifacts also offer clues to past ideals and belief systems. Archaeological Research Consider, for example, what meanings and beliefs As seen in Chapter 1, archaeology is the subdisci- are conveyed by such artifacts as a Christian cross, a pline of anthropology that deals with the study of past Jewish menorah, or a Hopi kachina figure. Other ar- human cultures through the material traces they left tifacts convey cultural beliefs in more subtle ways. behind. Culture is a fundamental concept in the dis- Everyday items, such as the knife, fork, spoon, and cipline of anthropology. In popular use, most people plate used in Americans’ meals, are not the only uten- use the word culture to refer to “high culture”: Shake- sils suitable for the task; indeed, food preference itself speare’s works, Beethoven’s symphonies, Michelan- is a culturally influenced choice. gelo’s sculptures, gourmet cooking, imported wines, The objectives of archaeological research vary tre- and so on. Anthropologists, however, use the term in mendously in terms of the time periods, geographical a much broader sense to refer to a shared way of life areas, and research questions considered. Many research- that includes values, beliefs, and norms transmitted ers have examined the themes dealt with in this book: within a particular society from generation to genera- the behavior of early human ancestors, the initial settle- tion. This view of culture includes agricultural prac- ment of the Americas, the origins of agriculture, and the tices, social organization, religion, political systems, emergence of complex political systems. However, other science, and sports. Culture thus encompasses all archaeologists have turned their attention to the more re- aspects of human activity, from the fine arts to pop- cent past and have examined the archaeological record of ular entertainment, from everyday behavior to the European colonization over the past five hundred years most deeply rooted religious beliefs. Culture contains and nineteenth-century American society; they have even the plans, rules, techniques, and designs for living. shed light on modern society by sifting through garbage In seeking to understand past cultures through their bags and landfills. physical traces, archaeologists face an inherent diffi- culty. By its very nature, culture is nonmaterial —that is, it refers to intangible products of human society (such The Archaeological Record as values, beliefs, religion, and norms) that are not pre- The preservation of archaeological materials varies served archaeologically. Hence, archaeologists must rely (Schiffer 1987). Look at the objects that surround you. on the artifacts—the physical remains of past societ- How long would these artifacts survive if left uncared ies. This residue of the past is called material culture. for and exposed to the elements? As is the case with the Material culture consists of the physical products of fossil record, the archaeological past is a well-worn and human society (ranging from weapons to clothing). The fragmentary cloth rather than a complete tapestry. Stone earliest traces of material culture are stone tools dating artifacts endure very well, and thus it is not surprising back more than two and a half million years: simple that much of our knowledge of early human lifeways is choppers, scrapers, and flakes. Modern material culture based on stone tools. Ceramics and glass may also sur- consists of all the physical objects that a contemporary vive very well, but iron and copper corrode, and organic society produces or retains from the past, such as tools, materials, such as bone, cloth, paper, and wood, gener- streets, buildings, homes, toys, medicines, and automo- ally disappear quickly. biles. Archaeologists investigate these material traces In some cases, environmental conditions that limit of societies to examine the values, beliefs, and norms insect and microbial action and protect a site from

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Critical Perspectives

Historical Archaeology

ome archaeologists have the luxury of written records S and oral histories to help them locate and interpret their finds. Researchers delving into ancient Egyptian sites, the ancient Near East, Greek and Roman sites, Chinese civilization, Mayan temples, Aztec cities, Islamic sites, biblical archaeology, and the settlements of medieval Europe can all refer to written sources ranging from religious texts to explorers’ accounts and tax records. Why dig for archaeological Archaeologist Merrick Posnansky interviewing the chief of materials if written records or oral the town of Hani, Ghana in 1983. Researchers can use traditions can tell the story? Although knowledge gathered from living informants to help interpret archaeological fi nds. such sources may provide a tremen- dous amount of information, they do Source: Courtesy of Merrick Posnansky, UCLA. not furnish a complete record (Deetz 1996; Noel Hume 1983; Orser 2004). events with reference to their own change, sociopolitical developments, Whereas the life story of a head of cultural traditions, so oral histories are and past economic systems. Among state, records of trade contacts, or the shaped by the worldviews, histories, the most signifi cant areas of study is the date of a temple’s construction may and beliefs of the various cultures that archaeology of slavery (Ferguson 1992; be preserved, the lives of many people employ them. Interpreting such mate- Singleton 1999). Although living in liter- and the minutia of everyday life were rial may be challenging for individuals ate societies, slaves were prohibited seldom noted. In addition, the written outside the originating cultures. The from writing, were often illiterate, and record was often biased by the writer’s study of the archaeological record may thus left a very limited documentary personal or cultural perspective. For provide a great deal of information not record of their own. Archaeologi- example, much of the written history found in other sources and provide cal data have been used to provide a of Native Americans, sub-Saharan an independent means of evaluating much more complete picture of planta- Africans, Australian Aborigines, and conclusions drawn on the basis of tion life and slave society. many other indigenous peoples were other sources of information (see the recorded by European missionar- box “Engendering Archaeology: The Points to Ponder ies, traders, and administrators, who Role of Women in Aztec Mexico”). For 1. What are some different sources frequently provided only incomplete example, it has proven particularly use- of “historical” information—written accounts viewed in terms of their own ful in assessing change and continu- and orally preserved accounts— interests and beliefs. ity in indigenous populations during that you can think of? How are Information from living informants the past fi ve hundred years (DeCorse these different from one another may also provide important information 2001; Lightfoot 2005). in terms of the details they might about some populations, particularly In the Americas, during the past provide? societies with limited written records. several decades, an increasing amount 2. Consider a particular activity or be- In recognizing the signifi cance of such of work has concentrated on the his- havior important to you (for exam- nonwritten sources, however, it is also tory of immigrants who arrived in the ple, going to school, participating in necessary to recognize their distinct last five hundred years from Europe, a sport, or pursuing a hobby). How limitations. The specifi c roles oral tra- Asia, Africa, and other world areas. would evidence of the activity be ditions played (and continue to play) Archaeological studies have proven of presented in written accounts, oral varied in different cultural settings. Just great help in interpreting historical sites histories, and the archaeological as early European chroniclers viewed and past lifeways, as well as culture record?

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exposure to the elements may allow for the striking and the diet of the early inhabitants. The soil of a site preservation of archaeological materials. Some of the is also an important record of past activities and the most amazing cases are those in which items have natural processes that affected a site’s formation. Fires, been rapidly frozen. An illustration of this kind of pres- floods, and erosion all leave traces in the earth for the ervation is provided by the discovery in 1991 of the archaeologist to discover. All of these data may yield 5,300-year-old frozen remains of a Bronze Age man by important information about the age, organization, hikers in Italy’s Tyrol Mountains (Fowler 2000). With the and function of the site being examined. These non- body were a wooden backpack, a wooden bow, four- artifactual organic and environmental remains are re- teen bone-tipped arrows, and fragments of clothing. In ferred to as ecofacts . other instances, a waterlogged environment, very dry As is the case with the recovery of fossils, the archae- climate, or rapid burial may create conditions for ex- ologist takes special care to record the contexts in which cellent preservation. Such unique instances provide archaeological materials are found, the artifacts’ specific archaeologists with a much more complete record than location in the ground, and associated materials. With- is usually found. out a context, an artifact offers only a limited amount of Places of past human activity that are preserved potential information. By itself, a pot may be identified as in the ground are called archaeological sites . Sites reflect something similar to other finds from a specific area and the breadth of human endeavor. Some are settlements time period, but it provides no new information. If, how- that may have been occupied for a considerable time, ever, it and similar pots are found to contain offerings of for example, a Native American village or an abandoned a particular kind and are associated with female burials, gold-mining town in the American West. Other sites re- a whole range of other inferences may be made about flect specialized activities, for instance, a ceremonial cen- the past. By removing artifacts from sites, laypersons un- ter, a burial ground, or a place where ancient hunters wittingly cause irreparable damage to the archaeological killed and butchered an animal. record. Much of the archaeologist’s time is devoted to the study of artifacts—any object made or modified by humans. They include everything from chipped stone Locating Sites tools and pottery to plastic bottles and computers. Non- In 1940, schoolboys retrieving their dog from a hole movable artifacts, such as an ancient fire hearth, a pit in a hillside near Montignac, France, found themselves dug in the ground, or a wall, are called features . In ad- in an underground cavern. The walls were covered dition to artifacts and features, archaeologists examine with delicate black and red paintings of bison, horses, items recovered from archaeological sites that were not and deer. The boys had discovered Lascaux Cave, one produced by humans, but nevertheless provide impor- of the finest known examples of Paleolithic cave art. tant insights into the past. Animal bones, shells, and Chance findings such as this sometimes play a role in plant remains recovered from an archaeological site the discovery of archaeological remains, as well as pa- furnish information on both the past climatic conditions leoanthropological research, but researchers generally

In some cases, environmental conditions may allow for amazing preservation, as illustrated by the 4,000-year-old naturally mummiﬁ ed remains of a woman from arid hills near the Chinese city of Ürümqi (left) and the 5,300-year-old frozen remains of a man found in Italy’s Tyrol mountains (right).

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have to undertake a systematic examination, or survey , into a grid , which is then walked systematically. In other of a particular area, region, or country to locate sites. instances, transects may provide useful information, par- They will usually begin by examining previous descrip- ticularly where vegetation is very thick. In this case, a tions, maps, and reports of the area for references to straight line, or transect , is laid out through the area to be archaeological sites. Informants who live and work in surveyed. Fieldworkers then walk along this line, noting the area may also be of great help in directing archae- changes in topography, vegetation, and artifacts. ologists to discoveries. Of course, some archaeological sites are more eas- Subsurface Testing and Survey Because many ily located than others; the great pyramids near Cairo, archaeological sites are buried in the ground, many sur- Egypt; Stonehenge in southern England; and the Parthe- veys incorporate some kind of subsurface testing. This non of Athens have never been lost. Though interpre- may involve digging auger holes or shovel test pits at tations of their precise use may differ, their impressive regular intervals in the survey, the soil from which is ex- remains are difficult to miss. Unfortunately, many sites, amined for any traces of archaeological material. This particularly some of the more ancient, are more difficult technique may provide important information on the lo- to locate. The settlements occupied by early humans cation of an archaeological site, its extent, and the type were usually small, and only ephemeral traces are of material represented. preserved in the ground. In many instances, they may Today, many different technological innovations al- be covered under many feet of sediment. Examination low the archaeologist to prospect for buried sites without of the ground surface may reveal scatters of artifacts or lifting a spade. The utility of these tools can be illustrated discolorations in the soil, which provide clues to bur- by the magnetometer and resistivity meter. The proton ied deposits. Sometimes nature inadvertently helps ar- magnetometer is a sensor that can detect differences in chaeologists, as erosion by wind or rain may expose the soil’s magnetic field caused by buried features and sites. Archaeologists can also examine road cuts, build- artifacts. A buried foundation will give a different reading ing projects, and freshly plowed land for archaeological than an ancient road, both being different from the sur- materials. rounding undisturbed soil. As the magnetometer is sys- In the field, an archaeologist defines what areas will tematically moved over an area, a plan of buried features be targeted for survey. These areas will be determined can be created. by the research design, but also by environmental and Electrical resistivity provides similar information, topographical considerations, as well as the practical though it is based on a different concept. A resistivity constraints of time and money. Archaeological surveys meter is used to measure the electrical current pass- can be divided into systematic and unsystematic ing between electrodes that are placed in the ground. approaches (Renfrew and Bahn 2008). The latter is sim- Variation in electrical current indicates differences in pler, the researcher simply walking over trails, riverbanks, the soil’s moisture content, which in turn reflects bur- and plowed fields in the survey area and making notes ied ditches, foundations, or walls that retain moisture to of any archaeological material observed. This approach varying degrees. avoids the problem of climbing through thick vegetation Although at times yielding spectacular results, tech- or rugged terrain. Unfortunately, it may also pro- niques such as magnetometer and resistiv- duce a biased sample of the archaeological re- ity surveys are not without their limitations. mains present; ancient land uses might have little Buried metal at a site may confuse the correspondence with modern trails or plowed fields. magnetic readings of other materials, and Researchers use many different methods to a leaking hose wreaks havoc with a resis- ensure more systematic results. In some in- tivity meter. Both techniques may produce stances, a region, valley, or site is divided confusing patterns as a result of shallowly buried geological features such as bedrock.

Remote Sensing An archaeologist was once heard to say that “one ought to be a bird to be a field archaeologist,”

Archaeologists use Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), a non-invasive method to detect artifacts in New York’s Central Park.

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Applying Anthropology

Underwater Archaeology between its decks, foundered and sank in Portsmouth harbor on a warm unken ships, submerged set- July afternoon in 1545. Henry VIII, tlements, and flooded towns: camped with his army at Southsea SThis wide variety of sites of dif- Castle, is said to have witnessed the ferent time periods in different world disaster and heard the cries of the areas shares the need for special- crew. In the 1970s, the site of the ized techniques to locate, excavate, Mary Rose was rediscovered and was and study them (Ballard 2008; Bass systematically explored by volunteer 2005; Koppel 2003; Menotti 2004). divers from around the world. The Although efforts were occasionally ship produced a spectacular array of made in the past to recover cargoes over 14,000 artifacts, ranging from from sunken ships, it was only with massive cannons to musical instru- the invention and increasing accessi- ments, famed English longbows, and bility of underwater breathing equip- navigational equipment. Finds from ment during the twentieth century the Mary Rose and the preserved por- that the systematic investigation of tions of the hull can be seen at the underwater sites became feasible. Mary Rose Ship Hall and Exhibition Often artifacts from underwater sites at the H. M. Naval Base, Portsmouth, are better preserved and so present England (Marsden 2003, 2009). a wider range of materials than those Most people associate underwa- from land. Even more important, ter archaeology with sunken ships, city, preserving a record for future ar- underwater sites are immune to the and this, in fact, represents an im- chaeologists. Excavations at the site continued disturbances associated portant part of the subdiscipline. spanning the last three decades have with human activity that are typical of However, rising sea levels or natural recovered a wealth of materials from most land sites. Shipwrecks can be disasters may also submerge cities seventeenth-century life (Hamilton compared to time capsules, contain- and towns. Research on settlements and Woodward 1984). ing a selection of artifacts that were in now underwater is providing increas- use in a certain context at a speciﬁ c ing insight into early human settle- Points to Ponder time. Archaeologists working on land ment (Koppel 2003; Menotti 2004). 1. Archaeological excavation on land seldom have such clearly sealed ar- As in the case of shipwrecks, the lack is a meticulous and careful pro- chaeological deposits. of oxygen and the sealed nature of cess. Discuss how excavation and A tantalizing example of an un- the archaeological materials present recording methods would have to derwater archaeological project is special challenges in excavation, but be modiﬁ ed to conduct archaeolog- the excavation and raising of the pre- also remarkable preservation. Such ical research underneath the water. served remains of the Mary Rose , the is the case of Port Royal, Jamaica, 2. Given the unique location and pres- pride of the young English navy and a flourishing trade center and infa- ervation found at underwater sites, the flower of King Henry VIII’s fleet. mous gathering place for pirates dur- why might they be more appropri- The 700-ton warship, which was ing the seventeenth century. In 1692, ate or important than land sites probably the first English warship a violent earthquake and tidal wave for considering certain types of re- designed to carry a battery of guns submerged or buried portions of the search questions?

and indeed, the perspective provided by aerial the ground, were dramatically illustrated from the air. photography , sometimes called “aerial archaeology,” The rich organic soils found in archaeological sites, has been a boon to archaeologists (Daniel 1981:165). subtle depressions in the ground surface, or slight dif- Experiments with aerial photography occurred prior ferences in vegetation resulting from buried features to World War I, but it was during the war that its po- may be dramatically illustrated in aerial photographs. tential importance to archaeological surveys was rec- More recent technological innovations, such as the ognized. Pilots noticed that some sites, invisible on use of infrared, false color photography, help identify

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differences in vegetation and make abandoned settle- Archaeological Excavation ments and patterns of past land use more apparent. Archaeological surveys provide invaluable information Aerial photography has proven very important in lo- about the past. The distribution of sites on the landscape cating sites, but it is also of particular use in mapping offers knowledge about the use of natural resources, and interpretation (Brophy and Cowley 2005; Kruck- trade patterns, and political organization. Surveys also man 1987). help define the extent of specific sites and allow for a Of less use to archaeologists are photographs or preliminary assessment of their age and function. These images taken from extremely high altitudes by satellites data are invaluable in interpreting regional developments or space shuttles. The scale of these pictures some- and how individual sites form part of a larger picture. times limits their use and their cost may make them However, depending on the project’s research objectives, beyond the reach of many researchers (Madry 2003; an archaeologist may want more detailed information Madry et al 2003). The potential application of such about individual sites. Once an archaeological site has sophisticated techniques, however, has been well dem- been located, it may be targeted for systematic archaeo- onstrated. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- logical excavation (Figure 2.3 ). tration (NASA) scientists, working with archaeologists Excavation is costly, time-consuming, and also have been able to identify ancient Mesopotamian and destructive. Once dug up, an archaeological site is gone Mayan settlements and farmlands that had not been forever; it can be “reassembled” only through the notes located with other techniques. Space imaging radar , kept by the archaeologist. For this reason, archaeologi- which can detect features buried under six feet of sand, cal excavation is undertaken with great care. Although proved helpful in identifying ancient caravan routes on picks and shovels may occasionally come into play, the the Arabian Peninsula. These routes enabled research- tools used most commonly are the trowel, whisk broom, ers to locate the lost city of Ubar, a trade center that and dustpan. Different techniques may be required for was destroyed around 100 A.D., and the city of Saffara different kinds of sites. For example, more care might on the Indian Ocean (Clapp 1998). As space age tech- be taken in excavating the remains of a small hunting nology becomes both more refined and more afford- camp than a nineteenth-century house in an urban set- able, it may provide an increasingly important resource ting covered with tons of modern debris. On under- for archaeologists (see box “Anthropologists At Work: water sites, researchers must contend with recording Scott Madry). finds using specialized techniques while wearing special breathing apparatus (see the boxes “Underwater Archaeology” and “George Fletcher Bass: Underwater Archaeologist”). Nevertheless, whatever the site, the archaeologist carefully records the context of each artifact uncovered, each feature exposed, and any changes in surrounding soil. Work usually begins with the clearing of the site and the preparation of a detailed site plan. A grid is placed over the site. This is usually fixed to a datum point , some permanent feature or marker that can be used as a reference point and will allow the excavation’s exact position to be relocated. As in the case of other facets of the research project, the research design determines the areas to be excavated. Excavations of midden deposits, or ancient trash piles, often provide insights into the range of artifacts at a site, but excavation of dwellings might provide more information into past social organization, political organization, and so- cioeconomic status. A question often asked of archaeologists is how deep they have to dig to “find something.” The answer is, “Well, that depends.” The depth of any given archaeological deposit is contingent upon a wide range of variables, Satellite photo of the Nile River in Egypt illustrates the stark contrast between the river’s ﬂ oodplain and the surrounding desert. At including the type of site, how long it was occupied, the the southern edge of the image is Luxor, which includes the ruins types of soil represented, and the environmental history of the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes. Archaeologists are increas- of the area. In some cases, artifacts thousands or even ingly able to use space-age technology to locate archaeological hundreds of thousands of years old may lie exposed on features. the surface. In other cases, flooding, burial, or cultural

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Figure 2.3 Excavation, archaeological plan, and artist’s reconstruction of an eighteenth-century slave cabin at Seville Planta- tion, St. Anne’s, Jamaica. The meticulous recording of excavated artifacts and features allows archaeologists to reconstruct the appearance of past settlements. In this case, eighteenth-century illustrations and written descriptions helped the artist add features, such as the roof, that were not preserved archaeologically. Source: Courtesy of Douglas V. Armstrong, Syracuse University.

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Anthropologists at Work

SCOTT MADRY: Google Earth and Armchair Archaeology

he value of aerial photogra- Dashur Amenemhat lll Pyramid phy and high-tech satellite imagery in archaeology is well T Bent Pyramid demonstrated, but the cost of such resources has often placed them beyond the reach of most archaeologists. But this situation is changing. Once the purview of governments and space programs, high altitude images are becoming both more Red Pyramid common and of more general interest, and archaeologists are reaping the benefits. A case in point is Google Earth, a popular desktop program that provides satellite imagery, allow- ing the user to zoom in on specific locals and even to track their own movements. The program is use- N ful in getting directions and check- ing out vacation spots, as well as an aid in planning for a variety of history proved spectacular. The im- ping sites, archaeologists still need non-profit and public benefit organi- ages provided dramatic images of to excavate. zations. Archaeologist Scott Madry archaeological sites. Although many became curious about the potential of these sites had been previously Points to Ponder use of Google Earth in his long-term identified, the results demonstrated 1. What type of information do aerial research on the archaeology of Bur- the potential of Google Earth as an photography and satellite images gundy, France (Madry 2007). Madry archaeological research tool. provide compared to archaeologi- is interested in the application of Google Earth is not the perfect cal excavation? What are the limita- aerial photography, remote sensing, solution for every research situa- tions of each method? and geographic information systems tion. The coverage is dependent of 2. Consider the data that satellite im- technology to understand the in- the images available and is of vari- agery provides in light of the discus- teraction between the different cul- able quality. Consequently, it is of sion of research designs and the tures and the physical environment limited use for some areas. Even in questions archaeologists might ask. over the past 2,000 years. While he cases where good images are avail- How do these questions shape the found that the images available on able, thick vegetation and tree cover type of method employed? Google Earth were of limited use in may limit the use of both satellite im- his research area, the data available ages and aerial photography. Finally, for a neighboring region that shared while the images provided by Google Explore the Concept on a similar environment and culture Earth may help in locating and map- myanthrolab.com

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Bones and other archaeological remains are often fragmentary and must be excavated with great care. Here, an archaeologist works on one of the approximately 200 bodies—thought to date to pre- Columbian times—found at the construction site for a subway in Mexico City.

activities may cover sites with thick layers of soil. A clear illustration of this is seen in tells (settlement mounds) in the Near East, which sometimes consist of archaeological deposits covering more than 100 square acres many feet deep.

Dating Methods How old is it? This simple question is fundamental to being examined. Dating methods can be divided into the study of the past. Without the ability to order tem- two broad categories that incorporate a variety of spe- porally the developments and events that occurred cific dating techniques: relative dating and numerical in the past, there is no way to assess evolutionary dating. Accurate dating of discoveries depends upon change, cultural developments, or technological in- both methods. novations. Paleoanthropologists and archaeologists employ many different dating techniques. Some of these are basic to the interpretation of both the fossil Relative Dating record and archaeological sites. Others are more ap- Relative dating refers to dating methods that determine propriate for objects of certain ages or for particular whether one particular fossil, artifact, fossil locality, or kinds of materials (for example, volcanic stone, as op- site dates before or after another. Relative dating meth- posed to organic material). Hence, certain techniques ods do not provide an actual date, just an age relative to are more typically associated with archaeological re- something else. The most basic relative dating method search than paleoanthropological research, and vice is stratigraphic dating , a technique pioneered by versa. In any given project, several different dating the seventeenth-century Danish scientist Niels Stensen techniques are used in conjunction with one another (1638–1687). Today, Stensen is better known by the lati- to independently validate the age of the materials nized version of his name, Nicholas Steno. Steno was the first person to suggest that the hard rock where fossils are found had once been soft sediments that had gradually solidified. Because sediments had been deposited in layers, or strata , Steno ar- gued that each successive layer was younger than the layers underneath. Ste- no’s law of supraposition states that in any succession of rock layers, the lowest rocks have been there the longest and the upper rocks have been in place for progressively shorter periods. This assumption forms the basis of stratigraphic dating. Steno was concerned with the study of geological deposits, but stratigraphic

Archaeologists taking notes from an excavation.

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Aerial photography often allows the identiﬁ cation of archaeological sites that may be invisible on the ground. This aerial photograph of a recently plowed cornﬁ eld in Perry County, southern Illinois, led to the discovery of the Grier Site. Subsequent excavation revealed that the site had been occupied from the Archaic to the Mississippian; the burials date to about 1000 B.C. Source: Courtesy of Larry Kruckman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.

dating is also of key importance in dating archaeologi- theories to explain how and why life-forms changed cal materials (Figure 2.4). An archaeological site presents through time. a complex layer cake of stratigraphic levels representing Since Smith’s era, paleontologists have studied thou- the accumulation of cultural material, such as trash and sands of fossil localities around the world. Information on housing debris, as well as natural strata resulting from the relative ages of fossils from these sites provides a means flooding, the decomposition of organic material, and the of correlating the relative ages of different fossil localities like. Layers associated with human occupation often ac- and also casts light on the relative ages of fossils that are not cumulate to striking depths. found in stratigraphic context. Placing fossils in a relative Like all relative dating methods, stratigraphic dating time frame in this way is known as faunal correlation . does not allow researchers to assign an actual numerical age to a fossil or artifact. Rather, it indicates only whether Palynology Remains of plant species, which have one fossil is older or younger than another within the also evolved over time, can be used for relative dating same stratigraphic sequence. This technique is essential as well. Palynology is the study of pollen grains, the to paleoanthropological and archaeological interpretation minute male reproductive parts of plants. By examining because it allows researchers to evaluate change through preserved pollen grains, we can trace the adaptations time . However, researchers must take notice of any dis- vegetation underwent in a region from one period to turbances that may have destroyed the order of geologi- another. In addition to helping scientists establish the cal or archaeological deposits. Disturbances in the Earth’s relative ages of strata, studies of both plant and animal crust, such as earthquakes and volcanoes, can shift or dis- fossils offer crucial clues to the reconstruction of the en- rupt stratigraphic layers. Archaeological sites may be rav- vironments where humans and human ancestors lived. aged by erosion, burrowing animals, and human activity. Relative Dating Methods for Bones Scientists Faunal Succession One of the first people to can determine the relative age of bones by measuring the record the location of fossils systematically was William elements of fluorine, uranium, and nitrogen in the fossil Smith (1769–1839), the “father” of English geology specimens. These tests, which can be used together, are (Winchester 2002). An engineer at a time when England sometimes referred to as the FUN trio . Fluorine and ura- was being transformed by the construction of railway nium occur naturally in groundwater and gradually col- lines and canals, Smith noticed that as rock layers were lect in bones after they are buried. Once absorbed, the exposed by the construction, distinct fossils occurred in fluorine and uranium remain in the bones, steadily accu- the same relative order again and again. He soon found mulating over time. By measuring the amounts of these that he could arrange rock samples from different areas absorbed elements, scientists can estimate the length in the correct stratigraphic order solely on the basis of the of time the bones have been buried. Nitrogen works in fossils they contained. Smith had discovered the princi- the opposite way. The bones of living animals contain ple of faunal succession (literally, “animal” succession). approximately 4 percent nitrogen, and when the bones A significant scientific milestone, Smith’s observations were start to decay, the concentration of nitrogen steadily made sixty years before Darwin proposed his evolutionary decreases. By calculating the percentage of nitrogen

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Trash pit 19th-century European ceramics 1900 coin Gas line 1977 Sewer pipe 1966

Well Post fragment Dendrochronology 1885 coin 1250 A.D. Smoking pit Hearth with charcoal with corn cob Carbon 14 dated to Stone tool Carbon 14 6000 BP seriation dated 5000-7000 BP 1300 A.D.

Sterile glacial sand 1843 coin no archaeological materials

Eighteenth-century English wine bottle

Figure 2.4 Archaeological materials and the remnants of human occupation often accumulate to striking depth. This hypothetical proﬁ le illustrates the potentially complex nature of the archaeological record and how different techniques might be combined to date discoveries.

remaining in a fossilized bone, scientists can calculate its techniques are thus of greatest value in establishing approximate age. the relative age of fossils from the same deposit. To some The FUN trio techniques all constitute relative dating extent, these methods have been supplanted by more methods because they are influenced by local environ- modern, numerical dating methods but they nevertheless mental factors. The amounts of fluorine and uranium in present an important alternative means of validating the groundwater differ from region to region, and variables relative ages of fossil finds (see “The Piltdown Fraud” in such as temperature and the chemicals present in the Chapter 5). surrounding soil affect the rate at which nitrogen dis- sipates. Because of this variation, relative concentra- Seriation Unlike the methods discussed thus far that tions of fluorine, uranium, and nitrogen in two fossils utilize geological, chemical, or paleontological principles, from different areas of the world may be similar de- seriation is a relative dating technique based on the study spite the fact that they differ significantly in age. The of archaeological materials. Simply stated, seriation is a

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Anthropologists at Work

GEORGE FLETCHER BASS: submersible decompression cham- Underwater Archaeologist ber, and a two-person submarine. In 1967, his team was the fi rst to locate eorge Fletcher Bass is one an ancient shipwreck using sidescan- of the pioneers of underwa- ning sonar. In addition to setting stan- G ter archaeology—a field that dards for underwater archaeological he actually did not set out to study research, these excavations captured and, indeed, a field that was virtually popular imagination and revealed ship- unrecognized as a discipline when he wrecks as time capsules containing entered it. Although he was always fas- a spectacular array of artifacts, many cinated with the sea and diving, Bass unrecovered from terrestrial sites began his career working on land sites, (Throckmorton 1962; Bass 1963, 1973). earning a master’s degree in Near After completing his doctorate in Eastern archaeology at Johns Hopkins 1964, Bass joined the faculty at the University in 1955. He then attended University of Pennsylvania. He re- the American School of Classical Stud- mained there until 1973, when he ies at Athens and excavated at the left to found the Institute of Nautical sites of Lerna, Greece, and Gordion, Archaeology (INA), which has been af- Dr. George Bass, after a dive. Turkey. Following military service in fi liated with Texas A&M University since Korea, Bass began his doctoral stud- 1976. Under his guidance, the INA has publications, he has introduced both ies in classical archaeology at the Uni- become one of the world’s premier archaeologists and the wider public to versity of Pennsylvania. It was there, in programs in underwater archaeology. the potential and excitement of under- 1960, that he was asked by Professor The institute has conducted research water archaeology. Rodney S. Young if he would learn to throughout the world on shipwrecks Because of his unique contribu- scuba dive in order to direct the ex- and sites of a diversity of time periods. tion to underwater archaeology, Bass cavation of a Bronze Age shipwreck Bass has continued to focus on ship- has been widely recognized and has discovered off Cape Geldonya, Turkey. wrecks in Turkey, where he is an hon- received awards from the National Bass’s excavations of this site were the orary citizen of the town of Bodrum. Geographic Society, the Explorers’ fi rst time an ancient shipwreck was ex- Some of his more recent projects in- Club, the Archaeological Institute of cavated in its entirety under the water. clude a fourteenth-century B.C. wreck America, and the Society for Histori- During the 1960s, Bass went on to with a cargo of copper, ivory, tin, glass, cal Archaeology. President George W. excavate two Byzantine shipwrecks and ebony, and a medieval ship with Bush presented him with the National off Yassi Ada, Turkey. At these sites a large cargo of Islamic glass (Bass Medal for Science in 2002. he developed a variety of specialized et al. 2004). Bass has written or edited methods for underwater excavation, ten books and is the author of more Explore the Concept on including new mapping techniques, a than one hundred articles. Through his myanthrolab.com

dating technique based on the assumption that any par- The principles of seriation can be illustrated by ticular artifact, attribute, or style will appear, gradually examining stylistic changes in New England gravestones increase in popularity until it reaches a peak, and then of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. progressively decrease. Archaeologists measure these Unlike many artifacts, gravestones can be closely dated. changes by comparing the relative percentages of certain To validate the principle of seriation, archaeologist attributes or styles in different stratigraphic levels in a site James Deetz charted how colonial gravestone designs or in different sites. Using the principle of increasing and changed through time (Deetz 1996). His study of grave- decreasing popularity of attributes, archaeologists are stones in Stoneham Cemetery, Massachusetts, as illus- able to place categories of artifacts in a relative chron- trated in Figure 2.5 , demonstrates the validity of the ological order. Seriation was particularly important for method. In the course of a century, death’s-head mo- chronologically ordering ceramics and stone tools before tifs were gradually replaced by cherub designs, which the advent of many of the numerical dating techniques in turn were replaced by urn and willow decorations. discussed on the following page. The study also illustrates how local variation in beliefs

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During the nineteenth century, scientists experi- mented with many methods designed to pinpoint the numerical age of the Earth itself. Many of these methods were based on observations of the physical world. Studies of erosion rates, for instance, indicated that it had taken millions of years to cut clefts in the earth like the Grand Canyon in the United States. Other strat- egies were based on the rates at which salt had accumulated in the oceans, the Earth had cooled, and geological sediments had formed (Prothero 1989). By observing current conditions and assuming a standard rate at which these processes had occurred, scientists calculated the amount of time represented. These early approaches were flawed by a limited understanding of the complexity of natural processes involved and the range of local conditions. Therefore, these techniques at best provide only crude relative dating methods. In contrast to these early researchers, today’s scientists have a wide variety of highly precise methods of dating paleontological and archaeological finds (Aitken 1990; Brothwell and Pollard 2001). Several of the most important numerical dating techniques used today are based on radioactive decay , a process in which radioisotopes , unstable atoms of certain elements, break down or decay by throwing off sub- atomic particles and energy over time. These changes can produce either a different isotope of the same element or another element entirely. In terms of dating, the significance of radioactive decay is that it occurs at a set rate re- gardless of environmental conditions, such as temperature fluctuations, amount of groundwater, or the depth below surface. The amount of decay that has taken place can Figure 2.5 The seriation of gravestones in a New England cem- be measured with a device called a mass spectrometer . etery by archaeologist James Deetz illustrates the growth and Hence, by calculating how much decay has occurred in a gradual decline in popularity of a closely dated series of decorative geological specimen or an artifact, scientists can assign a motifs. numerical age to it. Source: From In Small Things Forgotten by James Deetz. Copyright © 1996 by James Deetz. Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Radiocarbon Dating Radiocarbon dating, also known as carbon 14 dating, is perhaps the best known and trade patterns may influence the popularity of an and most common numerical dating technique used by attribute. archaeologists. The technique of using radioactive decay as a dating tool was pioneered by Willard Libby, who received the 1960 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work Numerical, or Absolute, Dating on radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating , as its name In contrast to relative dating techniques, numerical dat- implies, is based on the decay of carbon 14 (14 C), a radio- ing methods (sometimes also referred to as “absolute” active (unstable) isotope of carbon that eventually decays or “chronometric” methods) provide actual ages. For re- into nitrogen. The concentration of carbon 14 in a living cent time periods, historical sources such as calendars organism is comparable to that of the surrounding atmo- and dating systems that were used by ancient peoples sphere and is absorbed by the organism as carbon diox-

provide numerical dates. Mayan and Egyptian sites, for ide (CO2 ). When the organism dies, the intake of CO2 example, can often be dated by inscriptions carved into ends. Thus, as the carbon 14 in the organism begins to the monuments themselves (see the discussion of Writ- decay, it is not replaced by additional radiocarbon from ing Systems in Chapter 9). However, such written records the atmosphere. only extend back a few thousand years and these sources Like other radioisotopes, carbon 14 decays at a are not available for many regions. Researchers have known rate that can be expressed in terms of its half- consequently explored a variety of methods to establish life , the interval of time required for half of the radioiso- the age of fossil finds and archaeological discoveries. tope to decay. The half-life of carbon 14 is 5,730 years.

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By measuring the quantity of carbon 14 in a specimen, 300,000 and 4.5 billion years old, and thus it can pro- scientists can determine the amount of time that has vide independent confirmation on the age of strata us- elapsed since the organism died. ing potassium-argon dating. Although this is generally a Radiocarbon dating is of particular importance to ar- technique of more use to paleoanthropologists, it may chaeologists because it can be used to date organic mat- also be used on manufactured glasses. Dates have been ter that contains carbon, including fragments of ancient obtained on glass and pottery glazes less than 2,000 wooden tools, charcoal from ancient fires, and skeletal years old, and so it presents a technique of potential material. Dates of up to 80,000 years old have been ob- help to archaeologists studying the more recent past tained, but the technique is generally limited to dating (Aitken 1990). materials less than about 60,000 years old (Plastino et al. 2001; Taylor and Southon 2007). The minuscule amounts Thermoluminescence Dating This dating of radiocarbon remaining in materials older than this method is also based on radioactive decay, but the tech- make measurement difficult. Because of the time period nique operates slightly differently than the methods dis- represented, radiocarbon is of limited use to paleoanthro- cussed above. It is based on the amount of electrons pologists who may be dealing with fossil finds millions of trapped in crystalline minerals. The electrons are pri- years old. However, radiocarbon dating has become of marily produced by the decay of three elements pres- great importance to archaeologists who deal with materi- ent in varying amounts in geological deposits: uranium, als of more recent age. thorium, and a radioactive isotope of potassium ( 40 K). Hence, for accuracy, thermoluminescence dates should Potassium-Argon and Fission-Track Dating include an evaluation of the radioactivity in the surround- Several isotopes that exhibit radioactive decay are pres- ing soil so that the background radiation present in the ent in rocks of volcanic origin. Some of these isotopes deposit can be controlled for. As these elements decay, decay at very slow rates over billions of years. Two ra- electrons are trapped in the crystals of the surrounding diometric techniques that have proven of particular help matrix. In order to be dated using the technique, arti- to paleoanthropologists and archaeologists studying early facts must has been heated, as in the case of the firing human ancestors are potassium-argon and fission-track of ceramics. Heating releases any trapped electrons; de- dating. These methods do not date fossil material itself. cay subsequently begins again and electrons once again Rather, they can be used to date volcanic ash and lava start to accumulate in the crystal matrix of the object. By flows that are associated with fossil finds. Fortunately, calculating the rate at which electrons have accumulated many areas that have produced fossil discoveries were and measuring the amount of electrons trapped in a sam- volcanically active in the past and can be dated by using ple, the age can be determined. these techniques. These methods have been employed The importance of thermoluminescence dating lies in at such fossil localities as the Fayum Depression in Egypt the fact that it can be used to date artifacts themselves, (see Chapter 4), Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Hadar, as opposed to associated stratigraphic deposits, as in the Ethiopia (see Chapter 5). case of potassium argon dating. Thermoluminescence In potassium-argon dating , scientists measure the dating has been particularly useful in dating ceramics— decay of a radioisotope of potassium, known as potas- one of the most common artifacts found on sites dat- sium 40 ( 40 K), into an inert gas, argon ( 40 Ar). During the ing to the last 10,000 years. It has, however, also been intense heat of a volcanic eruption, any argon present used in cases where stone tools have been heated during in a mineral is released, leaving only the potassium. As their manufacture or time of use (some stone becomes the rock cools, the potassium 40 begins to decay into easier to work if heated). Similarly, it has been used in argon. Because the half-life of 40 K is 1.3 billion years, cases where the clay or stone of a hearth area has been the potassium-argon method can be used to date very heated; the key once again being that the sample has ancient finds, and has thus been important in dating been heated at the time of use or manufacture to set the early hominid fossils. Although this technique has been amount of accumulated electrons to zero. Dates of tens used to date volcanic rocks a few thousand years old, or hundreds of thousands of years have been obtained the amount of argon is so small that it is more commonly on stone tools (Aitken et al. 1993). The method has also used on samples dating over 100,000 years (McDougall proven very useful in differentiating modern fakes from and Harrison 1999). ancient ceramic objects. Fission-track dating is based on the decay of a radioactive isotope of uranium ( 238 U) that releases en- Dendrochronology Dendrochronology is a ergy at a regular rate. In certain minerals, microscopic unique type of numerical dating based on the annual scars, or tracks, from the spontaneous fissioning of 238 U growth rings found in some species of trees ( Figure 2.6 ). are produced. By counting the number of tracks in a Because a ring corresponds to a single year, the age of a sample, scientists can estimate fairly accurately when tree can be determined by counting the number of rings. the rocks were formed. Fission-track dating is used This principle was recognized as early as the late eigh- to determine the age of geological samples between teenth century by the Reverend Manasseh Cutler, who

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Modern Tree PRESENT

1900 A.D.

1800 A.D.

Beam from an Old House 1700 A.D.

Preserved Wood from Archaeological Site 1600 A.D.

1500 A.D.

1400 A.D.

Figure 2.6 Dendrochronology is based on the careful examination of distinct patterns of thin and thick growth rings that preserve a record of a region’s environmental history. As illustrated here, samples of wood from different contexts may be pieced together to provide a master dendrochronology. Fragments of wood from archaeological sites can then be compared to this dendrochronology to determine the period in which the tree lived.

used it to infer that a Native American mound site in a sequence using the bristlecone pine has now been Ohio was at least 463 years old. The modern science of extended to almost 9,000 years ago. Work on oak se- dendrochronology was pioneered in the early twentieth quences in Ireland and Germany has been used to cre- century by A. E. Douglass using well-preserved wood ate a master dendrochronology sequence dating back from the American Southwest. over 10,000 years. Today tree-ring dating is a great deal more sophis- The importance of this method is manifest. Dendro- ticated than counting tree rings. In addition to record- chronology has proven of great significance in areas such ing annual growth, tree rings also preserve a record as the American Southwest, where the dry conditions of environmental history: thick rings represent years often preserve wood. The growth rings in fragments of when the tree received ample rain; thin rings denote wood from archaeological sites can be compared to the dry spells. In more temperate regions, the temperature master dendrochronology sequence, and the date the and the amount of sunlight may affect the thickness of tree was cut down can be calculated. Even more impor- the rings. Trees of the same species in a localized area tant, dendrochronology provides an independent means will generally show a similar pattern of thick and thin of evaluating radiocarbon dating. Fragments dated by rings. This pattern can then be overlapped with patterns both techniques confirm the importance of radiocar- from successively older trees to build up a master den- bon as a dating method. However, wood dated by both drochronology sequence. In the American Southwest, techniques indicates that carbon 14 dates more than

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3,000 years old are increasingly younger than their ac- of archaeologists has knocked the underpinning from this tual age. The reason for this lies in the amount of carbon contrived history (Hall 1988). Archaeological evidence in- 14 in the Earth’s atmosphere. Willard Libby’s initial radio- dicates that the ancestors of the black South Africans had carbon dating calculations were based on the assumption moved into the region by 200 A.D., 1,500 years before the that the concentration was constant over time, but we now initial European settlement. know that it has varied. Dendrochronologies have allowed In these cases, versions of the past were con- scientists to correct, or calibrate, radiocarbon dates, ren- structed with dangerous effects on the present. More dering them more accurate. commonly, errors in interpretation are less intentional and more subtle. All researchers carry their own personal and cultural bias with them. Human societies are Interpretations About the Past complex, and how this complexity is manifested ar- Views of the past are, unavoidably, tied to the pres- chaeologically varies. These factors make the evalua- ent. As we discussed in Chapter 1, anthropologists try tion of interpretations challenging, and differences of to validate their observations by being explicit about opinion frequently occur. their assumptions. Prevailing social and economic con- Although there is no formula that can be used to ditions, political pressures, and theoretical perspectives evaluate all paleoanthropological and archaeological all may affect interpretation. During the early twenti- materials, there are useful guidelines. As seen in the pre- eth century, bits and pieces of physical anthropology, ceding chapter, a key aspect of anthropological research archaeology, and linguistic information were muddled is a systematic, scientific approach to data. Outmoded, together to support the myth of a superior German race incorrect interpretations can be revealed through the (Pringle 2006). Gustav Kossina, initially trained as a testing of hypotheses and replaced by more convinc- philologist, distorted archaeological interpretations to ing observations. The validity of a particular interpre- bolster chronologies that showed development starting tation can be strengthened by the use of independent in Germany and spreading outward to other parts of lines of evidence; if they lead to similar conclusions, Europe. the validity of the interpretation is strengthened. Aca- Archaeological and historical information was also demic books and articles submitted for publication are used to validate racist apartheid rule in South Africa. reviewed by other researchers, and authors are chal- South African textbooks often proffered the idea that lenged to clarify points and strengthen observations. black, Bantu-speaking farmers migrating from the north In many cases the evaluation of a particular theory or and white and Dutch-speaking settlers coming from the hypothesis must await the accumulation of data. Many southwest arrived in the South African hinterland at regions of the world and different aspects of the past the same time. This interpretation had clear relevance are virtually unstudied. Therefore, any theories about to the present: Both groups had equal claim to the land. these areas or developments must remain tentative and However, over the past two decades, a new generation subject to reevaluation.

Study and Review on myanthrolab.com Summary

Paleoanthropologists and archaeologists examine dif- Paleoanthropologists work with fossils, the preserved ferent aspects of the human past. Paleoanthropologists traces of past life. Places where fossils are found are concentrate on the evolution of humans as a biologi- termed fossil localities . The fossil record is far from com- cal species and the behavior of early human ancestors, plete; only a small portion of the creatures that have lived whereas archaeologists are concerned with past hu- are preserved. Nevertheless, an impressive record of past man cultures—their lifestyles, technology, and social life has survived. Careful study and improved technology systems—through the material remains they left behind. reveal minute fossils of shellfish, algae, and pollen and To ensure that data relevant to the paleoanthropologists’ images of the delicate structure in bones. Paleoanthropol- and archaeologists’ questions are recovered, projects be- ogy integrates the fields of geology, paleontology, and gin with a research design that sets out the objectives archaeology, as well as physical anthropology, to provide and formulates the strategy for recovering the pertinent a more holistic interpretation of the emergence and the information. Both subdisciplines overlap and utilize ex- behavior of early human ancestors. perts from other fields to provide a holistic interpretation The archaeological record encompasses all the mate- of the past. rial traces of past cultures. Places of past human activity

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that are preserved in the ground are called archaeologi- located. The depth of an excavation depends on a num- cal sites . Sites contain artifacts (objects made or modified ber of variables, including the type of site, the length of by humans), as well as other traces of past human activity occupation, the soils present, and the area’s environmen- and a record of the environmental conditions that affected tal history. the site. In studying archaeological materials, archaeologists Dating of fossils and archaeological materials is of are particularly interested in the context, the specific loca- key importance in the interpretation of the past. Without tion of finds and associated materials. Understanding the the ability to place finds in their relative ages, there is context is of key importance in determining the age, uses, no way of assessing evolutionary change, technological and meanings of archaeological materials. Specialized fields innovations, or cultural developments. Paleoanthropolo- of study in archaeology may require special approaches or gists and archaeologists use many different dating tech- techniques. For example, historical archaeologists draw on niques that can be classified as either relative or absolute written records and oral traditions to help interpret archae- dating methods. Methods such as stratigraphic dating, ological remains. Underwater archaeologists require special faunal succession, and fluorine, uranium, and nitrogen equipment to locate and excavate sites. analyses provide only relative ages for finds in the same Archaeological sites provide important information deposits. Absolute techniques like radiocarbon dating, about the past, for example, the use of natural resources, potassium-argon dating, and dendrochronology can be trade patterns, and political organization. Sites can be lo- used to assign actual numerical ages to finds. cated in many different ways. Often traces of a site may Interpretations of the past are inevitably influenced survive on the ground, and local informants, maps, and by the present. At times theories have been used to sup- previous archaeological reports may be of help. To dis- port political ends, as seen in Nazi Germany and the cover sites, archaeologists may survey areas, looking for apartheid policies of South Africa. Researchers try to any indications of archaeological remains. Surface exami- avoid bias by employing systematic, scientific methodol- nations may be supplemented by subsurface testing to ogy. Theories can be revealed as false through testing identify buried deposits. Technological aids, such as the and replaced by more convincing arguments. These, in magnetometer or resistivity meter, may also help archae- turn, can be negated or strengthened by exploring new ologists identify artifacts and features beneath the ground. lines of evidence. Archaeological theories, often derived Depending on a project’s objectives, archaeological from cultural anthropology, help archaeologists concep- sites may be targeted for excavation. Digging is always tualize how cultures work and what aspects of a past cul- undertaken with great care, and information about the ture might be preserved archaeologically. Ultimately, this work is carefully recorded. Before excavation, a site is di- reflection provides a more complete explanation of the vided into a grid, which allows each artifact to be carefully dynamics of past cultures and culture change.

Questions to Think About

1. What are the distinct issues, concerns, and methods 5. A great deal of archaeological information can be that distinguish paleoanthropology and archaeology? obtained without moving a single shovelful of dirt. 2. How do the archaeological and fossil records differ in Describe three different methods used by archaeolo- terms of their content? gists to explore sites in the field that are not dependent upon excavation. 3. What is meant by the term historical archaeology ? What are some ways in which archaeological 6. What are the principal differences between relative research can improve our understanding of history? and absolute dating? Discuss two methods each of relative dating and absolute dating, describing the 4. What are the principal issues that you would address advantages and limitations of each. in preparing a research design for an archaeological or paleoanthropological project? What concepts, activities, and logistics would you consider?

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Key Terms

aerial photography ecofacts material culture research design antiquaries faunal correlation paleoecology resistivity archaeological sites faunal succession palynology seriation context features potassium-argon dating stratigraphic dating culture fission-track dating proton magnetometer survey datum point fossil localities radiocarbon dating taphonomy dendrochronology law of supraposition relative dating thermoluminescence dating

Read the Original Source on myanthrolab.com For further information about topics covered in this Cheryl Claassen, Gender and Archaeology. chapter, go to MyAnthroLab at www.myanthrolab.com Robert Kelly, Lithic Analysis: Chipped Stone Tools and Waste and access the following readings in MyAnthroLibrary: Flakes in Archaeology. Lukacs John R., Dental Deductions: Why and How Anthropolo- Stephen Ball, The Discovery of Archaeological Sites. gists Study Teeth. Timothy G. Bromage, Paleoanthropology and Life History, and Mark J. Lynott, Ethics in Archaeology. Life History of a Paleoanthropologist.

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