Keechelus Dam HAER No. WA-80 Yakima River 10 miles northwest of Easton Easton vicinity Kittitas County Washington
PHOTOGRAPHS WRITTEN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE DATA
Historic American Engineering Record National Park Service Columbia Cascad~s Support Office Department of the Interior 909 First Avenue Seattle, Washington 98104 HISTORIC AMERICAN ENGINEERING RECORD
KEECHELUS DAM
HAER NO. WA-80
Location: 10 miles northwest of Easton, Kittitas County, Washington
U.T.M.: 10:625704:5242738 (north end) 10:624769:5241066 (south end) Quad: Stampede Pass, Washington
Dates of Construction: 1913-17; rehabilitation 1951-52 (spillway); rehabilitation 1976-80 (outlet works)
Engineers: United States Reclamation Service
Owner: United States Bureau of Reclamation
Present Use: Water storage for irrigation purposes
Significance: Keechelus Dam and Reservoir, at the head of the Yakima River, provide 15 percent of the water stored for the Yakima Project, which irrigates the Yakima Valley from above Ellensburg to the Richland area in central Washington. The valley, which enjoys a greater natural water supply than most arid regions, required an integrated, valley-wide system that utilized stored water to realize its agricultural potential. Private irrigation companies lacked the capital and engineering expertise to make such an investment. The Land Reclamation Act of 1902 enabled the United States Reclamation Service to do so. Keechelus Dam, an integral element of the Yakima Project irrigation storage system, is a significant representative of earthen-dam engineering design processes and construction methods of the early twentieth century. KEECHELUS DAM HAER-No. WA-80 (Page 2)
Project Information: Keechelus Dam is classified as a high risk dam by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation due to the potential number of lives that could be lost and the potential environmental and cultural destruction that would occur if the dam were to fail. In 1998, Reclamation determined that modifications to the dam were necessary to correct safety deficiencies caused by the original construction methods. To mitigate the effect of alterations to the historic fabric of the dam, which has been determined eligible for the National Register of Historic Places, Reclamation commissioned this Historic American Engineering Record documentation. This report was completed in 2003 by Hess, Roise and Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, under contract to the Bureau of Reclamation. Marjorie Pearson served as the Project Historian and Charlene K. Roise as the Principal Investigator. Photographer and delineator Clayton B. Fraser of Fraserdesign in Loveland, Colorado, worked under a subcontract with Hess Roise. Large format photography that recorded the site in 1992 was completed by J. Thomas Wilson under a separate contract with the Bureau of Reclamation. LA~E 1',E,ElHE.LLJ~
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DESCRIPTION OF KEECHELUS DAM
Keechelus Dam and Reservoir sit in the Wenatchee National Forest on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains in central Washington State, at the head of the Yakima River. Keechelus is located to the west ofKachess and Cle Elum (also called Clealum) Reservoirs, which also store water for the Yakima Project. The dam, built 300' downstream from the natural lakeshore, impounds Keechelus Reservoir, created from Lake Keechelus, that catches runoff from the nearby mountain slopes. The reservoir holds 157,800 acre-feet (increased from its original 152,000 acre-foot capacity); when full, the reservoir's surface area measures 2,562 acres at elevation 2517.0'. Under current operating regimes, the reservoir fills throughout the spring and early summer with snowmelt and rainfall. Water is released in early spring for flood control, irrigation, and to regulate stream flow for chinook salmon and other anadramous fish. Water is drawn down in the summer and early fall to provide irrigation water and regulate stream flow to promote fish spawning. During the late fall and winter the water levels are controlled for fish and flood control. 1
Embankment2
Keechelus Dam is a zoned earthfill embankment with a maximum structural height of 128' and a hydraulic height of 71 '. It extends roughly along a southwest-northeast axis, following and building on the natural moraines on the site.3 The embankment is 6550' long and contains about
1 This description is based on the following sources: C. E. Crownover, "Every Possible Precaution Observed to Make Watertight Keechelus Reservoir, Washington," Engineering Record 74 (October 14, 1916): 474-476; C. E. Crownover, "Puddling and Rolling to Assure Impervious Foundation for Keechelus Reservoir," Engineering Record 74 (October 28, 1916): 534-536; C. E. Crownover and W. D. Horton, "Yakima Storage Project Keechelus Dam, Final Cost Report and Summary of Expenditures," October 1919; Bureau of Reclamation, "Information Relating to Yakima Project, Washington," 1927; B. I. Anderson, "Final Construction Report: Rehabilitation ofKeechelus Dam Spillway, Yakima Project, Washington, Storage Division, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation," report prepared in June 1953; "Review of Operation and Maintenance Program, 1993 Examination Report, Keechelus Dam, Yakima Project, Washington, Pacific Northwest Region," report issued by Denver Office, Bureau of Reclamation; Phillip J. Hansen and Douglas J. Bennett, "Interim Geologic Design Data Report for Corrective Action, Safety of Dams Program, Keechelus Dam, Yakima Project, Washington," report prepared for Department oflnterior, Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, March 2000; "Keechelus Dam, Safety of Dams Modification, Yakima Project, Washington, Draft Environmental Impact Statement," prepared for U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington, December 2000. All unpublished reports are available at Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington, hereafter Upper Columbia Area Office. See also "Yakima Project, Washington: Benton, Franklin, Yakima, and Kittitas Counties, Pacific Northwest Region, Bureau of Reclamation, Project Data Book," Region revision October 1983, available at Bureau of Reclamation Library, Denver Federal Center, Colorado; and "Keechelus Dam, Washington," Bureau of Reclamation website dataweb.usbr.gov/dams/wa00265.htm. The author also conducted a site survey in July 2001. 2 The current appearance of the embankment is documented in photographs WA -80-1 through W A-80-14. 3 The structural height of the dam varies with the underlying moraine conditions. The impact of the moraine on the amount and type of fill during construction is illustrated in: Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 5)
684,000 cubic yards ofmaterial.4 The maximum base width is 370'. The embankment crest is 20' wide at elevation 2525.0'. From the crest, the upstream face has a slope of 3:1, and the downstream side has a slope of2:l. A protective layer of rock riprap, 3' to 5' deep, over a 3' deep gravel and rock foundation protects the upstream face. The downstream slope is covered by a face of smaller rock ranging from 6" to 2' deep. To limit seepage and facilitate drainage through the earthen structure, the upstream section of the embankment consists largely of rolled earthfill. 5 The downstream section of the dam is composed mostly of gravels excavated from the borrow pits, or manufactured from crushed rock excavated from the spillway site. 6 Beneath the embankment, upstream of and parallel to the centerline, is a corewall, composed of concrete or of sheet piling of Douglas fir set in a puddled core. The underlying subsoil conditions at the site of construction determined the corewall composition. The corewall rises from the base of the foundation trench, also called a cutoff trench, which was 1O' wide at the bottom with %: 1 side slopes, and varying in depth from 5' to 20'. In the section of the embankment that crosses the river, the trench was at a depth of 40' below the surface of the riverbed, and the concrete corewall, which surrounds the conduit, rises 75' to 80'. The base rests on gravelly clay; the trench is intended to prevent seepage through the foundation. To further control seepage, two rock filled drains extend the entire length of the dam, one at the juncture of the rolled earthfill with the gravel fill, and the other just under the lower toe on the downstream side of the embankment. In some sections a 12" vitreous tile drain with open joints is placed in the upper drain trench, with transverse rock drains leading to the toe trench. Seventeen outlet drains of 8 "-12" clay pipe extend from the toe trench at low points (primarily in the southern section of the embankment) to carry seepage water away from the embankment. 7 A gravel road extends across the top of the embankment from the spillway on the north to the railroad right-of-way on the south. When originally built, this road formed part of a link between the Sunset Highway, which led through the Snoqualmie Pass to Seattle, and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Saint Paul Railway tracks. To the north of the outlet (towards the spillway), a narrow concrete staircase without railing descends the downstream face of the embankment. A similar staircase, descending the upstream face of the embankment just north of the footbridge, is part of the gauging system that measures the height of the reservoir.
Service, Yakima Project - Washington, Storage Unit, "Plan, Profile, and Sections, January 1915, Dl-65, 33-109- 3072," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 4 Statistical Compilation ofStorage Dams and Reservoirs on Bureau ofReclamation Projects (Washington: United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1969), 7. Crownover, "Every Possible Precaution," 474, gives the figure of 522,000 cubic yards. 5 Hansen and Bennett, 34,37, describe the rolled earthfill as "Silty Sand with Gravel (SM)g" and "Silty Gravel with Sand (GM)s" excavated from the Old Downstream Site and the Right Abutment Site, which correspond to the east borrow pit and the south borrow pit. 6 Ibid. classify this material as "Well Graded Gravel with Silt and Sand (GW-GM)s" from the Spillway Site and the Old Downstream Site, which corresponds to the east borrow pit. Some of the material also comes from the north borrow pit, which was north of the spillway site. 7 These drains are described in Crownover, "Puddling and Rolling," 535, and discussed in greater detail in Hansen and Bennett, 4-5. P,OLLEP tAPiTH fll.L. -- .!>MALL PiDl"1 - '-PiE~l P,OAD f'IOll'i P)IP- PiAP ON FA"~ ------bMALL. PiOC.l'i ON FAC.e '1PiAVf.L. FIL.I..
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Outlet works
Water is released from the reservoir to the river by outlet works consisting of an inlet channel, also called an intake channel, 565' long; a 495' long conduit through the dam embankment; and an open outlet channel section, 3300' long, that empties into the Yakima River. The outlet works were excavated below the riverbed, to allow the natural lake level to be drawn down 31 '. The inlet channel, which had suffered from debris and wave action, was reshaped by a dragline excavator in 1992. A circular gate tower at the upper toe connects with the 12' x 12' horseshoe type reinforced-concrete conduit under the embankment. Slide gates control the flow of water from the reservoir into the conduit. The slide gates are operated from the gatehouse, located atop the gate tower.
Gate Tower and Gatehouse8
The gate tower is a double reinforced-concrete structure connected by radial walls, 3' thick, poured in 4' vertical sections with battered concrete piers that hold trash racks on the front (reservoir) side. The bottom of the tower is at elevation 2415'. The outer tower connects at the front with the water in the inlet channel, which is at elevation 2425', while the inner tower connects at the rear with the outlet conduit. Water intake is through six 3' x 7' rectangular openings, flanked by the battered piers, that contain six 3' x 7' hydraulically operated cast-iron emergency slide gates ( also called guard gates), which normally remain open. They are closed only for inspection or in case of accident. The water's entrance to the inner tower and the conduit is controlled by one 8.5' x 8.5' hydraulically operated regulating slide gate, installed in 1980. This gate replaced the two original cast-iron cylinder gates that were hand-operated. The hydraulic hoists and their controls, as well as other control panels, are located inside the gatehouse. A 22"-diameter low-flow bypass outlet with a 20" manually operated emergency butterfly valve and a 20" motor-operated regulating slide gate was installed in 1980. This is visible at the lower level of the gate tower. A small electric elevator was installed in 1980 to provide access between the gatehouse and the lower level of the tower. Prior to then, access was only by a cast-iron ladder, which is still in place, and entered through a trapdoor in the floor of the gatehouse.
The gatehouse is a square, single-story concrete structure, approximately 30' x 30', that rests on concrete buttresses atop the gate tower. The base is at elevation 2530'. It has a pyramidal roof sheathed in green metal sheeting above bracketed wood eaves. 9 Each face contains three recessed concrete panels below three shallower recessed panels. The center panel on the east face contains the entrance with two metal door panels below a wood panel. The northern panel on the west face contains a small enclosed projection with one window and a measuring gauge that goes down into the reservoir. When built, window openings were placed in the paneled sections on each side of the building. These were filled in when the gates were replaced and the new control
8 The gate tower and gatehouse are documented by photographs WA -80-D-1 through W A-80-D-l 4. 9 The original plans called for metal Spanish tiles, either in individual panels or sheets. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 8)
panels installed. Access to the gatehouse is by a double-span steel Warren-truss footbridge leading from the dam crest. The bridge is supported at the center by a concrete-filled steel column with a winged base and flared top. This column was installed in 1978, replacing the original steel-truss supports that rested on concrete piers. The floor of the bridge is an open metal grate. At the dam crest the bridge rests on a concrete and riprap abutment, while at the gatehouse end it rests on a concrete buttress. 10
Conduit, concrete chute and stilling basin 11
The 12' x 12' horseshoe-type reinforced concrete conduit passes from the gate tower through the corewall at the base of the embankment. Collars 18" thick, extend 4' and 5' out from the conduit at 25' intervals between the tower and the corewall. Similar collars placed at 35' intervals extend from the corewall to the outlet opening. A low-flow bypass outlet was installed at the top of the conduit in the 1980s. To slow the water as it emerges from the conduit and to prevent erosion of the outlet channel, a stilling basin, also called a stilling pool, was installed. The original rubble paved stilling basin was modified in 1976 with the installation of a concrete chute, 156' long, 18' wide, and up to 28' deep, that extends from the face of the conduit opening. A portion of the old stilling pool area flanking the chute is now filled with earth and covered with grass. The water now empties into an elliptical concrete-paved stilling basin.
Outlet channel12
The stilling basin connects to the open, rubble-paved concrete outlet channel, that feeds into the unpaved open channel section. This in turn feeds into the Yakima River. A small concrete-block structure that houses a river gauging station is situated on the north bank of the outlet channel just before it joins the unpaved channel. Built sometime after 1992, it replaced a small rubble stone structure with a pyramidal roof. 13
Spillway14
Water can also be released from the reservoir through an overflow spillway, located in a solid rock cut at the north end of the dam embankment. It consists of an uncontrolled, ogee-type concrete weir, 301' long, that discharges into a concrete-lined channel leading into a natural ravine. The channel is about 40' wide at the bottom and 22.5' deep. The spillway crest at elevation 2517' is 8' below the top of the dam. The discharge capacity is described as
10 A photograph of the gatehouse and footbridge prior to rehabilitation is reproduced in Yakima Herald-Republican, January 25, 1977. 11 See photographs WA-80-A- l through WA-80-A-4. 12 The outlet channel is depicted in photographs WA-80-A-l and WA-80-A-2. 13 This structure is illustrated in WA-80-B- l. 14 The current appearance of the spillway is documented in WA-80-C- l through WA-80-C-6. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 9) approximately 1,200 cubic feet per second or 11,800 second-feet. 15 When the spillway was rehabilitated in 1951-52, the crest was raised 2' from elevation 2515'. New drainpipes were installed in the floor and walls of the weir. The weir joins a concrete wingwall at the north end of the embankment. A wood log boom, formed of coffered sections, rests on the floor of the reservoir in front of the spillway wall. The concrete-lined discharge channel ends abruptly in a rocky cut. Some distance below that are the surviving concrete abutments of the first bridge over the spillway channel.16 The bridge, which was relocated further downstream, was originally part of the linking road between the Sunset Highway and the dam road to the railroad tracks. Below the relocated bridge, the spillway channel merges with the outlet channel.
15 Crownover, "Every Possible Precaution," 475, uses the figure of 10,000 second -feet. The "1993 Examination Report," 3, uses the figure of 1,200 cubic feet per second. "Keechelus Dam," states the discharge capacity is "11,800 ft3/sec." 16 The abutments are documented in WA-80-E-1. TII i! ,illr I(. I: 1: 1·1 1: I. lJ l),\M !. c: s ri II I{ I T1· I 1· ,\. S c: () uN , ..., I \\' ,~ S 1·11 N G 1· C> N i ~
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Federal Irrigation and the United States Reclamation Service
The Federal government had a long history of involvement with land development in the West and the need to deal with water use. The Homestead Act of 1862 granted 160 acres of land to each settler, but in the arid western climate that amount was insufficient to sustain a family. In an attempt to remedy the situation, the Timber Culture Act of 1873 required that 40 acres of each claim be planted with trees, which was thought to encourage rainfall. After Congress passed the Desert Lands Act in 1877, individuals could claim up to 640 acres for $1.25 per acre in thirteen western states, provided that the land be irrigated within three years. Residency on the claimed land was not required until the act was amended in 1891. At that time, the holding was reduced to 320 acres. These actions encouraged settlement, but did not establish the widespread irrigation needed to sustain farming. 17
John Wesley Powell, the noted explorer of the West, undertook a study of western lands for the United States Geological Survey (USGS), publishing A Report on the Lands ofthe Arid Region ofthe United States, with a More Detailed Account ofthe Lands of Utah in two editions (1876; rev. ed. 1878). In this report, he advocated a Federal presence in promoting an irrigation policy for the two-fifths of the United States that could not otherwise support farming and the establishment of reservoir systems for water storage. After Powell became head of the USGS in 1881, the agency began to survey and map the United States. In 1888 and 1889, it conducted surveys of possible canal routes and reservoir sites in many of the western states which were undergoing a worsening drought. At the National Irrigation Congress held in 1891 in Salt Lake City, a resolution was passed calling for proceeds from the sale of public lands to be used to finance the reclamation of arid lands. 18
The USGS undertook a study of the water supplies in Washington's Yakima Valley in 1892. ChiefHydrographer Frederick Haynes Newell, who later became the first director of the United States Reclamation Service, described the Yakima River and its tributaries and noted the abundance of water in the lakes of the Cascades: "These lakes serve as natural reservoirs,
17 Christine Pfaff, Harvests ofPlenty: A History ofthe Yakima Irrigation Project, Washington (Denver: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 2001), 17; "Boise Project, Deer Flat Embankment, Historic American Engineering Record (ID-17-B)," 1991, report prepared by Fredric Quivik with Amy Slaton, hereafter cited as Quivik, 24. Katharine Coman, "Some Unsettled Problems of Irrigation," American Economic Review 1 (March 1911): 4-5, discusses the Desert Lands Act and its amendment. Elwood Mead, "Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United States," Yearbook ofthe Department ofAgriculture, 1899 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), 603-604, thought the act was of mixed usefulness because it encouraged settlement, but the acreage was too large for ''men of small means" and not large enough to suit "corporate enterprise, or to reclaim large valleys which can be watered from a single canal, because it makes no provision for concerted or effective management of the entire area." 18 Quivik, 24-25; Pfaff, 17-19. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 12)
regulating, to a certain extent, the discharge of the streams, reducing the height of the floods, and increasing the summer flows. Their usefulness in this regard could be greatly increased at moderate expense by erecting suitable darns and gates at their outlets."19
In 1894 Congress passed the Carey Act which gave the states responsibility for overseeing irrigation efforts. Each western state would be granted up to one million acres of public land provided that no less than twenty acres of each 160-acre tract be brought under settlement and irrigation within five years. Once proof of settlement and irrigation was established with the Secretary oflnterior, the lands would be transferred to the state and subsequently to the settlers.20
Washington, which had only been admitted to statehood in 1889, established the position of Commissioner of Arid Lands in 1895. The Commissioner was to select lands under the Carey Act and enter into contracts for reclamation. Although the state applied for 86,854 acres under the act, the land was never developed. Like the other western states, Washington lacked the financial resources and technical expertise to move forward with large-scale irrigation projects.21
By 1901, western support for Federal involvement in irrigation was growing. President Theodore Roosevelt addressed Congress in December 1901, calling for legislation to reclaim arid lands in the West. Both Newell and Dr. Elwood Mead, Chief of Irrigation for the Department of Agriculture, supported such legislation. Under the leadership of Nevada Congressman Francis G. Newlands, who headed a committee of seventeen representatives from the western states, the Reclamation Act was passed and signed into law by President Roosevelt on June 17, 1902. The Act, also known as the Newlands Act, authorized the Secretary oflnterior to locate and construct irrigation works in the arid western states and territories, with funding to come from the sale of public lands. Once the irrigation projects were constructed, the lands would be open for settlement in 160-acre tracts. The acreage limitation was intended to encourage homesteading and discourage speculation. Project construction costs were to be paid by the settlers; then operation and maintenance would become the responsibility of irrigation districts. The Act also established the United States Reclamation Service to administer the programs. F. H. Newell was appointed as Chief Engineer. The law applied to the 1901-02 Federal year so there was already $8 million in the reclamation fund by June 1902 for irrigation projects in the West.22
19 Pfaff, 18. F. H. Newell, "Federal Land Reclamation: A National Problem, Part 1. Origin, Problems and Achievements of Federal Land Reclamation," Engineering News-Record9l (October 25, 1923): 668. The quote is from F. H. Newell, "Results of Stream Measurements," 14th Annual Report, United States Geological Survey, 1892- 93, Part JI, Accompanying Papers (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894), 132-134; reprinted in F. H. Newell, "The Yakima River in Washington," Irrigation Age 7 (January 1894): 24-25. 20 Quivik, 25-26; Pfaff, 19. 21 Pfaff, 19-20. 22 Quivik, 26-27; Ffaff, 20-21. Newlands became U.S. Senator from Nevada in 1903. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 13)
Private Irrigation in the Yakima Valley
At the urging of Washington Territorial Governor Isaac F. Stevens, the resident Yakruna Indians negotiated a treaty in 1855 that ceded about 17,000 square miles ofland to the Federal Government and agreed to move to the newly created Yakima Indian Reservation at the southwest comer of the Yakima Valley. The Yakruna built some irrigation ditches on the reservation to cultivate their gardens, but continued to rely on fishing, hunting, and wild plant gathering for most of their food sources. 23
After the creation of the reservation, settlers began to come into the Yakima Valley. Most of them were ranchers of cattle, sheep, and horses with subsistence gardens watered by simple ditches from nearby streruns and rivers. Farming operations, which were made possible by small, localized irrigation efforts, were limited until the Northern Pacific Railroad reached the valley in the 1880s. With the railroad, farmers had ready access to markets for their produce. The railroad was granted almost one-half of the land in the valley, and the rail lines were completed to Seattle and Tacoma, causing a drrunatic increase in the region's population. Towns developed along the railroad right-of-way in response to the location of station sites. Thus, North Yakima, founded in 1884, superceded Yakima City, incorporated in 1883, when the Northern Pacific Railroad located the station there. Similarly, Ellensburg to the north was incorporated in 1886 after it becrune a station stop.24
As more farmers crune into the valley, demands for water rights and irrigation increased beyond the simple ditches that led water from rivers and streruns. By the 1890s, groups of farmers established irrigation cooperatives and companies to carry water to less accessible tracts of land.25
The largest private irrigation effort was the creation of the Sunnyside Canal, initiated by the Northern Pacific, Yakima and Kittitas Irrigation Company (NP, Y & K Company) in 1890. By 1906 the main canal extended about 56 miles and was linked by almost 7 5 miles of laterals that could irrigate 48,000 acres ofland. The land, located on the northeast side of the Yakima River, extended from below Union Gap downstrerun to the vicinity of Prosser. The owners of the system wanted to make the land attractive for commercial farming; much of the land was owned by the railroad, a two-thirds partner in the company. With water available, the railroad could aggressively market its land to new settlers, who in turn would use the railroad to transport their products.
In 1890 the NP, Y & K Company had undertaken surveys of potential canal routes and irrigation sites. Based on that work, the company planned to construct seven storage reservoirs, one irrigation canal in Kittitas County, and two in Yakima County. It also filed appropriation notices
23 P~aff,c. 4-5, 7. 24 Pfaff, 7-9. 25 Pfaff, 9-12, discusses a number of these private efforts. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 14)
for the waters of Lakes Keechelus, Kachess, and Cle Elum in order to secure rights to the headwaters of the Yakima River. The financial collapse of 1893 dealt a blow to the company's plans, stalling work on the canal and halting preparation work for dams at Lake Keechelus and Bumping Lake. In 1900, the canal enterprise was purchased by the Washington Irrigation Company, which was able to resume work on the system. The Washington Irrigation Company sold its irrigated land holdings for $30 to $60 per acre, including perpetual water rights.26
Despite the lake water claims filed by the NP, Y & K Company, the first action to impound the upper lakes occurred when the Cascade Canal Company built a crib dam at the south end of Lake Kachess in 1904. The company, a farmers' cooperative formed in 1902 to irrigate the land owned by the shareholders, had filed claims on Yakima River water and another for water from Lake Kachess in 1903. The dam, built ofrock-filled wood cribs with the flow controlled by flashboards, was about 10 feet high and 200 feet long, creating about 32,000 acre-feet of stored water. The stored water flowed down the river until it was diverted into the 43-mile long Cascade Canal, which delivered water to about 13,000 acres of farmland near Ellensburg.27
By 1904, about 150,000 acres were under irrigation in the Yakima Valley. Its farmers were praised for their productivity, and they were among the most prosperous in the West. The booming mining camps of northern Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia provided a ready market for Yakima Valley produce. William Smythe, a strong advocate for irrigation, wrote that the Yakima Valley "is one of the few places in the West where water is relatively more abundant than land, and consequently, where there need be no limitation upon growth by reason of lack of moisture." By 1910, the valley had ten irrigated farms for every one that had existed before 1890.28
26 Pfaff, 13-16, discusses the background and entities involved in the Sunnyside Canal companies. 27 Pfaff, 10; United States Reclamation Service, "Map ofKachess Crib Dam," October 4, 1907, available at Upper Columbia Area Office, Bureau of Reclamation, Yakima, Washington; United States, Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Third Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1903-4 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1905), 602; United States, Department of the Interior, Sixth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1906-1907 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907), 231; United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Irrigation in the Yakima Valley, Washington (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907), 24-25, 35-36. Remnants of the cribs are still visible and recorded as WA-79-E: Kachess Dam, 1904 Cascade Canal Company Crib Dam. 28 Pfaff, 16, cites A. P. Davis to T. A. Noble, July 4, 1904, General Records, Washington, D.C., Entry 3, Yakima Box 1020, Records of the Bureau of Reclamation, Record Group 115, National Archives and Records Administration, Federal Records Center, Denver, Colorado, for the laudatory comments. Hereafter, records from the Bureau of Reclamation, Record Group 115, will be indicated by the use ofRG 115; records in the Denver Federal Records Center of the National Archives and Records Administration are indicated by the use ofFRC Denver. The quote is from William Smythe, The Conquest ofArid America (Norwood, Mass.: Norwood Press, 1905), 200. The proportions of irrigated farms are discussed in Robert G. Nesbit and Charles M. Gates, "Agriculture in Eastern Washington, 1890-1910," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 37 (July 1946): 286-287. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 15)
The Yakima Project and the Storage Unit
The newly established United States Reclamation Service was initially reluctant to undertake a project in the Yakima Valley, although it set up a Washington office in Spokane in August 1903. T. A. Noble, a civil engineer from Seattle, was named Division Engineer. Because of the number of private irrigation enterprises, the Reclamation Service did not see an immediate need to act. According to Newell, "The most feasible opportunities for reclamation are those offered by Yakima River and its tributaries, the principal obstacles being the fact that much of the land to be benefited is in private ownership. Already steps have been taken to utilize some of the storage reservoirs in the Cascade Mountains, and it is not desirable for the Government to forestall work which can be carried on by private parties."29 Noble had been charged with conducting an assessment of irrigation prospects in the Yakima Valley but was concerned about expensive storage requirements and complicated water rights. He reported: "At the headwaters of the river and of its principal tributaries are several large lakes that might be used for storage purposes. Attempts have been made by several persons and corporations to obtain possession of these lakes, but so far as can be ascertained the title is still in the Government. Temporary structures have been built or projected in the hope of getting possession of the lakes in the interest of one or another of the canal companies operating along the lower part of the stream. "30
Because valley residents continued to request that the Reclamation Service investigate water shortages, George H. Bliss, Noble's Assistant Engineer, was sent to make further studies in 1904. His team identified a number of reservoir sites for a reliable water storage supply. These were located at Lake Keechelus, Lake Kachess, and Lake Cle Elum, at the head of the Yakima River; Bumping Lake on the Nachess River; and McAllister Meadows (now Rimrock Reservoir) on the Tieton River. Already the Cascade Canal Company had built its crib dam at Lake Kachess, and the Cascade Lumber Company was building a timber crib dam on Lake Keechelus. As described in the Third Annual Report, the Reclamation Service had conducted "a thorough reconnaissance of the water supply, the amount of water appropriated, the amount of irrigated land available, and other problems affecting the feasibility of an irrigation project in Yakima Valley... Nowhere in the State of Washington has irrigation been practiced so long, or so extensively, or have matters pertaining to irrigation reached a higher state of development, than in Yakima Valley. Notwithstanding this fact about three-fourths of the land in this valley is still unirrigated, which, with the storage facilities at hand, can be considered irrigable."31
Finally, in 1905 the Reclamation Service changed its stance because of several circumstances. Most importantly, in March the Washington State legislature, in response to pressure from
29 United States, Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, First Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1902 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903), 304. 30 United States, Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Second Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1902-3 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), 494. 31 Pfaff, 23-24; United States, Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Third Annual Report, 599-600. See WA-80-15 and WA-80-16 for photographs of the Cascade Lumber Company crib dam. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 16)
Governor Henry A. McBride, passed a law that authorized the United States Government to acquire lands for reservoir sites and canals by eminent domain. It also gave the Government the exclusive right to use any lakes in the state for storage purposes and to develop reservoirs and canals.32
The following month, Reclamation engineers T. A. Noble, A. J. Wiley, David C. Henny, and Arthur P. Davis submitted a report on their irrigation investigations in the valley. Three potential projects were identified, and three recommendations were made and subsequently approved by F. H. Newell. These were: immediate surveys to determine the feasibility and cost of water on Lakes Cle Elum, Kachess, Keechelus, Bumping Lake, McAllister Meadows, and any other promising reservoir sites; investigation of the irrigation possibilities of an expanded Sunnyside Canal; and continued surveys to determine the feasibility and cost of the previously proposed Kittitas, Cowiche, and Ledbetter Projects. In May the Reclamation Service requested the State Land Commissioner to withdraw the waters of the Yakima River and its tributaries in order to develop reclamation projects. State land for rights-of-way and state land suitable for irrigation were also requested for withdrawal. 33
Triggered by the new legislation, the Washington Irrigation Company offered to sell the Sunnyside Canal, including all laterals, water rights, and other property pertaining to the system. The Company would keep its unsold land and retain sufficient perpetual water rights to irrigate that land. The Reclamation Service negotiated a purchase option that would expire December 1, 1905, while it continued to investigate the Sunnyside Project.
In December 1905, Secretary of the Interior E. A. Hitchcock, who had to approve any endeavors proposed by the Reclamation Service, issued a conditional approval for work in the Yakima Valley. The final approval was contingent on the resolution of conflicting water claims and any associated litigation and a pledge to irrigate enough lands to repay the construction costs through user fees. The citizens of the valley resolved their conflicts over rights and limits to waters of the Yakima River and its tributaries and lakes early in 1906. In March, Acting Secretary of the Interior Thomas Ryan approved the purchase of the Sunnyside Canal system and its expansion as
32 Pfaff, 26-27; Calvin B. Coulter, "The Victory ofNational Irrigation in the Yakima Valley, 1902-1906," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 42 (April 1951 ): 110-113; United States, Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Fourth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Sel1!ice, 1904-5 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1906), 337-341. 33 Pfaff, 27-28; Board of Engineers to F. H. Newell, April 22, 1905, Entry 3, Yakima Box 1020, RG 115, FRC Denver; Fourth Annual Report, 331. An album of photographs by Walter J. Lubken, Official Photographer for the Reclamation Service, Book 22: North Yakima, taken as part of the survey efforts, is available at the Upper Columbia Area Office. Federal and state lands were withdrawn in advance of a request for authorization of the construction of reclamation projects in order to prevent the purchase or taking of large tracts of land by speculators in anticipation of steep increases in land values once irrigation was available. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 17) the Sunnyside Unit, the construction of the Tieton Unit, and further study of storage development. 34
The Reclamation Service engineers urged that work begin on storage facilities to control strategic points at the outlets of the lakes. They recommended the construction of temporary crib dams at Lake Keechelus and Lake Cle Elum, to be followed by permanent dams, and the installation of a permanent dam at Lake Kachess to replace the crib dam that had been acquired from the Cascade Canal Company. The temporary crib dams were built in the fall and winter of 1906 and 1907, and work was begun on the first permanent storage dam at Bumping Lake in late 1906. The following summer, the Reclamation Service delivered stored water from Lakes Kachess and Keechelus to the valley through the Sunnyside Canal.35
Because of funding limitations and delays while project repayment issues were resolved with users in the Sunnyside and Tieton Units, the Reclamation Service was building only small segments of the potential developments. In March 1909, the Secretary of the Interior urged the Reclamation Service to "proceed diligently with the construction of the Yakima Project Storage Unit." Otherwise the Government's right of eminent domain would expire if the Reclamation Service failed to exercise it. The Secretary also ordered the consolidation of all Reclamation Service irrigation ventures into a single plan which became known as the Yakima Project. The plan called for five irrigating units that would be served by the Storage Unit. At that time, the crib dams at Lakes Kachess, Keechelus, and Cle Elum created low reservoirs. Bumping Lake Dam, still under construction, was completed in 1910. Permanent earthfill dams were planned to replace the crib dams, with the dam at Lake Kachess the next to be built in 1910-12. Tieton Dam, which was not begun until 1917, with construction halting in 1918, then continuing between 1921 and 1925, would create the Rimrock Reservoir at McAllister's Meadow. The five irrigating units were designated as Sunnyside, Tieton, Wapato, Kittitas, and Benton (formerly Ledbetter). A new Washington Division of the Reclamation Service was created with Charles H. Swigart appointed as Supervising Engineer with oversight over the Yakima Project. The new division was headquartered in North Yakima. While some staff at Reclamation believed that ''there is more land in this valley than can ever be irrigated with the fullest development of storage," Swigart urged that the Storage Unit be fully developed from the start to avoid later dam reconstruction when the irrigating units reached their full potential.36
34 Pfaff, 31-33; Fourth Annual Report, 337-341. Some of the local citizen reactions to the water rights settlement issues are detailed in the Yakima Daily Republic, November 24, 1905 ("Adjustment of Water Rights Is Assured") and December 18, 1905 ("Settlement of Water Rights Now Sure"). The Tieton Unit, served by water from the Nachess River, would irrigate about 24,000 acres of land lying northwest ofNorth Yakima. 35 Pfaff, 34-35; United States, Department of the Interior, Fifth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1906 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907), 281-283. 36 Pfaff, 35; United States, Department of the Interior, Eighth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1908-1909 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910), 42, 194; C.H. Swigart to J. S. Conway, July 24, 1909, Entry 3, Yakima Box 1020, RG 115, FRC Denver. '1r > z ~o: c,, .... 'JI- -< )> (11 a.:;:;,,,..,,11!!"""'"---IJ_ c:: :,:: ("I\ • ('11 f"\ \l'Z ::t ,, {'II . r ':JI JI C! p3{'II 0 \J' )> "':JI 3 " QI ~:l Q -OI <:) > z~ 3 \J' 3 S!~ ~r r, ):, m-:,:. " ('ti >::,:: C:m ..t" t"I \J't:: ::t'"' ~('11 -r \l) t:: 6"'0 "'=
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A DAM AND RESERVOIR AT LAKE KEECHELUS
Lake Keechelus, a natural glacial lake high on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains, is located at the headwaters of the Yakima River. The westernmost of the three Upper Yakima Lakes, it is about ten miles northwest of Easton, Washington. Prior to the construction of the dam, the lake was about four miles long and one-half mile wide.37
The Temporary Crib Dam at Keechelus
After work in the Yakima area was authorized by the Secretary of the Interior in March 1906, the engineers at the Reclamation Service recognized the need to move quickly: "To perfect claims to the waters of these lakes and streams it was necessary to commence the construction of the works necessary to store and use the water within a reasonable time. Crib dams were built at Lake Keechelus and Clealum [Cle Elum] and the works of a private company at Lake Kachess were purchased, these works furnishing sufficient storage until the permanent development of one of the reservoirs could be accomplished. "38
A temporary crib dam at Lake Keechelus was designed by the engineers in the Yakima office, and construction bids were received on September 1, 1906. All were rejected, as were revised bids. Consequently the work was "undertaken by force account, being carried on throughout the winter under unusually adverse working conditions. These and unprecedented floods in November had the effect of largely increasing the estimated quantities of excavation and cost of construction." The crib dam of the overflow type was completed on April 19, 1907. Built of timber and filled with rock, it had a crest length of 160' and three 4' x 6' openings controlled by flashboards. Raising the level of the lake about 10', it stored about 12,000 acre-feet.39
Planning for Keechelus Dam and Reservoir
The creation of a permanent dam would increase the water surface of the lake and submerge large stands of timber along the shorelines. Contractors were invited to bid on timber removal. After rejecting bids received in 1907 and 1908, the Reclamation Service awarded the contract to
37 At the time the dam was constructed, the lake was described as being twelve miles from Easton. 38 "Storage Unit- Yakima Project: Report to the Army Corps of Engineers," 1910, n.p., available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 39 United States, Department of the Interior, Sixth Annual Report, 230-231; United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Yakima Project-Washington, Storage Unit, "Project History through 1912," 78, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. In "Report to Army Corps of Engineers" the storage capacity is given as 15,000 square feet. Plans for the crib dam (YP-611) are on file in the Upper Columbia Area Office. For a photographic copy see W A-80-51. For photographs before, during, and after its construction see Book 17: Keechelus Dam, at the Upper Columbia Area Office. A selection of these are reproduced as WA-80-15 through WA-80-23. The difficult winter working conditions were a precursor of similar difficulties encountered when the permanent dam was constructed. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 21) the Flanagan Mining Company on February 1, 1909, with all timber (with an estimated value of $82,159.34) to be removed within ten years. The timber cutting proceeded slowly.40
Survey work and site investigations for the permanent dam were undertaken during the summers of 1909 and 1910, although one early plan for the dam dates from 1907. One report issued in 1910 stated: "It is proposed to develop this reservoir by the construction of an earthfill dam at the outlet of the Lake with a concrete outlet conduit and controlling works, the spillway to be concrete lined and of sufficient capacity to pass water in excess of the largest flood of which we have any record, the outlet conduit to be so placed as to lower the surface of the Lake to Elevation 2420, the spillway crest to have an elevation of about 2509. The foundations, accessibility of materials of construction and length of dam necessary seem to establish the economy of an earthfill dam at this point without question, although other types will be considered when permanent plans are made." The dam was to be 64' high, the crest was to be 6,400' long, and the volume of materials was projected at 480,000 cubic yards. The area of the lake would increase to 2,600 acres and the storage capacity to 142,000 acre-feet. The spillway was to be 287' long at a height of 54' above the streambed to provide for the discharge of surplus water.41 C. E. Crownover, Project Engineer of the Storage Unit, had noted that the site restrictions at Lake Keechelus would limit the reservoir capacity, making it unable to capture all the runoff in its drainage area. He proposed that the excess runoff, some 54,000 acre-feet, be fed through a canal from Keechelus to the reservoir at Kachess.42
However, by the following year, a number of changes were proposed as more serious study was given to the Keechelus site. A set of recommendations, accompanied by statements on costs and procedures, was prepared in December 1911, for discussion by the Board of Engineers in February 1912 (see below). At its meeting earlier in the year, on January 14, 1911, the Board of Engineers had decided that a reservoir with a capacity of about 150,000 acre-feet "would utilize the run-off economically and probably make the construction of a feed canal [from Lake Kachess] to Lake Keechelus unnecessary." At that same meeting, it was decided that "on account of the great damage that could result from a disaster to the dam and the comparatively small expense of constructing a spillway of large capacity, a flood of 10,000 c.f.s [cubic feet per second] should be provided for." During the summers of 1910 and 1911, test pits had been dug to locate suitable materials for the construction of the embankment and to determine the
40 United States, Department of the Interior, Seventh Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1907-1908 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1908), 203; Eighth Annual Report, 195; United States, Department of the Interior, Ninth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1909-1910 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911), 298. 41 Ninth Annual Report, 291; "Report to the Anny Corps of Engineers." The 1907 plan for the dam is available at the Upper Columbia Area Office. The topography, shown on YP -580, was among the site features studied. 42 C. E. Crownover, "Storage Requirements - Yakima Project," April 1909, Entry 3, Yakima Box 1020, RG 115, FRC Denver. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 22) character of the dam foundation. Test pits dug in the summer of 1905 had found sandstone bedrock at 60' to 80' below the riverbed.43
The initial report for the Board of Engineers was prepared by L. J. Charles, a staff engineer, then reviewed and revised with higher cost estimates by Project Engineer E. H. Baldwin, and subsequently by Director Charles H. Swigart. Both Baldwin and Swigart had supervised the construction work on the Kachess Dam, so brought firsthand knowledge to the task. Each of the components of the dam and its accompanying costs was dealt with separately. The dam embankment was proposed to be constructed by the hydraulic-fill method used for the Bumping Lake Dam: ''transporting the material to the dam in cars and separating, placing and compacting it by means of water under pressure" because ''the material in the borrow pits is especially adjusted to this method" as it consisted of gravel, sand, and clay, with a large percentage of boulders. "It is believed that with the adequate water supply and great length of dam, which should always afford ample dumping room, the material can be handled more quickly and economically than by the rolling method." The proposed embankment, approximately 7000' long, was to have a crest elevation of 2525' with a top width of 20'. The slopes were to have grades of2:l and 3:1, with the water slope to be covered with riprap to a depth of2'. Borrow pits for the excavation of fill materials were to be opened at the north and south ends of the dam. A cutoff trench was to be dug into the foundation at the base of the dam and a concrete corewall installed in certain sections.44
The spillway, following the recommendation of the previous January, was intended to carry 10,000 c.f.s. with a 5' depth on the crest. Located at the north end of the embankment, it had a waste channel 40' wide and 425' long, excavated in solid rock. The reinforced concrete weir was to be set on bouldery hard pan. The length of the crest was to be 254' and the elevation 2515'. The proposed location would require the relocation of a portion of a state road.45
The outlet works were the source of greatest variation in the recommendations. The outlet works were intended to lower the elevation of the lake, thus creating a larger storage capacity than the natural lake boundaries. The original proposal called for a dredged open inlet channel below the lakebed; a tunnel leading to a 9 'x 10' horseshoe-type conduit installed using the cut-and-cover method; and a paved open channel with a maximum capacity of 5000 c.f.s. The water flow would be controlled by two sets of three gates, each 4' x 8' gate operated by hand, although a
43 L. J. Charles, E. H. Baldwin, C.H. Swigart, "Proposed Storage Works at Lake Keechelus, Statement and Estimate," Dec. 20, 1911, 1, 4, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. Fifth Annual Report, 283. See WA-80-52 for a general plan of the dam site prepared in December 1911. 44 "Proposed Storage Works," 2-3. The hydraulic-fill method was adapted from placer mining techniques in the late nineteenth century. See Donald C. Jackson, Building the Ultimate Dam: John S. Eastwood and the Control of Water in the West (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 36-38. C.H. Howell, "Core Walls for Earth and Rock Fill Dams," in Dams and Control Works: A Description ofRepresentative Storage and Diversion Dams and High-Pressure Reservoir Outlet Works Constructed by the Bureau ofReclamation, ed. Elwood Mead (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929), 111, discusses the Bumping Lake Dam. 45 "Proposed Storage Works," 4. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 23) power operation was deemed more desirable. Several alternate locations were proposed for the outlet works, but they all required more study. If the works were located south of the river, for a total length of 9,500', then the lake elevation could be lowered to 2420' and provide a total storage capacity of 165,000 acre-feet. Costs would vary, depending on the location chosen.46
Other costs also had to be calculated. It was assumed that timber sales would be sufficient to cover the cost of the final clearing and cleaning of the reservoir site. Other general items included site examination; telephone line construction and maintenance for three or four seasons; camp construction and maintenance for three seasons; road construction and maintenance in and around the camp; water supply construction and maintenance; a power plant to provide lighting; a watchman's house; flood contingencies; damages; and repairs to the crib dam in 1911-12.47
The report stated that "unit prices used in this estimate are based mainly on the work done at Lake Kachess but on account of the proximity to the C. M. & F. S. Ry., unlimited water supply and feasibility of working the embankment from both ends, also other favorable conditions, such as the feasibility of utilizing rock from spillway excavation for rip-rap and the placing of excavated material from cut-off trench so that it can be used in embankment at small cost, the work should be done at less unit cost than the Kachess work."48
Charles originally estimated the costs of constructing the dam as $715,965.00, which would provide a reservoir with a capacity of 147,500 acre-feet at a cost of $4.85 per acre-foot stored. Baldwin issued revised cost estimates on December 5, 1911, totaling $802,658.00. These estimates were further revised in January 1912 by Swigart, who calculated a cost of$900,419.00. Swigart also calculated the cost of building the dam with the alternate outlet works proposal that called for a longer tunnel. That figure was $1,024,389.00.49
In any case, the Board of Engineers was urged to recommend the construction of Keechelus Dam following the completion of the dam at Kachess, or starting in the summer of 1912 when the Kachess work would be nearing completion, because "it would probably result in a large saving over what would be the case if postponed indefinitely." Then the reasons were given: "The organization at Kachess is the same almost to a man as at Bumping Lake Dam; the Lake Keechelus Dam will combine the main features of the Bumping Lake and Kachess Dams; the hydraulic method of placing material at the former and the outlet works at the latter. Preliminary work, clearing, erecting camp, building roads, etc., could be done during the latter half of the season of 1912 by forces from the Kachess organization and the work directed from the Kachess office, so that everything would be in readiness for active work during the summer of 1913. The
46 Ibid., 5-6. 47 Ibid., "General Items," n.p. 48 Ibid., 7. In 1915 the unit cost at Kachess was calculated at $3.16 per acre-foot. Board of Engineers, Reclamation Commission, Yakima-Storage Cost Division, February 27, 1915, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. Costs were an issue because they were used to set rates for those who drew water from the irrigation canals. 49 Ibid., "Keechelus Dam Estimate-Summary," n.p., "Keechelus Dam Estimate -Exhibit A, l-3-12, C.H.S." KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 24)
Milwaukee Railroad would put in a spur to the dam site, and as equipment, materials or supplies could be dispensed with at Kachess, it would be sent to Keechelus and the construction of the two dams should proceed, from, one to the other, as one job, avoiding the losses usually encountered in finishing one contract and starting another. On account of the short working season at Lake Keechelus, it will be very desirable to get the preliminary work done in advance."50
The Board of Engineers, which consisted of Chief Engineer Arthur P. Davis, Consulting Engineer David C. Henny, Supervising Engineer H. W. Savage, and Project Engineer E. H. Baldwin, met in the Supervising Engineer's office in North Yakima between February 15 and 25, 1912, to discuss various aspects of the Storage Unit. The proposed plans for the Keechelus Dam were reviewed and a number of changes adopted. First, the Board favored the longer, deeper outlet works, to be located on the south side of the river. This would result in a reservoir with the larger storage capacity of 165,000 acre-feet. Some changes were proposed for the body of the dam, given the uncertainties of the materials taken from the test boring pits. In a number of places, a corewall was suggested instead of a cutoff trench, and it was thought that the dam might have to be moved upstream somewhat, thereby increasing the volume of the embankment. The proposed concrete-lining depth of the spillway was increased, and the right wall was to be moved further into the hillside. The Board also concurred that it was desirable to start pre1 1mmary. . construction. wor k t ha t summer. 51
The language of the reports and memoranda focuses on the immediate problems that the Reclamation Service had to deal with in constructing Keechelus Dam. However, a number of · broader issues had to be considered. By 1912, Reclamation had about eight years of solid experience in dam construction in the arid regions of the West. While the engineers on the Keechelus project looked to the more immediate experiences of constructing the Bumping Lake Dam and Kachess Dam, there were also lessons from the Belle Fourche Dam (1906-11) at the Belle Fourche Project in South Dakota and the Cold Springs Dam (completed 1908) at the Umatilla Project in Oregon. As constructed, Belle Fourche was 6500' long and 115' high (structural height), a length and height that were comparable to the proposed Keechelus Dam. The embankment was homogeneous rolled earthfill of clay composition with concrete slabs on upstream face. When it was completed, Belle Fourche was one of the largest earthen dams in the United States.52 Cold Springs as constructed was 3,450' long and 98' high (structural height) and composed of zoned rolled earthfill. 53 Both Swigart and Henny had worked on Cold Springs.
50 Ibid., "Keechelus Dam Estimate," n.p. 51 [C. W. Swigart] "Memorandum relating to Board Meeting held in North Yakima, Feb. 15 to 25th inclusive," March 2, 1912, 1-3, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit- Yakima Project, "Annual Project History for Season 1912," 52, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 52 "The Belle Fourche Irrigation Works, South Dakota," Engineering News 55 (February 22, 1906): 211; "Belle Fourche Dam, Belle Fourche Project, South Dakota," Engineering Record 53 (March 3, 1906): 307. 53 Statistical Compilation, 10, 14. For more detailed information on Belle Fourche see John Lowe, III, "Earthfill Dams," 725-732, in Development ofDam Engineering in the United States, eds. Eric G. Kollgaard and Wallace L. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 25)
Henny had a predilection for rolled earthfill, citing "~eater certainty of results as to quality, time, and cost," as opposed to the hydraulic method. 4
To devise a successful earthfill dam for irrigation storage purposes, a number of factors had to be considered. 55 The siting; the availability of appropriate materials that could be excavated close to the site; and the underlying rock and soil conditions necessary to create a sound foundation and control seepage were determined by preliminary test borings and other on-site investigations. As construction proceeded, it was not unusual to encounter conditions that differed from the preliminary assumptions and affected the progress and outcome of the work. Under such circumstances, having a workforce that was adaptable, innovative, and ingenious would prove to be invaluable. There is no discussion in the official records of issuing a contract to construct Keechelus Dam. It would seem that the Reclamation Service had learned by 1912 that it was more cost effective and efficient to do the work itself by force account. 56
Because of the relatively isolated location of the Keechelus Dam site, high on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains, the planning and staging of the vvork was crucial to the success of the project. The railroad would be a vital link to bring in workers and necessary supplies, while the telephone line would provide communication with the town of Easton. Because of heavy winter snows and rainy weather in the spring and fall, the construction season would be short. For much of the project, the work would be carried out in two, and sometimes three, shifts. Such a procedure was very sensible in the height of summer, when the daylight hours were long.
The Keechelus construction site would be, in many ways, self-sustaining. Heavy equipment, steel trusses, prefabricated components for some of the camp buildings, and construction supplies like cement would be brought in by rail. Teams of horses and other work animals would be driven in over the rather rudimentary road system. Otherwise, virtually everything else would be taken from the site. As the land was cleared of trees, the logs would be milled at the on-site sawmill and the timbers used to construct buildings and other necessary structural components as work progressed. Electricity would be generated by a small power plant situated on a stream on the western shore of Lake Keechelus. Water for the camp would be pumped in from nearby Meadow Creek. Material for the embankment earthfill would be excavated from nearby borrow pits, as well as rock for riprap. Rock excavated from the spillway site also would be used for riprap, and crushed on-site for use in fabricating concrete.
Chadwick (New York: Pergamon Press, 1988). Concrete slabs were used on the upstream face of the embankment, because there was not sufficient locally available stone to provide riprap. 54 D. C. Benny, "Two Earth Dams of the United States Reclamation Service," American Society ofCivil Engineers Proceedings 37 (April 1911): 458-478, 500-506. 55 See Lowe, 677-693, and Ivan E. Houk, Irrigation Engineering (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956), II: 385- 399. 56 The Reclamation Service had solicited bids to build Kachess Dam by contract, but all the bids were rejected as too high so received permission in April 1911 to do the work by force account. E. H. Baldwin, "Construction of the Kachess Dam, Washington," Engineering News 69 (May 15, 1913): 990. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 26) \ Because of the length of the embankment, the work on the various sections was planned to proceed in phases. These were: site preparation, consisting of clearing, grubbing, and stripping; excavation of the cutoff trench; excavation and dredging for the outlet works; excavation and filling of the corewall trench with concrete or wood sheet piling; formation of the corewall and conduit for the outlet works; dumping of material and rolling of the upstream and downstream sections of the embankment, first the south and then the north; formation of the gate tower and installation of the gates; excavation of the spillway and formation of the weir and channel. Depending on the on-site conditions and the weather, work in the various phases would often overlap. While a three-year schedule was projected, after the initial preparations in 1912, the work ultimately dragged on into 1918, making six years in all.
Construction at Lake Keechelus
Moving to the Starting Line - Preparations Begin: 1912 Following the recommendations of the Board of Engineers, preparations for the construction of Keechelus Dam began in the summer of 1912. In July, a small engineering crew under Baldwin's direction set up camp near the proposed dam site in order to undertake a series of test borings and related excavations. A field party from the Kachess site began survey work to prepare topographic maps to aid in the design of the outlet works and the layout of the camp. The surveyors also staked out various points for the construction and clearing crews. The engineers and surveyors were joined on August 8 by a group from Kachess consisting of a foreman with a crew of eight men and two teams of horses. They proceeded to erect temporary camp buildings and 14' x 16' tents just south of the crib dam, along the lakefront. The watchman's shack, originally constructed to monitor the crib dam, was converted to an office; another shack was converted into a kitchen with an attached dining tent; and a third was used as a stable. 57
Using the results of the topographic surveys, the engineers laid out a permanent campsite, located east of the temporary camp and several hundred feet downstream of the dam site. Bunk tents, 18' x 24', and corral tents, 30' x 60', for horses, were erected, as well as a new mess structure. By September 1, eighty workmen, forty horses, two foremen, and a small office force were on site. While some the workers were transferred from Kachess, others were recruited from Seattle. Construction on the permanent campsite, which was extended north of the river, continued through November. Additional buildings included a two-story warehouse, a repair shop and repair warehouse, all near the south end of the dam site and the railroad line; a permanent kitchen and bakery with two dining-tent frames;and a two-story mercantile store, which was in operation from late July until the end of the season. A gravity-system water supply
57 "Annual Project History for 1912," 52-53, 57, 60. While not mentioned in the Annual Project History reports, a small farmstead was sited on a portion of the dam site, near the south end. Called the Reinovsky Place, it consisted of a house, a freestanding kitchen, a wood house, and a chicken house--all set in a clearing fronted by a fence facing the old state road--and a barn. United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Yakima Project-Washington, Storage Unit, "Map ofReinovsky Place in the S.E. '/.i of Sec. 12 T21N. RI IE. W.M. showing Improved Portion," September 1913, Y.P. 2631, available in Upper Columbia Area Office. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 27) was installed with an intake at Meadow Creek, 1000' beyond the south end of the dam site, and a 3" pipe and hydrants were extended throughout the camp. 58
The workers on site did more than construct their camps. In August a crew of thirty to fifty men with ten teams of horses began clearing and grubbing the dam site-work that continued for three months. Also in August a railroad spur was built from the Milwaukee Railway line to the dam site. This was a crucial link for managing materials, supplies, and the work force as dam preparation and construction proceeded. The Reclamation Service workforce cleared and graded the site for the spur line, and cut the railroad ties, although the railroad company laid the track. A road was built from the tracks to the camp, and then extended along the line of the dam and up towards the spillway site. Following the clearing and grubbing crews, a crew of twenty men with twelve teams of horses began to strip the dam site in September, using the dirt for fill on the road from the railroad spur to the campsite. As soon as the railroad spur and the camp warehouse were completed, equipment was transferred from the Kachess Dam site and stored. Among the transferred items were a steam shovel, dinkey locomotives, a Lidgerwood excavator, boilers, pumps, hoist engines, dump cars, as well as small equipment and supplies. In October, a two span king-post truss bridge located about 700' below the crib dam was constructed across the river and planked with 3" plank. This bridge linked the main road through the campsites north and south of the river. By November, additional stripping work was underway along the line of the outlet works and the spillway. E. H. Baldwin, who had served as Project Engineer, was succeeded by C. E. Crownover on October 1. The camp was closed for the season on December 13 with 6' of snow on the ground, leaving a small shop crew and two watchmen. The office crew was transferred to the North Yakima office. 59
Based in part on the fieldwork that was carried out over the summer, a group of engineers at the Kachess Dam field office had begun to prepare plans and specifications for the construction of Keechelus Dam. On October 29, the Board of Engineers, composed ofC. E. Crownover, E. C. Hopson, Charles H. Swigart, and D. C. Henny, met at the Keechelus Dam site to review the proposed plans and specifications, the site conditions, information from the test borings, and the state of the work to date. The following day, they convened at the Kachess Dam field office and prepared a letter to F. H. Newell, Director of the Reclamation Service, with their recommendations. These included moving the centerline of the outlet works and possibly the centerline of the dam so the southwest end would be further from Meadow Creek (thus minimizing seepage) and the cutoff trench across the river channel could be made through the tightest (e.g. most impervious) material. They also projected a three-year construction schedule beginning in 1913. The first year's work was to include ''the excavation of the outlet channel; the construction of the tunnel, and the excavation of a channel connecting the upper end of the tunnel with deep water in the lake, together with the installation of controlling gates, ... [and] to
58 "Annual Project History for 1912," 47, 49, 53-55. The Project History noted the problems in recruiting labor after August 1, leading the Reclamation Service to send its own agent to Seattle and advance railroad fare to new workers. Wages for common laborers were raised from $2.00 to $2.20 and then $2.40 per day. 59 lbid., 55-57. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 28) clear and grub the base of the dam and the borrow pits; do the masonry stripping and construct cut-off trench and whatever core-wall or other closure may be decided upon." This work would also require the relocation of the state highway, the construction of a small power plant, and the enlargement of the construction camp. During the second year, the body of the dam, except the river channel crossing, and part of the spillway would be built. The river channel closure and spillway would be completed in the third year.60
Supervising Engineer Swigart submitted dam specifications to the Board that dealt with excavation issues and methods, materials, and various construction techniques. One notable change from the previous year was the recommendation to use two different methods to construct the embankment. Instead of using only the hydraulic method as previously recommended, both the "rolling method" and the "sluicing or hydraulic method" were prescribed so that the river section between Stations 43 and 50 could be completed in one season. Both methods were described and the composition of the embankment construction under each method specified. In the northern and southern sections, to be constructed using the rolling method, the material was to be added in 6" layers, then moistened, and compacted by rolling. In the river section, to be constructed using the sluicing method, the material was to be dumped at the outer edges of the embankment slopes and sluiced by water under pressure toward the center of the dam. The coarser material was to be placed in the downstream portion and finer material in the upstream portion. In addition, finer material was to be sluiced towards the center of the dam to form an impervious core. The slopes of the embankment were to be covered by riprap with larger stones at least 3' thick placed over a foundation of smaller stones not less than 2' thick on the sections of the embankment built by the rolling method. In the sections of the embankment built by the sluicing method, the stones used for the riprap were to be smaller and the layer only 1' thick. Swigart estimated that the embankment would require 381,000 cubic yards of rolled material and 134,200 cubic yards of sluiced material. 61
Digging in Vain? Construction Begins: 1913 During the winter of 1912-13, 30' of snow fell on the Keechelus Dam site. When the construction season opened on March 15, there were 1O' of snow on the ground, and sleighs remained in use until June 1. Work on the dam began in earnest and advanced on a number of fronts according to a carefully staged plan, with the goal of completing the dam over the course of three years. Crownover pointed out that the schedule was longer than ordinarily would be required because of the short working season of only six or seven months and unfavorable
60 Ibid., 59-61. Board of Engineers to the Director [F. H. Newell], Washington, D. C., October 30, 1912, 3, 5-6, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 61 United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, "Specifications for Construction, Yakima-Storage Project, Washington, Keechelus Dam," [1912], 2, 15-19, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. See W A-80-53, WA-80-54, WA-80-55, WA-80-A-8, and WA-80-C-13 for photographic copies of drawings that accompanied the specifications. ()' -I- rn r-0 >z CP -4 y. -( > (1\ t::: :,: [11 • ("II ('\ :r "' z rn ::p ,.. r- ('Tl ':J' I"'\ 0 c:: \ 3 .... )> 3 :r: "() ~ f'1 z _{11 ~ 0z :J:" 'JI tit t::: \.1'['1J 'C: ~ :::J> \J' 0 <~ z - )> ...... ~3 > "3 -n3 "'O (Tl > 'll 'iJ :JIt::: .,,0 ')> ?~ -3 ~ 'iJ \,>) \J' n =i (Tl -~~-~~..:..:..----~===" = D 0 D D
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(6Z: ;)~Ud) 08-VA\ "ONlJ:HVH wva SI1'1HH:JHH)I KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 30) weather conditions during much of that time. Photographs taken at the end of every month recorded the various features and the work in progress. 62
Labor was also a concern, but the supply was plentiful during the construction season. Workers arrived by railroad from Seattle, only 72 miles away and "a good supply point for all classes of labor both common and skilled. Much of the season's work was done by machines requiring skilled operators and mechanics. The principal pasitions in this line were filled by men who have been employed on the work for several years."6
As the season began, the construction camp had to be put in order and additional buildings and structures constructed. Work was begun on a warehouse to store cement and a repair shop, as well as a new office building to replace the tempor~ structure of the previous season. Telephone lines were strung to the site from Easton.
The tent frames were shoveled out and the construction camp re-erected and enlarged to accommodate 600 men. Like the construction camp at Kachess, the housing was organized according to the types of workers. These included ten bunk houses and fifteen bunk tents for laborers; three officemen's houses, four men each, for the engineers and clerks; houses for the cooks and foremen; six bath houses; four laundries; one mechanics' house, and eight mechanics' bunk tents. A permanent watchman's house (later used as the gatekeeper's house) was built north of the river, not too far away from the office. Ten cottages and fifteen tents for families were located on Lake Ave. and Tunnel Ave. some distance from the main camp. The houses on Lake Ave. were situated on the upstream side of the embankment site, while the Tunnel Ave. site paralleled the line of the proposed outlet works. Auxiliary buildings included a schoolhouse; a hospital; a Y. M. C. A. containing a moving picture hall, office, and reading room, and an extension for pool and billiard tables; a six-room hotel to accommodate visitors; the kitchen; the mercantile store which also contained the post office; a clubhouse for use of the officemen and foremen; three mess tents (workers were charged 25 cents a meal and guests 35 cents a meal), and a boathouse. Most of the work on the camp was completed by July 1. Later in the summer, a winter corral and roofs over family tents were constructed to make the camp ready for winter occupancy. 65
62 C. E. Crownover, "Introduction," 1-11, IV, in United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit - Yakima Project, "Annual Project History for Season 1913." 63 Ibid., IL 64 R. E. Post, "General Construction Work," 42, 44-45, in "Annual Project History for 1913." 65 Post, 41-50, "Annual Project History for 1913." Greater detail on the types of buildings, materials, structural techniques, and dimensions are given in pages 43-52. Crownover and Horton, "Final Cost Report," 11, for the watchman's house. E. R Ruhnke, "Clerical Work," 9, in United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit - Yakima Project, "Annual Project History for Season 1914," gives the meal costs. For further information on the camp and the buildings see United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit-Yakima Project, "Special Cost Report on Construction of Camp Buildings, Power Plant, Sewer System, and Water Supply, Lake Keechelus Dam, Washington, 1912 -13," available at Upper Columbia Area Office, and Judith S. Chapman, Terry L. Ozbun, R. Todd Baker, and John L. Fagan, "Archaeological Testing and Evaluation of the Keechelus Construction Camp Site, Safety of Dams Modification KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 31)
Infrastructure was also put in place. The camp was piped for water on every street with connections for each family dwelling and all buildings with baths. A new sewer system was installed that included a large septic tank. All the camp buildings were provided with electric lights, and all streets had lights installed at about 150' intervals.66
The workers were charged nominal rentals. Post thought that the high quality of labor on the site was due in part to the pleasant and sanitary camp surroundings. Despite the money expended on camp construction, the expenditures more than paid for themselves in attracting and retaining a good workforce. 67
The Project Engineer of the Storage Unit, C. E. Crownover, had authority over both the Engineering Department, which was under J. R. Sherman, Assistant Engineer, and the Construction Department, which was under R. E. Post, Assistant Engineer, who served as Superintendent of Construction. For operational purposes, the Engineering Department was considered the client and the Construction Department the contractor. Inspectors in the Engineering Department monitored dredging, sheet piling cut-off, riprap, embankment, and concrete work. 6 Crownover characterized the arrangement: "Construction work on the Keechelus dam is being done with Government forces. The construction department assumes the position of a contractor and must execute all work under rigid inspection of the engineering department. On work of this character, where unknown conditions require frequent changing of plans, where classification of material is particularly difficult, and the working season is short, it has been found in this district that the work can be done, not only more satisfactorily with Government forces, but more economically as well."69
Site clearing was usually one of the first things to be done. Beginning in April, the right-of-way for a power line, 50' wide and 1.6 miles long, was cleared. Clearing continued for additional camp construction and the lower outlet channel. In the clearing process, underbrush was burned, logs were felled, and then skidded and hauled to the onsite sawmill. "The usual method in all of the clearing was to have swampers go thru first and cut, pile and burn all trees below 8" or 10". Fallers and buckers followed them, then the trimmers and skidding teams and last the piling and burning crew who cleaned up all that was left." The sawmill was constructed near the corral in
Project, Kittitas County, Washington," report prepared by Archaeological Investigations Northwest, May 23, 2001, for Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington. See WA -80-25, WA-80-26, WA- 80-33, WA-80-34, and WA-80-36 for photographs of the campsite and buildings. See WA-80-56 for a photographic copy of the map of the campsite. 66 Post, 52-53, "Annual Project History for 1913." 67 Ibid., 53-54. 68 J. R. Sherman, "Field Engineering," 24-25, in "Annual Project History for Season 1914." 69 United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit - Yakima Project, Washington, "Information Regarding Keechelus Storage Dam for Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers, June 20, 1914," 2, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. Crownover reiterated this position in "Puddling and Rolling," 535. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 32)
early May to mill the cleared logs and produce tunnel timbers and other lumber. In November, it was moved to a site near the spillway.70
Beginning in May, a 400-horsepower hydroelectric plant was built to supply electrical power to be used during construction, as well as lighting for the camp buildings. It was located close to the western edge of the lake two miles above the dam site, with the water supply coming from Roaring Creek, through a flume that was leased from the Flanagan Lumber Company. After the hydraulic equipment and electric machinery was installed in June, the power was transmitted by lines to a switch station and then carried to the construction camp. 71
Several components of the proposed outlet works were begun in May. Excavation began on May 20 on the open channel below the outlet tunnel, with a 65-ton Lidgerwood-Crawford dragline excavator. This channel was planned to be about 3000' long and 20' wide at the bottom with 1.5: 1 slopes. The river channel was deepened for 500' below the outlet, until work halted on December 9. 72
Excavation was also begun on the shafts that would provide access for the tunnel work. Shaft No. 1 was located at the site of the proposed gate tower; Shaft No. 2 was at the outlet end of the tunnel. The second shaft was begun first, eventually reaching a depth of 39', but because of excessive seepage and the surrounding soil conditions it became unsafe and was abandoned in early June. Excavation on the first tunnel shaft had reached a depth of 73' in late July. It was , enlarged in August by sinking an additional double-compartment shaft next to it. The depth of the now enlarged shaft was extended to 80' in September. "After shaft #2 [the outlet shaft] was abandoned it was decided to drive an incline drift or adit starting on the river bank just above high water and intersecting the tunnel line at Sta. 27 + 00." The distance from the ground surface to the tunnel was 140' and the slope approximately 2: 1. As excavation through sand and gravel proceeded, water was removed by pumps. Timbering was installed to support the passage. The adit reached the tunnel line on October 7, but was continued 12' beyond it to allow room for a pump station. The surface plant above the pump station contained steam and electric hoists to lift muck out of the tunnel and a concrete mixing plant. 73
Clearing, grubbing, and stripping, which had begun the previous year, continued in various locations throughout the year. The spillway site was cleared and grubbed. The south end of the embankment site was grubbed, and then the crews moved on to the lower outlet area, and the north end of the embankment site. The grubbing (removing tree roots) was done by a steam powered machine called a donkey engine, or teams ofhorses.74 Once the dam site was grubbed, the stripping could begin, carried out by teams of horses that pulled plows, scrapers, and stone
70 Post, 57-58, 67-69, "Annual Project History for 1913." 71 C. F. Gleason, "Power Plant Construction," 102-107, in "Annual Project History for Season 1913." 72 Post, 62-65, "Annual Project History for 1913." 73 C. F. Gleason, "Outlet Tunnel," 15-21, 33-36, in "Annual Project History for Season 1913." 74 W A-80-24 shows a donkey engine used in grubbing. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 33) boats. Following the stripping, rock-filled toe drains and tile drains were installed in the southern section of the embankment. In June the north borrow pit site, the state road re-location site, and the shovel borrow pit, all to the north of the spillway site, were cleared. 75
Once the embankment site was stripped, work could begin on the cutoff trench and corewall. Because the south end was closer to the railroad spur and more accessible to material and equipment, it was begun first. Excavation of the cutoff trench at the south end of dam began on June 10. The trench was from 15' to 25' deep with unfinished slopes, averaging about %:1. Because of cave-ins through some sections, it was decided to backfill the trench, but not all the backfill could be done during the season. Excavation halted on September 4, and the excavated material was stored to be mixed during the next season with borrow pit material and used in the embankment. 76
Excavation of the corewall trench from Station 19, about 1900' from the south end of the embankment, was started, working in the direction of the river to Station 32. The corewall trench was 18" to 30" wide, and 2' to 3' deep "in good material and deep enough to bond with solid material in other places." Sheet piling was installed in many sections of the trench. Because of seepage, pumps were used to drain the water.77
A double- and single-track trestle was built along the centerline of the dam, across the river and swamp, to carry material to the embankment. About two-thirds of the track was laid directly on the ground, leading from the railroad spur, but in the river section, the trestle was carried on round timber piles. 78
Excavation was begun on the spillway site after it was cleared and grubbed. In September, a rock crusher plant located near the spillway began to produce crushed rock and sand from the spillway excavation site for use in making concrete. A concrete mixing plant was built near Shaft No. 1. Material to mix the concrete was delivered to the plant by dinkey cars on the trestle, and a hoist system was devised to load material into the cars. 79
On October 1, the corewall trench began to be filled with concrete for its entire width.80 "Above ground the wall extended about 4 ft. starting with a width of 18" at the bottom and tapering to 12" at the top." Wakefield piling of Douglas fir, built of3 x 10s and 3 x 12s with 3" x 3" tongues, was driven by a steam-powered pile driver into the cutoff trench. 81 "The average penetration was 7 ft. and the piling was left 4 to 6 ft. above the bottom of the cut-off trench." When stretches of the corewall were completed and the forms removed, backfilling operations
75 Post, 57-62, "Annual Project History for 1913." 76 Ibid., 66-67. 77 Ibid., 78-80. 78 Ibid., 75-77. 79 Ibid., 77-78. 80 See W A-80-28 for a photograph of concrete being poured from cars on the trestle into the corewall trench. 81 See W A-80-27 for a photograph of sheet piles being driven into place. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 34) were begun. First rocks and rubbish were removed from the bottom of the trench, then loose pieces of lagging were pulled out. Backfill material was dumped from dinkey cars along the track, rock picked out, moved over to the cutoff trench by slips, and side-dumped over the bank. Shovelers put it into place and puddled it to the height of the corewall, then the core wall was covered with 1' to 2' of non-puddled material. Backfilling work continued to mid-November. 82
In September work had begun on a tunnel heading (identified as No. 2) from Shaft No. 1. Despite unstable conditions and cave-ins, which the workers attempted to rectify by means of timbering and concrete infill, the work continued intermittently through November, extending for a total length of 50'. Work was also done for a short time on Tunnel Heading No. 1, also from Shaft No. 1. While the conditions were much more favorable than for Heading No. 2, work was discontinued on November 26, after driving 71 ', because it was not ''thought advisable to extend the heading under the lake until control works were completed at the shaft." Also in November, two additional headings (No. 3 and No. 4) were begun from the adit station and continued to mid-December. Heading No. 3 extended 27' and No. 4 extended 51.5'.83
In December, after evaluating the work that had been done on the tunnel for the outlet works and considering all the difficulties encountered, the Board of Engineers decided to abandon the tunnel because the ground material was too dense and too expensive to bore through. They met at the Keechelus dam site on December 15 and 16, and discussed alternate plans, then sent a detailed report and a telegram to the Reclamation Service headquarters in Washington, D. C., requesting approval of "Plan K" for the outlet works: "It develops the storage possibilities to a reasonable extent. With this plan the open cut already constructed would be utilized and the amount lost on account of abandonment of present plan would be reduced from $88,000 to $68,000.... We prefer Plan K, because of maximum utilization of work already done and minimum maintenance cost in keeping the river channel clear."84 As succinctly described: "Instead of the tunnel scheme for outlet works, ... the river will be dredged 30 feet below present ground surface where a conduit will be placed through the dam. From the conduit, the river will be excavated by dredging to connect with the open channel already constructed before the tunnel was abandoned. The connection of conduit to deep water in the lake will be done by dredging."85 The intake channel was to be 530' long, the conduit of the 12' x 12' horseshoe-type under the dam was 500' long, and the open channel section below the dam 3,350' long for a total length of 4390'.86 The amount of stored water would be reduced from 165,000 acre-feet to
82 Post, 80-84, "Annual Project History for 1913." 83 Gleason, 25-31, 38-39, "Annual Project History for 1913." 84 Board of Engineers to Director, December 16, 1913, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. Notations on various maps, dated October 1912, but subsequently updated, state that the scheme was abandoned on December 16, 1913. 85 Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers, 2. 86 Ibid., 4. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 35) i 152,000 acre-feet. It was also clear that because of the change in plans, the dam construction would continue an additional year through 1916.87
A small repair and maintenance crew stayed on site during the winter to work on equipment. The office staff also remained on-site, although their numbers were reduced in the winter months. 88
Back to the Drawing Board - Revising and Continuing the Project: 1914 Because the winter of 1913-14 was relatively mild, the construction work at Keechelus began on March 14, 1914, about a month earlier than the previous year. 89 This season saw a continuation of the work begun the previous year, as well as a revision of the outlet works.
Post summarized the work planned for the season: "The program of construction for the season of 1914 comprised the completion of the cut-off trench and core wall south of the river, the building of the embankment south of the river up to approximately elevation 2515, the completion of as much riprap as could be laid with rock coming from the borrow pit material and whatever spillway rock could be excavated after the embankment work closed down, all outlet works excavation except a small left over of dredging and if possible the excavation of the cut off trench and building of core wall north of the river."90
Early in the year, plans for the new outlet channel had to be devised by the engineering staff. Sherman explained: "Studies were made of the size of the conduit, methods of excavation, and various locations were examined. After considerable study the method of excavation decided upon was that of dredging the first 2,800 feet of the channel, taking out the balance of 1,500 feet with a drag line excavator.... The new location of the outlet works required a change in the designs of the gates and method of control. ... it was finally proposed to adopt the cylinder type of gate for the inside or operating gate and either rectangular sluice gates or another cylinder gate for emergency gates .... The cylinder gate was the cheapest and most easily operated."91
In March, clearing, followed by grubbing, began on the new route of the outlet works, which followed the river from the lake for 2000', cut across a neck of land 1000', then across the river (which followed a winding, natural path from the lake), through a hill, and across a swamp to
87 United States, Department oflnterior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit -Yakima Project, "Estimate of Cost and Schedule of Operations, Keechelus Dam, May 1st, 1914," available at Upper Columbia Area Office, projected the costs and phases of construction through 1916. 88 WA-80-29 shows the camp during that winter. 89 C. E. Crownover, "Introduction," 1, 3, in "Annual Project History for Season 1914." See WA-80-57 for a photographic copy of a general map of the site in March 1914. 90 R. E. Post, "General Construction Work," 46, in "Annual Project History for Season 1914." 91 J. R. Sherman, "Office Engineering," 19-20, in "Annual Project History for Season 1914." See also Assistant Engineer [J. R. Sherman] to Project Engineer [C. E. Crownover], January 20, 1914, "Meadow Creek Experiments on Tower Design, Lake Keechelus, Storage Unit," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. See WA -80-55 and WA A-7 for photographic copies ofrevisions to the drawings of the original plans. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 36)
Station 43 of old outlet works. Once the ground was cleared, a dragline excavator began to work on the cut, and a Bagley scraper was used to excavate a hill at Station 29.92
Excavation continued for the cutoff trench south of river. Because of excessive seepage, a drain was installed to lead the runoff to a small creek. Work also continued on the corewall. Wakefield-type 9" x 12" sheet piling was driven into the cutoff trench between Station 17+08 and Station 5+94 to form a corewall. A 4' high concrete corewall with a 12" top, 16" bottom, and a batter on the lower side, was installed near Station 18. The depth of the corewall below bottom of trench varied from 2' to 6', depending on the underlying material. The trench was then filled with puddled backfill to the top of the concrete corewall.93 The puddling work that was begun in 1913 in the cutoff trench was continued, beginning in early April, at the south end. It was carried a foot above the top of the piling. "The puddle consisted of material from the borrow pit mixed with material excavated from the cut-off trench, and was placed with wheelbarrows in shallow water and stirred up with shovels until the whole was soft and uniform."94
When the original outlet works plan was abandoned, the trestle that had been erected in 1913 across the river could no longer be used, as it would obstruct the new channel that was to be dredged. It was replaced by a Howe-truss bridge of the deck type with a 140' span, 21' panel depth, 1O' panel length, and a width of 12'. "It was so designed that it could be built upon the intermediate cap of the old trestle and the trusses came inside of the outer trestle posts so the whole bridge was completed without disturbing the trestle except to tear off part of the upper cross bracing." The track system was put on the new bridge, and the old trestle was removed. A wagon-road crossing was provided on the lower deck. The bridge was located on the centerline of the dam, and the top, which was 70' above the riverbed, was built to the elevation of the top of the completed dam.95
With the cutoff trench and corewall in place on the south end of the dam, work could begin on the embankment itself. The previous year, material had been excavated from the south borrow pit and that continued. The north borrow pit was put into use, but it was not very productive because of the hardness of the material, high banks, and numerous boulders. The south borrow pit was much easier to work, but the quality of the gravel was not very good and it was hard to separate from the clay seams. 96
In May, work was begun on the rolled section of the embankment under difficult conditions, due to the steepness of the slope which made it harder to use horses. Material from the cutoff trench excavation had to be mixed with the borrow pit material, but the working area was very uneven.
92 Post, 73-74, "Annual Project History for 1914." 93 Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers, 13. 94 Post, 47-48, 54, "Annual Project History for 1914." 95 Ibid., 50, 53; Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers, 16. See WA-80-30 for a photograph of the completed bridge. % Post, 85-87, "Annual Project History for 1914." See WA-80-31 for a photograph of excavation in the north borrow pit. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 37)
Soggy ground conditions, caused by underground springs combined with frequent rain, delayed the work. The rolled section on the upstream side was begun between Stations 25 and 35 over the puddled backfill of the cutoff trench. Initially wheelers pulled by horses were used to carry and spread the material up steep runways and miry ground. When the toe of the dam was started along flatter ground, a type of conveyance known as a fresno was used to scrape the surface and transport and spread the material. These were pulled by three or four work animals.97 Material was also hauled to the area on dinkey cars from the borrow pits. During wet weather the tracks became very unstable. After the material was dumped, it had to be sifted to remove the rock for later use in the foundation or as riprap. Once in place, the material was compacted by three double rollings, two lengthwise and one crosswise or diagonal. Rain delayed both spreading and rolling, as the material had to be sufficiently dry to achieve the proper degree of compaction. Work continued until October, although it was extremely slow after September because of delays due to rain. Riprap was put in place once major portions of the embankment were finished, initially using stored rock from the borrow pit and then excavated rock from the spillway area. This work continued to mid-November.98
Work was also begun on downstream portions of the southern embankment above the cutoff trench. These sections were filled with gravel up to about elevation 251 O' so gravel trains could run through to other parts of the dam. In swampy and other low areas, the gravel was spread with fresnos and rolled with a steamroller. Gravel-fill work continued after rolled-fill work was discontinued in October. Work continued on the toe drains, tile drains, and drains along the piling in the cutoff trench. 99
In order to do dredging work in the outlet channel, the old crib dam had to be tom out. The work was delayed until the end of June, so the stored water in the lake could be used for irrigation. The logs and timbers were pulled apart and burned, mostly at night, ''to avoid the hindrance of smoke in the day time," and the rock and gravel in the cribs piled up on either side of the dam. A Fairbanks dipper dredging plant was purchased to do excavation work under water, thereby lowering the lake so the outlet work structures could be built with a low cofferdam. Dredged material was hoisted and dumped into dump scows, similar to those that had been used at Kachess in 1911 and 1912. The plant was put into used in mid-June and continued into December. The bottom of trench extended 30' below the riverbed. The conduit under the dam was planned to be constructed in the area of the Howe-truss bridge.100
Excavation of the cutoff trench north of the .river for the northern section of the embankment began in early September and continued to mid-October. The excavation of the 2' deep corewall trench followed. Then the carpenters put in formwork and the 4' high concrete corewall was
97 A fresno is illustrated in Lowe, 686. The project histories refer to teams and stock. Presumably most of the animals were horses, but mules might also have been used. 98 Post, 55-61, 69, 71. See WA-80-32 and WA-80-35 for photographs ofriprap rock on the embankment. 99 Post, 54-55, 61-62. 100 Ibid., 77-81; Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers, 16. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 38) poured, after which the cutoff trench was backfilled with puddled material carried 1' to 2' above the corewall. This work was completed in mid-November. 101
After the cutoff trench north of the river was excavated, .it was bridged for the Lake Ave. road and the road to the shovel pit, using the A-frame trusses that had been removed from the river trestle when the Howe-truss bridge was installed. 102
Excavation work also continued on the spillway approach. Because the rock was so hard, it had to be excavated by drilling and blasting, followed by steam shovel lifting. The stone was used for riprap on the embankment.103
Representatives of the Flanagan Lumber Company, a subsidiary of the Flanagan Mining Company, visited the site in the spring to discuss the timber-clearing contract, which was very much behind schedule. By early June, they submitted a letter to the Reclamation Service requesting cancellation of the contract by mutual consent. After discussions with the Board of Engineers and a property appraisal, the draft of a cancellation contract was submitted to Flanagan in December but the matter remained unresolved.104
On February 27, 1915, the Board of Engineers, composed ofD. C. Henny, A. J. Wiley, and Charles H. Swigart adopted a revised estimated cost report for Keechelus Dam and Reservoir prepared by Crownover. Based on the work of the previous three seasons, Crownover now estimated the cost as $1,462,000.00 or $9.62 per acre-foot for a 152,000 acre-foot reservoir.105
Full Steam Ahead - Construction Progresses: 1915 The winter of 1914-15 had unusually light snowfall. Consequently, construction was able to begin on March 1. The Reclamation Service had established a central office in Denver, which handled fiscal work and purchasing, and the bookkeeping o~erations for the Yakima Project Storage Unit were relocated to an office in North Y akima.1 6
R. K. Post, Assistant Engineer, summarized the season's work: "The program of construction for the 1915 season comprised the completion of the dam south of the river from station Oto station 36 [to its full height of2525']; the completion of the dan1 north of the river up to elevation 2515'; the completion of the dredging below the tower; the completion of the core wall in the river
101 Post, 62-67, "Annual Project History for 1914." See WA-80-37 for a photograph of the corewall. 102 Ibid., 88-89. 103 Ibid., 82-83. 104 C. E. Crownover, "Clearing Reservoir Sites and Maintenance Crib Dams," 100-101, in "Annual Project History for Season 1914." 105 Board of Engineers Report on Yakima - Storage Cost Division, Feb. 27, 1915, Exhibit C - "Estimated Net Cost ofKeechelus Reservoir," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 106 C. E. Crownover, "Introduction," 1-2, in United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, Yakima- Storage Unit, "Annual Project History for Season 1915," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 39) section; the building of the conduit; the building of the lower part of the gate tower; the installation of slide gates, lower cylinder gates and grillage; the placing of sufficient backfill in the river section to protect the structures; such excavation in the spillway as was needed to obtain rock; and the construction of suitable structures and protective work for safely handling the fall floods." 107
Completing the cutoff trench through the river section was the most challenging part of that work. Part of the work was done by dredge and part by hand. This was followed by the excavation of the deep corewall trench in the river section. The plans called for "a concrete wall across the river section extending down 24 feet below the sub-grade of the conduit and about that distance into the side slopes. Above the old riverbed the depth was to be decreased and the ends connected up with the corewalls built in 1913 and 1914." Based on the previously abandoned tunnelwork, it was thought that the material to be excavated would be largely sand, and that the walls of the excavation would have to be supported by Wakefield sheet piling as the area was pumped out. Instead it was discovered that some of the material was gravel, which simplified the excavation process. Because of concerns about potential seepage through the embankment, the final depth of the corewall trench was the subject of debate and on-site analysis in July among Assistant Engineer Post; Project Engineer Crownover; S. B. Williamson, Chief of Construction; and D. C. Henny, Consulting Engineer. In mid-August, Post was authorized to keep the corewall depth at 25' below subgrade. "After finding the material in the sump so favorable for excavation it was decided to abandon the scheme of using sheet piling for the sides of the core wall trench and to adopt a drifting method similar to that used in excavating the core wall trench at Kachess dam. This method consisted in keeping each drift ahead of the one below it, excavating the heading of each drift a short distance without timber, when excavated setting up short tunnel sets, then placing horizontal lagging behind these and finally backfilling all spaces behind the lagging. Excavated material is handled in wheelbarrows on each level and each level has to be of such clear height and width as to allow a man to run a wheelbarrow." Each level was sheeted up to prevent caving. Drains were installed in the bottom of the trench to control seepage. The corewall excavation took place between mid-June and mid-August. Then the corewall itself was concreted over the course of the next month. The· main concern was to get a tight closure between the concrete and the sides and bottom of the trench. All drains and holes were grouted and the pumping equipment removed from the sump, which was scaled at the bottom with 4' of concrete, then filled with gravel. 108
Work continued on the rolled-fill section of the embankment between April 15 and September 7. The southern section between Stations O and 35 was completed to full height, and the northern section was constructed up to elevation 2515' (the height that had been achieved on the southern section during 1914). The north and south ends of the embankment were planned to be .completed before work was done on the center section between Stations 19 and 35 to maximize
107 R. K. Post, "General Construction Work," 28, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915." 108 Ibid., 29, 33-34, 36, 39; C. E. Crownover, "Depth ofCorewall in River Section, Keechelus Dam," 112 -114, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915." KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 40) the placement of the work crews and the hauling of materials. Unfortunately, the weather refused to cooperate. Consequently, the center section was dry enough to work on before the remainder of the southern section or the northern section dried off. Thus work on the center section was finished first, leaving the work on the ends to be completed simultaneously. Dirt was dumped from the track along the gravel fill, rocks were picked out, and then the dirt was spread by fresnos. Gravel fill began to be placed in early April and continued intermittently throughout the season. Most of it was placed near Station 50 and on a few low places in the northern section of the dam. In addition gravel was placed to raise the track on both sides of the river. Rock-filled toe drains were comfleted in the northern and southern sections of the dam, as were tile drains and all tile outlets. 10
A major effort was made to place as much riprap on the dam as possible during the season, beginning in early April and continuing to mid-September. All the riprap on the southern section was completed up to Station 35 and as much was placed on the northern section as time and material allowed.110 The rock was a combination of quarry rock from the spillway excavation and boulders from the north borrow fiit. The Reclamation Service also instituted a bonus system for the workmen placing the riprap. 1 1
As the south borrow pit had been largely used up the previous season, attempts were made to open up more of the north borrow pit. However, the excessively hard rock, which continued to break equipment, and the presence of a large spring in the middle, made the north borrow pit very difficult to work. A new east borrow pit, east of the saw mill and the hospital, was opened in September. While the material was hard and had to be blasted before it could be dug, it proved to be good quality for puddling. Gravel for use on the dam continued to be excavated from the north gravel Eit. Another gravel pit near the outlet channel provided material for the production of concrete. 1 2
Dealing with the redesigned outlet works proved to be the major construction challenge of the 1915 season.113 After a two-week hiatus in December 1914, dredging operations began again on December 31. For dredging operations to be completed, a control dam, called Cofferdam No. 3, had to be built in the channel below Station 29. The dam consisted of a framework with round piling tied together with logs and cables and lined with planks to form cribs that were filled with dirt. The side faces were sheet piling. A center opening with flashboards controlled the flow of water into a timber-lined sluiceway. Construction began on March 1, but Cofferdam No. 3 washed out on March 26, suddenly lowering the lake level, which filled in the sides of the channel. The dredge used for excavation was almost washed out when the cofferdam failed. Crews of men working for three days and two nights managed to haul it out and back to the
109 Post, 39-43, "Annual Project History for 1915." · no See WA-80-43 for a photograph ofriprap placement on the northern section of the embankment. m Ibid., 43-46. m Ibid., 47-52. 113 See WA-80-A-9 for a photographic copy of the plan of the redesigned outlet works. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 41) lake. II4 About a week later, the lake had lowered enough so work could begin on Cofferdams No. 1 and No. 2, further upstream, and the 500' long flume for carrying the river between them. The plan and construction of these dams were similar to the washed-out one, but the lower compartments were filled with rock, instead of gravel. The flume itself was built on a pile foundation. It was 8' high x 20' wide inside with the bottom and sides of 1" boards over 2" planks with tar paper in between. Pumps were installed in sumps near the two cofferdams to dewater the site. II5
When the outlet channel had been excavated to the elevation of the subgrade of the conduit at the gate tower site, excavation for the tower itself was begun. The base of the tower, 33'-9" in diameter at the bottom, was 22' below the subgrade of the conduit. Wakefield piling with arch ribs for bracing was used for the excavation during the month of July. When completed, thirty two piles were driven to resistance over the foundation as bearing for the tower.116
The horseshoe-type conduit, which leads from the gate tower through the embankment to the open outlet channel, was constructed of concrete spouted into forms that were made in the shop and assembled on the site as needed. The floor was laid first, then the side walls up to the springing line were poured, and finally the arch. The concrete work began in mid-July and was finished in early Septernber. 117 .
Concrete work for the gate tower was done at the same time as the conduit. The concrete, mixed at the plant near the site, was spouted directly into the excavation at the base of the tower and into forms above elevation 2415'. The formwork itself was complicated, both by the verticality and diameter of the tower. II8
After the concrete for tower and conduit had set, it had to be protected by puddled backfill that would prevent sloughing of the open channel banks during the spring thaws. The backfill would also level the site to provide a dry working area for the corning season. A wagon road was built along the length of the flume to assist with the placement of the backfill material. The material was brought in dump wagons from the east borrow pit. It was then shoveled into place in shallow water and worked into a puddle, up to the springing line of the conduit. In the gravel section of the dam above the springing line of the conduit, material was placed using a side fill in deep water. In the rolled-earth section of the dam above the springing line of the conduit, some of the
114 See WA-80-58 for a photographic copy of sketches for the cofferdam. See WA -80-38 and WA-80-39 for photographs of the dredge and the washed-out cofferdam. 115 Post, 53, 55, 59-61, "Annual Project History for 1915." See WA-80-40 through WA-80-42 for photographs of the flume. See WA-80-59 and WA-80-60 for a photographic copy of details ofCofferdams.l and 2. 116 Ibid., 63-65. 117 Ibid., 66. See WA-80-44 for a photograph of the conduit as it was being formed. See WA-80-A-10 for a photographic copy of the plan for the concrete work. 118 Ibid., 68. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 42) material was placed by side fill in deep water, but most of it was puddled by hand in shallow water. 119
Between December 1914 and April 1915 the design and material of the closing gates in the gate tower were the subjects of much review and discussion among the various engineers. Both the double reinforced-concrete tower and the form and placement of the gates were designed to reduce the spouting velocity when water was discharged in the outlet channel. If the spouting velocity was too high, the earthen dam could be severely damaged. The engineers eventually decided on cylindrical control gates and emergency slide gates. Slide-gate castings were erected shortly after the tower concrete was begun. They were bolted into place and adjusted. The lower cylinder-gate castings were also set into place and adjusted. The grillage was erected to elevation 2440'. All were painted with water gas tar and coal gas tar. 120
In order to protect the unfinished outlet works and the backfill :from fall flooding, a waterway supplementing the conduit had to be provided. A temporary dam was built at the corewall and the sides of the flume were raised to link it to the conduit. Portions of Cofferdams No. 1 and No. 2 were removed to redirect the flow of water. The flow of water through the flume was tested, and some adjustments made. Sadly, the first fatal accident on site occurred late in the season when a workman fell in the diversion flume and was drowned. 121
The only work done on the spillway during 1915 was rock excavation for riprap and gravel produced by the on-site rock crusher.122
Between July 9 to August 15, field surveyors in the engineering office laid out the upper boundary ofKeechelus Reservoir. Part of this was the right-of-way along the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railroad line and State Road No. 7, known as the Sunset Highway. A blazed line was run around the upper end of the lake, set 25' horizontally back of the 2520' contour. Much of the line ran through "heavily timbered and very brushy mountainous country."123
119 Ibid., 70-72. 12°Crownover, "Every Possible Precaution," 475, discusses the spouting velocity problem. J. R. Sherman, "Keechelus Outlet Control," 120-125, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915"; Report of the Board of Engineers, '"'Keechelus Reservoir Outlet Control," April 24, 1915, 134-135, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915"; Post, 72-73, "Annual Project History for 1915." See WA-80-D-15 and WA-80-D-16 for photographs of the lower cylinder gate and the front gate piers. 121 Post, 75, "Annual Project History for 1915." See WA-80-45 for a photograph of the water coming through the flume. 122 Ibid., 76. 123 J. R. Sherman, "Field Engineering," 25, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915." KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 43)
The Reclamation Service had tried to get Flanagan Lumber to rescind its contract for clearing the reservoir site in 1914. Terms were not settled until October 1915. Then a new call for bids to clear approximately 1,200 acres was issued. 124
Too Much Snow and Rain, Not Enough Men - Dam Completion Thwarted: 1916 Franklin L. Lane, Secretary of the Interior, had announced changes in the administrative organization of the Reclamation Service on Dec. 1, 1915. The headquarters office was in Washington, D.C., headed by a Director, A. P. Davis, who also had the title of Chief Engineer, and the executive office was in Denver supervised by the Chief of Construction F. E. Weymouth. Local offices, supervised by a Project Manager or Project Engineer who reported to the Chief of Construction, were maintained for each project. C. E. Crownover was the Project Manager of the Storage Unit, and Meadow Creek, Washington, was listed as the office site. Davis and Weymouth visited the Keechelus Dam site in July 1916 and attended the Board of Engineers meeting. 125
The winter of 1915-16 had the greatest snowfall of any winter on record, 557" between November and May. The dam had 13' 8" of snow on the level in mid-winter, and on June 1, 5' of snow were still in one of the borrow pits. Snowshoes had to be improvised for the horses. The severe winter meant that a great deal of repair work had to be done in the camp at the beginning of the season. Consequently, the construction season was curtailed. 126
As the work schedule had called for the dam to be completed in 1916, maintaining an adequate labor force throughout the season was a major concern. Between 600 and 700 men were working on the dam, and another 200 were involved in reservoir clearing. "Labor conditions were satisfactory until about July, when harvest requirements in addition to unusually active construction requirements made it difficult to get or retain labor.... From August to November it was necessary to have a labor agent almost constantly on the road in order to keep the work going satisfactorily... It is principally due to this scarcity of labor that the work was not entirely completed this season. It may be worth noting that in spite of our own shortage of men all our labor agents, and a great many outside people stated that we were more fortunate than almost any other construction outfit in this locality. This is principally due to our well appointed camp, an eight hour day, to our having a number of attractive bonus jobs which could be reached by promotion, to following a promotional policy almost exclusively, and to an effort made on the part of all concerned to give every man a square deal, as well as demanding one in return." To attract workers, wages were increased from $2.20 to $2.60, then $2.75 per day. Washington State
124 C. E. Crownover, "Clearing Reservoir Sites and Maintenance of Dams," 90-91, in "Annual Project History for Season 1915." 125 United States, Department of the Jnterior, Fifteenth Annual Report ofthe Reclamation Service, 1915-1916 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1916), 771-773. United States, Department of the Jnterior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit - Yakima Project, "List of Visitors," n.p., in "Annual Project History for Season 1916," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. This Project History contains a "Keechelus Reservoir -Feature Index," with references to the Annual Project Histories between 1912 and 1916. 126 C. E. Crownover, "Introduction," 1-2, in "Annual Project History for Season 1916." KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 44) \ had instituted prohibition in 1916, which meant that no liiuor was allowed in the camp, which in turn led to better behavior and better camp maintenance. 1
The engineering staff spent much of the early part of the season designing various features of the outlet tower. The staff also designed and supervised the construction of the road connecting the state road to the dam crest: "It is approximately a half mile in length and gives a pleasing and scenic approach to the dam." This road was intended to link to the railroad line, and it was anticipated that a Meadow Creek station would be established. 128
Post summarized the season's work: "The program of construction for the 1916 season comprised the completion of the river section of the dam; the completion of the gate tower; the installation of the gates and grillage; construction of the stilling pool and paved section at the end of the conduit; the excavation and concreting of the spillway; the completion of the riprap; the erection of the gate-tower footbridge and spillway wagon bridge; the construction of a permanent road connecting the dam with the State road; the completion of the re-excavation of the outlet channel below the conduit; the completion of the excavation and slope above the tower; and all the cleaning up, demolition and other small jobs necessary to complete the project." But because of the snow and the labor shortage, not all was accomplished. 129
The river section of the embankment had to be excavated 1' to 5' before embankment material could be put in place. After this was done during the second half of May, the toe trench and the tile drain trench were excavated and the drains installed. Sheet piling was placed along the north river bank to collect water and direct it towards the lower toe of the dam. When the flume was removed, the concrete corewall was completed across the river section. However, poor weather conditions did not allow the connection of the corewall to the spillway.130
Once the corewall was in place, work began in early June on the remaining rolled-fill section of the embankment. Fine material for the rolled fill was excavated from the east borrow pit, and gravel was excavated from the north borrow pit. Because of melting snow and rainy conditions, the material was wet and the work progressed very slowly. Teams of horses hauled the material in dump wagons to the site, where it was then spread and rolled. When the teams could no longer get under the Howe-truss bridge, trestle posts were set under the deck beams which were freed from the trusses. The trusses were then blasted in two, while the deck remained supported on the posts. The debris from the trusses was removed, and center posts and bracing put in place. As the fill was continued upward, the vertical posts were left in place but the bracing was removed. The
127 W. L. Rowe, "Office Engineering," 17, in "Annual Project History for Season 1916"; R. E. Post, "General Construction Work," 69-72, in "Annual Project History for Season 1916." 128 Rowe, 15-16, "Annual Project History for 1916." 129 Post, 25, "Annual Project History for 1916." 130 Ibid., 26-27, 29. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 45) embankment was filled well above the high-water mark, and work on the rolled-fill section continued until October 10. 131
Post summarized the difficulties of using the rolled-fill method under the climatic conditions encountered at Keechelus. Wet material, excessive ground water, heavy snows, and fall rains made for a good working season of no more than three months. Showers throughout the year, combined with damp or wet borrow pit material, frequently made it necessary to discontinue rolling. Then the material would have to dry before work could resume. "Delays like this are exceedingly expensive, as the teams, foremen and shovel crews are of necessity on a straight time basis," he concluded.132
Gravel fill began to be placed in the river section on June 1. Because there was no time to allow the gravel to settle before the rolled fill was placed against it, the gravel was spread in layers and rolled. Once the river section was completed, the dam was topped out between Stations 35 and 60. Riprap continued to be placed on the embankment, but it continued to be difficult to find the right kind of rock at the right time, and the labor shortage slowed the work. Both riprap placement and foundation work remained to be done in 1917. 133
The outlet works continued to be a major task during the season. Dredging continued between the embankment and the gates. Then the center section of Cofferdam No. 1 was removed by the dredge so the lake could be drawn down and the water diverted through the conduit, while the flume was removed. Because the hea~ snow had resulted in high river levels, the flume could not be removed until the end ofMay.1 4
It was necessary to set the gates and to concrete the inner gate tower before the spring flow began. Work began in late February. Snow was cleared away, and the intake chamber below the conduit was pumped out. The cylinder gate was rolled out on cribbing built inside the outer tower, then supported by a derrick as the timbers were removed and it was lowered into place. Then the formwork was begun for the inner tower. The formwork was quite complex, and much of it was done on-site by the carpenters, then lifted into place. 135
An auxiliary elevator tower, built next to the permanent gate tower, was connected to the riverbank by a trestle.136 Cars loaded with concrete were pushed to the elevator tower, then hoisted to a movable hopper, from which the concrete was chuted into place. The inner tower was completed to the height of the outer tower, then work was suspended to allow more snow to recede. Concreting was resumed intermittently from mid-May to mid-August when the
131 Ibid., 29-31, 38-43. 132 Ibid., 32-33. 133 Ibid., 33-34, 36-37. 134 Ibid., 44-45. 135 Ibid., 46, 48. 136 See WA-80-D-17 for a photograph of the elevator tower. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 46) concreting of the gate tower and the surmounting gatehouse was completed. The upper cylinder gate was set in,Place, using the same method as that for the lower gate, when the proper height was reached. 13
Once the reservoir level was low enough, the gates were closed, and work began on the stilling basin downstream from the embankment and the conduit. The remainder of Cofferdam No. 2 and the flume were removed, and 6' to 8' of rock and gravel were excavated. Pumping plants near the toe of the dam and in the middle of the paved section of the channel helped keep water out of the area to be excavated. Once the excavation was completed, the stilling basin floor was concreted with 18" of concrete, and embedded with 12" to 18" rock that projected above the concrete 6" to 8" at intervals of2' or 3'. A concrete arrowhead baffle was also added. The sides of the stillin~ pool were paved with 18" mortar with 2' rocks projecting out 6" at intervals from 2-1/2' to 3'. 38
After the stilling pool was excavated, work continued to excavate a section of the channel to be paved with grouted and dry paving. The grouted paving was completed, but the dry paving was completed for only about 40' before the gates had to be opened. That left 160' of dry paving to be done during the next season. 139
Because of the failure of Cofferdam No. 3 in 1915, the lower portions of the outlet channel had to be re-excavated with slips and wheelers. Parts of the side banks were sloped, but much remained to be done when the season ended.140
During October and November the footbridge leading from the dam to the gate tower was constructed. It consisted of two 120' spans with a steel pier between the tower and the dam. A falsework trestle was built to provide support for the trusses as they were put into place. Once in place, the trusses were riveted together, a floor put on, and the structure painted.14
This season also saw major work on the spillway. Some stripping and excavation had been done previously to provide rock and gravel for other parts of the project, but the bulk of that work remained. Stripping was done by steam shovel, and a drainage ditch was created using explosives. Because of the late snow cover, rock-drilling, blasting, and excavation did not begin until June.142
After careful study, the engineers decided that the excavation should be made with 25' cuts with a 40' bottom in three lifts, with a small clean-up cut afterwards. Hand excavation and trimming
137 Post, 48-49, "Annual Project History for 1916." See WA-80-D-23 and WA-80-D-24 for photographic copies of plans and details of the gatehouse. 138 Ibid., 52-55. 139 Ibid., 55. 140 Ibid., 57-58. 141 Ibid., 58. See W A-80-D-18 and W A-80-D-19 for photographs of the footbridge construction. See W A-80-D-25 for a photographic copy of details of the piers and abutments. 142 Ibid., 60-61. See W A-80-46 for a photograph of the steam shovel. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 47)
followed. Once the rock was dumped, it had to be sorted for riprap rock and gravel. Excavation work continued until early November, although the upper area of the spillway was ready for concreting in late September. 143
Concrete was poured between October and late December. The material for the concrete was obtained from the crushing plant. Once measured, the material was transported to a mixer, then hoisted to the hopper of the distributing tower and chuted to the distributing station about half way along the weir. Concrete carts transported the material to the upper part of the spillway where it was poured into forms. 144 For the lower part of the spillway, the material was taken directly from the plant. To keep the concrete from freezing, the water was heated with steam, and jets of steam were injected into the mixer. After the concrete was placed, it was covered with tarpaulins and kept warm by steam jets. The floor sections of the lower part of the spillway were covered by tents before the concrete was poured, and stoves were used to keep the concrete sufficiently warm while it was setting. After setting for two or three days, the concrete was covered with several inches of sawdust, and the walls was protected by boarding up the inside of the studs and filling the space with sawdust. 145
A Warren pony-truss bridge with a 65' span was built across the spillway to accommodate wagons. Final assembly of the components was done on site in late November and early December by the crew that had installed the gate tower footbridge. The bridge provided the link from the state road to the 14' wide road across the embankment leading to the railroad track. During the season, 1436' feet of road were constructed.146
As the end of the dam construction neared, clearing the reservoir area of timber assumed more urgency. The Flanagan Lumber Company contract had been rescinded, and all the bids for a new contract received in December 1915 had been rejected. Consequently, the logging and clearing work was done by force account under the direction of L. G. Maney, Logging Superintendent. Two large donkey engines were used to cut and skid the logs into the lake. Small donkey engines were used for heavy clearing in the area after it was logged. Teams of horses did the lighter clearing. A market needed to be found for the logs, and direct shipment to sawmills on Puget Sound were investigated. However, a contract was made with Kittitas Lumber Company to erect a lakeshore sawmill and take at least 1,750,000 FBM. (foot board measure) per month "at the market price equivalent to that the Service would have received by shipping to [Puget] Sound markets."147
143 See WA-80-C- 7 for a photograph of the steam shovel on the spillway site. See WA-80-C- l 4 for a photographic copy of the spillway plan in October 1915. 144 See WA-80-C-8 for a photograph of the formwork of the weir. 145 Post, 64-65, "Annual Project History for 1916." 146 Ibid., 67-69. 147 C. E. Crownover, "Clearing Reservoir Site," 77-80, in "Annual Project History for Season 1916." The industry standard was changed later in the twentieth century to MBM (thousand [feet] board measure). KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 48)
Limping towards Completion: 1917 The office for the Storage Unit had been moved from Meadow Creek to North Yakima on December 1, 1916. It worked out of the Reclamation Building until June 1, 1917, when it relocated to Rimrock, where the construction of Tieton Dam was beginning. 148
The construction season at Keechelus did not begin until June 4, working out of Camp No. 1. Much of the summer was devoted to laying riprap on the embankment. Most of the rock used was quarried from the exposed rockface along the spillway and hauled in cars, pulled by dinkey engines. Once the riprap work was completed, the tracks were removed from the crown of the embankment and grading began, but it was not completed by the end of the season. 149
The permanent abutment for the footbridge to the gate tower was placed on the embankment in September. Then the bridge was lifted from its temporary seat and lowered into place.150
The wingwalls of the spillway, one at either end of the weir, were concreted with hand-mixed concrete. Despite the efforts to keep concrete from freezing the previous season, some spots had to be replaced. The 1521' natural channel from the spillway to the old riverbed was cleared for a distance of 75' on each side of the centerline. 151
As had been anticipated the previous year, part of the previously excavated outlet channel had filled in again, so it had to be cleared of sand, gravel, and boulders for 2400', most of it underwater. Paving was continued on the outlet channel where it had been discontinued the previous year. A temporary sack dam and flume were constructed to divert the water, and a sump with a centrifugal pump installed to keep the area dry. In this section the bottom and slopes were paved with rock quarried from the spillway site. 152
Work continued on some elements of the gate tower and its equipment. Dial indicators for the slide gates were installed. These were linked to a cable and pulley system that was fastened to the concrete wall of the gatehouse. The cylinder gates installed the previous year were tested in December and found to be in excellent condition, although the cable connecting the counterweights with the cylinder gate stems had stretched excessively and had to be replaced. 153
148 W. L. Rowe, "Office Engineering," 30, United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, "Annual Project History for Season 1917," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 149 R. I. Thomas, "Construction - Keechelus Reservoir," 129-130, in "Annual Project History for Season 1917." Camp No. I apparently was the main camp. 150 Ibid., 130-131. 151 Ibid., 131. 152 Ibid., 131-133. 153 Ibid., 133-134. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 49)
The final portion of the north end of the embankment was completed, linking the dam to the spillway. The section adjacent to the spillway contained puddled fill, while the remainder was filled with rolled layers. The five toe-drain outlets from the northern section were completed.154
As various features of the dam were finished, material, equipment, and heavy machinery were shipped to Rimrock to be used for the construction of Tieton Dam. Clean-up work was also done, including tearing out old trestles and track, digging up abandoned pipe lines, tearing down buildings, and hauling and burning rubbish and useless lumber. 155
Reservoir clearing operations also continued from June into December, working out of Camp No. 1 initially, and then Camp No. 2. By the end of the season, a total of 669 acres, or 56 percent of the reservoir area, had been cleared. A total of7,680,000 FBM were placed in the lake during the season making a total of 9,000,000 FBM in the lake for future delivery. 156
Labor conditions for both dam construction and reservoir clearing and logging were very difficult throughout the season, in part because of the entry of the United States into World War I. Thirty-eight members of the Yakima Project- Storage Unit enlisted during the season. Despite wages ranging from $2.75 to $3.00 per day, labor remained scarce and was subject to strikes organized by International Workers of the World (I. W.W.) members. To guard against sabotage, U.S. deputy marshals were stationed at the railroad depot and the gate tower from early spring until the end of July. A fire that began on August 8 in a pile oflogs at the upper end of the reservoir and then spread and burned for the next two days was blamed on labor agitators. The logging and clearing crew working out of Camp No. 2 went out on strike on August 15 and that camp shut down in September. The remaining logging crew walked out in late October, and given the lateness of the season and the difficulty of getting replacements, the operations just shut down. 157
The season ended with major flooding, caused by 34.28' of rain during the month of December. On Dec. 18, 4.33' of rain in 24 hours, accompanied by high winds, caused floods that destroyed part of the water supply line, downed the telephone line, damaged camp buildings, and stopped train service for a day. Then on December 27, 28, and 29, 6.46' ofrain brought even more flooding, this time stopping train service for ten days. 158
154 Ibid., 135. 155 Ibid., 136. 156 R. I. Thomas, "Clearing and Logging - Keechelus Reservoir," 140-144, in "Annual Project History for Season 1917." See WA-80-47 for a photograph of Camp No. 2 and WA-80-48 for a photograph ofa donkey engine being used to pile logs. The Project History does not give a specific location for Camp No. 2, but it seems to have been located along the lakeshore, north of the embankment. 157 Charles F. Swigart, "Introduction," 4; Thomas, 135-136, 141, 143, "Annual Project History for 1917." 158 Thomas, 137, 144, "Annual Project History for 1917." R. K. Tiffany, Project Manager for the Sunnyside and Tieton Units, extolled the value of the reservoirs in the Storage Unit, including Keechelus, in controlling flood damage further downstream. "Flood Damage Is Checked by Storage Reservoir," Engineering News-Record 81 (August 29, 1918): 410. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 50)
Now It's Official - Final Completion: 1918 Although Keechelus was deemed to be complete in 1917, some work continued during the 1918 season, primarily pertaining to repair and clean up. Excavation was done immediately above the spillway weir, rubbish was removed from the concrete-lined section of the spillway channel, and the top of the dam was trimmed.159
The outlet works also needed attention. In September the water in the reservoir was lowered, and a crew began removing the rock-filled cribs of the Cofferdam No. 1. One of the cribs had collapsed and obstructed the channel so the reservoir elevation could not be lowered sufficiently. A temporary cofferdam, filled with clay sacks, was placed about 150' from the gate tower, and the material obstructing the channel removed by derrick. During October, excessive rains caused the destruction of the temporary cofferdam. The water did not recede, so as much of the sack dam was removed as possible, as were the rock cribs. Then the channel was excavated to its full depth and width at the bottom.160
Reservoir clearing operations had resumed in early April, working out of Camp No. 1. Because little snow had fallen in the mountains that winter, it was thought that water would be needed for irrigation that summer. Consequently, the elevation of the reservoir was raised to 2490' to store 96,000 acre-feet of water. Because Camp No. 2 was at elevation 2475', it had to be moved to a different location at elevation 2500'. Another camp, No. 3, was constructed to facilitate the operations. Because of continuing labor shortages, none of the camps was fully occupied. During the season, 1,280,000 F. B. M. of logs were put into the lake from the 238 acres that were cleared. Still 250 acres remained.161
The dam received its first official inspection on November 10, 1918, by Project Manager R. K. Tiffany, Engineers C. E. Crownover and G. C. Finley, and Superintendent L. C. Maney. The earthworks and the pavement of the embankment showed no signs of weathering or seepage. The slide and cylinder gates were found to be in good working order. The conduit had a few hairline cracks but nothing serious. The earth slopes of the outlet channel showed signs of weathering with debris accumulating in the conduit. The inspection team anticipated that eroded material would have to be removed from the section below the paving within a year or two. The spillway had not yet been used, and a log boom was to be placed at the upper edge to keep logs from drifting into the structure. They concluded, "In general the entire structure is in first class condition."162
159 L. C. Maney, "Keechelus Logging, Clearing, and Construction," 119, in United States, Department oflnterior, United States Reclamation Service, Storage Unit- Yakima Project, "Annual Project History for Season 1918," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 160 Ibid., 120. 161 Ibid., 116-118. Camp No. 3 seems to have been located further up the lake, along the west shore. 162 Engineer G. C. Finley to Project Manager, Yakima, Washington, November 20, 1918, available in Upper Columbia Area Office. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 51)
The completion of Keechelus Dam was received without fanfare, probably because it occurred in the midst of World War I and its aftermath. The final cost report for Keechelus Dam and Reservoir was officially submitted to the Denver office in November 1919, by C. E. Crownover and Costkeeper W. D. Horton. The fmal cost was calculated as $1,892,778.71, almost 1 million dollars higher than the estimate of 1912.163
Changes to Keechelus Dam
Annual inspections of the dam, the components of the outlet works, the spillway, and other features of the site were usually made in the fall. The first reports were filed by Engineer Crownover. Between 1922 and 1947, these reports were filed by Paul Taylor, Assistant Engineer during most of that time. He had begun his career with the Reclamation Service as a hydrographer and was promoted to Engineer in 1943. During the first few years, after the dam was completed, the various features were monitored for stability, operational efficiency, and general condition, as the reservoir was gradually filled behind the dam.164
Many of the problems that ensued were caused by conditions and adversities encountered during the original construction of the dam and its components. The settlement and repeated filling of sections of the embankment near the head of the abandoned tunnel shaft by the gatehouse (No. 1) were noted and monitored. The embankment was monitored for seepage, particularly near the south end, where toe-trench drains and tile drains had been installed to channel subsurface water to a nearby swamp and Meadow Creek. Taylor regularly mentioned problems with beaver dams . that caused the streams in that area to back up and inundate the downstream side of the embankment. To alleviate the seepage problem, some of the internal piping was redone and small weirs were installed at the base of several of the toe drains. Erosion of some of the riprap rock over time was also noted. The state road that had run along the embankment was relocated further downstream in 1928 and 1929. 165
The first feature to show major signs of deterioration was the spillway, particularly the concrete paving, which had been installed under less than ideal conditions. Also because of the constraints of time and lack of funding, the unpaved spillway channel had never been fully excavated, as the engineers had assumed that volume of water moving through the spillway would scour out the channel. Instead, the spillway remained unused until 1920, and then when the reservoir water level was raised high enough to cause the water to flow through the spillway over the flashboards, it washed out the banks and deposited large amounts of material into the nearby
163 C. E. Crownover and W. D. Horton, "Final Cost Report." The final figure did not include the costs for constructing and maintaining the camps. 164 On July l, 1923, the United States Reclamation Service became the Bureau of Reclamation, still under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. See William E. Warne, The Bureau ofReclamation (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972), 25-27. . 165 These conditions were noted by Taylor in his reports to the Superintendent dated January 20, 1922, December 19, 1922, December 28, 1923, January 4, 1926, January 17, 1928, November 23, 1928, December 11, 1930, December 4, 1931, and December 12, 1933, all available at Upper Columbia Area Office. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 52) outlet channel. 166 During the next three years, water was forced over the spillway to scour out the channel with the direction of the flow controlled by two crib dams. 167 A small wood shack perched on the embankment above the spillway allowed the gatekeeper to monitor the flow. Taylor began to note the concrete deterioration as early as the 1926; the condition only worsened, and through much of the 1930s he called for spillway repairs. 168 In 1940 "data were gathered for reconditioning the present spillway weir and the placing of a 40-foot radial gate to rest on an O.G. weir in this spillway channel similar to the one placed in the Kachess spillway channel."169 Data gathering continued in 1941, but the work was not carried out as World War II intervened. During the war, the dam and outlet works were protected by guards, who were put into place on December 7, 1941, the day the Japanese forces attacked U.S. naval troops and facilities at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. 170
The spillway was finally rehabilitated in 1951-52 by the Hall-Atwater Company of Seattle. Deteriorated concrete was removed by chipping, side and under drains were installed, and the crest elevation was raised 2' to elevation 2517'. Formwork was installed, and concrete mixed and poured in place at the site using a motorized vehicle called a Scoopmobile.171 When the spillway was completed with the higher crest, the capacity of the reservoir was increased to 157,800 acre feet Previously flashboards had been installed to expand the reservoir capacity by 5,080 acre feet The wood shack used for monitoring was removed and not replaced. 172
Between 1937 and 1941, Taylor called for a Civilian Conservation Corps (C. C. C.) crew to finish clearing the reservoir and to do general maintenance, repair, and rebuilding work around the dam site. Reservoir clearing was considered to be particularly urgent, as there had never been sufficient Federal funding to finish the job after 1918. In fact, there was no funding for any work at Keechelus in 1919. 173 Stumps, brush, and other debris regularly washed up against the upstream face of the dam, threatening the riprap and the outlet works. A work crew was finally put in place for the 1939 and 1940 seasons. They initially cleared the northern section of the embankment and then moved on to the lower end of the reservoir. 174
166 C. E. Crownover to Project Manager [R. K. Tiffany], June 25, 1920, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 167 Paul Taylor to J. L. Lytel, November 28, 1923; Paul Taylor to J. L. Lytel, March 17, 1924, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 168 See W A-80-C-9 through W A-80-C-ll for photographs of the spillway in 1938. 169 Paul Taylor to Superintendent, November 25, 1940, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 170 Paul Taylor to Superintendent, February 4, 1943, available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 171 The work was done under Specifications IOOC-125, issued May 21, 1951. See B. I. Anderson, "Final Construction Report Rehabilitation ofKeechelus Dam Spillway, Yakima Project, Washington Storage Division," Kennewick, Washington, June 1953. See W A-80-C-12 for a photograph of the rehabilitation work underway. 172 D. E. Ball, "Storage Reservoirs, Yakima Project, Washington," Reclamation Era 29 (September 1939): 234. 173 C. E. Crownover, "Construction - Storage Unit," 64, in United States, Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service, "Annual Project History for Season 1919," available at Upper Columbia Area Office. 174 Paul Taylor to Superintendent, December 17, 1937, January 28, 1939, January 17, 1940, November 25, 1940, March 19, 1942. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 53)
The original watchman's/gatekeeper's house and adjacent outbuildings were demolished in 1963 and replaced by a new residence and garage. (These buildings have also been replaced.)175
The components of the outlet works were carefully inspected every season, since their smooth functioning was crucial to the long-term storage operations. The original cylinder and emergency sliding gates had functioned well for approximately sixty years, but a total rehabilitation of the outlet works and the gate tower was begun in 1976. The horseshoe outlet conduit was lined with reinforced concrete. The original stilling basin and part of the paved channel were replaced by a new concrete chute, 156' long, 18' wide, and 28' deep on the side walls, set in a reconfigured stilling basin. The cylinder gates, which vibrated excessively when more the 1,000 cubic feet per second of water passed through them, were replaced by a single 8.5' x 8.5' hydraulically operated slide gate, installed in 1980. The six 3' x 7' cast-iron hydraulically operated emergency slide gates-are the originals, but the control panels were upgraded. A 22"-diameter low-flow bypass pipe was installed in 1980 along the crown of the outlet conduit to bypass minimum flows for fishery and stream enhancement when the outlet gates are closed. An electrically powered elevator, extending from the gatehouse to the base of the tower, was installed after the cylinder gates were removed. Some of the original concrete was cut through in the process. Finally, the unpaved inlet channel under the reservoir leading to the gate tower and the outlet channel was reshaped in 1992, using a dragline excavator.176 .
In the spring of 1998, as part of the Bureau of Reclamation's Safety of Dams Program, communication instruments began to be installed to monitor seepage. During installation a void was found in the crest of the embankment. As a result, detailed examinations and testing were carried out to determine the areas of seepage and the overall condition of the embankment. More voids were discovered, where the vertical wood posts of the river-crossing trestle had rotted away, and where sections of the original earthfill had eroded. Further investigation seemed to indicate that some of the original wood sheet piling in the cutoff trench might have rotted and further contributed to the seepage problem. These conditions affected the long-term stability of the dam. To reduce the risk to public safety if the dam were to give way after a sudden inundation of water under high pressure, the level ofKeechelus Reservoir was lowered to elevation 2510', 7 feet below the normal full pool elevation. While improving public safety, the reduced levels have meant shortages for irrigation further downstream during seasons when there has been little rain or snowfall. 177
175 The original buildings and the replacement residence and garage are recorded in photographs on file at the Upper Columbia Area Office. 176 "Review of Operation and Maintenance Program," 8 -1 O; Description ofKeechelus Dam, Bureau of Reclamation website. The work is also discussed in the Yakima Herald-Republic, July 28, 1975 ("Work Slated on Dams"), January 25, 1977 ("Good Weather? It All Depends on Outlook"), September 12, 1977 ("Dam Gate"), June 30, 1978 ("Water Release"). 177 Hansen and Bennett, 8-15, 57-60; "Keechelus Dam Draft Environmental Impact Statement," 1 -4. See also the following articles in the Yakima Herald-Republic, June 6, 1998 ("Tests Due After Hole Discovered Inside Dam"), June 12, 1998 ("The hole truth: Dam is OK"), June 19, 1998 ("Lake Keechelus Dam Is Safe"), October 8, 1998 ("Soft Spots Get a Hard Look at Lake Keechelus Dam"), November 28, 1998 ("Problems at Keechelus Dam? KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. W A-80 (Page 54)
The Bureau of Reclamation undertook further studies and examined various alternatives to correct the deficiencies, which were then set forth in a Draft Environmental Impact Statement. The preferred alternative was to modify the existing dam, by removing large portions of the existing embankment and replacing them with a new impervious barrier of highly compacted fine-grained soils within the upstream portion of the embankment. The upstream portion would be supported by a completely new downstream shell. The spillway would also be modified. 178
Keechelus Dam and Reservoir continue to serve the Yakima Project by providing stored water, although at a reduced level, to the valley's nearly half a million irrigated acres. Along with the other dams and reservoirs of the Storage Unit, Keechelus helped transform the valley into fertile farmland by collecting and regulating the semiarid region's formerly unreliable water supply. The impact of the Storage Unit illustrates the potency of the valley's integrated system of storage and supply that proved possible only through Federal involvement. For over the past twenty years, water has been released from the reservoir to protect spring chinook salmon and other anadromous fish during spawning and incubation. The proposed repairs and modifications to Keechelus Dam will restore its full functionality to the Yakima Project.
Answers Expected Soon"), December l, 1998 ("Darn Dangerously Damaged"), December 2, 1998 ("Dam's Price Tag: $10 Million"), December 3, 1998 ("Keechelus Shows Need for Enhancement Project"), December 6, 1998 ("What If ..."). 178 See Yakima Herald-Republic, April 16, 1999 ("Bureau Evaluates Options for Darn"), June 14, 1999 ("Lake Keechelus Darn"), August 7, 1999 ("Darn Repair Costs Soar"), November 18, 1999 ("Keechelus Dam Costs Spur Call for Study"), March 11, 2000 ("Less May Fix More at Keechelus"), March 19, 2000 ("Decision to Repair, Not Replace, Darn Is Sound"), April 5, 2000 ("Three Hearings to Air Ideas for Keechelus Darn Repair"), April 20, 2000 ("Fish Passage for Keechelus Studied"), December 12, 2000 ("Feds: Fix Keechelus"), January 19, 2001 ("Bureau of Reclamation Offers Plan to Repair Keechelus Darn"), March 16, 2001 ("Keechelus Darn Plan Considers Fish"), April 19, 2001 ("Darns Are Marvels That (Finally) Need Repairing"). "Keechelus Darn Draft Environmental Impact Statement," S-2-S-3, 10-15. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 55)
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
ARCHIVAL COLLECTIONS
Keechelus Dam Drawings and Plans. Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Y ak.ima, Washington.
Records of the Bureau of Reclamation, Record Group 115. National Archives and Records Administration, Federal Records Center, Denver, Colorado.
Yakima Project, Historical Files and Reports. Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington.
HISTORIC VIEWS
Keechelus Dam Photograph Albums, 1905-16, Books 15, 16, 17, and 39. Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington.
North Yakima Photograph Album, 1905-06, Book 22. Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington.
Yakima Project: Keechelus, Photograph Files, 1923-74. Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington.
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"Belle Fourche Dam, Belle Fourche Project, South Dakota." Engineering Record 53 (March 3, 1906): 307-310.
"The Belle Fourche Irrigation Works, South Dakota." Engineering News 55 (February 22, 1906): 210-212.
Coman, Katharine."Some Unsettled Problems of Irrigation." American Economic Review 1 (March 1911): 1-19. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 56)
Coulter, Calvin B. "The New Settlers on the Yakima Project, 1880-1910." Pacific Northwest Quarterly 61 (January 1970): 10-21.
___. "The Victory ofNational Irrigation in the Yakima Valley, 1902-1906." Pacific Northwest Quarterly 42 (April 1951): 99-122 ..
Crownover, C. E. "Every Possible Precaution Observed to Make Watertight Keechelus Reservoir, Washington." Engineering Record 74 (October 14, 1916): 474-476.
___. "Puddling and Rolling to Assure Impervious Foundation for Keechelus Reservoir." Engineering Record 74 (October 28, 1916): 534-536.
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___. "Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United States." In Yearbook ofthe Department of Agriculture, 1899, 591-612. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900.
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Newell, F. H. "Federal Land Reclamation: A National Problem. Part 1. Origin, Problems and Achievements of Federal Land Reclamation." Engineering News-Record 91 (October 25, 1923): 666-673.
___. "The Yakima River in Washington." IrrigationAge 7 (January 1894): 24-25.
Pfaff, Christine. Harvests ofPlenty: A History ofthe Yakima Irrigation Project, Washington. Denver: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 2001.
Smythe, William. The Conquest ofArid America. Norwood, Mass.: Norwood Press, 1905.
Statistical Compilation ofStorage Dams and Reservoirs on Bureau ofReclamation Project. Washington: United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1969.
Taylor, Paul I. "Dams-High, Large, and Unusual." Reclamation Era 23 (February 1923): 28- 32; (March 1923): 58-60.
Tiffany, R. K. "Flood Damage Is Checked by Storage Reservoir." Engineering News-Record 81 (August 29, 1918): 410.
United States. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Irrigation in the Yakima Valley, Washington. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907.
United States. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey. Annual Reports of the Reclamation Service, 1902-1905. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903- 1906.
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Warne, William E. The Bureau ofReclamation. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972. KEECHELUS DAM HAER No. WA-80 (Page 58)
UNPUBLISHED SOURCES
Anderson, B. I. "Final Construction Report: Rehabilitation of Keechelus Dam Spillway, Yakima Project, Washington, Storage Division, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation." Kennewick, Washington, June 1953.
Boening, Rose Marie. "The History of Irrigation in the State of Washington." Master's Thesis, University of Washington, 1918.
"Boise Project, Deer Flat Embankment, Historic American Engineering Record (ID-17-B)." 1991. Report prepared by Fredric Quivik with Amy Slaton.
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office. "Review of Operation and Maintenance Program, 1993 Examination Report, Keechelus Dam, Yakima Project, Washington, Pacific Northwest Region."
Chapman, Judith S., Terry L. Ozbun, R. Todd Baker~ and John L. Fagan. "Archaeological Testing and Evaluation of the Keechelus Construction Camp Site, Safety of Dams Modification Project, Kittitas County, Washington." Report prepared by Archaeological Investigations Northwest, May 23, 2001, for Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington.
Hansen, Phillip J ., and Douglas J. Bennett. "Interim Geologic Design Data Report for Corrective Action, Safety of Dams Program, Keechelus Dam, Yakima Project, Washington." Report prepared for Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, March 2000.
"Kachess Dam Historic American Engineering Record (WA-79)." 2003. Report prepared by Cynthia de Miranda, revised by Marjorie Pearson, Hess, Roise and Company, Historical Consultants.
"Keechelus Dam, Safety of Dams Modification, Yakima Project, Washington, Draft Environmental Impact Statement." Prepared for U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Upper Columbia Area Office, Yakima, Washington, December 2000.
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NEWSPAPERS
Yakima (Washington) Daily Republic, 1905-1906 ..
Yakima (Washington) Morning Herald, 1910-1917.
Yakima (Washington) Herald Republic, 1975-2001.