Journal of National Development Approved by University Grants Commission (No. 41807) General Impact Factor : 2.8186; Global Impact Factor : 0.842 NAAS Rating : 3.12; InfoBase Index : 2.00
Chief Editor Dharam Vir
Volume 31, Number 2 (Winter), 2018
CENTRE FOR STUDIES OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT D-59, Shastri Nagar, Meerut-250 004 (India)
The Managing Editor Journal of National Development D-59, Shastri Nagar, Meerut-250 004 (India) Tel : 91+121-2763765, 2770765; Mobile : 91+99997771669, 91+9412200765
Colonial and Post Colonial Perspectives of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
Bindu Karanwal*
Things Fall Apart by chinua Achebe is about gaining control of the nine villages of Umofia in Africa by white missionaries i.e. instruments of English Imperialism i.e. Colonial forces. Achebe in this novel narrates the story of Okonkwo, the most popular man of this region, how he resists these colonial forces but fails because of the disintegrity among his own people. Thus on the one hand the novel presents the conflict between the natives and the imperialist forces, on the other hand it also reflects the inner reality of igbo culture of Umofia, both its strengths and weaknesses. [Keywords : Colonial, Postcolonial, Neocolonial, Igbo Culture, White missionaries, Regionally inflected language, Anthropologist, Eurocentrism, Racism] Colonialism as defined by OED refers to “the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically”. Therefore, post-colonialism is sometimes assumed to refer to “after colonialism” or “after-independence” (Ashcroft Bill, The Post Colonial Studies Reader, 12) describing the wide range of social, cultural and political events arising specifically from the decline and fall of European colonialism that took place after World War II (McEwan, Post Colonialism and Development, Vol. 3, 18). Post-colonialism expresses the opposite idea of colonialism. Hence, post-colonial literature is a consequence of colonialism. Through literature we understand the primary focus of Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: a novel written by an individual who grew up under colonial rule in response to the effects of colonialism
* Associate Professor, S. D. (PG) College, Ghaziabad - 201002, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
He also predicts of the future of Igbo and where they are headed if the white missionaries are to be successful in taking control of Umuofia. With the use of the English language, Achebe is successful in fully detailing the life of Okonkwo who at the beginning of the novel is a very famous young man in all the nine villages of Umuofia. However, as the novel develops and white missionaries begin arriving in Umuofia along with their government and institutions, Okonkwo who tries to protest the change is in the end buried without respect or dignity and his fame is soon forgotten because of the greatest sin in Igbo religion that he commits by taking away his own life One of the main reasons that Things Fall Apart was successful is because of its detailed descriptiveness of Igbo culture as seen from the perspective of its author, who had an insider outsider position as a result of being raised in a Christian household, which meant that he was not allowed to participate in traditional Igbo rituals although he was Igbo .Achebe presents a thorough understanding of narrative organization and style, and a keen observation of and absorption with day-to-day happenings, not through the lenses of the anthropologist, but through the clear insight of one who was involved with and felt at one with his culture while at the same time inculcating western ideas. And it’s for these reasons that Achebe is able to fully convince his audience of the ideas in his novel. .Fundamental to the Age of Imperialism was the “scramble for Africa” period of the 1880s to the 1890s. The Europeans became hungry for Africa’s natural resources, resulting in their arrival into Africa as well as their hostile takeover of the land. During this period many European countries set colonies in Africa. One of the reasons that the Europeans had for colonizing Africa was their claim to civilize the primitive African minds as a humanitarian act. Soon African states were dominated by European power be it economic, political or social.The Europeans held a Eurocentric view of the world; firmly believing European culture to be superior. Eurocentrism therefore perceives Europe at the core of civilization and of humanity. Eurocentrism had racist tendencies which granted an inferior status to the non-whites. In order to give his people back the pride that they once had, Achebe wrote Things Fall Apart. Language is also a very important element to Igbo. It gives them a sense of belonging and they also use it as a means to preserve their culture and heritage. And although language is important to Igbo, it ultimately leads to the fall of their society. Igbo is a society that also appears to be skeptical about change. They refuse to send their children to school where they stand a chance to be able to read and write in the English language. Despite Mr. Brown’s efforts to show the villagers that they need to learn English because they are now being ruled by the District Commissioner and other white missionaries who only communicate in Colonial and Post Colonial Perspectives of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe 5
English, the villagers still remain reluctant in educating their children (Things Fall Apart, 128). The Igbo depend on their language to differentiate them from other cultures. They also depend on language to define their social rank in their society. Okonkwo, for instance, when being compared to his father Unoka is considered as a wealthy man and not only because he has married a lot of women or his household produces fill many yams but because of his strength that helped him defeat one of the strongest wrestlers in the village. On the other hand, Unoka was a drunkard who had only one wife, not many yams and had no titles to his name by the time of his death The village had named him agbala a term Igbo use to refer to “women as well as to men who have not taken a title”(Things Fall Apart, iii) consequently a man who deserves no respect from society because he is not “wealthy”. Based on the definition of agbala it is evident that a man needs to gain the respect of Igbo society by fulfilling either one of the three requirements that are used to define the social status of a man. That is by either having more than one wife, producing many yams (which are determined by the number of wives a man has, as women are responsible for crop production) or by defeating the strongest man in the village in a wrestling match, which also determines the number of women he marries because families usually marry off their daughters to strong wealthy men. However, even so readers are immediately aware of Igbo’s ignorance towards the rest of the world. They are a secluded community with no knowledge whatsoever about the world outside Umuofia. At no point in the novel do the characters make reference to Nigeria or the rest of the world. It is interesting to note that the Igbo are not at all curious of other forms of life that lie beyond Umuofia. Because the Igbo have only known Umuofia to be the only place in the world, and they do not show any interest in learning about other places outside Umuofia, it can be safely concluded that anything outside of their territory is disregarded, hence its non-existence to them. Accordingly, it comes as no surprise that the Igbo deny their children the chance of mobility from Umuofia into the competitive world which the white man’s education assures them; they even reject the white missionaries’ attempts in teaching them the English language all in favour of their devotion to their native language. Even before the white missionaries arrive in Umuofia, the Igbo already have their own judicial systems that are based on the knowledge that their forefathers have passed onto them about their culture. Their courts are spearheaded by the oldest men of the village, whose wisdom and knowledge is trusted in the power of their ancestral gods to guide them to give fair and unbiased ruling. However, one of the first things that the white missionaries do when they arrive in the village is to replace Igbo courts with theirs. This disadvantages the villagers as the white missionaries do not know the history of Igbo, their culture or their system of 6 Bindu Karanwal justice. It can be argued that this is one of the many mistakes that the missionaries make when they first decide to take over Igbo and their territory. In this sense Igbo do not know what is lawfully right or wrong in the white man’s courts. That is why the leaders of the village are surprised when they are imprisoned after burning the missionary church. The action by the missionaries in not considering Igbo laws and customs in their hostile takeover shows that they do not care about Igbo tradition or culture. Rather, they appear to be so keen on forcing their own culture on the Igbo that they do not see that they are destroying Igbo culture and that they could learn from the Igbo to better understand them and their way of life. This lack of consideration of the Igbo and their well-being from the Europeans further creates the drift that exists between the two cultures and drives them further apart from where they first started. It also raises the question of the intelligence of the white missionaries. How could a civilized and educated group of individuals who do not give themselves time to learn Igbo culture turn around and call Igbo uncivilized and uneducated? They certainly appear uncivilized and uneducated even though they claim to be. This is contradictory to the statements that they represent as the enlighteners of the village of Umuofia. In fact, it seems that Igbo are more civilized than the missionaries themselves. In their traditional courts, for example, if two parties are at conflict with each other both parties are given the chance to tell their story before a ruling is taken as opposed to the case of the British courts. When the villagers commit any form of crime they are imprisoned without first being questioned whereas Igbo courts question those at conflict before a ruling is taken. For example, Okonkwo beats up his youngest wife during the Week of Peace for petty reasons and although wife beating is allowed in Igbo culture, she is given the chance to take the matter before the courts. Okonkwo is not found guilty for beating his wife but for doing so during the Week of Peace where acts of violence are not allowed. Igbo is a compassionate yet violent society. This is seen through the character of Okonkwo who is generally a representative of the tribe. However, Okonkwo’s actions show that Igbo only become violent when certain factors force them to be. For example, Okonkwo shoots one of the messengers who are sent by the missionaries to break up their meeting. He does this because he is tired of the white missionaries and the power of authority they have claimed over their village. Although it is not the best decision to be taken by him, it is understandable why he does it. Instead they let the other messengers escape and sit back and watch the missionaries take total control of their territory. It could be argued that this is the case because their hostility, whether on a smaller scale or larger scale, has always been restricted within the boundaries of their land. Based on this statement it justifies why Igbo do not fight back against the white missionaries who take refuge in their land and threaten to change all Colonial and Post Colonial Perspectives of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe 7 aspects of their culture. It is rather disappointing that Igbo not only welcome the white missionaries to their land but they also easily allocate them a piece of it. The decision by the rulers of Mbanta to allocate land to the missionaries was the worst mistake the Igbo could make. It gave the missionaries the impression that the Igbo are a weak society that they could easily influence their culture. However, it can also be argued that the decision by the Igbo to keep the piece of land where the evil forest lay is an indication of the respect and loyalty they still have for their own culture But, because the Igbo fail to make known to the white missionaries the dark nature of the forest, any remorse concerning the new culture and religion is lost. Hence, the white missionaries remain unopposed and in control of Umuofia and its people. As far as the Igbo are concerned the white missionaries are aliens because their origin is not known to them. They do not even understand the concept behind Christianity. This is because until now the nature of white people and their culture has existed outside of their language. To the Igbo it means it has simply not existed, and this ultimately leads to the doom of their culture as they are confused about how to react to this new religion. Because the white missionaries are convinced that the Igbo are primitives they obligate themselves to civilize them even though the so called primitives do not ask for their help or to be civilized. They believe themselves to be the long awaited answer to the problems Igbo society faces and other literary scholars such as Edward Said of Orientalism (although not from the text itself) believe them to be cunning in wanting to take control of Igbo land and the lands resources by coming to Umuofia under false pretense of their true intentions which was to rule Umuofia. The white missionaries arrive in Umuofia and almost immediately expect the people of Umuofia to submit to their authority and without any question. However, on the other hand, the missionaries serve as a ray of hope to the people that Igbo religion gives no favour to. For example, it is a common and acceptable practice in Igbo culture that twins are killed, boys are sacrificed or dead infants are mutilated, etc. (Things Fall Apart, xxxvi) Some villagers are excited to go along with the white men’s idea seeing that it is the only way to escape from their own religion. Okonkwo’s son Nwoye is among the first converts to Christianity (Achebe, 107). This decision came after the sacrifice of Ikemefuna who was almost a brother to Nwoye. Nwoye was totally against the decision made by Igbo to kill his brother, hence he protests against this act by joining the church and choosing to attend school. His father on the other hand is not at all pleased with Nwoye’s decision to join Christianity. Although Okonkwo is disappointed in his son’s choice he does not act on it. It is then assumed that Okonkwo somehow expected this kind of behaviour from his son as he always saw Nwoye as “weak and woman-like” 8 Bindu Karanwal
However, Okonkwo ends up disowning his son, Nwoye after he abandons the Igbo religion. The decision by Okonkwo to disown his only son for following another religion is yet another example of Igbo’s inability to deal with change, especially that which has not existed within the Igbo language. By abandoning his own religion, Nwoye disrespects his father in the worst possible way. However, because Okonkwo is unaware of the Christian culture he cannot act against his son. It is apparent that committing suicide is Okonkwo’s way of going against Christianity. This act not only costs him his life but it also takes away the respect Umuofia once had for him. Another convert to Christianity is a pregnant mother. She has watched her children on more than one occasion being put to death because they were twins and this, according to Igbo tradition, because it was uncommon and was the work of the devil. She converts to Christianity to protect her unborn child or children. Along with Nwoye and the pregnant mother, many outcasts of the village become passionate followers of Christianity because in “God’s eyes (though not in the eyes of the missionaries) they are equals to everyone else” (Akers-Rhoads, Culture in Chinua Achebe’sThings Fall Apart, 69). The decision to follow Christianity by some members of Igbo society is greatly influenced by the suffering they had incurred from their own culture. Because they are so eager to get out of the pain and misery that Igbo religion had put them through, they do not realize that by joining the white missionaries they are actually making things harder for themselves in the long run. Achebe is successful in making readers aware that although the effect of European colonialism challenges the culture of Igbo, the benefits of it can also be seen. Igbo society stands to benefit from the school and from other smaller things such as bicycles that the white men come with. Forcing Igbo people to abandon their own way of life to follow theirs seems to be the only factor that makes the white missionaries bad people in history If all of the white missionaries who arrived in Umuofia had the same character as Mr. Brown, all would have not been lost in the village and the missionaries would have not been referred to as such bad people as they are today. At first Mr Brown arrived in Umuofia with the hopes that he will be able to convert most if not all of the villagers to Christianity as well as to introduce them to education. However, soon Mr. Brown also realized that he too could learn something from Igbo rather than him totally disregarding the little knowledge they had. He was an accommodating individual to all of the villagers (even to the non-converts) and did not force them to become Christians. “Whenever Mr. Brown went to Umuofia, he spent long hours with Akunna in his obi talking about religion through an interpreter. However, neither of them succeeded in winning the other to their belief, but they did learn more about their dissimilar faiths”(Things Fall Apart, 126). The wrong approach taken by the Westerners is seen in their attitude Colonial and Post Colonial Perspectives of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe 9 towards the Igbo of total submission and gratitude from them. Their arrival in Umuofia came unexpected and it did not help that upon their arrival they thought that because they were more civilized and educated they should be the ones to rule not Igbo. This is a great disrespect to Igbo and their ancestors, which is what angered and offended the Igbos the most. It would have been pleasant if the missionaries held the Igbo people at the same high standard they thought they were at. The fall of Igbo culture as well as the fall of Okonkwo cannot only be attributed to their strong belief system and rooted cultural heritage. The aim of Things Fall Apart is to explore the imperfections of Igbo culture as well as its strengths. Although Achebe presents these imperfections to readers that also contribute to the destruction of their culture; the main reason for the fall of the Igbo was caused by their inability and reluctance to learn English because they believed that they will never have to apply its usage in their everyday lives. Also, because the missionaries were stronger than the Igbo with regard to their advancement in modern day life and education, they had a stronger influence as well as controlling power of Igbo land and the Igbo themselves. The missionaries used a hostile approach in taking over the ruling powers of Igbo land from its natives by using their influence to spread their gospel and at the same time abolishing Igbo traditional customs and beliefs. Hence, the missionaries were particularly superior to Igbo just as the author explains. The white missionaries saw Igbo as uncivilized individuals in desperate need of their help. Although the motive of the arrival of missionaries in Umuofia was to rule over its people, the missionaries should have also seen this as a way of a cultural exchange between the two because both Igbo and the missionaries had until now not known of the culture of the other. The cultural exchange between the two could have benefitted the Igbo more because they have not shown interest in knowing of the world that exists outside of Umuofia and had the white missionaries not arrived in their land, they would still be clueless of the existence of mankind elsewhere. It is without a doubt that the white missionaries believed themselves to be superior in comparison to Igbo, that is why they had some of the converts of Christianity be their messengers. The white men saw Igbo as a burden that they had to take care of by informing and educating them of things they did not know.The white man believed his culture to be morally superior to Igbo culture and this caused a conflict between the two cultures. Although these problems seem resolved in the present time, they still very much exist and are causing a clash between the two cultures. Finally, it is important to acknowledge both the benefits as well as the challenges that resulted from European colonialism on Igbo society. The Igbo greatly benefitted from the introduction of school and education in their society that helped curb the rate of illiteracy in the village. Because of it, today most Igbo 10 Bindu Karanwal are literate individuals who have dilated their knowledge to be more “enlightened”. The Europeans also taught Igbo about their own culture, and although the Igbo found it difficult to transition from their own culture to that of a stranger, they learnt something new from it Nonetheless, there are challenges that face Igbo as a consequence of the arrival of the white missionaries. Igbo lost most of the values that tied them together as one; social coherence between the individual and society was lost, coupled with their traditional values and way of life.
References
Achebe, Chinua, Things Fall Apart, Oxfored : Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1996. Achebe, Chinua, “Chinua Achebe”, Interview by Brandford Morrow, Conjunctions (Fall 1991). Web. 10 December. 2012. Akers Rhoads, Diana. “Culture in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart”, African Studies Review, 36/2, 1993, 61-72, Web. 4 Jan. 2013. Ashcroft, Bill; Griffiths, Gareth & Tiffin, Helen, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, London : Taylor & Francis, 2003. Jiffynotes Editors, “Jiffynotes on Things Fall Apart Historical Context”, Jiffynotes.com. Web. 13 Jan. 2013. McEvan, Cheryl, Postcolonialism and Development, Volume 3. London : Taylor and Francis, 2009. Sharma, Govind Narain, “The Cheistian Dynamic In the Fictional World Of Chinua Achebe”, A Review of International English Literature, 24/2, 1993, 85. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. Sickels, Amy, Critical Insights : Things Fall Apart, (Kindle Edition), Critical Reception of Things Fall Apart, Salem Press, Web. 15 Jun. 2012. ê
Article Received on October 07, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 2
Antibacterial Treatment of Guava Leaves on Cotton
Zeba Jamal* and Vivek Singh**
Consumers of 21st century are aware of the importance of hygienic and safe clothing for them. They not only want a clothing safe for them but also for the environment as well. The demand from these consumers have lead to the development of eco friendly treatments. The antibacterial treatment from Guava leaves is one such attempt to treat cotton fabric for safety of skin and environment. The extract of Guava leaves was prepared by cold maceration and applied through exhaust method. The treated cotton sample showed a considerable reduction in bacterial colony counts of Bacillus spp. as compared to controlled sample. [Keywords : Consumers, Guava leaves, Maceration, Exhaust, Cotton]
1. Introduction Microbes are the tiniest creatures which cannot be seen with the naked eye and can be found almost everywhere in the environment. Micro-organisms include a variety of organisms like bacteria, fungi, algae and viruses. Bacteria grow very rapidly under warmth and moisture. Some specific types of bacteria are pathogenic and cause cross infection as these are capable of invading the body of a human, where they replicate and cause tissue damage. Pathogenic micro-organisms like Pseudomonas aeuroginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp. and Candidaalbicans have been found on textiles. They damage the textile substrate and may also promote skin contamination and inflammation in sensitive people (Haug, et al. 2006). * Ph. D Scholar, Department of Textile & Apparel Designing, COHS, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana (India) E-mail:
Bacterial growth on the textiles can be inhibited by applying chemical and natural botanical anti-microbial agents. In recent years, anti-microbial agents like triclosan, quaternary ammonium compounds, metal salts solutions, antibiotics and nanosilver are available for use on textiles (Mahesh, et al., 2011). Synthetic anti-microbial agents leads to fabric strength loss, change the colour of the fabric and also harm the environment (Hussain, 2006). Due to these problems natural products in textile substrate are gaining significance momentum. Among them, plants and plant products are more reliable for its renewability and therefore considered as catalyst for human welfare (Mahesh, et al. 2011). Plants have their own self defense mechanism and protect themselves from microbes due to the presence of substances known as phytochemicals. Guava, the most popular fruit is a powerhouse of nutrients. Health benefits of Guava fruit are known to most of us but we are unaware of the fact that even Guava leaves have several medicinal properties and offer an array of health benefits. The phenolic compounds such as a-pinene, b-pinene, limonene, menthol, b-copanene, farnesene, humulene, selinene, cardinene and curcumene, mallic acids, nerolidiol, b-sitosterol, ursolic, crategolic, and guayavolic acids, cineol, quercetin, 3-L-4-4- arabinofuranoside (avicularin) and 3-L-4 pyranoside (Essential oil), resin, tannin, eugenol, caryophyllene, azulene, Guajavolide and guavenoic acid, triterpene oleanolic acid, triterpenoids, found in Guava leaves possess antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Kumar, 2012). Aqueous extract of Guava leaves is described to be effective against a number of microbial strains. Considering the health problems faced by the consumers due to environmental hazards like microbes as well as understanding the importance of cotton in our life, the present study was conducted for the application of Guava leaves extract treatment on cotton fabric for microbial resistance with following objectives: 1. To prepare the extract from leaves of Guava tree for application on cotton fabric. 2. To determine microbial resistance of the treated fabric 2. Materials and Methods Two types of materials namely cotton woven fabric and leaves of Guava plant were procured. A survey was conducted in local market of Hisar city of Haryana state to procure cotton woven fabric. On the basis of visual inspection, pure grey cotton woven fabrics suitable for apparel during summer season were collected. The collected fabrics were subjected to burning, physical and chemical tests for conformity of pure cotton fabric. The cotton fabric in grey state exhibiting light to medium weight was selected for the study. Fresh, fleshy, mature and green leaves of Guava plant (Hisar Surkha) were collected from Agriculture Farm of CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar, because of easy accessibility. Antibacterial Treatment of Guava Leaves on Cotton 13
To ensure complete wetting and uniform absorbency of the extract, cotton woven fabric was subjected to preparatory processes. Cotton woven fabric was desized and scoured. After that the fabric was rinsed thoroughly and dried on a flat surface (Saini, 2014). Samples taken from scoured cotton fabric was kept as controlled sample. Collected leaves were washed and allowed to dry in shade to avoid breakdown of important phytochemicals. These were crushed and grinded by grinder mixer to make into a fine powder. After that, the powder was sieved to remove the dirt and unkind particles. The dry powder was weighed and subjected to aqueous extraction by maceration. 100 gm dry powder of Guava leaves was placed in two closed vessels containing 800 ml distilled water (Yimer et al., 2014) for 12 and 24 hours separately at room temperature. During this period shaking was done occasionally.
Plate 1: Maceration Process Plate 2 : Guava Leaves Extract The extract obtained was weighed and percentage yield was calculated in terms of air dried powder weight of the plant material using the following formula. Yield obtained (G) Yield percentage = ´100 Weight of the dry plant material (g) The time period having greater yield percentage was selected for extraction. Agar well diffusion method of Dey et al., 2010 with slight modification, was employed to study the antibacterial property of plant extracts. The Nutrient Agar medium (28 g nutrient agar in 1000 ml distilled water) was prepared. After autoclaving, the media was poured into sterilized petri plates with a uniform thickness of approximately 4 mm. The agar plates were allowed to solidify at ambient temperature and were used after 24 hours. Four uniform wells were prepared with the help of sterile cork borer of 5 mm diameter in agar plates. The entire agar surface was then inoculated with bacterial culture by spreader and left for 3 to 4 minutes. Different concentrations 1mg/ml, 3mg/ml and 5mg/ml of Guava leaves extract were added to the grooves and one control (sterilized distilled aqueous) was added to groove on agar plate (Plate 3). The plates were incubated for 24 hours at 300 C. Plates were examined and zone of inhibition of the bacteria growth was measured in mm by using diameter measurement scale. The assays were performed in triplicate and expressed as average values. Antibacterial 14 Zeba Jamal and Vivek Singh activity of Guava leaves extract and control was interpreted as no activity (- mm), weak (<6mm), moderate (7-12mm) and strong activity (>12mm).
Plate 3 : Zone of inhibition of Guava leaves extract at different concentrations Extract was applied in one concentration (the one exhibiting the best zone of inhibition) on scoured cotton fabric by using standard exhaust method (Hooda, 2012). Cellulose degrading bacterium i.e. Bacillus spp. was selected for the present study as cotton is susceptible to its growth and culture was also readily available in the Department of Microbiology, college of Basic Sciences and Humanities, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar for use in research. Culture of procured bacterium was maintained on Carboxy Methyle Cellulose petri plates and stored at 4°C. The inoculated broth was incubated at 30°C for microbial counts on 0 day (soon after 24 hours of inoculation), 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th days. The plates were placed in an incubator for bacterium at 30°C. After 24 hours the colonies of bacterium were counted manually (Saini, 2014). The results were enumerated as percent reduction in the bacterium count of the treated samples in comparison to the controlled and treated samples and were calculated as under: Formula used for CFU calculation : No. of colonies CFU = ´dilution factor (Malpani, 2013) Amount plated (ml) Where, CFU-Colony Forming Unit Initial cell no. Final cell no. % Reduction = ´100 (Karolia, 2007) Initial cell no. Data for Guava leaves treated fabric samples were coded, tabulated and analyzed by the application of statistical tools. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Determination of Yield Percentage of Guava leaves extract Data presented in Fig 1 showed the yield obtained by cold maceration extraction process of Guava leaves at different time periods. Results revealed that the yield obtained for 12 hours was 6 g and for 24 hours was 15 g. Thus, the yield Antibacterial Treatment of Guava Leaves on Cotton 15 percentage of Guava leaves was found to be higher for 24 hours (15%) as compared to yield percentage for 12 hours (6%). The reason behind increased yield percentage with an increase in time period may be because more phytochemicals are extracted due to increase in keeping time. The results are in alignment with the findings of Gupta, (2016) who reported increase in mass yield percent of Syzygium cumini (L.) extract with increased length of extraction period.
Fig. 1 : Determination of yield percentage of Guava leaves extract at different time periods 3.2 Antibacterial Property of Guava Leaves Extract at different Concentrations The data in Table-1 highlighted that sterilized distilled aqueous kept as control had no inhibition. The concentrations 1 mg/ml and 3mg/ml exhibited moderate zones of inhibition i.e. 10mm and 12 mm, respectively while 5 mg/ml concentration had a strong zone of inhibition i.e. 19 mm against Bacillus spp. The increase in antibacterial property with increase in concentration may be because of presence of more phytochemicals and more extract gets dissolved in higher concentration as compared to lower concentration. The results coincide with the results of Saini (2014) who reported that as the concentration of all treatments of karanja extracts increased percentage reduction of Pseudomonas and Aspergillus growth in all treated samples increased. Gupta (2016) also revealed that the activity of the treated sample increased with the increase in extract concentration. Table-1 : Antibacterial property of Guava leaves extract at different concentrations Guava leaves extract Concentrations 1 mg/ml 3 mg/ml 5 mg/ml Zone of inhibition (mm)* 10 12 19 Control (sterilized distilled aqueous) No Inhibition
3.3 Efficacy of Guava leaves Extract Treatment against Growth of Bacillus Spp. The efficacy of Guava leaves extract treatment against growth of cellulose degrading bacteria i.e. Bacillus spp. on treated samples, was counted quantitatively by AATCC-I00 test method. The antibacterial activity of treated cotton woven fabric inoculated with Bacillus spp. was compared to its controlled sample by calculating the percent reduction in bacterial count. The observations 16 Zeba Jamal and Vivek Singh were recorded soon after 24 hours of inoculation of Bacillus spp. on the same day and also on 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th days of inoculation with dilution factors 107 and 108. Mean values of 107 and 108 dilution factors were calculated. There was 100 percent reduction on 0 day soon after 24 hours of inoculation i.e. no bacterial growth was observed in treated fabric with mean CFUs in 107 and 108 dilution factors. The percent reduction on 7th day was 93 percent with 7 × 108 mean CFUs in 107 and 108 dilution factors. The percent reduction on 14th, 21st and 28th day of inoculation was found to be 86, 77 and 67 with 1.4 × 109, 2.3 × 109 and 3.3 × 109 mean CFUs in 107 and 108 dilution factors respectively. Table 2 : Efficacy of Guava leaves extract treatment against growth of Bacillus spp.
Cellulose Bacillus spp.* degrading bacteria Incubation Period 0 Day (soon 7th Day 14th Day 21th Day 28th Day after 24 hours) Treated fabric 0 7´10 8 1.4´10 9 2.3´10 9 3.3´10 9 Percent reduction (%) 100 93 86 77 67 Controlled fabric Confluent growth
Plate 4 : Efficacy of Guava leaves extract treatment against growth of Bacillus spp.at different incubation periods The antimicrobial activity of Guava leaves extract may be due to the presence of several phytochemicals as tannins, flavonoids etc. The attached herbs’ extract disturb the cell membrane of the microbes through the physical and ionic phenomena (Sarkar and Munshi, 2003). The antibacterial assessment of the treated fabrics confirmed presence of active compounds such as tannin, eugenol and mallic acid etc. The results are very much in confirmation with the results obtained by Saini (2014) who reported that with an increase in the incubation period there was continuous increase in the bacterial colonies. Rajendran (2011) highlighted that there was percent reduction of 95.7 for S.aureus and 89.4 for E. coli in treated fabric against its respective control samples. 4. Conclusion Extract of Guava leaves was observed as potential natural source for antibacterial activity. Understanding the importance and significance of cotton in Antibacterial Treatment of Guava Leaves on Cotton 17 day to day lives of Indian people and this being a comfortable habitat for most of the microbes, was used as a substrate for the application of Guava leaves extract. Guava leaves extract treatment applied with exhaust method with 5 gm/l concentration exhibited remarkable improvement in antibacterial properties of the treated fabric against cellulose degrading bacteria i.e. Bacillus spp. References
Dey, S. K., Banerjee, D., Chattapadhyay, S. and Karmakar, K.B., “Antimicrobial activities of some medicinal plants of West Bengal”, International journal of Pharma and Bio Science, 1(3), 2010, 1-10. Gupta, V., UV Protective and antibacterial finish on cotton using plant extracts, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 2016. Haug, S., Rolla, A., Schmid-Grendelmeier, P., Johansem, P., Wuthrich, B., and Senti, G., “Textiles in the treatment of atopic dermatitis”, Skin and Biofunctional Textiles -Problems of Dermatology, 37, 2006, 114-115. Hussain, T., (2006) Antimicrobial finishes. http://www.freewebs.com/tanveer/antimicro bial_finishes.htm. Retrieved on 20.11.2015. Karolia, A., “Imparting antimicrobial and fragrance finish on cotton using chitosan with silicon softener”, Indian Journal of Fiber & Textile Research, 32(3), 2007, 99-107. Kumar, A., “Importance for Life ‘Psidium guajava’ (L.)”, International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, 3(1), 2012, 137-148. Mahesh, S., Manjunatha, R. and Kumar, V. G., “Studies on antimicrobial textile finish using certain plant natural products”, International Conference on Advances in Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Sciences (ICABPS’2011) Bangkok, Dec., 2011. Retrieved from http:// psrcentre.org/images/extraimages/1211865.pdf on 11.3. 2015. Malpani, S. R., “Antibacterium treatment on cotton fabric from Neem oil, Alov vera and Tulsi”, International Journal of Advance Research in Science and Engineering, 2(7), 2013, 35-43. Rajendran, R., Balakumar, C., Kalaivani, J. and Sivakumar, R., “Antibacterial finishing of polyester/cotton blend fabrics using Neem (Azadirachta Indica) : A Natural Bioactive Agent”, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 106(2), 2011, 793-800. Saini, P., Utilization of Karanja extracts on cotton fabric for microbial resistance, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 2014. Sarkar, M. and A. Munshi, “Effect of soap and detergents on strength of cotton/polyester blended fabric”, The Indian Textile and Trade Journal, 38, 2003, 71-75. Yimer, S. Manoharan and Sahu, O., “Extraction of essential oil from Eucalyptus leaves as antibacterial application on cotton woven fabric”, International Journal of bacteriology, Virology and Immunology, 1(1),2014, 1-7. ê
Article Received on September 07, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 3
Development and Conflict
S. M. Sajid* and Khalid Mohammad Tabish**
Development is a very extensively used term. However, its meaning varies from person to person and context to context. For an ordinary individual, it means fulfillment of basic needs, well-being and the opportunity to progress in socio-economic sphere. For a developing state like India, it is the maximization of economy and acceleration in economic growth to meet international standards of development. This paper is an attempt to understand the ongoing development process in India (particularly after Structural Adjustment Programme of 1991) and its relevance and impact to an ordinary citizen. Indian economy has travelled a long distance on the path of development since independence and is recently been projected the fastest growing economies of the World in 2018 (World Bank). But along with the pace of growth and development, there has emerged challenges for the country, which questions its policy of development where economic growth has largely benefitted few, leaving aside the major section of population. The exclusion of large section of population from the benefit of development has widened the gap between the rich and poor, men and women, majority and minority communities, farming and business community, youth and elderly, as also across other such groups in the society. Development which has fared quite well on the macroeconomic indicators has resulted in discontent, anxiety, insecurity, marginalization and frustration among large population groups. This poses development as an agent of conflict rather than peace, stability and inclusiveness. [Keywords : Development; Inclusiveness; Conflict; Impact of development; Economic growth; Globalization] 1. Introduction The word development is not new in history. Marx and Leroy-Beaulieu used it in their writings. In 22nd Article of the Covenant of League of Nations, it appeared * Professor, Department of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-25 (India) E-mail:
as in popular attitudes and, in many cases, even customs and beliefs. Finally, although development is usually defined in a national context, its widespread realization may necessitate fundamental modifications of the international economic and social system as well” (Todaro, 1981). It must be noted that ‘development’ is now a global and historically distinctive phenomenon. According to Rist (2008) “development consists of a set of practices, sometimes appearing to conflict with one another, which require - for the reproduction of society - the general transformation and destruction of the natural environment and of social relations. Its aim is to increase the production of commodities (goods and services) geared, by way of exchange, to effective demand.”
2. Development and Conflict Although development is a necessity of every society, yet the voids in current development discourse has brought the problem of inequality, environmental degradation, pollution, commodification, conflict of interest etc. Todaro and Smith (2003) expressed that the narrow approach of development, which is mainly expressed in terms of economic growth has convinced nations to channelize their potentials for rapid growth of national incomes. Rist (2008) in a similar way highlighting the adverse effect of the economic process, argued that the oil that into an energy, or forest as a resource, entails destruction. Now, a resource is used as an object or a product, which either is difficult to recycle or impossible, and therefore results destruction of natural environment and create problem of pollution, climate change etc. Often, development led to dispute among nations, for example the dispute over access of geostationary orbits in space, even the space is not escaped of the dispute arising in the contemporary development discourse (Space for Your Business’ conference, held in Montreux in March 1992). Things that are expected to keep outside the subject of the market, are now a saleable object; i.e. practice of womb-leasing or sperm banks (that are considered for personal and intimate use), reflects that the commodity form is entering in arena of social relations. India and China are the two major economic players in today’s world. Two out of five people of the planet lives either in India or China. India as an Independent democratic country emerged in 1947, after its freedom from the colonial empire. Since then, Indian economy has made numerous shifts in its policy to accelerate its growth. Virmani (2006) argued that India economy gone through the phase of socialist experimentation during 1950-51 to 1979-80 and maintained GDP growth rate of 3.5 per cent per annum, however average income (measured by per capita GDP) enhanced by 1.3 per cent per annum. The period after 1980s till today is the period when Indian economy experimented with free markets. Mukherji (2009) characterized Indian economy as; a moderately regulated economy between 1947 to 1968; a stringently regulated economy between 1969 -1974 and a gradually liberalized economy since 1975 onwards. He argued that between 1956-1974, GDP growth rate was 3-4 per cent per annum in a closed and highly regulated Indian 22 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish economy. But after liberalization, economic growth averaged 5.7 per cent per annum during the period of 1980-81 to 2002-03. Per capita income also increased with a faster pace of 3.6 per cent per annum. More than 5 per cent GDP growth were witnessed between 1975 - 1990; when a gradual leaning towards private sector began in India and reached to its fullest in 1991 (Mukherji, 2009). The year 1991 was a turning point for India’s economy, when an era of organized and conscious liberalization, privatization and globalization of economy began in form of structural adjustment plan (SAP). Thus, opening the doors for multinational corporations and encouraging the transformation of public enterprises into private ones. The SAP of 1991 was implemented with great anticipation for addressing the pressing economic issues of the country. The enactment of radical new economic policy framework helped the Indian economy in entering a new phase of growth and development. Since then, India registered a remarkable growth in its GDP (gross domestic product) and therefore, recently it has been projected by the World Bank as fastest growing economies of world. India witnessed a higher rate of growth in wake of its structural adjustment plan (1991), over 6 per cent GDP growth have been observed during 1991-2004, which accelerated to over 8.5 per cent between 2003-2007 (Mukherji, 2009). The robust growth of Indian economy is continuing till today. In last quarter of 2017, India’s GDP grew by 7.2 per cent and thus overtook China (earlier its predecessor in terms of GDP growth) to become the fastest growing economy of world (Business Standard, 1 March 2018). However, the tale of development discourse in India presents a robust growth of GDP on one side and highlights a gloomy picture on the other side. Basu (2000) emphasizing the negative feature of India’s attempt to maximize growth, remarked that in maximizing the income growth, environmental considerations have been ignored; the standard of living is sidelined; regional, gender and class inequalities have been neglected; poverty is left to persist (Basu 2000, p. 64). For example, the growth in India’s agriculture sector has merely been 1.65 per cent between 1996/97 and 2004/05, though more than 60 per cent of India’s population is involved in it. This is a concerning fact leading towards India’s second agrarian crisis (Mukherji 2009). The development discourse in India is struggling to register an inclusive growth, and appears benefitting few at the cost of more. With robust growth of GDP in post-reform (1991) era, inequality among masses is widening in India. Sarkar and Mehta (2010) contested that rise in inequalities has been higher during post-reform period, compared to decades before that. Rural-Urban differences has also sharpened during the post-reform period. In 2004-05, an urban regular and casual worker respectively received 30 per cent and 20 per cent more wages than their rural colleagues. The average wage growth of agricultural workers was 2.5 per cent in the 1990s, however during 1980s, the annual increase was 4-5 percent. Mukherji (2009) further argued that in the post-reform period (1991), interstate inequalities have increased in India. Inclusive growth has been the major challenge for India’s development. Ghosh (2012) calculated that in 1960/61, Maharashtra’s per-capita income (Rs.1747) was three times greater than Orissa (Rs.580). In Development and Conflict 23
2007-07, Maharashtra’s (then richest state) per capita income (Rs.7304) grows to 4.63 times higher than Bihar (Rs.1577). Between 1960/61- 1990/91 to 1991/92-2006/07, few states of India register remarkable annual compound growth rate (in percetnage) of per-capita Net State Domestic Product (NSDP), e.g. Andhra Pradesh (1.75 to 4.54), Gujarat (1.77 to 5.58), Haryana (2.13 to 4.07), Karnataka (1.90 to 5.05), Kerala (1.29 to 4.35), Maharashtra (2.31 to 4.15), Orissa (2.41 to 3.75), Tamil Nadu (1.79 to 4.61) however, the same has been deaccelerated in state of Punjab (3.11 to 2.48) and Assam (1.58 to 1.49) in the same period. No doubt growth in Indian economy has curbed poverty and improved human conditions, but the benefits of gain has been unevenly distributed among masses. Middle and richer sections have gained greater than the poorer sections of society (top 10 per cent have 76.3 per cent country’s wealth, while the poorer half share only 4.1 per cent of nation’s wealth - World Economic Forum 2016). In post reform period, the growth in agricultural (between 1990-1993 to 2003-2006, the agriculture output growth decelerated to 1.74 per cent per annum in 2003-06 from 3.37 per cent per annum in 1990-93, and yield growth declined to 1.52 per cent per annum from 3.17 per cent per annum - Hiro, 2015) has disproportionately matched with other sectors. If we specifically go by data, then it shows that between 1983/94, 1993-2000, 1999-2005, and 2004-07; the growth in agriculture was 3.76, 3.31, 1.59, and 4.34 per cent respectively, however, the growth in transport and communications was 6.54, 8.66, 12.63, and 13.45 per cent; growth in manufacturing sector was 5.97, 6.90, 6.46, and 10.70 per cent; growth in Construction was 5.43, 6.36, 8.79, and 12.45 per cent; growth in Trade and hotels was 6.12, 9.29, 8.05, and 10.55 per cent; growth in non-farming sector was 6.79, 7.74, 7.31, and 10.36 per cent, for each respective period (Himanshu, 2008). The emphasis on capital and knowledge is still the basis of India’s industrialization, when more than 250 million people in the country survive on less than a dollar a day. There are sharp accentuation of economic inequalities and highly skewed distribution of development benefits in India. Elite 1 per cent of Indian population holds 53 per cent share of country’s wealth, while the top 5 per cent and 10 per cent respectively own 68.6 per cent, and 76.3 per cent country’s wealth. The bottom half share 4.1 per cent of national wealth (World Economic Forum, 04 Oct 2016). Press Trust of India presented a similar finding and argued that the top 1 per cent of population holds 58 per cent India’s wealth (Press Trust of India, 16 Jan 2017). World Bank report on poverty and shared prosperity (2016) depicting a scary figure about India, highlighted that “India has the largest number of people living under the international USD 1.90-a-day poverty line; a figure 2.5 times higher than Nigeria, which has the second-largest population of the poor worldwide i.e. 86 million.” In post-reform period, India’s major section of population has been found struggling in all parameters of development per se education, employment, health care, gender disparity, extreme geographical differences, social and economic inequality in access to basic services. Let’s take 24 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish education and employment first. Nayyar (2006) argued that the one-third of the India’s population or more than it is still illiterate. A higher rate of illiteracy has been noted among women (45 per cent) and rural people (40 per cent). India is having 95 per cent enrolment rate at primary level, however the dropout rates are observed as 40 per cent. The enrolment rate decreases with the rise in level of schooling; it is 33 percent at secondary level, paradoxically the drop-out rate increases with a faster pace (66 percent at secondary level). 65 million children of India, who are expected to be in formal system of education are not there; among which 55 million comes from rural areas and the rest 10 million are urban residents. A mere 6 per cent of total India’s population enter in higher education, whereas 39 per cent (225 million) of adults remains illiterate. The inability of state in creating sufficient employment openings has been the most important failure of India over the past 25 years of economic growth. In India, growth in employment opportunities have always remained disproportionate than the growth in population. The rate of unemployment has intensified in the post-reform period. Himanshu (2008) compared the pre and post-reform unemployment rate in India and contested that the daily status unemployment increased from 6.1 per cent in 1993/94 to 7.3 per cent in 1999/2000 and aggravated to 8.3 per cent in 2004/05; likewise, for agricultural labor households, it increased from 9.5 per cent in 1993/94 to 12.3 per cent in 1999/2000 and worsened to 15.3 per cent in 2004-05. The rate of unemployment (2004-05) was highest since 1972-73. During 1999-00 to 2004-05, the real wage for all workers braked in India. Between 1993/94 - 1999/2000 (for agricultural and non-agricultural casual worker), growth rate of real wages was 2.78 and 4.19 per cent respectively, which during 1999/2000 - 2004/05; declined to 1.31 and 0.76 per cent singly for agricultural and non-agricultural casual workers. Weber (2012) observed that during the reform period public sector employment in India reduced considerably, which was expected to be compensated by additional jobs in private sector, but it could not able to relieve the situation and led under-employment, deteriorating further the situation of an economy which was already demanding more employment. Economic expansion in India is known to have caused extensive poverty and low purchasing capacity. Through two major structural programs of 1980 and 1991, big business houses of India got an opportunity to become global players, however, the formal sector employment rarely increased despite excellent economic growth during the period. Privatization of many public enterprises and increase in foreign investments, with its due merits and positive impacts on labor markets has led to the disappearance of formals jobs; the influx of efficient technology created the problem of over staffing in public enterprises. Foreign investment made a similar impact, the process of rationalization by the foreign companies after taking over the existing production sites made many jobs redundant instead of creating new ones. Focus on big business development led the slow expansion of employment in Development and Conflict 25
India, deserting small and medium ventures. With increasing privatization, industrialization and modern technology, agriculture in India categorically become a sector which is supposed to provide cheap food for the industrial staffs; and therefore, agricultural wages remained moderate, and consequently the small and marginal farmers languished drastically. The medium and big farmers were in a slightly advantageous position due to subsidies on fertilizers, energy, and loans which are generally relieved in India in times of elections or slightly before. The consequences of the current economic system were felt by the consumers soon; the prices of consumer items rose, and the quality was compromised. A new form of ‘rent seeking’, associated to privatization emerged in India because of SAP (1991). Throughout history of India’s economic crisis, more often the ordinary people have suffered. The interests of big business houses have always been shielded by the government through tax walls and licensing. Along with economic disparity in terms of access to education and employment; gender and geographical inequality is a noticeable feature in India. In 2011, the rate of literacy was reported 80.90 per cent for males and 64.60 per cent for the female against 73 per cent national literacy rate. In 2011-12, the usual status worker population for rural and urban male was reported 55.3 per cent and 56.3 per cent; while for the female, it was counted 25.3 per cent and 15.5 per cent respectively. The rate of unemployment defines quite a similar variation. In 2011-12, the unemployment rate for rural and urban male was 1.7 per cent and 3.0 per cent, while for females, it reported 1.7 per cent and 5.2 per cent respectively (Selected Socioeconomic Statistics, India 2017). Acknowledging the existence of socio-economic and sexual differences, as well as India’s poor performance in education and employment, world economic forum (2016) quantified the rate of employment in India as 55.5 per cent. Taking into cognizance the strong record of economic growth over the decades, the report argued that still the middle class of India is small and have no assurance of job to escape poverty. The rate of enrolment in education is low across all levels, and qualities significantly varies as per the socioeconomic status, which results in notable differences in educational performances of students. India limits its talent pool for skilled labor force at very early age i.e. 1.04 per cent students at secondary level are enrolled in technical and vocational courses. Average education in India is 7.3 years; boys are at advantageous position with two more years of schooling than girls. India stands at 31st out of total 37 lower middle-income countries of world in providing equal educational opportunities for men and women. Differences in attainment of educational caused by income is high in India than countries with similar income levels i.e. Vietnam, Thailand and Philippines (World Economic Forum, 2016). The health care system of India is in dismal position. Maternal and infant mortality rate in India is still a major health concern for the state. Although it has declined over the years, still the MMR in 2011-13 was reported 167 (per 100,000 live births). Similarly, IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) was estimated 34 per thousand 26 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish live births in 2016 (NITI AAYOG). UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) argued that India alone comprises 20 per cent in total deaths of about 800 women across the world, dying each day due to preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. It is estimated that 44,000 women annually die due to ‘preventable pregnancy-related issues’. Globally, India accounts for one fifth of under-five mortality (46 per 1000 live births in 2013), and fourth of neonatal deaths, in numbers annually 1.1 million under 5 children dies in India, out of which 630,000 dies in their first four weeks of life. India has highest number of non-immunized children in world despite Nine million routine immunization (RI) sessions organized each year (UNICEF). The state of Kerala carries one public hospital bed per 1,299 people, however the largest populated state of India (Uttar Pradesh) holds a bed per 20,041 people. Kerala attends almost all births by its trained health professionals, compare to 27 per cent in Uttar Pradesh (HDR, 2016). Health is a universal need common to all individuals, yet health statistics of India is not spared of social, economic, geographical and gender disparity. Mothers and children belonging to lowest economic strata are more vulnerable; having two and half times higher rate of mortality than others. Certain group of population like rural communities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and minorities have a higher Infant and Under-5 Mortality Rates. Children belonging to rural areas are least likely to complete all stages of vaccination; highly populated states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh noticeably witness more inequality of above kinds (UNICEF). “In India, 52.6 per cent of urban children in the bottom wealth decile were stunted in 2000, while stunting affected only 26.1 per cent of urban children in the top half of the urban distribution and 40.8 per cent of rural children in the top half” (Montgomery, 2009). Low Sex-Ratio has been a consistent challenge in India over the decades and has time to time drawn the attention of the state. The central and different state governments have launched several schemes like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (A Central government) Aapki Beti, Humari Beti (a Haryana government scheme), Beti Bachao Abhiyan (Government of Madhya Pradesh) etc. to control the declining sex-ratio in India. The sex ratio in India has improved from 933 in 2001 to 940 in 2011 but has not aloof of rural-urban and interstate divide. There are 947 and 926 females (per thousand males) in rural and urban areas respectively. State of Kerala has sex ratio of 1038 female (per thousand males), while Daman and Diu (a Union territory) has sex ratio of 618 females (per thousand males). However, if we go through the child sex ratio, then it portrays a more disturbing figure. It dropped to 914 in 2011 from 927 females in 2001. State of Mizoram is on the top in terms of child sex ratio with the figure of 971 per thousand, while Haryana stand at the bottom in all Indian states with presence of 830 female children per thousand male children (Census of India, 2011). Sadh and Kapoor (2012) contested that the economically backward and major states of India like Bihar, Jharkhand, Development and Conflict 27
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh has shown a continuous drop in child sex ratio since 2001. Discrimination against a female child in India, begins right from the mother’s womb, by depriving her right to live through malicious practices of female feticide (an act of destruction that causes death of a fetus), sex-selective abortion and female infanticide. Since census in 2001, approximately 8 million fetuses have been killed in India. Despite being illegal activities as per the law, these practices are widespread in India and it seems that modernization, growth and education, which were expected to create a safe and healthy environment for the girl child has not made any significant impact (Sadh and Kapoor, 2012). Recently India has estimated higher prevalence of hunger, homelessness, poverty etc. India stands 100 in global hunger index (GHI) out of 119 nations in 2017, lower than Bangladesh, Nepal, Nigeria, Myanmar and many more (GHI, 2017). There are about 1.7 million homeless people in India (Census of India, 2011). Apart from education, employment, clothing and healthcare, the poor section of India’s population is struggling to arrange enough food for their two ends. Today, total population of poor is even higher than India’s population at independence (Nayyar, 2006). Chandrasekhar and Montgomery (2010) maintained that population below the poverty line in India is 44 per cent in officially classified slums. World economic forum in its report on 05 November 2016 observed that India has the highest poor in world (approximately 300 million people in India lives in extreme poverty) however half of total poor resides in major five states of India. The poverty rate (population expending less than $2 a day) in India has declined from 85.1 per cent (2001) to 68.7 per cent in 2011. In 2001, there were 1.7 per cent middle class (expending between $ 10-50 a day) population in the country, which increased to 3.5 per cent in 2011 (a minuscule share in total population). The challenges before India does not stop here. There are far more issues, which questions the contemporary and macro development of India. Access to finance is beyond reach of low income individuals and women. 400 million unbanked people lives in India. 7 per cent of the total population uses savings account to begin a commercial venture (which reduces with income distribution). India ranks fourth on in terms of patent applications. Infrastructure development in India is disproportionate with the requirement. India slipped 14 ranks to 81st worldwide in ‘overall quality of infrastructure’ since 2007 onwards. In terms of access to basic facilities and technology, India is lagging far behind. One fourth of India’s population do not have access to electricity. 30 per cent or more of India’s urban population resides in slums. A total 65 per cent of Indian population is deprived of improved sanitation. One among five Indians have regular access to Internet, and mere 1 percent Indians have fixed broadband connectivity. Very few have the privilege to have smartphones, and for every 1000 population, there is 5 mobile broadband subscriptions; two out of five Indians owns a basic cell phone (World Economic Forum, 2016). India’s expenditure on social protection is a mere 2.5 per 28 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish cent of its GDP, however many of its peer countries spends 6 or more percentage on the same. Public health system in India has a limited coverage. Out-of-pocket expenses on health is still high in India, limiting affordability to health for a common man, and this translates into poor (and unequal) health outcomes for many (World Economic Forum, 2016). Now, we must understand that the essence of development lies in well-being of humankind. Therefore, development is expected to bring an improvement in the lives of masses. It should guarantee the fulfillment of basic human needs for all, along with healthcare, education and employment. The purpose of development lies in creation of an environment which can provide a good life for all. And therefore, development must provide all (men and women) the rights, the opportunities and help in cultivating capabilities that they require to live a decent life. Mere economic growth cannot and must not be computation of a country’s development. Basu (1990) defining the inefficiency of economic growth as a parameter of development argued that “we must realize that food stocks with the Government is not something which the people eat, the savings rate is not something which you wear, and one cannot sleep under the roof of foreign exchange. These are just the instruments, which have to be translated to basic needs” (Basu 1990, p. 108). The ongoing development course in India particularly after 1991, has no doubt gained a good numerical growth in terms of GDP, but has created differences in the lives of its masses; and has developed dichotomous perception about the country. The robust growth of GDP is rapidly changing the perception about India within and across, although the realities are changing with a disproportionate pace. The perception as well as realties about India depends on “who you are, what you do, and where you live. Captains of industry, editors of newspapers, or ministers of governments see one India. So, does the software engineer in Bangalore, the stockbroker in Mumbai, the lobbyist in Delhi, or the entrepreneur in provincial India. The picture is similar, even if shallower, for the investment banker in London, the mutual fund manager in New York, or the chief executive in the board room in Tokyo. These images shape thinking about India 2025 in the world” (Nayyar, 2006). But there is another, entirely contrasting image of India: “Poor tribals in Orissa or Madhya Pradesh, landless labourers in Bihar, dalits in Uttar Pradesh, peasants in villages everywhere, migrant construction workers in Delhi, slum children in Mumbai, pavement dwellers in Kolkata, or street vendors in Chennai, see quite another India” (Nayyar, 2006). Their routine lives are so harsh and difficult that imagining a different India in 2025 is not possible for them. It is not only two mere sharply contrasting views about India. But the fact is that there exist two opposite worlds in India itself: a global India for few and a local Bharat for more. The more disturbing is the virtual disconnect between these two existing worlds. Economic growth is no doubt necessary but not enough. In post-reform era (1991), Indian economy has moved with the logic of markets which Development and Conflict 29 favors giving to those who haves and taking from have-nots. India’s patterns of development have promoted a growing affluence for some and resulted persistent poverty for so many. Nayyar (2006) similarly viewed that “all these may be the consequence of initial conditions and institutional frameworks of India, as similar economic performances in the aggregate could lead to egalitarian economic development in one situation and growth which bypasses the majority of people in another situation” (Nayyar, 2006). It must be noted here that; the soul of India resides in its villages. Yet, the development discourse signifies a pattern where it reflects that rural sector does not exist in India or does not matter, if exits. But the truth is very different : two third of Indian labor force is employed in agriculture sector and 70 per cent of India’s population resides in rural peripheries. The rural-urban divide in India is continuously increasing leaving the rural population on margin. Incidences of farmer suicides or starvation deaths are the reflection of the acute problem, rural India is facing today. The economic, social, and geographical divide motivated by the contemporary development model is an alarming situation for India. There are substantial signs of polarization of regional disparities caused due to economic reforms done so far. Similarly, the urban focused industrialization has caused social division in the country. Continued rural anger and resistance is the outcome of the urban centric development. Even today, large part of rural India appears struggling with unsatisfactory social conditions. There is always a scope of political instability and violence in India, if the economic success is not transformed into social accomplishments; that may establish chaos and violence in the entire Asian region (Weber, 2012). If masses remain poorer and excluded from the economic success due to widening social polarization, the kind of dissatisfaction will encourage insecurity and violence in the country, so for unheard. We must not forget that social division causes more disappointment and frustration than if everyone would be poor. It has massive possibilities of conflict. Macro-economic indicators cannot the sufficient parameter to evaluate the overall development of a country, and so is the improvement in GDP growth do not define development of nation. Economic expansion in India is achieved with higher productivity than any significant increase in industrial employment and has failed in resolving social challenges (Weber, 2012). Paloma Durán, Director, Sustainable Development Goals Fund, UNDP on 31 July 2015 argued that the major problem with India is not its GDP growth, rather to make everyone equal partner in its growth. Today the inclusivity of the marginal section of the society seems major challenge before the country. Until India adopt a policy, which will be truly pro-poor and focuses on reducing the socio-economic and regional disparity, India will continue to remain prone to conflicts arising out of discontentment. The recent agitations (like Jats agitation in Haryana and Patidars agitation in Gujarat) going in the country for reservation in education and employment are the examples of anxiety and discontentment perpetrated due to 30 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish development deficit among certain group of the population. The OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) framework for Inclusive growth (2014) observed that “Inequality of opportunities can be particularly damaging, because it locks in privilege and exclusion, which undermines intergenerational social mobility and weakens incentives to invest in knowledge and, in turn, holds back potential growth.” Emphasizing the essentiality of equality and equity, the Division for social policy and development, United Nations viewed that “equity and equality reflect the concept of a just society ensuring the equitable distribution of income and greater access to resources through equity and equality of opportunity for all. Public policies have to correct market failures and promote equity and social justice” (OECD, 2014). There are well documented literature testifying that, the great revolutions of twentieth century were emerged mainly due to economic differences and realization about the notion that a small elite group of population is reaping most of the economic rewards, whereas the struggling proletariat shared disproportionate benefits. And this unequal distribution of benefit created social conflict, which refers to unrest in a country from peaceful protests, processions and strikes to riots, mass violence and civil war. Ray and Esteban (2017) defining the inter-relationship between social conflict and economic development, argued that the probability of conflict reduces with rising standards of living; but inequality helps conflict to nurture and grow. They claimed that horrific conflicts which have their genesis in religious and ethnic intolerance or hatred are hiddenly associated with the concept of gain or loss; which flourish with violence. A close look of great revolutionary religious struggles, civils wars, and ethnic conflicts, signifies agenda of some economic gain like oil, land, business etc. Although, noneconomic signs of conflict cannot be rejected. Conflict can arise, persist, or grow in any economic stages, but poverty multiplies the possibilities of conflict and help it to intensify. “The ongoing structural change, rapid technical progress, and globalization lead to situations in which economic growth is not uniform across the entire economy. Sometimes that growth can spur conflict if the gains are viewed as loot to be seized.” (Ray and Esteban, 2017). There have been numerous instances of business interests being the root cause of religious conflicts and communal violence in India; like the systematic devastation of rival businesses in the ‘anti-Sikh extermination’ of 1984. Similarly, the ‘Hindu-Muslim conflicts’ were inextricably associated with economic reasons. Conflict, Security and Development are the words which are very much inter-connected. Each has a profound impact on the other two. Whenever conflicts arise, either between individuals, social groups or nations, there is bound to be the issue concerning lack of security and in case absence of peace, economic development is hindered. Areas where economic development has not happened since longer time, people vent their frustration against each other and against those in authority. As a result, there arise insecurity; which collapse law and order and conflicts arise (Matinuddin, 2009). Development and Conflict 31
Democracy must not be merely linked to only election processes. Public reasoning, which helps in bringing constructive policy changes and strive to advance substantial freedoms for the masses is an important and integral part of democracy. No country in world is arguably ideal and nowhere everything is just right and simple. And therefore, every country has scope to learn from one another seeing their successes and failures in public dealings. Sen (2006) viewed that liberties in one society varies with the other, but the need and demand for “well-fed, well clothed, well-entertained and well-emancipated” is common in every society. He argued that freedom is both (i) the primary objective and (ii) the principle means of development. “Prof Sen classified diverse freedoms into five different categories, namely economic empowerment, political freedoms, social opportuni- ties, protective security and transparency guarantees.” Highlighting his doubts on democracy in general and Indian democracy in particular, he expressed that GNP growth or other similar parameters of economic expansion are not enough for assessing and evaluating a democracy. Rather, we must see the impact of economic expansions on the lives of ordinary citizens in assessing democracy and political freedoms. He suggested that the meaning of political and civil rights is to empower people, so that they can forcefully make governments conscious towards their general dangers and vulnerabilities. These rights help people in demanding appropriate remedial action from the government to solve their challenges. Moving ahead in context of India, Prof. Sen suggested that the expression of political rights (voting, criticizing, protesting) can make a real difference in India in demanding social policies on education, basic nutrition, health care, land reform and gender. Presence of hunger even after elimination of famines is one of the major failures of the Indian economy (Sen, 2006). 3. Conclusion The preamble of Indian constitution defines India as a socialist country. It promises equality before law, equality of status and opportunity and equality in accessing the national resources for each of its citizenry. It advocates for special arrangements to promote the under-privilege and backward section of society, so to make India an equal and inclusive nation. After seven decades of the enactment of constitution, it appears that India in its thrust of statistical growth has moved in a course of development, which is more market oriented and limited in few hands, sidelining the large section of population from the discourse. And therefore, major section of Indian society is still combating the menace of poverty, unemployment, homelessness, lower educational attainment, high dropout rates, deplorable health status, gender discrimination etc. No doubt, Indian economy has made remarkable progress in its GDP growth rate since Independence and has gained world-wide recognition and appreciation for the same. But this is only side of the coin, the other side is still gloomy and statistically contrasting. Still major section of India’s population is deprived of basic needs and struggling with the threat of exclusion and unequal distribution of development. The contemporary development model of India has created a gap between the poor and rich, rural and 32 S. M. Sajid and Khalid Mohammad Tabish urban, male and female, developed and underdeveloped, which seems widening day by day. It is rousing social discontentment, dissatisfaction, anxiety, frustration, and anger among large section of Indian population; which in any sense is not healthy sign for a developing country like India. Public outburst of their negativity can take violent form and thus can destroy the political and economic stability of any country. We must not forget that the great revolutions of twentieth century happened due to disproportionate economic distribution. Indian state need to seriously introspect its development model before it become late. The need of the hour is not just to focus on the numeric of GDP growth, but also to emphasize on inclusion and equity. To summarize it can be termed that economic development has apparently promoted India as a strong state and strong market economy, however, it has moved far away from its purpose which advocates that development interventions are intended to make a better living situation for society at a large, rather than worsening it off. References
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Article Received on October 07, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 4
Determinants of Informality and Monetary Outcomes of Informal Labour Market in Haryana
Sonu Madan* and Ritu Goyal**
Informality is a widespread phenomenon as the informal sector constitutes half of the economic activities in developing & transition economies as well. Hereby, the paper intends to explore the role of personal and work place-related characteristics persuading a worker to work with informal work conditions. Some relevant personal & work-place related characteristics have been explored wherein the extent of informality is more than otherwise. Informality index based on six parameters is developed to measure the extent of informality and the position of workers on informality scale indicates that majority of informal workers have to face some degree of informality at their work-place in Haryana. Significant inter-personal characteristics of workers have been traced out to make their candidature strong to increase their bargain power for formal/less informal working conditions and also for better monetary outcomes. The study also suggests some corrective measures which not only work in the line to improve working conditions of workers but also helps in raising tax revenue of government to finance minimum social security to workers of informal sector. [Keywords : Informal labour market, Informality index, personal characteristics of workers, workplace-related characteristics of workers, the extent of informality] 1. Introduction The concept and scope of the informal labour market is no longer confined to a particular region or sector and has been changing through time & space.The vast
* Assistant professor, Department of Economics, Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur, Rewari, Haryana (India) E-mail:
2. Review of Literature and Formation of Hypothesis Over the last few decades, the informal labour market has been a global phenomenon occurring in both developed and developing countries. So far India is concerned;the informal labour market has been a matter of concern for researchers in recent years. Many academicians have attempted to analyze the inter- personal and work-place characteristics of the informal workers. 2.1 Personal Characteristics of the Workers and Informality Extent Among personal characteristics, the age of workers has been found to be important as the probability of getting formal employment tends to increase with age(Unni and Naik,2013). In the early years of working age, the lake of adequate experience & expertise makes youth to choose informal labour market as an entry point (Abraham, 2016). Moreover, it has also been observed that informal labour market also provide employment option after retirement age when workers have been forced out of the formal labour market. There exists an inverse relationship between a worker’s productivity and the extent of informality at the workplace. Higher levels of education lead to an increase in productivity which further reduces the probability of holding informality at workplace.Hereby, workers with low education level are found to work with more informal work conditions than higher levels of education (Unni and Naik 2013; Lehmann and Zaiceva 2013; Urdinola and Tanabe 2016; Gunatilaka 2008; Wamuthenya 2010; Norris, Gradstein and Inchauste2005; Loayza and Elbadawi 2008).Also, workers with skill & higher education are often engaged in skilled occupations and have a lower incidence of informal employment than others (Lehmann and Zaiceva, 2013; ILO, 2018). Some studies revealed out the requirement of skill and capital rather than a high education level in the informal labour market (Wamuthenya 2010; Abraham 2016; Dogrul 2012).The informal workers, employed in formal or informal enterprises, are mainly unskilled or semi-skilled (Loayza and Elbadawi 2008).Skilled workers are more likely to participate in larger & more capital-intensive enterprises as they have the power of negotiation over their unskilled counterparts. Hence, the skill level of the worker and informality extent are inversely related.The gender is the most crucial personal characteristics favour females,i.e. males are more likely to be informally employed (Gunatilaka 2008; Lehmann and Zaiceva 2013; Benjamin et al.2014). Contradict to this, the study of Urdinola and Tanabe (2016) and Wamuthenya (2010) found that females tend to face higher levels of informality. Females in the informal sector face capsulization, marginalization, wage discrimination and they also lack bargaining power causing exploitation by the employers. Females are engaged in the jobs which lacks any possibilities of 38 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal promotion at a later stage (Bhat and Yadav, 2017). Hereby, we can drive out an impression that age, level of education, skill level and gender of workers play a significant role in determining the extent of informality faced at the workplace. Under this framework, the following hypothesis can be framed for testing. Ho1: Inter-personal characteristics of the informal workers are not associated with the extent of informality. Ho1.1: Age of the informal worker doesn’t determine with the extent of informality. Ho1.2: Education level of the informal worker doesn’t influence the extent of informality. Ho1.3: Gender of the informal worker doesn’t affect the extent of informality. 2.2 Workplace Characteristics of the Workers and Informality Extent Workplace related characteristics are also found to influence the extent of informality being faced by informal workers. Size of the firm is vital in this concern, as small firms tend to have a higher level of informality compared to large firms.Small sized enterprises remained unidentified by government authorities whereas large firms can be approached more easily. Hereby, with limited administrative resources, government target mainly on large enterprises for tax collection and enforcement of labour legislation (Norris, Gradstein and Inchauste 2005; Gunatilaka 2008). Working conditions in small firms are highly informal. Most of the informal enterprises are operating on a small scale and are following informal work practices. Nature of work is also crucial as the extent of informality is found to be higher for temporary and casual workers (Dougherty and Escobar 2013). Moreover, workers from rural areas are more likely to enter into the agricultural sector as self-employed workers or engage themselves in power handloom, weaving, village/cottage industries due to the low level of education and skill forcing them to accept informal work conditions (Urdinola and Tanabe 2016; Gunatilaka 2008). Contrary to this, the study of Gunatilaka (2008) found that the workers in the urban area are more informal than in rural area due to migrated workers. Formal sector is not able to absorb a large workforce, or fewer jobs are generated by the formal sector, so workers tend towards informal jobs.In this concern, the following hypothesis is formed : Ho2 : Workplace related characteristics of informal workers are not associated with the extent of informal ityat the workplace. Ho2.1 : The type and size of the enterprise have nothing to do with the extent of informality. Ho2.2 : The nature of employment of the informal worker does not influence the extent of informality. Ho2.3 : The type of occupation of the informal worker doesn’t have any impact on the extent of informality. Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 39
2.3 Monetary Outcomes of Informal Labour Market The informal workers have to face poor labour market outcomes in form of low monetary outcomes. Luebker (2008) and Tijdens, Besamusca, Klaveren (2015) in their study found that as the extent of the informality of worker increases, the probability of low monetary income of workers increases. The educational achievements of workers play an essential role in determining earnings and wages. Workers with a higher degree of educational achievements get an easy entry in the labour market and get higher wages as compared to those with lower levels of education. Education & professional training is the key to establish the efficiency in wages (Khan, et al., 2013; Karan and Selvaraj, 2008).The study also found that, wages increases significantly with increase in the educational status of workers,but wages in rural areas were lower than those in urban areas at each level of education. In general, workers from the lower social strata received lower wages than their upper strata counterparts. In the same line, studies have also revealed that male workers are able to get a higher wage than their female counterparts (Srija, 2014).According to the study of Unni and Naik (2013), earnings function for employees include variables like age, experience, education, location, the nature of the job.There is a substantial difference in wages in different states, across different industries. It may be the result of a combination of factors, such as industry of employment, geographic location, and worker skill etc. (Torpy, 2015; Karan and Selvaraj, 2008). The productivity of worker increases if he does the job for a longer time. So experienced workers usually earn more than beginners. In the same occupation, the work profile of a worker may involve more complex tasks or greater responsibility leading to higher wage earnings. The study of Karan and Selvaraj, 2008 highlighted the need of enhancement the educational and skill capabilities of workers to combat poverty and for the effective implementation of the Minimum wages Act, 1948. Lack of bargaining power in informal workers compels them to accept low wages even below the minimum rate of wage as notified by the government from time to time. Similarly, workers engaged in highly skilled occupations and inthe formal sector get higher wages than those engaged in production, agricultural& elementary occupations (Urdinola and Tanabe, 2016; Marinescu and Wolthoff, 2012). This discussion leads to the formation of a hypothesis as follow: Ho3 : Personal and workplace-related characteristics of the informal workers play no role in determining their monetary outcomes.
3. Methodology 3.1 The Database and Sampling Technique Required information is gathered from 500 workers, employed in informal industrial &service sector with the help of a well-designed structured questionnaire, using a multistage stratified random sampling technique. As the 40 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal study pertains to the state of Haryana, representative sample of informal workers are chosen from three districts of Haryana namely Gurugram, Rewari and Mohindergarh and around 167 informal workers are selected from each of the districts, consisting equal proportion of workers from manufacturing and service sector. 3.2 Formation of Informality Index and Choice of Personal and Work- Related Characteristics The construct of work based informality index is based on six parameters. The first parameter is the entitlement of workers for any paid monthly/annual leaves. Second parameter measures irregularities in the legal provision of social security for informal workers such as pension fund or new pension scheme for workers with employer’s contribution in this. The third parameter is related to medical benefits to the worker. The fourth parameter is concerned with the mode of receiving wage/salary as the remuneration being paid to workers may be in cash, cheque or bank account. The fifth parameter is collective agreement as their employment may not be bound by any written contract on the terms and conditions of employment. The sixth parameter intends to measure the working hours of workers, as informal workers are more likely to work for long hours. Each of the dimensions has three values,and the resultant informality index is developed by adding the values in each dimension. Adding up these values results in summative values in the range, 0 = extreme informal to 12 = formal work conditions (table-1). Thus, a lower score on informality index indicates high-level informality in employment and vice-versa (Tijdens, Besamusca and Klaverne, 2014; Yu, 2010). The study is carried on with estimating the impact of personal as well as workplace-related characteristics on the probability of informal job of workers.Some of the personal characteristics of workers such as age, level of education& skill and gender play a decisive role in predicting the extent of the informal work conditions. Similarly, workplace-related characteristics such as location of industry, structure of industry/enterprise, sector of operation, type of occupation & size of the enterprise have an important role in predicting the extent of informality(Parajuli, 2014; Dogrul, 2012; Urdinola and Tanabe, 2012). 3.3 Model and Estimation Technique To explore the relationship between personal and workplace characteristics of workers and informality index, multinomial regression has been used. Herein, category namely formal work conditions are considered as the reference category,and an attempt has been made to estimate the chances of holding a job with extreme informal and an average informal working conditions in reference to formal work conditions. More crucial to the interpretation of logistic regression is the value of the odds ratio, which is the exponential of B, i.e. Exp (B) and is an indicator of the change in odds resulting from a unit change in the predictor. The Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 41 odds of an event happening are defined as the probability of an event happen divided by the probability of that event not happen. If the value is greater than one, it indicates that as the predictor changes (increases), the odds of the outcome happening also increases and vice versa. Formally, the model follows as: 1 P(Y) = 1+ e –( a+b1X1+b2+X 2+...bnXn ) Here, P(Y) = The probability of facing extreme informal or average informal work conditions over formal work conditions; and
X i s =Predictors used in the model
The study applied Nagelkerke measure of R2 (R2N) to ensure statistical significance of coefficient’s (b’s) associated with predictors and to analyze significant contribution towards the prediction of informal jobs. This measure can be interpreted in the same way as r2 in the linear regression to analyze the significance of the model and is based on the log-likelihood of the new model with inclusion of predictors and the log-likelihood (LL) of the baseline/original model and the sample size (n).
2 R CS R2N = é 2(LL(baseline))ù ê ú 1– e ë n û é –2 ù {LL(new)}–{LL(baseline)} ê ú 2 ë n û Here, R CS = 1– e
Cox and Snell’s measure of R2 (R2CS), statistically never reaches to its theoretical maximum value and Nagelkerke measure of R2 amended it to overcome the limitation of R2CS. In order to analyze labour market outcome, the study has considered monthly wage/salary of informal workers and OLS regression with dummy variables has been applied to extract the impact of various personal and workplace-related characteristics and informality score on wage level. The parameters of multinomial logistic regression and OLS are estimated using the computer program SPSS (version 16.0).
4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Extent of Work Based Informality The paper derived out that there exists some degree of informality in the labour market, even in the formal labour market. In other words, informal workers working in an organized or unorganized sector have to bear some degree of informality at their workplace. Based on the methodology to construct the informality index (table-1), informality index ranges from extreme informal to formal, based on scores obtained lying in the range of 0 to 12. 42 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal
First, five scores (0-4) on the index indicate extreme informality, whereas the scores on the high end (9-12) show formal work conditions or low informality.As indicated by table-2, around one-fourth informal workers, i.e. 25 percent of the workers, are working with extreme informal working conditions, whereas only 5.6 percent of the workers are facing low informal working conditions.Majority of workers, i.e. 70 percent, lies in the range between extreme informality and low informality and are bearing some degree of informality.Last four scores denote less informal work conditions. No worker has obtained extreme end scores on either side indicating that informal workers neither bear extreme informal work condition nor enjoy a formal work environment. Table-1 : Parameters and Scores to Formulate Informality Index:
S.No. Parameters Extreme Average Formal = 2 Informal = 0 Informal = 1.0
1. Entitled to paid leave No Sometimes Yes
2. The contribution of the No Don’t know Yes employer to social security (CPF)
3. Medical Benefits No limited Yes
4. Mode of Receiving In cash Combination of In bank account wage/earning cash/check/bank account
5. The existence of No contract/no app- Verbal commitment Signed contract/ collective agreement, i.e. ointment letter/not on duration and other appointment letter status of employment any fixed term. Terms terms and conditions from the employer and conditions of of employment. including terms and employment are not conditions of employ- defined. ment.
6. Working hours Not fixed (usually 11 Usually fixed (8 -10 Fixed (8 hours per hours or more per day) hours) day)
Table 2 : Informality Index of Informal workers in Haryana
Informality Number of Cumulative Score workers Percent (percentage)
0 Nil 0.0 Extreme Informality 1 Nil 0.0 25.0% 2 28 (5.6 %) 5.6 3 22 (4.4 %) 10.0 4 75 (15.0 %) 25.0 Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 43
5 65 (13.0 %) 38.0 Average informality 6 97 (19.4 %) 57.4 69.4 % 7 30 (6.0 %) 63.4 8 155 (31.0 %) 94.4 9 19 (3.8 %) 98.2 Less Informality 10 9 (1.8 %) 100.0 5.6 % 11 Nil 100.0 12 Nil 100.0 Total 500 100.0
Source : Obtained from field survey 4.2 Determinants of Informal Work Conditions The study found that interpersonal characteristics of workers and workplace related characteristics have a significant role to play in defining the working conditions of informal workers. It is clear from the table-3 that among personal characteristics of workers, none is found significant in predicting the probability of holding work with extreme informal work conditions over a work position with formal work conditions. Hereby, we fail to reject the null hypothesis of no association between the personal characteristics of the workers,i.e. level of education, age and gender, and the extent of informality at workplace. So far as workplace characteristics are concerned, the coefficient of location is negative and significant in determining the probability of holding extreme informal as well as average informal work conditions over the formal one. The probability of working with extreme and average informal conditions are, respectively, 11 times (1/.091=10.98) & 20 times ((1/.051=19.61) Lesser in Gurugram district than Mohindergarh district. Gurugram is the hub of the manufacturing service industries. Along with large industries & MNCs, many tiny industries are also there. Government authorities take care of worker’s rights in large industries. Small industries in the same location also come under the inspection of authorities. So due to regular checks by legal authorities& awareness of workers, working condition of informal workers in Gurugram is better in comparison to Mohindergarh, which is neither a metropolitan city nor an industrial hub. Similarly, at Rewari district also the probability of holding extreme and average informal work opportunity is, respectively, 100 times (1/.010=100)and 10 times less than Mohindergarh district. Hereby, our null hypothesis of no association between the location of industry & extent of informal work conditions can be refuted.In the same way, table-3 also concludes that the probability of the prevalence of extreme or average informal working conditions is more in small enterprises over large enterprises and is more for workers engaged in unskilled & semi-skilled occupation over skilled occupations. 44 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal
Type of organization is also essential in this concern as the probability of facing extreme informal work environment is 31 times more in unorganized workers than in organized enterprises. Similarly, informal workers without any collective agreement are more vulnerable than those bound with some agreement between employer & employee. The probability of holding a job with extreme informal work position is 47 times higher for workers without any collective agreement than those with some agreement. It makes us reject the null hypothesis that workplace-related characteristics of informal workers are not associated with the extent of informality. The study didn’t find any significant variation between the working conditions of informal workers of manufacturing & sector. Hence, it is concluded that work-related characteristics such as location, type&size of enterprise and skill requirement of occupation influence the extent of the informality at the workplace. Table 3 : Parameter estimates of personal and work place related characteristics of workers on their probabilities of holding an extreme informal& average informal working condition over less informal working conditions in Haryana.
Personal and Probabilities of holding a Probabilities of holding a Job-Related work position with extreme work position with average characteristics informal versus less informal versus less of Informal informal working informal working Workers conditions in Haryana conditions in Haryana
B (Std. Wald Odds B (Std. Wald Odds Error) Ratio Error) Ratio
Intercept -5.735* (1.864) 9.466 - 1.353 (1.603) .712
Low Education .266 (1.181) .051 1.305 1.187 (1.103) 1.159 3.278
Middle Education .007 (.811) .000 1.007 .284 (.720) .155 1.328
Age (15- 24 years) .127 (.865) .022 1.135 -.508 (.795) .409 .602
Age (25- 34 years) .409 (.739) .306 1.506 .219 (.655) .112 1.245
Gender .558 (.799) .487 1.747 .666 (.707) .889 1.947
Location-Gurugram -2.396* (1.188) 4.068 .091 -2.974* (1.150) 6.694 .051
Location-Rewari -4.622* (1.238) 13.936 .010 -2.307* (1.160) 3.956 .100
Sector (Manufacturing) -.010 (.898) .000 .990 -.628 (.831) .571 .534
Type of Enterprise (un- 3.455* (.878) 15.493 31.669 1.156 (.791) 2.133 3.177 organised)
No Collective 3.852* (1.031) 13.957 47.083 1.073 (.977) 1.205 2.923 Agreement Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 45
Micro Enterprise 6.181* (1.607) 14.787 483.267 3.748* (1.388) 7.294 42.442
Small Enterprise 3.308* (1.195) 7.657 27.327 1.172 (.897) 1.708 3.228
Medium Enterprise 2.305* (1.095) 4.436 10.026 .119 (.733) .027 1.127
Unskilled Occupation 3.724* (.947) 15.449 41.412 2.652* (.883) 9.027 14.180
Semi-skilled 1.944* (.788) 6.079 6.985 1.938* (.667) 8.430 6.945 Occupation
Correctly Predicted 83% 83% cases
-2 Log Likelihood 654.860 654.860 Intercept Only 361.504 361.504 Final
Chi-Square (c 2 ) 293.356* 293.356
Nagelkerke R 2 .568 .568
Dependent variable- Informality Index The reference categories: Less informality, High Education, 35 years and above, Male, Mohindragarh, Service sector, Organized Enterprise, Collective agreement, Large Enterprise, Skilled occupation. Notes : 1. Figures in Parenthesis ( ) indicates Standard errors 2. *P<0.05 Source : Obtained from field survey As indicated by chi-square test statistic, the unexplained variance has decreased significantly from the baseline model (654.860) to the final model (361.504), leading to a significant reduction of 654.860 – 361.504 = 293.356, indicating that variable included in the final model explains a significant amount of the original variability. The final model, with all the included variables, has been able to specify 83 percent of cases correctly, indicating that the model has good predictive power and is a good fit. Nagelkerke R2 has indicated that the predictive power of the model is 71 percent. 4.3 Monetary Outcomes of Informal Labour Market Informal work opportunities may result in poor labour market outcomes as shown in table-4. So far as the effect of personal and workplace-related characteristics on the monetary outcomes of informal workers is concerned, the age of workers has a significant positive effect on the wage level. Wage level of informal workers increases with age. On an average, wage level of workers increases by 2 per cent with every increase in one year in age. Level of education is also crucial in this concern as low education has emerged as a significant hindrance in availing higher wages. Wage level of low & middle educated workers is found to be 39 percent and 26 percent lesser respectively in comparison to highly educated workers. 46 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal
Table 4 : OLS Parameter Estimates of personal and work place related characteristics of workers on their monthly wages (log monthly wage in ?)
Personal and Job Related OLS Parameter Estimates Characteristics of Informal Workers (Unstandardized coefficients)
(Constant) 8.618*** Informality Index .003 (.013; .010) (0,1,2, ------,10) Age .027*** (.446; .002) Low Education -.394*** (-.451; .043) Middle Education -.262*** (-.294; .042) Unskilled -.088** (-.076; .043) Female -.042 (-.045; -.040) Rural -.012 (-.013; -.032) Industrial Hub in NCR .185*** (.212; .039) Industrial Hub out of NCR .134*** (.151; .038) Industrial Sector .110*** (.131; .041) Organised Enterprise .195*** (.231; .045) Contractual/Regular .135*** (.152; .039) Micro Enterprise -.206*** (-.226; .062) Small Enterprise -.171*** (-.201; .053) Medium Enterprise -.057 (-.042; .059)
R 2 .462
Adj. R 2 .446
Dependent variable : Log Monthly wage/salary Figures in parenthesis ( ) denotes standardized coefficients; standard errors. Moreover, being an unskilled worker lower the wage by 8 percent in comparison to the skilled worker. In the same line, being a female worker decreases one’s wages by 2 percent. Location of the enterprise is also an essential factor as enterprises established in the hub of industrial location provide more wage to their workers. Working with enterprises established in developed industrial hub increases the chances of a wage hike by 18 percent than those established elsewhere. Similarly, workers in the industrial sector namely, manufacturing, construction, trade and transport earn 11 percent more than those working with service enterprises. Informal workers in the formal enterprises get 19 percent more Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 47 wage than informal workers in informal enterprises. Workers covered by any collective agreement, i.e. contractual/regular workers get 13 percent more wage than those not covered any collective agreement. Moreover, the smaller the enterprise, the lower is the wage as workers in micro and small enterprises get 20 percent and 17 percent less wage respectively than workers in large enterprises. So far the effect of gender and residence of workers is concerned; the study does not find any significant effect of these factors on the wage level of informal workers.Hereby, the null hypothesis of no role of personal and workplace-related characteristics of the informal workers in determining their monetary income is rejected, which make us conclude that personal and workplace-related characteristics of the informal workers have a crucial role in explaining wage level of informal workers. 5. Conclusion and Suggestions The large & expanding informal sector is like a golden goose as it is not only a source of livelihood for a large workforce, but it also provides facilitation to the fundamental human rights to work. Informality is the main problem associated with the informal labour market and some of the personal and workplace- related characteristics add fuel to informal& vulnerable working conditions. The present study attempted to diagnose those factors and wraps up with the conclusion thatage, level of education, type &size of the enterprise, type of occupation, nature of employment are significant determinants of informal employment & poor monetary outcomes of the informal labour market in Haryana. Majority of the informal worker is young and possessing a low level of education & skill. Most of them are working casually in the micro or small-scale enterprise without any collective agreement. Keeping in view the factors pushing workers to hold informal work conditions & their poor working conditions, the paper suggests a comprehensive policy to regulate the informal labour market. Herein, an attempt should be made to create more and more employment opportunities in the formal sector.In the meanwhile, organizational efforts are required towards improved labour relations & to improve working conditions of informal workers.There is a need for state intervention to extend social and legal protections to the informal workforce with simultaneous efforts to raise the skill level and productivity of informal workers to raise their bargaining power. Promotion of micro-enterprises can make a significant contribution in generating employment in this line. An ambience should be created to encourage even micro enterprises to register. They should be made aware of the benefits of getting formalized such as access to finance, provision of market information, legal framework, government incentives and formal association to meet the real-world business challenges. These corrective measures not only improve working conditions of workers but also helps in raising tax revenue of state government to finance minimum social security to workers of the informal sector. 48 Sonu Madan and Ritu Goyal References
Abraham, R., Informal Employment in India : An Analysis of Forms and Determinants, Bangalore : The Institute for Social and Economic Change, 2016 (Working paper series WP-2016-363). Benjamin, N., Beegle, K., Recanatini, F., Santini, M., Informal Economy and the World Bank, The World Bank: Economic Policy and Debt Department, 2014 (Policy Research Working Paper WP-2014-6888). Bhat, J.A., Yadav, P., “Economic Informal Sector and the Perspective of Informal Workers in India”, Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 8(1), 2017, 1-9. Dogrul, H.G., “Determinants of Formal and Informal Sector employment in the Urban areas of Turkey”, International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 4(2), 2012, 217-229. Dougherty, S., Escobar, O., The Determinants of Informality in Mexico’s States, Paris : OECD, 2013 (Working Papers, No. 1043). Elbadawi, I., Loayza, N., “Informality, Employment and Economic Development in the Arab World”, Journal of Development and Economic Policies, 10(2), 2008, 22-75. Glendaquintini, “The role of cognitive skills in explaining wage differentials between socio-economic groups”, OECD, 2016. Accessed from https://oecdskillsandwork. wordpress. com/2016/02/25/skills-wage-differentials/. Gunatilaka, R., Informal Employment in Sri Lanka : Nature, Probability of Employment, and Determinants of Wages, New Delhi: ILO sub-regional office of South - Asia, 2008 (ILO Asia-Pacific Working paper series). ILO, Women and Men in the Informal Economy : A Statistical Picture (Third Edition). Geneva : ILO, 2018. Karan, A.K., Selvaraj, S., Trends in wages and earnings in India: Increasing wage differentials in a segmented labour market, New Delhi : Sub-regional Office for South Asia, ILO, 2008 (ILO Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series). Khan, M., Akhtar, S., Mehmood, H.Z., Muhmood, K., “Analysing Skills, Education and Wages in Faisalabad: Implications for Labour Market”, Procedia Economics and Finance, 5, 2013, 423 - 432. Lehmann, H., Zaiceva, A., Informal Employment In Russia: Definitions, Incidence, Determinants And Labour Market Segmentation, Quaderni- Economics Department 2013 (Working Papers No. 1098). Luebker, M., Decent work and informal employment: A survey of workers in Glen View, Harare Integration, Harare : ILO Sub-Regional Office for Southern Africa, 2008 (Working Paper No. 91). Marinescu, L., Wolthoff, R., (2012). Wages, Applications, and Skills. Accessed from http:// pseweb.eu/ydepot/semin/texte1213/MAR2013WAG.pdf. Norris, E.D., Gradstein, M., Inchauste, G., What Causes Firms to Hide Output? The Determinants of Informality, IMF Institute, 2005 (IMF Working Paper WP/05/160). NSC, Report of the Committee on Unorganised Sector Statistics, New Delhi : GOI, 2012 Retrieved from http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/nsc_report_un_sec_14mar 12.pdf. Determinants of Informality...... Informal Labour Market in Haryana 49
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Article Received on October 04, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 5
Socio-structural Causes of Rise of Democracy : With Reference to 2006 Democratic Movement of Nepal
Dipesh Kumar Ghimire*
Democracy neither rises nor falls spontaneously. The rise and fall of democracy does not solely depend on the desire of some actors, parties and leaders. The construction, destruction and reconstruction of social relation and social structure play a crucial role in the rise and fall of democracy. Democracy is born and matures in a specific socio-economic structure while it falls in others. Similarly, the nature of international relations also affects democracy. The bourgeoisie or the middle class is the main agent behind democratization process. In this paper I shall attempt a quick and preliminary discussion of the major socio-structural factors for the rise of democracy. In 2006, an important democratic movement took place in Nepal. This movement gave rise to democracy by abolishing both the autocratic monarchical regime and the Maoist insurgency which strongly believes in people’s republican regime. Strong bourgeoisie and town people who engaged in commerce and industry played the major role to the rise of democracy. The town dwellers engaged in private jobs and business played important role for the political change. Increasing urban population, loyalty and commitment of bourgeoisie middle class people of cities towards the democracy, new education system, expanding facade of capitalism are important factors for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. Similarly, international factors like globalization made democracy inevitable. Around 40 years ago, more than 90 percent of Nepalese people were depended on agricultural sector; it has been decreased to about 65 percent in 2000s. In 1970, the contribution of agriculture in the Gross National Product of Nepal was 75 percent while it has been decreased to 33 percent in the same time. The decreasing importance of agriculture and involvement of people in the new economic activities has aided for the rise of democracy in 2006 in Nepal. [Keywords : Democracy, Social Origin, Movement, Nepal]
* Lecturer of Sociology, Central Department of Sociology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu (Nepal) E-mail:
Census Year Urban Population Number of Urban Percent of (in ’000) Places Population Urban 1952/54 238.3 10 2.9 1961 336.2 16 3.6 1971 461.9 16 4.0 1981 956.7 23 6.4 1991 1,695.7 33 9.2 2001 3227.9 58 13.9 (CBS, 2003) 56 Dipesh Kumar Ghimire
Population has been increasing considerably in the cities formed with the extension of East-West Highway and the regional cities. The people residing in the cities and involved in business and industry presented themselves supportive to the democracy. In my opinion, as said by Moore, the loyalty and commitment of these strong bourgeoisie middle class people of cities towards the democracy is an important factor for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. The rise of middle class is another important factor to rise of democracy in Nepal. Only 7 percent people were middle class in 1995-96 in Nepal. However, it is rise on 22 percent in 2010-11 (World Bank, 2016). The alliance between urban middle class and peasants is also important to raise democracy. Mahoney gives the example of democratization in Denmark and Norway where the rise of democracy was possible by the strong alliance of middle class and peasants. In Nepal too, this kind of alliance between middle class and peasants was found. The movement started by the urban middle class was immediately followed by peasant who came to street with agricultural equipments. By raising the voice against autocratic rule people from villages and cities participated in the movement. The organizations related to agriculture associations, agriculture committees, dairy cooperatives disseminated the press release by supporting the movement started by the urban middle class people. Further, they participated formally with banner in the movement. I think this kind of alliance between middle class people and the peasants is another important factor for the rise of democracy in Nepal. Rueschemeyer argues that capitalist development and democracy are correlated. The expanding facade of capitalism helps for the rise of democracy. I think, as said by the Rueschemeyer, capitalist development has played important role for the rise of democracy. In Nepal, the capitalism has been increasing in the recent years (Bhusal, 2016). The expanding facade of capitalism has made the democracy unavoidable. The feudalistic mode of production and processes started weakening due to the entrance of capitalism in our neighbor in the name of East-India Company. After that time the practice of going to the foreign countries for employment started. Internal and external migration got increased. People started to go to work in the multi-national companies in the places like Sikkim, Meghalaya, and Darjeeling and started residing in those places permanently. This seems to be simple but in my opinion it was an important incident for the rise of democracy in Nepal. This brought a drastic change in the primitive lifestyle of village people. After this people started understanding that they could leave their place and survive outside, leave primitive agricultural profession and survive by working in companies and doing business. This was possible with the development and expansion of capitalism. Besides, more capitalism development took place in Nepal in last recent years due to globalization. After 1990 capitalism developed in greater extent with the open market economic policy of governments. This type of capitalism development Socio-structural Causes of Rise of Democracy 57 played important role for the rise of democracy in Nepal. As said by Moore, the middle class and urban people do not accept the autocracy of King or others. In my opinion, the youths leaving the primitive culture, thoughts, and beliefs and approaching to capitalistic and individualistic ideology needed the freedom of speech as said by Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson in their article. This could be achieved only in democracy. They supported for the democracy understanding that to make rules and regulations for establishing right of individual freedom, free and fair elections and multiparty system of competition among the parties was needed. Thus, capitalist development itself is an important factor for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. Some scholars have said that social relationships help for the establishment of democracy in which they have included that the domestic condition and international scenario plays an important role. This view seems to be relevant in context of Nepal. The speed of infrastructural change in Nepalese society has been increased noticeably in recent years. The migration of people from hills to Terai and villages to cities started constructing new infrastructures by destructing old ones. Similarly, the new bases of living, culture, religion, and relations started with the ending of old ones. The generations brought up with new infrastructures started residing in the city areas. They became equipped with modern skills. Not only from schools, had they started getting educations from abroad too. Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson have developed hypothesis that the more educated nations are more democratic. I think their hypothesis is relevant in context of Nepal. The new national education system in 1970 has played an important role for the development of education in Nepal. Education developed with this system in Nepal has made possible for more than 95 percent of Nepalese children to reach school in less than half an hour (Mishra, 2067 B.S.). This has reformed the educational status drastically. The involvement of private sectors in education also increased noticeably. The boarding schools are spread all over Nepal from villages to cities. It has contributed for the quality of education. The two generations who got education with the new education policy in 1970 created pressure for state structure to be democratic not the autocratic. The democratic movement of 1990 and 2006 is the result of this. Similarly, extension of capitalism, modernization, and urbanization brought changes in the equation of state structure and contributed for the rise of democracy. Similarly, international factor has also played an important role in the movement. Basically at that time, globalization made democracy unavoidable. The international situation after the dismissal of Soviet Union was supportive to the democracy and if any nation would be against the democracy it was not possible for this nation to be in isolation. Not only this, but also India has played further more important role for this in my opinion. India is known worldwide for the strong democratic country which has bounded Nepal from three sides geographically. We have open border with India. In this situation, the governing system of Nepal has 58 Dipesh Kumar Ghimire become major subject of concern for India. In the democratic movement 1990, India had supported for the establishment of democracy by blockade. Likewise, in 2006 democratic movement too, though it is unseen, India has played an important role for the establishment of democracy in Nepal. The visit of Indian ambassadors in Nepal during the peoples’ movement and the different incidents following these visits makes clear for this. Similarly, the role played by India in the contemporary period, for the 12 points agreement between seven parties and the Maoists also support for this concept (Ghimire, 2015). Beside this, the economic development of China and India has got speed in the recent years. This speed in the neighboring countries has encouraged Nepal to be democratic. Some intellectuals have stated that the democracy rises in the nations where military force and landed elites are weak. The mobilization of military force against the Maoist insurgency could not create good result for military; instead they had to bear great loss. When military force could not win over Maoists both militarily and ideologically, at the same time India also stopped sending military materials and equipments, the army force of Nepal became more weakened. Likewise, the Maoists killed and displaced many landed elites from villages and cities during the insurgency which weakened those landed elites. This situation also aided for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. Acemoglu and James Robinson stated the various other factors like, intra-group inequality, economic condition, and redistribution and so on. If we study the situation while the Maoists insurgency was advancing and the King took over the power and started his autocratic rule, the intergroup inequality can be found to be increasing. The Gini coefficient has shown the wide difference between poor and rich ones. This kind of difference encouraged lower class to go for the democracy. Similarly, the change on political institutions also played important role. Acceptance of republic system by Nepali Congress who were deeply supportive to Constitutional Monarchy and acceptance of Maoists for the multiparty competitive democracy is the important factor for the establishment of democracy. Similarly, the structure of economy also has played an important role. Around 30 years ago, more than 90 percent of Nepalese people were depended on agricultural sector, at this time it has been decreased to about 65 percent. In 1970, the contribution of agriculture in the Gross National Product of Nepal was 75 percent while it has been decreased to 33 percent in 2010 (Kantipur, 2014). Among all men workers only about 48 percent are involved in agriculture sector. In my opinion this has direct relation with the structure of economy. This shows the decreasing importance of agriculture. The involvement of people in the new kinds of economic activities has aided for the rise of democracy. Similarly, the writers have stated nature and extend of globalization as the fourth factor. The entities such as World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), International Monetary Fund (IMF) have been affecting in the economic liberality. In the recent years with the formal entrance of Nepal in the World Trade Socio-structural Causes of Rise of Democracy 59
Organization (WTO), Nepal has been affected by globalization. This enforced for privatization of public entities and knowledge on economic liberality. These types of international entities can work in democratic countries easily and it is hard in the autocratic countries. For this reason, it was not possible for autocratic rule to remain anymore. Thus this led for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. These are some macro factors which gave birth to the agencies such as Nepali political parties, leaders, and civil society members. These factors had affected the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. As stated by Linz, micro factors also called as agency also play an important role for this. We find political parties, civil society and political leader also have equal role. Particularly, alliance among seven major political parties constructed a common understanding on democratic movement. The democratic movement got speed on the basis of this alliance after the 12 points agreement with the Maoists’ armed insurgency. After this, with the withdrawal of commitment on constitutional monarchy by Nepali Congress and acceptance of multiparty democracy by the Maoists, the more bases for democratic movement were constructed. Monarchial system and People’s Republican both are the perspectives against the democracy. When the parties came out of their non-democratic belief, basically the middle class started to support and participate in their movements. After this peasants also supported for that. Working class and poorer group also started participating by supporting the movement. Urban intellectuals, civil service employees, businessmen, students and professional organizations also started showing their active participation. The Individual choice has played role for this. We also find that some leaders, civil society members and political parties have aided for the bases of the rise of democracy. I think we can see this through the rational choice theoretical perspective as stated by Linz. This theory studies by taking individual’s choice as an important factor for the establishment of democracy. In my opinion individual choice of middle class, peasants, working class, elites, businessmen and other people has also played an important role for the rise of democracy in Nepal in 2006. Lastly, micro factors or the agency have equal role for the rise of democracy as the macro factors. In my opinion, the study of rise of democracy becomes incomplete if the role of micro factors are not combined and studied, as stated. Agency or the political parties, leaders, civil society members also play important role for the rise of democracy. Their strong willpower and belief on democracy also aid for this. In South Africa, Nelson Mandela’s commitment, struggle and belief on democracy played most important role. References
Acemoglu D. and James Robinson, Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Dictatorship and Democracy, New York : Cambridge University, 2006. Bhusal, G. S., Nepal : Pujibad ra Bikash (Nepal : Capitalism and Development, Kathmandu : Nepal Study Center (In Nepali), 2016. 60 Dipesh Kumar Ghimire
CBS, Population Monograph of Nepal. National Planning Commission, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2003. Colomer J. M., Game Theory and Transition to Democracy : The Spanish Model, Cheltenham, UK : Edward Elgar Publishing, 1995. Dahl R. A., A Preface to Democratic Theory, Expanded Edition, London : The University of Chicago Press, 2006. Ghimire, D., “A Socio-Structural Analysis of Revolution: A Case Study of Maoists Struggle of Nepal”, CARS : A Peer-Reviewed Research Journal in Sociology, 1, 2015, 53-77. Huntington, S. P., The third wave : Democratization in the late twentieth century, Norman : University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Kantipur, “Nepali Samaj Kasto Khale Punjibadi? (What Kind of capitalism exists in Nepal?)”, 8 June, 2014, 7 (In Nepali). Linz J. J., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and Re-equilibration An Introduction, Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. Luebbert G. M., Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy : Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe, London : Oxford University Press, 1991. Mahoney, J., Knowledge Accumulation in Comparative Historical Research : The Case of Democracy and Authoritarianism, Chapter 4, James Mahoney and Dietrich Ruesc- hemeyer (eds.), Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, New York : Cambridge University, 2003, 131-174. Mishra, C., Badalido Nepali Samaj (Changing Nepalese Society), Kathmandu : Fineprint (In Nepali), 2067 B.S.. Moore, B., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, Boston, MA : Beacon Press, 1966. Rueschemeyer at al., “Capitalist Development and Democracy”, Contemporary Sociology, London : University of Chicago Press, 1992, 243-248. World Bank, (2016) Moving up the Ladder : Poverty Reduction and Social Mobility in Nepal. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/171641467117954924/ pdf/106652-REVISED-WP-Moving-Up-the-Ladder-Executive-Summary.pdf on Septem- ber 1, 2018. ê
Article Received on October 03, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 6
Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia based on Amendment of Constitution and the Development Thereof
Taufiqurrohman Syahuri* and Mevi Primaliza**
Indonesian Constitution that prevails up to the present is 1945 Constitution or it can also be said as “1959 Decree Constitution”. This is the constitution that sustains amendment in the year 1999-2002 because of the demand of reformation. The amendment of the Constitution has produced several new institutions, inter alia Mahkamah Konstitusi1 (Constitution Court). This presents new authority in institutions of Indonesia. MK (Contribution Court) has produced a lot of judgments especially that relates to the testingof law, disputes of authority of state institutions and dispute of general election result. Whilst the case on dissolutionof political party and dismissal of president has never occurred. the position of the judgment of MK (Contribution Court) that is called as verdict does include a state decision that contains legal norm, even it can be said that the legal norm that emerges resulting from the judgment of MK (Contribution Court) constitutes legal norm that possesses a constitutional standard which is higher than any law that is not yet tested in MK (Contribution Court). MK (Contribution Court) judgments that get wide attention, be like inter alia ultra petita principle, conditionally unconstitutionally, the role of positive legislative, obrogation of law that is given a deadline/time limit and the franchise of the participants of general elections of district heads. The research method chosen by the author in the form of explanatory legal study is an explanatory legal. With this explanatory legal research method will be used in examining the Authority Of Constitution Court of The Republic
* Senior Associate Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Bengkulu, Jl. W.R. Supratman, Kandang Limun, Muara Bangka Hulu, Kota Bengkulu, Bengkulu 38371 (Indonesia) E-mail: < [email protected]> ** Judge Candidate of Administrative Court, Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia, Central Jakarta (Indonesia) E-mail:
1. Introduction As a matter of fact, Indonesian people has already possessed a constitution since pre independence, namely at the time of occupation of Japanese Army, The first constitution was Basis Law that was ratified by Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI)2 = Research Agency For The Preparation Effort of Independence of Indonesia. Later on August 18, 1945 one day after declaration of Independence, PPKI (Research Agency For Indonesian Independence) formed the constitution called Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (then known as UUD 1945 (1945 Constitution). In the year 1949, 1945 Constitution was changed to RIS (United Indonesian Republic) Constitution, and one year later it was changed to 1950 Provisional Constitution Several year laters the said Provisional Constitution was changed to 1945 Constitution through a Presidential Decree that was know as Presidential Decree of July 5, 1959. Thus, Indonesian Constitution that prevails up to the present is 1945 Constitution or it can also be said as “1959 Decree Constitution”. This is the constitution that sustains amendment in the year 1999-2002 because of the demand of reformation. The amendment of 1945 Constitution as a mandate of the reformation finally can be treated exhaustively in the fourth Amendment with the official name Constitution of the State of the Republic of Indonesian of 1945 (hereinafter it is written as 1945 Constitution). The amendment of the Constitution has produced several new institutions, inter alia Mahkamah Konstitusi3 (Constitution Court), besides other institution such as Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD) = House of Regional Representatives and Judicial Commission. In order to more understand what a constitutional court is, and what are the functions thereof, hereinabelow it will be presented as follows : 2. Constitution Court In the whole world, any states that possess a kind of institution such as Constitution Court are 78 states, thus Indonesia, constitutes the 78th state that has possessed such institution.4 The United State of America was the first state that Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 63 introduced the function of constitutionality court with a case that was famous at that time, namely the case of “Marbary versus Madison of the year 1803”5. The President of the Supreme Court of the United States John Marshall6 was the first who carried out the authority to interpret constitution to abrogate the law that previously had been ratified by the Congress of the United States of America. Such authority of the Supreme Court was in fact has not been provided in the Constitution of the United States of America. Therefore such case can be deemed as Judicial Interpretation, namely alteration of constitution through interpre- tation of a judge or court as the opinion of KC Whee are ?7 Since the said case then it is know the term material test right to the law against constitution. This right to test is then known by the term “judicial review” that is deemed as automatically being possessed by the Supreme Court of the United States of America as “The Guardian of the Constitution of the United States of America”8 . In the world, the institution that holds the authority of constitutional court can be classified to become 5 (five) types, namely (1) Supreme Court such as the United States of America model since 1803; (2) Constitutional Council such as French model of 1958; (3) Constitutional Arbitration such as in Belgioum, (4) Tribunal constitution in Venezuela one room special at the circles of the Supreme Court and (5) Constitutional Court Austria model since 1920. This last one is the one that is followed by the state of Indonesia and has been adopted in the third Amendment of 1945 Constitution in 2002 Article 24C. What have been provided in our constitution regarding the existence of the Constitution Court can be seen in the following description.
3. Five Authorities of Constitution Court There are five authorities of Constitution Court which have been determined in 1945 Constitution of the third Amendment of Article 24C Paragraph (1), namely : 1. to test (judicial review) the law against Constitution; 2. to resolve the dispute about the result of general election (Pemilu = General Elections); 3. to resolve the dispute of authority of the state institution the authority thereof is given by Constitution; 4. to resolve the dispersal of political parties; 5. shall give resolution upon the House of People’s Representative’ opinion regarding the presumption of violation done by President and/or Vice President according to Constitution. Thus there are 4 authorities and one constitutional obligation for the MK (Constitution Court). The court done by the Constitution Court constitutes the court of original jurisdiction and the last jurisdiction the judgment thereof is final in character. 64 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri and Mevi Primaliza
3.1 Test of Law Bill of Law that has been approved by the House of People’s Representatives and the President to become Law, now can be tested materially (judicial review) by the Constitution Court upon request of certain party. In Article 24C Paragraph (1) of 1945 Constitution of the third Amendment, inter alia it is mentioned that the Constitution Court has the right to hear/try at the original jurisdiction and at the last jurisdiction, the judgment thereof has permanent characteristic to test the law against the Constitution. This Constitution Court should have been formed on August 17, 2003, and prior to be formed any and all authorities shall be done by the Supreme Court (Transitory Regulation Article III).9 With the new provisions that provide the power which forms the law thereinabove, then any matter that need to be underlined here is a fact that the ratification of the bill of the law to become an ordinance does not constitute something that has been final. The said ordinance can be questioned by the society which feel being damaged if the ordinance is for sure to be realized, or by a group of people it is evaluated that the said ordinance is in contradiction with the legal norm that exist thereon, namely in contradiction with 1945 Constitution. 3.2 To Resolve the Dispute About the Result of General Elections The dispute resulting from general elections (pemilu) covers the legislative and presidential election. In its development it also covers the disputes resulting from the election of the districts heads.10 The authority of Constitution Court in the field of this general elections has been furtherly Provided in Law Number 24 of 2003 on Constitution Court (hereinafter it is written as UUMK 2003 (CC LAW 2003). In its broad outline the provision on this general election can be described as follows : The application for solving the disputes resulting from general elections must be made by (a) an individual of Indonesian Citizen i.e. member candidate of the House of Regional Representatives as participant of general elections (b) individual of Indonesian Citizen i.e. memlu candidate of the House of Regional Representatives; (c) pair of President and Vice President candidates as participant of general elections for President and Vice President; and (d) political parties as participant of general elections, as well as (e) pair of district head and vice-district head candidates in the direct election for district heads. Application can only be made within the period of at the latest 3x24 (three times twenty-four) hours as of KPU (General Elections Committee) pronounces the decision of the result of general elections naturally, and such application must influence : a) the elected of the member candidate of the House of Regional Representatives thereof. Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 65
b) act of determining pairs of candidates that include in the second rotation of President and Vice President election as well as the elected pair of the candidates of President and Vice President; c) acquisition of seats of political parties as participants of general elections at an election region. In the application made, the applicant shall describe explicitly about : the error of the result of counting of votes pronounced by the General Elections Committee and the right counting result according to the applicant; the request to abrogate the result of counting of votes pronounced by the General Elections Committee; as well as to decide the right result of the counting of votes according to the applicant. 3.3 To Resolve the Dispute on the Authority of State Institutions The arrangement of this authority is aimed to the state institutions the authority thereof is directly given by the Constitution. The intended state institutions are among others : MPR (People’s Consultative Assembly), President, DPR (House of People’s Representatives), DPD (House of Regional Representatives), BPK (State Audit Agency), Judicial Commission, as well as Provincial and Regency Administration, Especially the Constitution Court it cannot become a party in the dispute of authority amongst state institutions their authorities are given by the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia to the Constitution Court. In this dispute of authority the party that become the applicant is the state institution the authority thereof is given by the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia that has direct interest to the authority being disputed. The applicant shall describe explicitly in its application about direct interest of the applicant and describes the authority being disputed as well as to mention clearly the state institution that become the defendant. In the session, the Constitution Court can issue a decision that order the applicant and/or the defendant to provisionally cease the implementation of authority being disputed until there is a judgment from the Constitution Court. The said judgment from the Constitution Court regarding the dispute of authority is extended to the House of People’s Representatives, and the President. 3.4 To Resolve the Dissolution of Political Parties Upon the prevailing of the Law of Constitution Court No.24 of 2003, then the dissolution of political parties can only be done through the judgment of the Constitution Court. This dissolution of political parties must be done upon application of the Government. In this case, the Government as the Applicant shall describe explicitly in its application about the ideology, principle, objective, program, and activity of the political party concerned, which is considered as in contradiction with the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia of 1945. 66 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri and Mevi Primaliza
Based on such application, the Constitution Court conveys the application having already been registered in the Registration Book Constitutional Cases to the political party concerned within the period of at the latest 7 (seven) business days since the application has been registered in the Registration Book of Constitutional Cases. In case the Constitution Court has the same opinion that he application does not meet the condition referred to in Article 68, the dictum of the judgment declares that the application cannot be accepted. In case the Constitution Court has the opinion that the application is reasonable, the dictum of the judgment declares that the application is granted. In case the Constitution Court is of the opinion that the application is not reasonable, the dictum of the judgment declares that the application is refused. The judgment of the Constitution Court regarding application upon dissolution of political party shall be adjudicated within the period of at the latest 60 (sixty) business days since the application is registered in the Registration Book of Constitution Cases. The Judgment of the Constitution Court regarding dissolution of a political party is extended to the political party concerned. Implementation of the dissolution of the said political party is done by abrogating the registry to the Government. This Judgment of the Constitution Court is pronounced by the Government in the State Gazette of the Republic of Indonesia within the period of at the latest 14 (fourteen) days as of the judgment has been received. 3.5 To Resolve the House of People’s Representatives Opinion on Dismissal of the President To dismiss the President and/or the Vice President, the People’s Consultative Assembly cannot act alone11 anymore as has ever been occurred in the case of dismissal of President Soekarno in 1967 and President Abdurrahman Wahid in 2001, but it has involved as new institution called the Constitution Court. This Constitution Court that will determine whether the President and/or the Vice President really has violated the law or not. This violation of law is in the form of committing of treason to the state, corruption, bribery, other heavy criminal act, or disgraceful deed, and/or an opinion that the President and/or the Vice-President does not meet the condition anymore as President and/or Vice President.12 The accusation of the House of People’s Representatives thereinabove can just be refused by the Constitution Court13. If according to the Constitution Court it is adjudicated that the President and/or the Vice President does not make any infringement that is accused of, then the People’s Consultative Assembly has no authority the person concerned. Thus, the institution that is dominant to decide whether the President and/or the Vice President is able to be dismissed by the People’s Consultative Assembly is the Constitution Court. By observing the position and the authority of the People’s Consultative Assembly as formulated Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 67 above, it can be said that the power of the People’s Consultative Assembly has lessen a lot. Any problem that may occur in the future is if for example, the People’s Consultative Assembly decides that the President and/or the Vice President violates the law, however the People’s Consultative Assembly apparently does not dismiss the President and/or the Vice President. Such case is possible to be happened in view that the People’s Consultative Assembly is a political institution, and in making decision it can be based on majority vote, not based on legal objectivity. As a comparison it can be seen in the case “Monice Lewinsky”, that continues with impeachment process to American President Bill Clinton. The “Impeachment Judicature” done by the Congress at latest released Clinton because the vote to be required (namely 2/3 ofthe congress members) to declare that Clinton was guilty could not be fulfilled.14 4. Dynamics of the Judgment of the Constitution Court At present after it has gone more than one decade, the MK (Contribution Court) has produced a lot of judgments especially that relates to the testing of law, disputes of authority of state institutions and dispute of general election result. Whilst the case on dissolution of political party and dismissal of president has never occurred. In a constitutional manner, the position of the judgment of MK (Contribution Court) that is called as verdict does include a state decision that contains legal norm, the same with the decision of a law maker that has the character of regulation. Therefor the Judgment of the MK (Contribution Court) constitutes legal norm such as any legal norm that is inserted in a law, even it can be said that the legal norm that emerges resulting from the judgment of MK (Contribution Court) constitutes legal norm that possesses a constitutional standard which is higher than any law that is not yet tested in MK (Contribution Court). The difference is that in the judgment of MK (Contribution Court) it omits any contents of subject matter of law, whereas the law maker precisely creates formulation of contents of subject matter of law. That is why, the MK (Contribution Court) can be classified as negative legislative15, whereas the law maker is as positive legislative, Thus, if it is related to the stipulation of the hierarchy of regulations of legislation, then the position of the Judgment of MK (Contribution Court) should be above the law and below the Decision of MRP (People’s Consultative Assembly). Among the said judgments of the MK (Contribution Court) can be found several MK (Contribution Court) judgments that get wide attention in the “eyes” of the public because they are evaluated as controversial. Controversial judgment occurred in the cases that are related to inter alia ultra petita principle, conditionally unconstitutionally, the role of positive legislative, obrogation of law that is given a deadline/time limit and the franchise of the participants of general elections of district heads. Hereinbelow will be analyzed the said MK (Contribution Court) judgments in succession as follows : 68 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri and Mevi Primaliza
4.1 Ultra Petita In fact ultra petita is known only in the regime of civil law, means it does not prevail in the regime of constitutional law and also in the regime of criminal law. The judge in some judgment at criminal session sometimes passes judgment of criminal punishment higher than the punishment requested by the prosecutor. MK (Contribution Court) as judicature institution in the field of constitution of course is not bound with ultra petita principle. Therefor it is natural if MK (Contribution Court) issues a judgment which occasionally exceeds what has been requested (petitioned) by the Petitioner/Applicant.16 4.2 Continually Unconstitutionally The legal norm that has unconditional character to this requirement was for the first time been issued by MK (Contribution Court) in MK (Contribution Court) Judgment No. Testing of Law of Law No.7 of 2004 on Water Resource, however this conditional judgment was not mentioned in the dictum of the judgment but it was mentioned in the consideration on the judgment of the Court. This matter was different with the later Judgment of MK (Contribution Court),as the MK (Contribution Court) Judgment in the Case No.4/PUU-VII/2009 on the testing of Article 2 point g and Article 50 paragraph (1) point g of Law No.10 /2008 as well Article 38 point f of Law No. 12/2008. In this context the MK (Contribution Court) did not have the role as negative legislative yet explicitly or indirectly MK (Contribution Court) has the role as maker of legal norm by way of giving new meaning or interpretation to the law being tested. For instance MK (Contribution Court) judgment which states that the article or contents of subject matter in this law is “unconstitutional” if it is not interpreted in accordance with the reading of the legal consideration of the MK (Contribution Court). 4.3 The Role of Positive Legislative In the MK (Contribution Court) Judgment Number 102/PUU-VII/2009 on the List of Permanent Electors (Daftar Pemilik Tetap = DPT), MK (Contribution Court) was more progressive/forward looding by giving new rules and regulations to the electors in legislative general elections in the form of Kartu Tanda Penduduk (KTP) = Resident Identification Card and Kartu Keluarga (Household Registration Card). In this matter, MK (Contribution Court) had placed its position not as negative legislative anymore but it can be considered as having done its function as positive legislative. MK (Contribution Court) through its judgment has done formulation of regulation as if a maker of law, namely DPR (House of People’s Representatives) together with the President. 4.4 Abrogation of Law by means of Time Limit The MK (Contribution Court) Judgment Number 012-016-019/PUU-IV/2009 that stated that Article 53 of Law No.30/2002 on Tipikor (Tindak Pidana Korupsi = Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 69
Corruption does not have any binding legal power and started effective three years to come since MK (Contribution Court) judgment has been read out that constitutes a legal penetration, in view of the Law of MK (Contribution Court) tha says that MK (Contribution Court) Judgment shall be effective since it has been finished being read out at the session (Article 47) of Law of MK (Contribution Court). In the part of the legal consideration thereof, MK (Contribution Court) says that if within the period of three years it cannot be fulfilled by the law maker, the the provision stipulated in Article 33 of KPK (Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi) = Corruption Exdication Commission, automatically by operation of law shall not obtain any binding legal power anymore. The form of judgment that postpones validity of the said MK (Contribution Court) judgment apparently is inspired by the formation of laws and regulations, where validity of a Law effectively can be postponed several times after it has been ratified. 4.5 Judgment of Dispute of Election of District Head Two judgments of dispute of the result of the general elections of district heads that was evaluated as controversial was the general elections of district heads of the Province of Jawa Timur (East Jawa) and the general elections of district heads of the Regency of Bengkulu Selatan (South Bengkulu). In the judgment of the general elections of Jawa Timur, MK (Contribution Court) did not count rightly anymore the result of votes of the general elections of district heads that was usually being used by MK (Contribution Court) in resolving the case of the general elections of 2004, yet MK (Contribution Court) directly saw the procedure of the counting which was evaluated had been occurred a fraud that was done massively and systematically, so that it was taken a decision to take a vote repartition for three regions in Madura. Whereas in fact in Article 77 paragraph (3) of MK (Contribution Court) Law it was mentioned that in case the applications is granted, MK (Contribution Court) declares to abrogate the result of counting of vote that was pronounced by the General Elections Committee and to determine the result of the right counting of vote. In this case MK (Contribution Court) did not mentioned the actual result of the counting of vote. In reading of such judgment can be understood because it is in compliance with MK (Contribution Court) function as the guardian of democracy which must be protected honestly and fair. That means that the fraud that happened in the process of counting is not an honest action that should be straited out by MK (Contribution Court). The MK (Contribution Court) Judgment was in harmony with the action that had been done to the dispute of the result of the general elections of district heads of Bengkulu Selatan, where the process of counting the result of the general elections 70 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri and Mevi Primaliza of district heads was not found any evidence that there was existed any fraud, however MK (Contribution Court) persistently decided to take a vote repetition with the condition that the elected pair of candidates may not be participated, only because there was an administrative defect due to the negligence of KPU (General Elections Committee). The elected bupati (regent) candidate was evidence having violated Article 58 of Law No.12 of 2008 on Regional Government. Even though this violation had truly been happened, however the punishment that was passed down by MK (Contribution Court) by revoking elected right it was beyond the power of MK (Contribution Court). And what was more ironical, MK (Contribution Court) burdened the mistake of the elected bupati candidate to the elected vice bupati candidate with the reason it was one pair. This matter was clearly in contradiction with legal principle “Greensteaf ronder schald” (no punishment without fault) and the legal principal “nullus/nemo commodum capere potest de injuria sua propria” (nobody may be enjoyed by divergence and violation done him/herself and nobody may be damaged by divergence and violation done by anybody else).
5. Closing Have as a starting point in some studies of the MK (Contribution Court) judgment therein above, it can be concluded a conclusion that it has occurred a development of constitutional law in the field of regulation as the consequence of MK (Contribution Court) judgment. As a tester of legal norm of law against legal law of Constitution, then MK (Contribution Court) judgment that cause new legal norm to appear hierarchically is more constitutional than the legal norm of law that is not yet tested in MK (Contribution Court). As a guardian of democracy in the general elections of district heads, MK (Contribution Court) also makes a lot of penetrations namely it does not mention anymore the number of the actual result of the general elections. Apparently, MK (Contribution Court) seriously realizes that it may not be fixed only to formal reading of the stipulation of laws and regulations, however it wants to see from the side of substantive justice, therefore MK (Contribution Court) has positioned its elf more as a guardian of constitution and democracy as having been mandated by the constitution. As a commentator of the constitution, MK (Contribution Court) can ust give important notes to a Law as a legal norm interpretation in order it is in accordance with the spirit of constitution. For the writer it is forced that legal security is put aside, or on the contrary for the sake of justice, legal security must be upheld.
Footnotes
1. In the whole wo 2. The Agency that was formed at the time of occupation of Japanese Army, under the name Dokuritsu Jimbii Chosakai Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 71
3. In the whole world, any states that have institution such as Constitution Law there are 78 states, thus Indonesia constitutes the 78th state that has such an institution; please read Introduction of Jimly Asshiddiquie in constitution Law : Constitution compilation, Ordinance and Regulations in 78 States, Center of Study of Constitutional Law, University of Indonesia, without year, page 1. The Law on this Constitution Court had been ratified by the President on August 13, 2003. Later on Saturday, the 16th day of August 2003 nine Judges of the Constitution Court had pronounced oaths/vows before the President. The nine Judges of the Constitution Court wreJimlyAsshiddiquie (elected as Chairman), I DwraGedePalguna, Ahmad Roestandi, the there of them constituted proposal of DPR (House of People’s Representatives), Haryono, Abdul MuktiFajar, HAS Notabaya, proposed by the President , and three succeeding thereof proposed by the Supreme court namely Mohamad LaizaMarzuki, Sudarsono, and MarwahSiahaan. Please read: “Hakim Konstitusidijyjyhkam” (“Constitution court is strengthened”) I, Kompas 17, 2003, page 1; and Tempo newpaperm August 14, 2003. 4. Please read Inzroduction of JimlyAsshidiqie in constitution court : Constitution Compilation, Law and Regulations in 78 States, Centre of Study of Constitutional Law, University of Indonesia, without year page 1. 5. David P. Currie. The Constitution of the United States. A primer for the People, Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press, 1988, page 14; and Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law an Introduction, Second Edition, translation by WisnuBasuki, Jakarta, Tatanusa, Editt. 1, 2001, page 251. 6. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, Cambridge, Massahusetts, Harvard University Press, 1978, page 142. 7. Please read K.C. Wheare, Modern Constitution, London : Oxford University Press : 1975, page 67-136. In the said book K.C. Wheare divided the way of amendment of constitution into four types, namely formal amendment; some primary force; judicial interpretation, usage and convention. 8. Jimly Asshiddiqqie, opcit, page 2. 9. Supreme Court Regulation(Perma) No.2 of 2002 on the Procedure of Organization of Authority of the Constitution Court by the Supreme Court. In said Perma inter alia it was decided that the procedure to submit application on testing the law against CONSTITUTION, dispute of authority of inter state institutions the authority thereof is given by 1945 Constitution, investigating, hearing/trying, and resolving the opinion of DPR (House of People’s Representatives) that President and Vice President are presumed have made an infringement as referred to in Article 7B Paragraph (1) of 1945 Constitution and the Amendments thereof shall be submitted in the form of application. 10. Through the Judgment of the Constitution Court Number 072.073 PUU.II/2004 the direct election of district heads was declared as General Election. However later in the Judgment of the Constitution Court Number 97/PUU-X 1/2013, the direct election of district heads was declared not a general elections as referred to in Article 22E of 1945 Constitution. 72 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri and Mevi Primaliza
11. The decrease of authority of the Consultative Assembly itself is opposing the party that is doubtful if the amendment of the constitution is handed over by the parliament (Assembly(, then the parliament will be difficult to be agreeable to decrease its authority. 12. Please see Republic of Indonesia, Constitution of the State of the RI (Republic of Indonesia) of 1945, Article 7B Paragraph (1) and Article 24C Paragraph (1) 13. TaufigurrohmanSyakuri, Procedure of Amendment of the Constitution of the State of Republic of Indonesia of 1945 and the comparison thereof with the Constitution of Other State. Dissertation of Legal Science, University of Indonesia of 2003, page 307 14. The victory of Clinton has already been presumed before, because at the impeachment judicature of Senate level, the votes were indeed splitted up into the Republic can party. Vote, that since the impeachment case has been rolled on at the house of People’s Representatives of the United State America in last December, there was an effort to impeach clinton was supported by 45 votes, whist the Democat fortification that defended Clinton was supported by 45 votes. Please read : “clinton was free”, Kompas, Jakarta, February 13, 1999. 15. Negative legaislative is the appearance of new legal norm in law/ordinance resulting from any contents of subject matter in the said law that had been eliminated by the Judgment of MK (Contribution Court) 16. MK (Contribution Court) judgment about the testing of Law on Matters pertaining to Electricity, and Law of “KKR” (MK (Contribution Court) Judgment Number 006/PUU-IV/2006) References
Compilation of Constitution, Law and Regulation in 78 Status, Center of Study of Constitution Law, University of Indonesia, without year. David P. Currie, The Constitution of the United States, A prince for the People, Chicago and London : The University of Chicago Press, 1988. Jimly Assehiddiqqie, Model-Model Pengujian (Constitutional di berbagai negara, Jakarta; Mahkamah Konstitusi, 2006. (aslinya dalam bahasa Indonesia, Terjemahannya sebagai berikut) : Jimly Asshiddiqie, Models of Constitution Testing in Various states, Jakarta : Constitution Court, 2006. K.C. Wheare, Modern Constitution, London : Oxford University Press : 1975 Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law, In Introduction, Second Edition, translation of Wisnu Basuki, Jakarta : Tatanusa, Edit 1, 2001 Republic of Indonesia, Constitution of the State of the Republic of Indonesia of 1945, Article 7 B Paragraph (1) and Article 24 C Paragraph (1) Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1978 Authority of Constitution Court of the Republic of Indonesia 73
Taufiqurrohman Syshuri, Prosedur Perubahan UUD Negara RI Tahun 1945 dan Perbandingannya Dengan Konstitusi Negara Laink Disertasi Ilmu Hukum, University Indonesia, 2003 Taufiqurrohman Syahuri, Procedure of Amendmetn of Constitution of State of the Republic of Indonesia of 1945 and the Comparison thereof with the Constitution of Other States, Dissertation of Legal Science, University of Indonesia, 2003 ê
Article Received on October 03, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 7
A Study on Tactile Defensiveness in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Amrita Roy*, Himadri Ghosh** and Isha Bhatt***
Autism is a wide range of neuro developmental disorder which is characterized by social and communication challenges, stereotype behaviour, sensory processing disorder etc., hence it is also known as Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism is a long lasting and life-long condition. Not many studies have been conducted in epidemiological studies of autism in India, but the estimated figure are rising continuously. Children with ASD are typically unable to viably handle the tangible information’s from their environment. Many children with autism also experience sensory related issues such as difficulty in processing information from the surroundings and tactile defensiveness is one of them. The most Common Signs of tactile defensiveness are extraordinary responses or overwhelming response to senses of touch, sounds, sights, movement, taste and smell. Children with tactile defensiveness get fomented by light touch and dislikes getting cuddled. They are extremely delicate to sounds, and light , they squints, flickers, or rubs eyes every now and then. They additionally encounter difficulties in motor skills and body awareness, including fine motor delays for e.g., trouble in composing, drawing, joining pop dots and snap-together building toy. Some of them have gross motor delays for e.g., strolling, running, dressing, clothing, climbing stairs, finding a ball, moves awkwardly or appears clumsy. Oral motor and feeding issues, including oral touchiness, frequent dribbling or choking, picky eating, Speech and language delays, all these delays in day to day activities and behavioural issues , results in frequent meltdowns and anxiety in children with autism. The application of deep touch pressure has been suggested to provide positive effects, have a substantial calming in mood, and better control of behaviour in the children with autism , * Assistant Professor, Knitwear Design Department, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi -110016 (India) E-mail:
However, empirical and theoretical evidence linked to the clinical effects of deep touch pressure are relatively rare. A few Studies have demonstrated that wearing therapy garment such as weighted garment, air pressure garment, compression clothing have a positive outcome in children with autism , however there are a few examinations that have mixed results and in some beneficial outcomes of wearing of weighted vests is not very clear. Over all there is not much information on therapy clothing for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder are available in India. This study plans to explore what all sensory challenges the children with ASD are facing and what all clothing products are currently utilized for the therapy purpose for children with ASD in Delhi NCR and encourage a knowledge for need of clothing design that may ease the tactile issues and reduce the anxiety. [Keywords : Autism, Sensory processing, Tactile Defensiveness, Anxiety, therapy garment /clothing, Deep touch pressure]
1. Introduction Autism is a neuro developmental disorder characterized by qualitative impairments in social interaction and communication skill, along with a restricted repetitive and stereotyped pattern of behaviour (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). There is a varying degree of impairments, with a wide range of symptoms including difficulty in communication and social skills along with repetitive behaviours, and deficits in sensory perception hence it is identified as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) The term ‘autism’ originates from the Greek word “ autos,” which signifies “self.” was first used by Eugen Bleuler, a Swiss psychiatrist, he started using it around 1911 to refer to schizophrenia. It portrays conditions in which a person is isolated from social communication and interaction (Feinstein Adam 2010). Many children with autism are diagnosed with sensory defensiveness. They have varied and odd reactions to certain sensory stimuli, common symptoms may include over sensitivity to unexpected touch or light touch, sudden movement, excess of noise or visual stimuli and certain types of smell. In autism, the individual is unable to process the sensory information from their surrounding environment, thus making it hard for them to use the sensory information for functional purposes, known as sensory dysfunction. This results in interference with the learning process which in later stage may cause behavioural and attention problems in the child. These behavioural problems can be partially be a result of these sensory challenges. Hence occupational therapists from all over the world include some sensory integration therapy which can help some of the related behavioural problems. The tactile system plays a foremost impact in determining physical, mental, and emotional human behavior. This tactile system gives us the information that is essential for an individual to perform daily activities. Complication in processing of tactile sensations is referred to as tactile dysfunction. 76 Amrita Roy, Himadri Ghosh and Isha Bhatt
Tactile defensiveness means negative or adverse response to certain types of tactile stimuli (Royeen et al. 1989). The individual with tactile defensiveness may experience extreme sensory input and can have great difficulties in their daily lives and routines. There are many challenges that these autistic children may be experiencing. For example, they are unable to maintain balance, they have oversensitivity to touch and may experience pain. They may be constantly aware of the clothes they are wearing and sensitive to the feel of certain fabric textures, certain types of clothing, such as socks with seams, tags and garment seams. They feel uncomfortable and distracted wearing these garments as they create discomfort and lot of chafing with the body. Individuals who have tactile dysfunction are regularly unfit to complete everyday life exercises. Regular attributes shown by children are: poor balance , difficulty in holding a prone position ,clumsiness, gravitational uncertainty ,so they dislikes swinging, climbing, hopping. They breaks toys effortlessly, experience issues in figuring out how to tie shoes, riding bike, zip or catch garments, additionally deferred dialect improvement, poor eye-hand coordination, poor motor planning, aversion to touch (especially light touch), certain smells, lights, or commotions, dislikes getting hands dirty, dislikes going barefoot, and drops things frequently Individuals may fluctuate in their tactile reactions relying upon their mind-set, the season, the time of day, and other ecological components (Haar, S. J., 1998). Children with ASD who have certain eating issues such as fussy or picky eating should be screen for tactile defensiveness ( Annatjie M. Smith, et al., 2003) . Children with tactile defensiveness (hypersensitivity to touch/tactile input) will avoid touching, become fearful of, or bothered by the following tactile experiences such as textured materials/items, “messy” things, vibrating toys, hug, ,kiss, certain clothing textures, rough or bumpy bed sheets, seams on socks, tags on shirts, light touch, hands or face being dirty, shoes and/or sandals, wind blowing on bare skin, bare feet touching grass or sand (Chirstopher, S., 2018) Children with higher levels of tactile defensiveness were also more likely to evidence behavioural issues , repetitive and stereotype behaviour, and abnormal focused affections that are often associated with autism.(Baranek G T et.al,1996) As a result of these characteristics, many parents and professionals are still unaware of handling children with tactile defensiveness. The child may be so much distracted by the constant sensory input from the surrounding environment that he/she can develop great distress. An autistic child might want to dress from head to toe in soft sweat clothes, even in hot weather, as this prevents his skin from being exposed to tactile stimulation and decrease the sensory invasion of his nervous system. The slightest accidental bump from another person may feel like a threat and he may lash out in defense. The child may dislike group games, or holding hands with a partner can be agonizing. The child A Study on Tactile Defensiveness in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 77 may be afraid of the possibility of being touched by another child. The child may not be unable to concentrate on school work because his brain’s filtering system is not able to screen the information such as the feel of bench, the sharp edges of the paper, the air flowing through the room, etc. It might create the impression that the child is impulsive, rash, hits others and himself also, however nobody comprehends that he is constantly battling against the perceived raid of his space as interpreted by his brain but no one understands (Chirstopher, S., 2018). Around 5%-15% of children of playschool-age in the overall community exhibit difficulties with sensory processing (Srivastava A ,2016 & Ahn RR , et al. 2004 ). Additionally, a vast number about 95 % of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) demonstrates sensory dysfunction related behaviour (Tomchek SD, 2007). Research Involvements related to sensory or tactile activities is one of the most commonly asked area by the parents and guardians of the children with ASD (Srivastava, A., 2016) . Many children with ASD have unusual reactions to certain sensory stimuli, some overreacts to week sensory input , but others do not respond negatively to strong stimuli (Guclu, et.al, 2007). Majority of evidences describing sensory processing disorders was identified by observing autistic children with sensory processing disorder with retrospective videotape analysis ,interviewing parents (Tomchek, S. D., Dunn W., 2007) and Occupational therapist professionals , by experiencing sensory processing disorder methods and reviewing literature. Sensory dysfunction is a developmental disorder defined by deficits in the central processing of vestibular, proprioceptive, and tactile sensory inputs that are not attributable to either peripheral or cortical central nervous system dysfunction (Ahn R. R., Miller L. J. et al., 2004). During late 1950s and early 1960s the Sensory Integration theory was developed by A. Jean Ayres (Mailloux, Z. et al., 2011). According to Ayres, it makes difficult to process and use sensory information for useful purposes which can meddle with the person’s learning process and might cause behavioral issues . Studies shows that, covering a child with in a gym mat along with pillow caused a substantial calming in mood, and better control of behaviour (Ayres A. J. & Jeff Robbins,1979). Temple Grandin a worldwide well-known researcher and also an autistic person herself, has designed deep touch pressure “squeeze machine” which applies horizontal and internally guided weight to the individual’s whole body, by compressing the client between two froth cushioned machine. Clinical perceptions and a few examinations propose that that deep touch pressure helped the user to learn to endure touching, to diminish uneasiness and anxiety, it beneficial for autistic children (Edelson S.M., et al., 1998). The squeeze machine reduced her 78 Amrita Roy, Himadri Ghosh and Isha Bhatt anxiety, decreased her tension, expanded her resilience of touch and had a noteworthy effect in her personal satisfaction. The application of deep touch pressure has been suggested to provide positive effects, have a substantial calming effect in mood in those with high levels of arousal and anxiety (Edelson S. M. et al., 1998) and helpful in organizing the central nervous system (Vanden Berg, 2001) which results in and better control of behaviour in the children with autism. However, empirical and theoretical evidence linked to the clinical effects of deep touch pressure are relatively rare (Hsin-Yung Chen, 2011). A few Studies have demonstrated that wearing therapy garment such as weighted garment, air pressure garment, compression clothing have a positive outcome in children with autism , however there are a few examinations that have mixed results and in some beneficial outcomes of wearing of weighted vests is not very clear (Stephenson J. & Carter M., 2008) . Clothing mainly in the form of weighted vest, are being utilized to calm children with autism (Brian Reichow et al., 2009). Other weighted items to wear or drape on the body are now available, mainly through occupational therapy catalogues and via internet are collars , quilts, arm, ankle bands, shoulder wraps, belts and snug sleeping bags etc. which provide both pressure and comfort to the user. Studies says that psychological well-being can be firmly affected by the feeling of touch. The Wilbarger Protocol and therapeutic holding are effective successful tactile reconciliation treatments. The Wilbarger Protocol depicts three sorts of touch honed as a major aspect of tactile coordination treatment : 1) brushing, 2) joint pressure and 3) weight. Advisors utilize their hands to apply profound weight to different parts of the body, trailed by the utilization of a delicate brush to the skin and finished up using a substantial weight, for example, a weighted blanket. This treatment is drilled each couple of hours for a few minutes for whatever length of time that one year. Studies reveal that these sorts of touch treatment can help regard issue, for example, dementia, depressive issue, nervousness issue and anxiety disorders (Cati Vaucelle et.al,, 2009) . Over all there is not much information on therapy clothing for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder are available in India. This study plans to explore what all sensory challenges the children with ASD are facing and what all clothing products are currently utilized for the therapy purpose for children with ASD in Delhi NCR and encourage a knowledge for need of clothing design that may ease the tactile issues and reduce the anxiety.
2. Method A descriptive and qualitative study on “A study on Tactile defensiveness in children with Autism spectrum Disorder” was carried out to study the presence of A Study on Tactile Defensiveness in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 79 tactile defensiveness in children with autism in various tactile components. The researcher has used Purposive sampling/non-probability sample method for selection of sample. The sample comprised of 32 children with autism in the age group of 3 to 15 years with Autism spectrum disorder was chosen. A self-prepared sensory processing questionnaire was used and data was collected from three special schools and four occupational therapy centres from across Delhi by using direct observation, parental/guardian Interview and interaction with occupational therapist and special educators and care givers. Data was descriptively analyzed and a database was generated that connects the design elements to the attributes of ASD. The following factors were analyzed: tactile sensitivity, clothing, deep pressure, weighted / compression garment. To protect the identity, names of the respondents were changed. Some further significant information like the interview of sibling, grandparents, physical therapists, instructors at rehabilitation center, speech therapists, of the child will be included in the data collection period. 3. Findings/Result and Discussion For most of us, wearing clothes gives us protection, warmth and comfort, but for some children with autism it can be terrifying. Few children can’t tolerate certain items such as elasticated pants, undergarment, belts, caps ,hats, shoes can give a feeling of overwhelming to some children. Some children can’t withstand anything that touches neck such as high neck t shirt, clothing with collar . Findings in this area is limited for such apparent behaviors of Sensory, tactile sensitive children, particularly towards apparel and clothing ranging from innerwear to outerwear. In India, studies on therapy garment for autistic children are not been explored. Therapeutic garment such as weighted vest, compression garment and air pressure garments are not found easily in India, limitation of commercially available therapy clothing products have been identified . The researcher have found, on 50% of children, weighted cuffs for anklets and wrist are given by the occupational therapist. There is no specific size and weight used for different age group in the therapy centres, and the weighted cuffs used are unisex and can fit any size wrist or ankle that can be tighten or loosen by an adjustable velcro attachment as per the required size. The exterior fabric material are made up of synthetic material generally neoprene and colours are grey, beige, blue and black. Only 72% of parents are not aware of the compression clothing used as therapy clothing for ASD. The use of weighted vest, air pressure jackets and compression vest are rarely used by the therapist in medical centres. Parents of children are unable to find the right product for children in India such as weighted Jackets/vest and compression clothing, weighted vest are usually custom-made by parents and therapists. Some of the parents try to order from abroad which becomes very costly. 80 Amrita Roy, Himadri Ghosh and Isha Bhatt
It was found that the sensory issues exhibited by children is different for each child, relying upon their mood, the season, the time of day, and other ecological components. All the seven senses such as touch, taste, smell, sound, sight, vestibular and proprioceptive, plays an important role in sensory processing and every one of these inputs contribute in regulating responses to sensory stimuli. All these senses gives information to an individual and contribute in proper functioning in day to day activities, any hindrance in perceiving these information by brain can cause sensory dysfunction. About all the children with ASD demonstrate that they have one or other sensory problems. The issue of Sensory defensiveness can keep a child away from play and from basics of learning and social associations. The researchers have found that about 72% of children with ASD have frequent tantrum and meltdown and 87% of children exhibit repetitive and stereotype behaviour. The researcher have found, 81% of children between the age group 3 to 15 years are given deep touch pressure, 85 % are given sensory brushing and 63% are given vibrations by the therapist in occupational therapy centres to reduce the sensory challenges and helps the child nervous system to become more organized which assists the child with improved attention span and better performance in their day to day lives . Tactile defensiveness is discussed under the following factors - touch, distance, clothing, grooming & food habits : Touch : Often, children with tactile defensiveness who are hypersensitivity to touch will abstain from touching, become fearful of, or bothered by textured materials/items, certain apparel surfaces, creases and seams on socks, labels on articles of clothing. About 59 % of children dislikes when touched by other people , 53% of children find it intolerable when cuddled or hugged but 25% of children lacks the normal awareness of being touched. Sameer, a 5 year old boy, would anticipate that a person would touch him and try to move away . If anyone touches him, he responds with panic and then gets annoyed and try to move him /her by his hands. Pritam a 7 year old boy dislikes being kissed and rubs his face continuously at the place if kissed, since the feeling of touch is so overwhelming for him to withstand. He also feel immensely ticklish by touch, even slightest of air blowing to his skin makes him ticklish. Sometimes an autistic child touch, smells or taste an object more than usual than other children before using it. It was found that about 41% of children with ASD touch, smell or taste toys, clothes, or foods more than usual. Distance : Dilip 10 year old boy, screams when others come too close to him, he becomes fearful and withdraws from the activity completely, he also sometimes holds the person coming near him too tightly and pinch so that the person gets back. About 37 % of children dislikes standing in close proximity to other people or A Study on Tactile Defensiveness in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 81 peers. It might create the impression that the child is impulsive, hits others, however nobody realizes that he is constantly battling against the apparent raid of his space as interpreted by his brain. Grooming : it is observed that 72% of children resist brushing teeth and 66 % of children resist getting groomed and avoids hair brushing, hair cutting and nail cutting. 41% of children dislikes messy play that involves playing with mud, clay or playing with poster colours. Anything that feels sticky or dirty they will not touch, becomes defensive and resist such activities and try to wash that place repeatedly. Anyway, their play is limited, this further limits their play and learning experience. Clothing : About 19% of children are bothered by seams and tags in clothing and 47 % of children dislikes wearing garment with collars or wearing socks and undergarment. 31 % of children find it difficult to adjust to clothing due to change of weather. 53 % of children declines to wear stiff clothes and clothes with rough textures. Rohit a 7 year old boy ,is constantly aware that he is wearing jeans which have a hard texture that touches his skin, he gets irritated while wearing jeans and trousers with elasticated waist, unable to put his thoughts he does all sorts of tantrums such as screaming, scratching and pulling it to avoid wearing the garment. Children who are hypersensitive to touch refuses to wear socks and undergarments. Amar a 6-year-old boy wears undergarments just while going outside, but quickly removes it when he reaches home. He likewise gets pestered by seams and tags in garments and tries to pull and lift the shirt or t-shirt as often as possible. He also feels annoyed when he wears lowers with rib attachment at the bottom as the seam crease contacts his ankle. Sameer dislikes wearing socks, as the seams inside the socks hurts his feet and he is constantly pulling it till he removes the socks. He likewise dislikes wearing strappy shoes that touches his feet and tries remove it often. Ujjval is very particular about the clothing he wears, he refuses to wear garment with collars and irrespective to the weather hot, humid or cold, he prefers wearing full sleeve t shirt and full length knitted pants all the time. He also cant withstand the breeze blowing on his skin, can’t sit in a room where the fan is blowing too fast. Food habit : It was observed that 44% of children are picky eaters, and they are also sensitive to rough food textures. Keeping in mind the child’s fussy eating habits, mothers to provide them a balanced diet make a smooth paste the food and then feed them. But for an autistic person with limited verbal capability, who might be easily distracted by sensory information, the task of keeping them calm can be very tough for parents. It is found that about 72% - 78 % of children are engaged in repetitive 82 Amrita Roy, Himadri Ghosh and Isha Bhatt and self-stimulating behaviour, so that they can pacify themselves from these sensory overload. However, this problem can be improved by introducing a range of seamless garments with compression knits which can induce deep touch pressure using knitted tension, which will help in regulating the sensory input as it gives a hug like feel for the tactile sensitive people which can be used for daily wear as well as can be used for therapy purpose. Wearing compression clothes can calm and soothe them, make them more relaxed improve their condition and also give them added benefit of therapy which help them control anxiety. Then they can concentrate more on other day to day activities and it will also help to gain their self-esteem. An investigation of this kind will encourage the parents to understand and adapt to the specific needs of these children and plan strategies according to their needs. Further studies should be done for developing prototype sensory clothing that can help reduce sensory issues and reduce anxiety and improve the concentration in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Acknowledgement
We gratefully acknowledge and thank Founder and Directors of Special school, Occupational therapist, Special educators, team members and staff members and families of Action for Autism ,Jasola Vihar ; Amar Jyoti Charitable trust ,Occupational Therapy centre, Karkarduma; Beautiful Mind Clinic, Janak Puri; Holy Heart Special School, Dwarka; Sparsh Special School, Rohini; Tamanna School of Hope, Vasant Vihar; OT4KIDS, Greater Kailash and Hari Nagar Delhi, for their support in this study. References
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Cati Vaucelle, Leonardo Bonanni and Hiroshi Ishii, Design of Haptic Interfaces for Therapy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1518701. 1518 776). Chen, H.Y.,Yang Hsiang , Chi H.Ju, Chen H. M., “Physiological Effects of Deep Touch Pressure on Anxiety Alleviation : The Weighted Blanket Approach”, Journal of Medical and Biological Engineering, 33(5), 2011, 463-470. Christopher, S., “Hyper tactile dysfunction in children with autism”, Indian Journal of Applied Research, 8(3), 2018, 30-31. Edelson S.M., Edelson M. G., Kerr David C. R., Grandin T., “Behaviour and Physiological Effects of Deep Pressure on Children with Autism : A pilot Study Evaluating the efficiency of Grandin’s Hug machine”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53(2), 1998, 145-152. Feinstein, Adam, A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers, West Sussex,U.K. : Wiley-Blackwell Publication, 2010 (Retrieved from http://books.google.com). Haar Sherry J. The Design of a Therapy Garment for Preschool Children with Sensory Integration Dysfunction, PhD thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, 1998. Mailloux, Z., Mulligan, S., Roley, S. S., Blanche, E., Cermak, S., Coleman, G. G., et al., “Verification and clarification of patterns of sensory integrative dysfunction”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65, 2011, 143-151. doi: 10.5014/ajot.2011. 000752. Royeen, C. B., & Fortune, Jim C., () “Touch Inventory for Elementary-School-Aged Children”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 44(2), 1989, 155 -159. Shin, Su-Jeong Hwang, Smith Brianna, and Gaines Kristi, Investigation of Therapy Clothing Products for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders, International Textile and Apparel Association, 2015, ITAA Proceedings, #72 . Smith, A. M., Roux S., Naidoo N. T. R., Venter D.J. L., “Food choices of tactile defensive children”, Elsevier Nutrition, 21, 2003, 14 -19. Srivastava, A., “Neuroscience Basis for Tactile Defensiveness and Tactile Discrimination among Children with Sensory Integrative Disorder”, Open Access Journal of Neurology & Neurosurgery, 1(5), 2016. Stephenson, J., Carter M., “The Use of Weighted Vests with Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Other Disabilities”, J Autism Dev Disord, DOI 10.1007/s10803-008-0605- 3. Tomchek, S. D., Dunn W., “Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the Short Sensory Profile”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(2), 2007, 190-200. VandenBerg, Nancy L., “The Use of a Weighted Vest To Increase On-Task Behavior in Children With Attention Difficulties”, The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(6), 2001, 621-628. ê
Article Received on October 24, 2018; Accepted on December 05, 2018 8
Reproductive Health : Concept and Determining Factors
Shivani Katara*
This paper intends to provide an introduction to the issue of reproductive health through secondary analysis of research papers and articles from peer-reviewed journals. Some studies present a conceptual overview, while others deal in greater depth with specific aspects of reproductive health. While all views and perspectives are not equally represented, this paper seeks to provide as broad a spectrum as possible, particularly in terms of thematic perspectives. [Keywords : Reproductive health, multi-sectoral approach, reproductive and sexual rights, reproductive choices, socio-structural factors]
1. Introduction Within the framework of WHO’s definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life. Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. There had been development and struggles around women’s health before International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo, Egypt from 5th to 13th September 1994. Prior to International Conference on Population and Development, 1994 the global priorities related to women’s reproductive health were focused on medical outcomes i.e. maternal and child health services and limiting population growth by * Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi (A-306, Supertech Apartments, Moradabad-244102, UP (India) E-mail:
According to Dixon- Muller (1993) the new paradigm of reproductive health refers to a woman’s capability to : (1) understand and enjoy her sexuality by gaining full knowledge of it; (2) regulate her fertility through access to services and information; (3) remain free of reproductive morbidity (and death); and (4) bear and raise healthy children. Makhlouf Obermeyer considers that the concept of reproductive health is culturally constructed, that is, a product of specific historical, ethical and legal transformations (Obermeyer, 1999). Reproductive Health Working Group (RHWG), an independent regional network comprising researchers mainly from Egypt, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Turkey, emphasizes dignity as a component of reproductive health. This is a concept which is absent from the ICPD definition. Thus, reproductive health covers all aspects of women’s health. It is an umbrella concept, consisting of several distinct, yet related issues such as abortion, childbirth, sexuality, contraception, and maternal mortality. Biological, social, cultural, economical, and behavioral factors play an important role in determination of reproductive health. Hence, reproductive health addresses women’s health, rights, and empowerment. 3. Issues within the Concept of Reproductive Health The concept of reproductive health has derived heavily from the notion of ‘biological vulnerability’ of women [Das Gupta et al 1995] (who are in fact, biologically the stronger sex!), and the concept of ‘life cycle’. This life cycle approach has transformed the social process of bearing and rearing children into an essentially biological event and by using reproduction as the criterion for defining stages of women’s life, denounce social tragedies like child marriages, deaths of young women in child birth, malnourishment and sexual exploitation or gynaecological suffering of widows and unmarried women. Exploitative processes begun in childhood which in fact, add on to the problems of various age groups. It is the ill-fed malnourished girl who becomes a sick, overworked, self- denying mother (Qadeer, 1998). Gender and reproductive roles are projected as purely intra-household events (Das Gupta et al, 1995), and therefore, further dissociated from the macro socio-economic process. Hence, by focusing the discussion on reproductive health in its “medicalised” garb, the issues of socio-economic influences and the links between general health and reproductive health are often missed. The United Nations Fund Population Activities, in a less commercial fashion, places reproductive health of women centre stage and links population, development, and environment to it (UNFPA, 1992). A clear example is the Bhopal gas disaster, where women’s reproductive health was badly affected (Sathyamala, 1993), as they bore the brunt of a callous industrial policy. But the problem of under nutrition is more fundamentally linked to agricultural policy, pricing and the public distribution system. 88 Shivani Katara
Thus, expanding the domain of reproductive health on the basis of only symptomatology will lead to a superficial and medicalised interventive strategy as a result underplaying the importance of industrial and agricultural policy shifts for health. 4. Determinants of Reproductive Health Women bear by far the greatest burden of reproductive health problems. They are at risk of complications from pregnancy, child birth and unsafe abortion. Among women of reproductive age, 36% of all healthy years of life lost are due to reproductive health problems such as unregulated fertility, maternal mortality and morbidity (Gupta, 2014). In general, two broad schemes of analysis have been used recently in the social sciences literature to examine reproductive health : (1) social-structural characteristics (2) reproductive rights explanation (Guang-zhen Wang and Vijayan K. Pillai, 2001). 4.1 Socio-structural Factors The extent of control over women and their reproductive choices is determined by social- structural factors. Sandhu (1996) in her book “Sociology of Fertility” has identified following factors affecting reproductive health of women (cf. Gupta, 2014): 8 Demographic and background variables : Caste, socio-economic status, education of the husband and wife, occupation of the husband and wife, household income, standard of living, age at marriage, duration of married life, perception of infant and child mortality. 8 Family action possibilities : Family type and participation of wife in decision-making, the custom of child marriage (emotional aspects of early sexual initiation are equally important) and female infanticide. 8 Family size attitudes : Value of children, ideal number of children preferred (Fertility) and son-preference. 8 Informational and attitudinal attributes : Political awareness, knowledge of family planning methods and attitude towards family planning. The control of women’s fertility was thus considered necessary for both economic and social reasons. Studies of the 19th and early 20th century show how the institutions of religion (Chakravarti, 1989), law and education (Desai and Krishnaraj, 1990) perfected the instruments of control (Qadeer, 1998). Also, various seclusion practices and other behavioural norms further reinforce women’s lack of freedom of movement, self-confidence and their acceptance of self-denial, including in matters relating to health seeking and food intake (Jejeebhoy, 1997). Afamia Kaddour, Raghda Hafez and Huda Zurayk in their study “Women’s Perceptions of Reproductive Health in Three Communities around Beirut and Reproductive Health : Concept and Determining Factors 89
Lebanon” explores how women attach meaning to the concept within specific socio- economic, familial and cultural contexts. Economic problems prevented them from meeting their needs and wants, including getting medical care during childbirth, and carrying out their responsibilities as mothers. Sharma and Niranjana (2001) further argued that the concept of social structure also covers social relationships expressed either through the role relationships and levels of interaction, amount of power and authority they exercise in relation to each other and privileges they enjoy by virtue of their respective position in the social hierarchy of the society. All these factors have an important impact on reproductive health of women. 4.2 Reproductive Rights Women’s reproductive rights include the right to determine the starting, spacing, and terminating of pregnancy or births (Cook 1993; Dixon-Mueller 1993; Correa & Petchesky, 1994). Four indicators of women’s reproductive rights are: right to legal abortion, personal right to interracial, interreligious, or civil marriages, right to equality of sexes during marriage and for divorce proceedings, and the personal right to use contraceptive pills and devices. The right to legal abortion is divided into eight categories based on the grounds on which abortion is permitted: illegal with no exception, to save the woman’s life, to preserve physical health, to preserve mental health, rape or incest, fetal impairment, economic or social reasons, or on request (United Nations, 1994). According to the 1994 Cairo Conference, reproductive rights are inseparable from reproductive health. This view is supported by the empirical findings from the study on developing nations titled “Women’s Reproductive Health: A Gender-Sensitive Human Rights Approach” by Guang-zhen Wang and Vijayan K. Pillai (2001). In this study it was found that the total fertility rate is negatively related to reproductive health and no empirical support was found for the expected relationship between reproductive health and social inequality. This study indicates an inverse direct relationship between women’s reproductive health and women’s economic status possibly because women tend to engage in low-paid and burdensome work thus exposing them to reproductive as well as overall health problems. Hence, women’s control over their reproductive health cannot be achieved by increasing economic gains alone. However, the hazardous effects of the organization and poor working conditions have not been adequately investigated. According to Dreze and Sen (2002), women’s education in general and higher education in particular is the most important factor towards restoration of reproductive health rights which makes the horizon of vision broader and helps to disseminate the knowledge of family planning. One of the most important correlates of reproductive rights is social inequality. There are glaring inequalities in the distribution of land, income, power 90 Shivani Katara and social positions in developing countries (Crenshaw & Ameen, 1993). The power arrangement involved in societal relations can leave women’s right to reproductive health care stunted. For e.g side effects of contraceptives and the disapproval by male partners; inability to control husbands’ sexual conduct and to refuse unwanted intercourse; women’s low social status and economic dependence on men made it difficult for women to negotiate for safe sex.
5. Conclusion The concept of reproductive health is not new but is a product of a process and is conditioned by the level of socio-economic development, the women’s status in the society, awareness and their access to medical services. International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), 1994 has been marked in history as one of the most significant global conferences ever on women’s health. For the first time in a UN setting, the concept of reproductive health was adopted. It drastically transformed the views and perceptions about reproductive health and brought the issues of reproductive rights and women’s empowerment to attention of millions of men and women around the world. The international community accepted it’s concept of linking family planning with the treatment and provision of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), the promotion of maternal health and reduction of maternal mortality, and addressed the broader issues of sexual and reproductive health, gender equity and sexual rights for both men and women. However, in their struggle to minimize life tensions, women are left with no choice except to choose between risks and adversities, where these risks are a mix of social, reproductive, economic, physiological and health factors. The denial of women’s autonomy in making reproductive choices and de-legitimization of their context-bound concerns, are in fact, counterproductive and disempowering (Qadeer, 1998).
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Article Received on September 29, 2018; Accepted on December 05, 2018 9
Role of Curriculum in Management Education : A Demographic Study
Sheetal Singh* and Alka Agarwal**
Provided the need to fill the gap between industry expectation and quality of management education, a study led to construction of a scale on Indian managers’ perception towards the management education curriculum- An Exploratory Factor Analysis (Singh and Verma, 2018). Total four factors were obtained namely Improve performance and thinking ability, Leadership and functional competency, Personal competency development and collaboration attitude. This study is an extension with the detailed analysis of the variables that constitute the constructs of the scale to answer the research question that what role does the curriculum play in management education to enhance employability as skills needed by the industry. In addition the analysis has been extended to examine whether there is a significant difference between the perceptions of respondents across various sub groups based on age, experience, gender, etc. Total 137 executives’ were included as sample for the study and they were well informed about the purpose of the study. Analysis has been done via descriptive statistics, ANOVA (analysis of variance), and independent sample t tests. Software tool employed for the purpose is SPSSv20.Findings indicate importance of aforesaid constructs in management education curriculum. Particularly the most important contributors in the scores are the variables like data management, managerial skills, decision making, basic knowledge, adaptive skills. Implications are for both industry and academia to design and execute right course contents in management education for budding managers. The study adds to dearth of literature on management education in Indian context. [Keywords : Curriculum, Management education, Demographic study] * Research Scholar, Mewar University, NH-79, Gangarar, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan (India) E-mail:
In the context of the European Union (EU), for example, competence is defined as “a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the context”, and key competencies “are those which all individuals need for personal fulfillment and development, active citizenship, social inclusion and employment” (European Parliament, 2006). The EU Reference Framework sets out eight key competence for lifelong learning, namely: communication in the mother tongue; communication in foreign languages; mathematical competence and basic competence in science and technology; digital competence; learning to learn; social and civic competencies; sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and cultural awareness and expression. Competence in fundamental basic skills of language, literacy, numeracy and information and communication technology (ICT) is seen as an essential foundation for learning, and learning to learn supports all learning activities. Students need to realize that education is not all about to attain good marks but to explore and develop personal capabilities for achieving success in career and life as well (Tran, 2013). Professional skills and competencies that were seen as a by-product of educational process in past, are now considered as a core part of a professional degree (Coll et al., 2002). Therefore, employability support in HEIs should be more holistic and go beyond the set of skills that one can acquire or be taught (Markes, 2006). Responsibility to enhance employability of graduates does not lie in the hands of a single party (Lim et al., 2016) instead, an effective coordination among students, industry, professional bodies, faculty, placement officers and directors of HEIs is needed (Ayoubi et al., 2017; Rao, 2014; Tran, 2013). In this context, authors have tried to find out the role of management course curriculum across different demographic profile of the respondent like age, experience, and area of the working.
2. Review of Literature According to Baruch (1996, p. 1) “the aims of MBA programs are to prepare their graduates for managerial roles, help them gain a better understanding of the industrial and business world and its needs, enrich their skills and provide them with competencies relevant to their careers.” “IBE UNESCO international bureau of education” has clearly defined the knowledge, skills and values which is build by curriculum of the course. The development in students of broadly defined competencies or capabilities, such as critical and creative thinking, depends on the integration of three broad learning domains: knowledge, skills and values. When used in this limited sense and contrasted with skills and values, the term, ‘knowledge’, refers to content knowledge, or to propositional, or declarative, knowledge, including, for example, both theoretical and empirical knowledge: knowledge ‘that’, as in “I know that …”. Role of Curriculum in Management Education : A Demographic Study 95
‘Skills’ refers to procedural knowledge, and includes, for example, cognitive and non-cognitive skills, ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ skills: knowledge ‘how’, as in “I know how…” ‘Values’ refers to dispositional knowledge, and includes, for example, attitudes (which are consequent on the values we hold), moral dispositions, and motivation, will and commitment: knowledge ‘to’, as in “I know to …”. Curriculum is typically a phenomenon which includes many dimensions of learning, including rationale, aims, content, methods, resources, time, assessment, etc; which refers to various levels of planning and decision-making on learning (for example, at the supra-, macro-, meso-, micro- and Nano-levels); or, international, national, local, classroom and individual levels; and which relates to multiple representations of learning. Hoberman and Mailick (1994) note that graduate students do not learn how to integrate the competencies needed to run an organization and relate to people. Haworth (1996) noted that employers have raised critical concerns about the often poorly developed communication skills, as well as interpersonal skills, of many advanced- degree recipients. According to International bureau of education (UNESCO), there is more of an emphasis in an increasing number of education systems across the world on preparing learners through the development of broad competencies or general capabilities. This acknowledges that, while still important, the learning, retention and repetition of knowledge is not enough. Our contemporary world is increasingly uncertain: constantly changing and presenting new challenges. It requires people to develop and apply new understandings and to adapt to new ways of doing things. To address these challenges it is increasingly being proposed that, across subjects and learning areas, the curriculum needs to develop student competency in such areas as: Communication; Collaboration; Critical thinking; Problem-solving; Creativity; The management and appreciation of diversity; and Learning to learn. Jaeger J. (2003) find that emotional intelligent can be improved through instruction in a classroom setting and it has positive correlation with academic performance. Emotional intelligence can be enhanced in graduate professional students through curriculum and pedagogical design. The IBE-UNESCO argues that achieving such learning demands the reorientation of national curricula to competence-based approaches, rather than simply the more traditional, subject-based approaches. It also requires the transformation of teaching, learning, and assessment to best support the implementation of competence-based curricula. In the curriculum domain the division between cognitive, emotional and ethical aspects is linked to the division between hard and soft sciences, or between scientific disciplines on the one side, and arts and humanities on the other. It seems clear that the countries making more progress in education design their 96 Sheetal Singh and Alka Agarwal curriculum proposals on the basis of a diversity of learning experiences connected to the demands and expectations of society and to students’ motivations (UNESCO-IBE, 2013). Although many schools acknowledge the importance of competencies or skills in graduate management education, many faculty still see them as the responsibility of the career placement office oradjunct faculty hired to conduct non-credit workshops.The challenge today is to integrate the development of these competencies into the curriculum as an essential element in its mission; in other words, to adopt the challenge of developing the whole person so that it is as fundamental to our objectives and methods as accounting. Full time MBA curriculum significantly improved on leadership, relationship, helping, sense- making, information gathering, information analysis, theory building, goal setting, action and initiative skills and self confidence derived from the total(Richard, E. and et al, 2002). Holistically oriented, learning-centered research curriculum seems to equip students with good, transferable employment-related knowledge and skills that successful managerial practitioners need to make intelligent, context-driven decisions in complex and dynamic business and market environments. Research oriented curriculum help the students to develop the critical understanding of research findings based on quantitative and qualitative knowledge production forms relevant to management practice. A constructively aligned two-year research curriculum also provides opportunities for students to gain meaningful, hands-on research experience and tacit knowledge in close interaction with both academic and work environments, tackling real management problems they are likely to face in the workplace. More than a decade later, the Karpin Report (1995) noted “an overemphasis on curriculums based upon the more scientific analytical areas of business, i.e. accounting, finance and economics had precluded the development and enhancement of key leadership and integrative skills, and had resulted in continued deficiencies in those graduating from Australian tertiary institutions”. This was noted by Fish (2013), while others including Schwartz (2010), Billsberry and Birnik (2010) and Dyck and Kleysen (2001) have reiterated earlier concerns that a strong emphasis remains within the business curriculum on developing the technical expertise at the expense of a more balanced approach between “the need for meaningful experience, and any educational/ scholarship” (Fish, 2013). Espey and Batchelor (1987) indicated such a contribution, having studied a programme tailored for a specific organization. They report how the company gained from the students carrying out projects and writing dissertations relating to the real needs of the company, thus making the graduates better managers, more involved and caring for the company, and experienced in personal development and self-actualization. The conclusion was that MBA studies in a tailored programme Role of Curriculum in Management Education : A Demographic Study 97 produce better decision makers who increase their knowledge of the company and thus improve both in the short and long term than those on conventional programmes. Thus, as Kane found, the importance of an MBA in recruitment decisions is increasing. Singh and Verma (2018) have identified the four factors on management curriculum after factor analysis. These four factors are as follows : 1. Improve performance and thinking ability (IPTA). 2. Leadership and functional competency (LFC). 3. Personal competency development (PCD). 4. Collaboration attitude (CA). Researchers have identified the gap in literature review that barely any studies have been conducted across the different demographic profile of Indian executive regarding the management curriculum. This study help to different stakeholder like students, academia and industry to reform their curriculum accordingly.
3. Objectives RQ 1 - What will be the importance of curriculum in management education? RQ 2 - Is there a significant difference in perception of executives of different groups of experience, age and gender?
4. Research Methodology Participation in the survey was voluntary & respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they felt the items of curriculum. Total 200 questionnaires were distributed among Indian executive who have done management course from management institution in Delhi/NCR. Total 157 filled questionnaires were gathered back, but only 137 considerable samples were made the part of the study due to the limitations of incomplete survey and missing values. Age, experience and gender were recorded of the respondent for demographic profile. Categories of age are below 25, 26-35 and 36-45 years. Respondents were also asked to report their Work experience under less than 5 years, 5-10 years and more than 10 years. Gender is recorded as male and female.The data was analyzed using SPSS 21.0 with appropriate tools like Descriptive Statistics, Independent sample T test and ANOVA.
5. Results Majorly young managers have participated in our survey whose age group lies between 26 years to 35 years. In our study majorly respondent have less than 5 years. Male respondent have major contribution to this study. 98 Sheetal Singh and Alka Agarwal
Table-1 : Demographic Profile of the Respondent
Age % Experience % Gender % Below 25 34 24.8 Less than 5 years 66 48.2 Male 75 54.7 26-35 66 48.2 5-10 years 52 38.0 Female 62 45.3 36-45 37 27.0 More than 10 years 19 13.9 Total 137 100 Total 137 100.0 Total 137 100.0 Table-2 : Mean Score across the 4 Factors Identified by (Singh and Verma, 2018)
Age IPTA Mean LFC Mean CA Mean PCD Mean Score Score Score Score Below 25 3.28 3.37 3.27 3.41 26-35 3.57 3.52 3.16 3.12 36-45 3.37 3.41 3.12 2.89 Total 3.45 3.45 3.18 3.13 Experience IPTA Mean LFC Mean CA Mean PCD Mean Score Score Score Score Less than 5 years 3.41 3.50 3.25 3.17 5-10 years 3.68 3.64 3.16 3.27 more than 10 years 2.94 2.79 2.95 2.63 Total 3.45 3.45 3.18 3.13 Gender IPTA Mean LFC Mean CA Mean PCD Mean Score Score Score Score Male 3.34 3.38 3.11 3.12 Female 3.58 3.55 3.26 3.14 Table-3 : Result of ANOVA and t Test across Different Demographic Profile
Age (F) Experience (F) Gender (T) IPTA 1.029 3.832** -1.401 LFC .282 5.283* -.978 CA .194 .673 -.886 PCD 1.699 2.079 -.095 *significant at .001, **significant at .05
6. Discussion Particularly the most important contributors in the scores are the variables like data management, managerial skills, decision making, basic knowledge, adaptive skills. Role of Curriculum in Management Education : A Demographic Study 99
ANOVA across demographic factors like gender, age and experience revealed that there is significant difference in the factors (LFC and IPTA) only across experience levels. It means male female think same, all age groups think same but perception about LFC & IPTA varies with experience level. Here there is difference in perception of managers of 5 to 10 years experience and more than 10 years experience (p<.05), with 5 to 10 years having higher mean than more than 10 years. It can explained as who have 5 to 10 years experience and have done their MBA in recent times realize that curriculum plays important role for IPTA. Perhaps they wished to have a better curriculum for batter match upto the level of performance expected from them. On other hand people who did MBA long time back and have more than 10 years experience. They have adjusted to industry having developed themselves as per industry and hence they don’t perceive curriculum as much important for IPTA. Further, there is significant difference between less than 5years experience and 5to10 years exp. And also between 5 to 10 years and more than 10 years experience managers. The mean scores of less than 5 years experience is higher than 5 to 10 years experience. Similarly mean scores if 5to10 experience is higher than mean scores of more than 10 years experience. It may be argued that with rising experience levels the executives give less importance to the role of curriculum in improving leadership and functional competency. This might be because getting acquainted with their functional and leadership roles with rising hierarchical levels, the executives realize that their curriculum dint actually prepares them to assume leadership roles and functional responsibilities later in careers. In other words those who have joined orgs in recent times utilize lessons from MBA curriculum to function well but gradually with passing career days they discover new experiential ways of doing things instead of applying bookish knowledge in performing their duties.The perceptual difference about IPTA and LFC (higher means scores by less experienced executives) may further be justified with Katz model that suggest that lower levels require technical skills (similar to IPTA &LFC) more as compared to the conceptual and human skills (similar to PCD&CA).
7. Implications, Limitations and Scope for Future Research Implications are for both industry and academia to design and execute right course contents in management education for budding managers.Based on the discussed ANOVA results, it is implied that there is no gender based or aged based perceptual difference amongst managers about role of curriculum in terms of Improving performance and thinking ability, Leadership and functional competency, Personal competency development and collaboration attitude. Therefore, Organizations shall better manage the talent that foster all four factors 100 Sheetal Singh and Alka Agarwal and realize its importance. However, there is implication that internal recruitment (promotion and transfer) should be preferred over external recruitment (campus and other hires) on the profiles at top and upper middle levels of the Organization. It is due the realization about importance of curriculum for IPTA and LFC amongst the fresher’s. A well exposed recruitment drive from various places may fetch better human capital in the workforce.Updated curriculum and inclusion of all latest management phenomenon therein enrich the workforce not only with IPTA, LFC but also with PCD and CA. In long run such young talent could climb up the career ladder to reach at senior levels in organizational hierarchy. Simultaneously, Training programs modules must also be upgraded in pace of the latest developments. Perhaps than the experienced senior level executives may not bear significantly different perception about role of curriculum. Implications are also for the researchers in the field to further examine the factors with different sample, demographics and contextual settings. The results are subjected to limitations of sample size, sample type, survey data and cross sectional design (one time data collection). The limitations may further be addressed by future researchers along with re-examination of the results of this study.
8. Conclusion The findings and discussion revealed answers to the research questions. RQ 1 - What will be the importance of curriculum in management education? And RQ2 - Is there a significant difference in perception of executives of different groups of experience. Age and gender, particularly it is evident that Indian executives of all age, experience and gender groups have agreed to the importance of management education curriculum for IPTA, LFC, PCD and CA. Hence the study points importance of aforesaid constructs in management education curriculum. Moreover, the perceptual differences about IPTA and LFC across experience levels have added a yes in the answer to RQ2. There are certain implication and future research scope as well. Also, the study adds to dearth of literature on management education in Indian context.
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Article Received on October 01, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 10
Promoting Constructivist Integration of Technology through Webquest
Vibha Prajapati* and Amar Singh**
This paper discusses the importance of technology integration in education in general and teacher education in particular. Technology by itself makes the classroom effective or do we have an appropriate model to integrate technology in effective way? Technology use should be embedded within a learning theory to support the methodology. Since the present thrust is on constructivist approach to teaching-learning, as it is also advocated by national level document, National Curriculum Framework 2005, therefore constructivism has been suggested as the framework for educational technology. Educational reform focused on the restructuring of education, incorporating constructivist view of learning and integrating uses of technology is the need of the hour. Using Webquest, allow us constructivist integration of technology, as it not only utilize technology in the form of internet based web resources but it is also based on sound principles of constructivism. Thus, this paper proposes the use of webquest as a means to achieve constructivist integration of technology. [Keywords : Constructivism, Technology Integration, Educational technology, Webquest, Knowledge application, Scaffolding, Cooperative learning, Critical thinking] 1. Introduction In the present educational scenario, the learner is considered as the centre of the educational system. To this end the focus has now turned to constructivist teaching practices from behaviourist teaching practices where learner was mostly passive. Constructivism allows for the active involvement of learner in the process * M.Phil. (Education), Jamia Millia Islamia, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar Marg, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi, Delhi-110025 (India) ** Assistant Professor, School of Liberal Studies, Azim Premji University and Azim Premji Foundation, Hosur Road Beside NICE Road, Electronic City, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560100 (India) E-mail:
Judson (2006) stressed on the relation between teachers with constructivist beliefs and their use of technology in the teaching-learning process. Researches have shown that teachers use and integrate technology more frequently if they have constructivist beliefs in comparison to teachers having behaviourist beliefs. Thus, there exist positive correlation between constructivist beliefs and use of technology by such teachers who have student-centered beliefs of teaching- learning process. The way the technology has been integrated with the content and frequency of usages of technology fosters student’s learning. The relationship between the teaching methods based on constructivism and use of technology suggest that teachers with constructivist belief use the technology more effectively as a learning tool. The amalgamation of technology uses and constructivist practices is the best way of using technology. Technology here is not an end itself, instead it a means to achieve the end (Rakes, Field &Cox, 2006).Teachers, these days, are not only willing to use technology in the teaching-learning context, but also willing to let the technology to change their pedagogic styles. If a teacher prefers constructivist teaching approach, he/she will also use the technology in the teaching-learning process. The World Wide Web (WWW) is important to instructional design based on technology (Lunenberg, 1998). Teachers need to consider the importance of World Wide Web while planning teaching-learning activities based on constructivism. One of the possible ways of achieving this is through the use of webquest, as they not only utilizes technology in the form of internet based resources but also supports constructivist learning. Thus, pedagogy of constructivist learning can be empowered through the use of webquest in pedagogical process. 2. Webquest : An Introduction Bernie dodge came up with the term “webquest” in 1995 during the conception stage of world wide web. As the internet usage increased at the university, he experimented ways in which technology can be effectively merged with teaching-learning process. As a result of all his efforts, he designed an activity to integrate web in teaching process and named it “webquest”. Dodge (1997) defined WebQuests as “an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that the learners interact with comes from resources on the Internet, optionally supplemented with videoconferencing” (as cited in Brito & Baía, 2007). The definition of webquest given by Bernie Dodge failed to completely explain the real meaning and theoretical constructs of the concept of webquest. Therefore, co-creator of the webquest, Tom March (2008) has expanded the original version of the definition as follows : “WebQuest is a scaffolded learning structure that uses links to essential resources on the World Wide Web and an authentic task to motivate students’ investigation of a central, openended question, development of individual expertise and participation in a final group process that attempts to 106 Vibha Prajapati and Amar Singh
transform newly acquired information into a more sophisticated understanding. The best WebQuests do this in a way that inspires students to see richer thematic relationships, facilitate a contribution to the real world of learning and reflect on their own metacognitive processes.” In essence it means that teachers search the reliable valid and useful web resources and give the annotated links to them. They also design a unique task linked with the resources (Dron, 2007). The idea is based on the fact that the World Wide Web contains such a vast amount of materials and information that renders it to a special educational tool. However, learners can easily be lost and distracted and thus need guidance if they are to benefit from the experience of surfing the Web. Therefore, teachers who use internet in their classrooms need to teach their learners how to effectively search for, access and evaluate information and they also have to limit their students’ adventures in order to avoid undesirable information popping up in the middle of their lessons. A WebQuest project offers a suitable framework for this as it employs critical thinking, relevant and contextual usage of web information; and inquiry-based learning(Chao, 2006). The design of a webquest lesson plan comprise of six parts namely 1) Introduction, 2) Task 3) Process, 4) Resources, 5) Evaluation and 6) Conclusion. These parts are constructed in such a way that there are least chances for the learner to navigate to websites which are not related to the content under consideration. The webquest parts have been described in following part : 2.1 Introduction The purpose of giving an introduction is to give the learner some background or previous information on the topic under consideration. The introduction is designed to draw the learners in the task. It should have relevance to the interest and needs of learners. 2.2 Task The task gives an explanation of what is required to be completed by students at the finishing point of webquest lesson plan. Here comes an important role of a teacher. The teacher is required to design the task or the activity or a problem in such a way that allows the learner to go beyond the knowledge and comprehension level of bloom’s taxonomy. 2.3 Process This part expands on the “task” part described above. It lays down the step by step description of the process to be followed by the students. Here the students may collaborate with their group members in pursuit of completing the task. They also synthesize and analyze the information and apply their critical thinking skills to modify the information in accordance with the webquest task. Promoting Constructivist Integration of Technology through Webquest 107
2.4 Resources Generally the resources which are used in a webquest activity are available online. They can also be made available offline or in the print version. The teacher provides the list of the web based resources in the form of web links which are used by learners in the completion of webquest activity. This also prevents the learners from navigating to unrelated web resources. The resources are valid and reliable, since they are given by the teachers after through research. 2.5 Evaluation The webquest also describes in detail the criteria and the dimensions on which the learners will be evaluated. The dimensions of the evaluation along with the allotted marks are provided with the webquest activity. Thus learners know in advance that on what bases they will be evaluated. Generally rubrics are used for the evaluation. 2.6 Conclusion This part marks the end of the webquest lesson plan. Here the learners are provided with the information which may extends to other larger domains. They can also reflect on what they have learned. The purpose is to encourage the learner to gain an in-depth knowledge about the content just completed.
3. Web-Based Lessons, WebQuests (as described in UNESCO, 2002) In a webquest, the information on which the learners work, to complete the webquest task is taken from the web. Therefore it is a task oriented activity. It is weaved around an authentic task which makes the best use of learners’ time. It allows the learner to use the information drawn in relation to the task under consideration and also enables them to apply their cognitive skills at the analysis, synthesis and evaluation (HOTS-Higher Order Thinking Skills) level of blooms taxonomy. The webquest model has relevance for all the stages of school and university education namely primary, elementary, secondary , senior secondary and graduate levels. They can also be utilized in variety of subject areas. in a lesson plan format it is best means to utilize the web resources towards educational ends.
4. Advantages of Using Webquest in Education Lamb and Teclehaimanot (2005) highlighted the benefits of webquest lesson plans. webquest have a tendency to transform the information consisting of mere facts and opinions in to an important learning experience. The webquest uses internet as the main source of information to complete the given task. The information is transformed by analyzing and synthesizing it. They have begun with a discussion on how webquests have their origin in the “constructivist philosophy, comprehension, authenticity, scaffolding, group based cooperative 108 Vibha Prajapati and Amar Singh learning, motivational, engaged learning” , context and situation prone learning milieu. The idea of constructivism is based on the fact that knowledge is constructed actively by the learner. The role of the teacher is to merely arrange the learning situation. In a webquest lesson plan the knowledge is weaved in the webquest task in the form of internet based resources. The task which is designed by the teacher is such which enables the learner to transform the information by applying critical thinking skills: like analyzing, classifying, deducing and synthesizing the information as per task. The learners in a webquest activity do not summarize and report back the information but they work upon it and transform it to complete the given task. Thus we can say that webquest utilizes the web resources towards an educational end. So the most important thing in a webquest activity is the webquest task which should be engaging, motivating and authentic. The parts of the webquest have been designed in such a way that they not only provide the learner with both procedural and conceptual scaffold which encourages them to complete the task. Thus with the webquest lesson plan the chances are more that learners will be active, engaged, motivated and develops sound understanding of the concept being explained. The parts of a webquest lesson plan are also designed to enable both group based activities and individual based activities. They also promote inquiry based learning as each member in a group assumes a full fledged role which helps the group or the team to solve a problem. According to Stein (1998) learning environment which provide more rigour and concentration on the part of the learner while taking up a task allows learners to develop expertise in the topic and eventually the subject, as such learning environments provide opportunities to reflect on the knowledge received. They also support both learner and facilitator to be more constructive and productive. They trigger the critical thinking skills in the pursuit of solving a problem. Quite a number of educators around the globe believe that webquest lends such learning environment(Yoder, 1999). Weinstein (2000) suggested that fostering critical thinking in the students the teacher should embed activities in the curriculum which elicits critical thinking of the students. Thus it is not a separate skill to be inculcated in isolation. Vidoni and Maddux (2002) in their study whereby they compared the design of the webquest lesson plan and the framework for critical thinking skills, came at the conclusion that the format of the webquest has all the six elements given in their framework for critical thinking. According to them, the parts and the structure of a webquest lesson plan is such which creates a learner-centered learning environment with teacher as a guide and facilitator. The students in this environment utilize their time effectively, they concentrate on the use of information and facts provided in the web resources rather than searching it on their own. They also allow the students to analyze, synthesize and evaluate the information, thus catering to higher levels of cognitive domain of blooms taxonomy. Promoting Constructivist Integration of Technology through Webquest 109 5. Four Underlying Constructs of Webquest The above discussion related to the advantages can be summed up under an umbrella term namely “constructs of webquest”. Webquest as an effective educational and instructional tool is supported by four latent constructs. These constructs are based on the principles of constructivism namely : knowledge application, critical thinking, social and collaborative skills and scaffolded learning. 5.1 Knowledge Application Webquest requires learners to go beyond simply reporting back the factual information. Information gathered through the web-links is transformed and applied in relation to the webquest task. According to Pohan and Mathison (1998) webquest enables learners to build skills to apply what they have learned to the entirely new learning situation. Thereby, promoting application based learning. Learners here are not simply retelling the information gathered, rather the information is being worked upon in accordance to the task. Thus, information is utilized effectively and knowledge is transferred to the new learning. Illustration : In a webquest focusing on understanding of three important theories of development in developmental psychology (Piaget’s cognitive development theory, Erikson’s psycho-social development theory and Kohelberg’s moral development theory), students are required to collect the information on the three theories through the web-links provided. After thoroughly understanding the theories, they need to choose a character from their neighbourhood and try to explain this character in relation to the particular stages of each theory by giving examples to support their claim. http://www.questgarden.com/41/05/6/061108165848/index.htm 5.2 Critical Thinking For the application of knowledge in accordance with the webquest task, critical thinking skills are required. A good webquest must engage learners in critical thinking. Webquest task should be such that compels the learners to analyze and synthesize the information by examining things from multiple perspectives. It is necessary that the webquest task should cater to the higher levels of the blooms taxonomy, thus webquest should be designed to facilitate the thinking skills of the learners at the level of synthesis, evaluation and analysis. Illustration : In the previous example, the students need to apply critical thinking skills in order to arrive at the description of the character chosen ie they need to analyze, synthesize and evaluate the character from the different perspectives of the different theories. They will be classifying the sample behaviour displayed by the character chosen and then categorizing the behaviour in terms of the characteristics of the stages of different theories. 110 Vibha Prajapati and Amar Singh
5.3 Social Skills Webquest task can be designed to promote interpersonal and small group skills. Typically every learner who participate in webquest have a role which help their group to accomplish a task. Thus, their collaboration in webquest learning environment develops social skills by promoting interaction, interdependence and accountability among learners. Illustration : The webquest on developmental psychology can also be tailored to make it a group activity, whereby students can be divided into the group of three. Each group member would study a theory in detail and then they can involve in a discussion whereby they can try to understand one another’s perspectives and their arguments in support of their claims. They can collaborate to arrive at the description of the character chosen from the perspectives of different theories. 5.4 Scaffolded Learning Webquests through their design, in the form of building blocks provides a scaffold to the learner. The Parts of the webquest are a strongly organized internet lesson which guides the learner towards the completion of the task within the allotted time. It enables the learners to focus on problems and connect between their learning activities and goals. Illustration : Again, in the previous example, the webquest is designed in a manner to provide the learners with both conceptual and procedural scaffolds. The web-links listed in the resources section guides the learners to develop an in-depth understanding of the perspectives of each theories. The webquest is designed in a manner which at every step, guides the learner towards completion of the activity.
6. Webquest and Teacher Education As per Strommen and Lincoln (1992) due to inadequate training provided in teacher preparation courses in teaching with technology, the current generation of student teachers are not well versed with the use of technology. As a consequence of this there is a mismatch between the schools and the needs of the society. (as cited in Matushevich, 1995). The learning environment arranged by the teacher is the reflection of teachers’ perception of the teaching-learning process. There are certain factors in the learning environment prepared by the teachers on which the learning approach of the students depends. generally there are two learning approaches: deep learning approach and surface learning approach. Deep learning approach is in consensus with student-centered teaching approach.Learners who approach the teaching-learning with surface learning approaches have different values and as a result, a different perception. The perception and approaches of teachers, and the teaching-learning environment they provide affects the perception of students. Promoting Constructivist Integration of Technology through Webquest 111
Successful integration of technologies resulting in improved and efficient learning is difficult to achieve unless teachers integrate and use technology as the inseparable part of teaching approach. To integrate technology, teachers need to plan and facilitate students ‘learning experiences which enhance and foster pupils’ high-order thinking skills (Wenglinsky, 1998). Thus in order to cater to the changing needs of the society, teacher education programmes must include a technology related professional course so that the teachers can develop skills to successfully integrate technology in their teaching (Loveless & Pellegrino, 2007; Schrum,1999). Thus, teacher education programmes must model the use of technology in the process of preparing teachers to teach in schools. If the student teachers get hands-on experience on using technology in their teaching then they are also able to design content based technology related activities (Loucks-Horsely, et al. 1998). Chou and Peng (2011) believe that Internet is a ‘double-edged sword’ with both boon and bane sides to it. On one hand internet with its information rich web resources offer plenty of opportunities to the students while on the other hand it is difficult to ensure the reliability and age appropriateness of the resources and content. Shopping sites, gambling sites, sexual content poses an altogether another kind of a challenge (Livingston, 2003). Thus teachers are reluctant to use internet and other technology based activities. Therefore, there is a need to guide them the ways which promotes risk free technology integration. If teacher preparation programmes will have appropriate professional development component, the teachers will be more at ease to teach with technology. King (2003) stressed on the use of webquest to give the pre-service teachers with sufficient understanding of integrating technology in their teaching and enhance their skills in using technology in class. Teachers’ perception of integrating technology into instruction affects the integration in actual classroom situations. If the teachers have opposite mind-set regarding using technology in the classroom, they may consider it as a distraction or not worthy enough to be used. With such shallow approach towards technology integration they may not utilize it for integrating the same in the teaching learning process. According to Ertmer (2005), the ultimate decision of using technology in the classroom lies with the teacher. Therefore, the attitudes and beliefs of the teacher about technology integration need to be taken care of and attempts should be made to change their perception. There are lot of instances which prove that the attitude and beliefs of teachers along with their own efficiency in teaching with technology plays a major role in how they perceive and use technology in their daily classroom instruction (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Zhao et al., 2002). Hughes et al.(2005) emphasized that if teachers think that there is a correlation with technology integration and the content which is taught, they will be more inclined towards integrating technology 112 Vibha Prajapati and Amar Singh into their pedagogy. The practical use of webquest in educational institutes has been well described by many scholars (Kundu & Bain, 2006; Zheng et al., 2005).
7. Conclusion We have seen that constructivism is a preferred paradigm over behaviourism since it is in consensus with the learner-centered teaching-learning approach. NCF 2005 has also acknowledged the constructivist rich teaching-learning practices. In order to cater to the changing needs of the society, integration of technology into teaching-learning practices is the need of the hour. Thus there is a need to look out for ways and the tools which promote constructivist rich integration of technology. Webquest allow us to achieve constructivist integration of technology, which is need of the hour. webquest have high relevance to teacher preparation courses which need to model the technology integration practices in order to equip teachers with the skills needed in today’s schools. On one side, webquest allow teacher to search the reliable and valid web resources on the internet so that the same can be utilized for technology integration. Thus teachers with less technological skills can make use of plenty of webquest activities available online. On the other side webquest develops skills in the teacher as well as in the learner to deal appropriately with the information. thus they have pedagogical value. Hence it can be conveniently concluded that webquest with its focus on constructivism based technology integration can prove to be an ideal and effective tool as the disposal of teachers in the 21st century.
References
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Article Received on October 09, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 11
Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur
M.C. Arunkumar*, P. Krishnakumari**, Narmada
Hidangmayum*** and Gangmei Akhuan Rongmei****
Teacher’s attitudes can have a significant impact on student’s educational growth. Understanding of the attitudes towards children with special needs could contribute to maintain a good relationship between teachers and students, which is crucial for effective inclusive practices. The present study on Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur was study at Imphal West and Senapati District. The objective of the present paper is to examine the attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive education. The sample consists of 166 teachers who were randomly selected from the Government and Government aided schools located in both the Districts. A 5- point Likert scale containing set of 13 questions were used to examine teacher’s attitudes. It was found that most of the respondents were neutral in their attitude towards inclusive education.28.3 percent of the teachers do not support the idea of inclusive education and very few teachers (4.8%) agree with the inclusion of children with special needs in regular classroom. Thus, the number of teachers who had negative attitude towards inclusive education outnumbered those who are positive indicating the needs of proper intervention and develop resources for teacher to have positive attitudes towards inclusive education. [Keywords : teacher’s attitude, inclusive education, primary schools teachers]
* Prof & Head, Department of Anthropology, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal West, Manipur-795003 (India) E-mail:
2. Material and Methods The present study on Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur was study at Imphal West and Senapati District of Manipur. 2.1 Population and Sample 166 teachers were randomly selected from the Government and Government aided schools located in both the Districts. The number of teachers taken up from rural areas is exceedingly high than those residing in urban areas for this study. Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur 117
Among the respondents, 55.4 percent were from Senapati (Undivided) District while 44.6 percent are from Imphal West District. Most of the teachers are from rural areas comprising 84.3 percent while only 15.7 percent of the respondents are urban residents. Majority of the schools taken up for this study are Government Schools run by the Department of Education constituting 86.7 percent. Only 13.3 percent of the school are Government Aided. 2.2 Tools Used for the Study To examine the attitude of teacher towards inclusive education we have used “Questionnaire of mainstream primary school teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education” developed by Peng (2009). This questionnaire comprises 4 parts. An introductory statement was attached to declare the purpose and significance of this research and assurance of confidentiality in the first part. The second section was open-ended questions to elicit respondents’ background information. The third section used a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, mildly disagree, not sure, mildly agree, strongly agree) format for items assessing respondents’ attitudes toward inclusive education. The last section designed one open question to ask for respondents to list three difficulties they were facing during implementing inclusive education in their regular classes. Totally, there were 23 items. For the third section, the possible responses vary from Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Not sure, Agree and Strongly Agree. A scale ranging from “1= Strongly Disagree” to “5= strongly agree” was set up. Depending on the response teacher made scores of 0-65 were possible. Three types of range are made depending on the score and the corresponding category is given. A score ranging from 48-65 is given for those teachers having positive attitude which means that such teachers support inclusion of children with special needs in regular normal classroom, a range of 31-47 are for those teachers with neutral attitude which means such teacher neither agree nor disagree with inclusive education while those teachers whose score range from 13-30 are taken as those with negative attitude which means that such teachers detest the opinion of including children with disability in normal common classroom. 2.3 Data Collection Procedure The data on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education was collected through questionnaire. 166 teachers from the selected schools were distributed the questionnaire on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education. All teachers returns the questionnaire after a week and analyses for the study. 3. Results & Discussion 3.1 Gender, Age and Educational Qualification of Teacher Demographic distribution of respondents by gender, age and educational qualification is shown by the table 1. The number of female respondents (61.4 118 M.C. Arunkumar, P. Krishnakumari, Narmada Hidangmayum & Gangmei Akhuan Rongmei percent) supersedes the male respondents (38.6 percent). Among the respondents, 40 and above years of age are majority with 41 percent followed by those whose age is between 30-39 years with 33.7 percent. Those belonging to the younger age group i.e. between 20-29 years are the lowest among the respondents for this study with 25.3 percent. The educational qualification of the teacher respondents ranges from those who have completed High School Leaving Certificate (HSLC) to Doctorate. Maximum numbers of the teachers are graduates with 59.2 percent, followed by those who have completed Masters with 28.3 percent. Those who are Matriculate and Doctorate are the least and have the same frequency with 1.8 percent each. Table-1: Distribution of Teacher by Gender, Age and Highest Educational Qualification
S.No. Variable Name Category Frequency Percentage 1. Gender Male 64 38.6 Female 102 61.4 Total 166 100.0 2. Age Group 20 - 29 years 42 25.3 30-39 Years 56 33.7 40+ years 68 41.0 Total 166 100.0 3. Highest Educational HSLC 3 1.8 Qualification HSE 15 9.0 Graduate 98 59.2 Master 47 28.3 Ph. D 3 1.8 Total 166 100.0 3.2 Teaching Children with Special Needs Teaching children with special needs in regular classroom is considered as a central point and has become a ‘global agenda’. The experience of teacher related to inclusive education either gained through in-service training of special education or research for inclusive education or teaching children with special needs in regular classroom helps a teacher in dealing with such children in a more positive manner. The impact of years of teaching children with special needs, in service training of special education on their attitude towards inclusive education is to be examined in this study. Special education training programs are conducted to overcome the challenges of teaching children with special needs. The program helps a teacher in working with children who have a variety of disabilities. Children with special needs require unique instruction by specially trained professionals to help them achieve their highest potential and strive to progress beyond their limitations. During special education training, teachers are trained to be patient, Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur 119 understanding educators dedicated to giving each individual student the tool and guidance needed to help children with special needs to help them maximize success. Special education teachers also involve themselves in each student’s academic, social and behavioural development. Teachers may have different attitudes towards the inclusion of students with special needs based on their years of experience, their training and their self-efficacy beliefs (Hastings and Oakford, 2003). The majority of the teachers believed that the regular classroom is not the best resource for children with special needs and their opinions of inclusion became more negative as their teaching experience increased (Gilmore et. al., 2003). A number of research studies suggest that teacher’s attitudes and teacher’s sense of efficacy have been imperative factors for inclusive education (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002). Avramidis and Norwich (2002) found that there are some factors which have an impact on teacher’s attitude towards the inclusion of students with special needs. These factors are : (a) those related to teachers such as gender, age, teaching experience and training; (b) those related to children such as the severity of the child’s disability; and (c) those related to environment such as the availability of personnel and financial support. Brownwell and Prajares (1999) posited that teacher’s possession of knowledge about disabilities helps them build confidence, increase their level of efficacy, and promote positive attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special needs. Table-2 : Teachers Experience Related to Inclusive Education
S.No. Item’s Name Category Frequency Percentage 1. I have taught student with Less than 1 years 18 10.8 disabilities in regular class 1-3 years 34 20.5 for 3-5 years 38 22.9 More than 5 years 41 24.7 No 35 21.1 Total 166 100.0 2. I am teaching in Grade1 12 7.2 Grade2 22 13.3 Grade3 55 31.1 Grade4 16 9.6 Grade5 54 31.1 Grade 6 3 1.8 Grade 7 1 .6 Grade 8 0 00 Grade 9 0 00 Grade 10 3 1.8 Total 166 100.0 120 M.C. Arunkumar, P. Krishnakumari, Narmada Hidangmayum & Gangmei Akhuan Rongmei
3. I have took part in the special Never 89 53.6 education training Pre-service 60 36.1 A periodicity & in service 7 4.2 Periodicity & in Service 10 6.0 Total 166 100.0 4. If you have experienced Less than one week 15 9.0 some in-service training of 1 week - 1 month 6 3.6 special education, the accumulative time is 2-6 months 1 .6 More than 6 months 9 5.4 Never 135 81.3 Total 166 100.0 5. I had done or I am doing Yes 5 3.0 some school based No 161 97.0 researches for inclusive education Total 166 100.0 Teaching experience in general and experience of teaching in inclusive settings in particular were among several factors that were shown to impact teacher’s attitudes towards the inclusion of pupils with special needs (Cook, 2001). Ernst (2006) posited that teacher’s experience and training is positively related with their support of inclusion. Table 3 shows that among the respondents, the number of teacher who taught student with disabilities for more than 5 years are highest with 24.7 percent, followed by teacher who taught such students for 3-5 years. 21.1 percent of the teacher did not have any experience with disabled students. 20.5 percent of the teacher taught student with disabilities in regular class for 1-3 years while only 10.8 percent of the teacher taught such student for less than a year. 31.1 percent of the teacher taken as sample for this study is teaching in Grade 3 and grade 5. Those who are teaching in Grade 2 comprise 13.3 percent while 9.6 and 7.2 percent of the teacher are teaching in Grade 4 and Grade 1 respectively. Majority of the teachers did not take part in any of the special education training. 53.6 percent of them never took part in the special education training. 36.1 percent undertook such training during their pre-service. Teachers who took part in special education training during periodicity and in Service constitute 6 percent while only 4.2 percent of the teachers are engaged in such training during A periodicity and in service. Among those who had experienced in-service training of special education, 9 percent of the teachers had undergone such training for less than a week while 5.6 percent of them had more than 6 months of training. 3.6 percent had such training for 1 week to 1 month while only 0.6 percent of the teachers undergo in-service training of special education for 2-6 months. Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur 121
For effective inclusive education, research and/or school based experiences are conducted. Such research are conducted to learn about the key indicators needed to have an inclusive culture and the factors that contribute them, to examine and challenge underlying assumptions, beliefs and value that influence behaviour. Schools also conduct self-assessment of school staffs attitudes, practices, policies and procedures around inclusion which will act as a resource in action planning towards school improvement plans. Thus, school based research for inclusive educations are conducted and teachers are involved in this process. During this study, majority of the respondents are not involved in such research activity as 97 percent gave negative response. Only 3 percent of the teachers gave positive response which indicates that minimal numbers of teachers are found to be engaged in such research. 3.3 Score on Attitude A scale ranging from “1= Strongly Disagree” to “5= strongly agree” was set up. Depending on the response teacher made scores of 0-65 were possible. Three types of range are made depending on the score and the corresponding category is given. A score ranging from 48-65 is given for those teachers having positive attitude which means that such teachers support inclusion of children with special needs in regular normal classroom, a range of 31-47 are for those teachers with neutral attitude which means such teacher neither agree nor disagree with inclusive education while those teachers whose score range from 13-30 are taken as those with negative attitude which means that such teachers detest the opinion of including children with disability in normal common classroom. Table 3 indicates the teacher’s attitude towards inclusive education. Table-3 : Teachers Attitudes toward Inclusive Education
Category Range Frequency Percentage
Positive Attitude 65-48 8 4.80 Neutral Attitude 47-31 111 66.90 Negative Attitude 30-13 47 28.30 Total 166 100.00 Most of the respondents are neutral in their attitude towards inclusive education. 66.9 percent of the teachers are found to be neutral scoring within a range of 31-47. 28.3 percent of the teachers do not support the idea of inclusive education which is indicated by their score ranging from 13-30 which points towards their negative attitude in including children with special needs within the normal class. Very few teachers agree with the inclusion of children with special needs in regular classroom. Only 4.8 percent of the teacher supports it as they score 48-65 which points towards their positive attitude to inclusive education. 122 M.C. Arunkumar, P. Krishnakumari, Narmada Hidangmayum & Gangmei Akhuan Rongmei
3.4 Teacher’s Attitude To examine the attitude of teacher towards inclusive education a 5- point Likert scale containing set of 13 questions were used. The possible responses vary from Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Not sure, Agree and Strongly Agree. The teachers selected for this study responded based on their perception concerning their stance towards inclusive classroom and separate classroom for children with special needs, their perceived ability to teach children with special needs. From the table 4 it could be observed that 31.9 percent of the teachers strongly agree that all children including the children with special needs should be educated in regular class. 21.1 percent agree with it but 22.9 percent disagree with this stance of inclusive education. 17.5 percent strongly disagree with the inclusion of children in regular classroom. 45.8 percent of the teachers agree that inclusive education can give academic improvement to both students with or without disabilities. 19.9 percent disagree with the statement. However, the number of teacher who strongly agrees is slightly higher with 15.1 percent than those teachers who strongly disagree with 12 percent. Supporting inclusive education 38.6 percent perceived that it will have a positive effect on the social and emotional development of students with disabilities. 25.9 percent also strongly agree with this statement. There are also teachers who are against it and strongly disagree with the statement (11.4 percent). 18.7 percent teachers are also within this group who disagree that inclusive education will have a positive effect on the social and emotional development of students with disabilities. Table-4 : Frequency and Percentage of Teachers’ Attitude towards Inclusive Education
S. Statement Strongly Dis- Not Agree Strongly No. Dis- agree Sure Agree agree 1 All children should be educated in regular 29 38 11 35 53 class (17.5) (22.9) (6.6) (21.1) (31.9) 2 Both students with and without disabilities 20 33 12 76 25 can get academic improvement because of (12.0) (19.9) (7.2) (45.8) (15.1) inclusive education 3 Inclusive education is likely to have a 19 31 9 64 43 positive effect on the social and emotional (11.4) (18.7) (5.4) (38.6) (25.9) development of students with disabilities. 4 The need of students with disabilities can 7 20 6 68 65 be best served in special, separate settings. (4.2) (12.0) (3.6) (41.0) (39.2) 5 Inclusive education programs provide 17 29 5 77 38 different students with opportunities for (10.2) (17.5) (3.0) (46.4) (22.9) mutual communication, thus promote students to understand and accept individual diversity. Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur 123
6 Children with severe disabilities should be 10 21 4 62 69 educated in separate settings (6.0) (12.7) (2.4) (37.3) (41.6) 7 Special education teachers are trained to 7 15 11 62 71 use different teaching methods to teach (4.2) (9.0) (6.6) (37.3) (42.8) students with disabilities more effectively 8 Children who communicate in special ways 12 20 5 62 67 (e.g sign language) should be educated in (7.2) (12.0) (3.0) (37.3) (40.4) special separate settings 9 Inclusion sound good in theory but does not 7 32 18 65 44 work well in practice (4.2) (19.3) (10.8) 39.2) (26.5) 10 There are sufficient supportive resources 34 46 36 38 12 and professional pedagogues to support (20.5) (27.7) (21.7) (22.9) (7.2) inclusive education in regular school 11 I have corresponding Knowledge and skills 8 35 42 57 24 to educate students with disabilities (4.8) (21..1) (25.3) (34.3) (14.5) 12 Regular education teachers’ instructional 25 35 30 52 24 effectiveness will be enhance by having (15.1) (21.1) (18.1) (31.3) (14.5) students with disabilities in regular class. 13 I feel comfortable working with students 9 36 19 64 38 with disabilities and their parents. (5.4) (21.7) (11.4) (38.6) (22.9) Figure in parenthesis indicates percentage On the other hand there are teachers who opined that the needs of the students with disabilities can be best served in special, separate settings. 41.0 percent of the teachers substantiate this stance along with 39.2 percent of the teacher who also strongly agree with it. Very few strongly disagree (4.2 percent) with the statement. However, 12 percent of the teachers also are not willing with it. Again, 41.6 percent of the teachers posited that children with severe disabilities should be educated in separate settings. 37.3 percent of them also substantiate this view but 12.7 percent and 6 percent of the teachers did not agree with the said statement. In the same line, 40.4 percent of the teachers strongly believed that children who communicate in special ways should be educated in special separate settings. 37.3 percent of the teachers also support this view. Among those teachers who do not support inclusive education, 39.2 percent of the teachers considered it as utopian dream perceiving that it sounds good theoretically but will not work in practical. 26.5 also agree with this viewpoint. However, 19.3 deny it. 4.2 percent of the teacher also strongly disagrees with this viewpoint. Supporting the inclusive education program, 46.4 percent of the teachers opined that it will provide different students with opportunities for mutual communication thereby promoting students to accept individual diversity. 22.9 percent of the teachers also agree with it. There is less number of teachers who detest this idea. 17.5 percent of the teacher disagrees and 10.2 percent strongly disagree with this notion. 124 M.C. Arunkumar, P. Krishnakumari, Narmada Hidangmayum & Gangmei Akhuan Rongmei
More number of teacher disagree that there are sufficient supportive resources and professional pedagogues to support inclusive education in regular school. 27.7 percent of the teacher and 20.5 percent of the teachers negates this statement. 21.7 percent of the teachers are not sure about it. However, 22.9 percent and 7.2 percent of the teachers responded positively. There are many teachers who feel confident that they have the caliber and skill to teach children with special needs. 34.3 percent of the teachers perceive that they have the knowledge and skill to educate children with disabilities. 14.5 percent of the teachers also have this compassion. However, 21.1 percent and 4.8 percent of the teachers believe that they are not skillful and knowledgeable enough to teach children with special needs. 25.3 percent are not sure about their standing. Majority of the teachers responded that they are comfortable working with students with special needs and their parents. 38.6 percent of the teachers and 22.9 percent of the teachers are positively comfortable but 21.7 percent and 5.4 percent do not correspond in the same line. Counting on experience, 31.3 percent of the teachers believed that instructional effectiveness of regular education teachers can be enhanced by having students with disabilities in regular class. 14.5 percent of the teachers also agree with this statement. However, 21.1 percent and 15.1 percent of the teachers disapprove of it. 18.1 percent are not sure of their stance in this matter.
4. Conclusion To conclude, majority of the teachers responded in neutral towards their attitude on including children with special needs in regular classroom. However, most of the teacher detests this viewpoint though some support it. Thus, the number of had negative attitude towards inclusive education outnumbered those who are positive about it though there is significant difference in opinion among the two district and depending on gender residence, experience of teaching disabled students etc.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge SSA, Manipur and Shri Th. Kirankumar, SPD, SSA, Director of Education (S), Government of Manipur for sponsoring the present study.
References
Macqueen, S. 2010. Primary Teacher Attitude in Achievement based Literacy Classes. www.iier.org.au/iier20/macqueen. Accessed on 18/05/2017. Haynes, L. 2010. Teacher’s Expectation Affect Kids Grade, Student-Teacher relationship. http://www.eduguide.org/library/viewarticle:1312. Accessed on 15/05/2017. Attitudes of Primary School Teachers towards Inclusive Education in Manipur 125
Harlambos, M and Holborn, M., Sociology : Themes and Perspective (7th Ed.), London : Collins, 2008. Gary, P.L. “The effect of Inclusion on Non disabled Children: a review of the research”, Contemporary Education, 68 (4), Summer, 1997, 234-38 . Pang, Y., Questionnaire of mainstream primary school teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education, Institute of Special Education Study, Pedagogical Faculty, Palacky University, Olomour, Czech Republic, 2009. Rot, N., Bases of Social Psychology, Belgrade : Institute for books and teaching materials, 1994. ê
Article Received on October 19, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 12
Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study
Uttam Kumar Roy*, Md Mustaquim** and
Rajani Khatun***
In Indian society, there is a multiplicity of categories such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have a different status of women. The focus of this study is on the situation of women in different communities; such as, Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and other than SC and ST. According to general consensus, there is a witness of gender inequality of female has taken place in different social groups. The present study deals about gender inequality, which mainly focuses on literacy rate, employment rate among the scheduled groups and others. The entire study is based on secondary data, collected from Census of India, 2011. Total five variables are selected for determine the gender inequality among the districts of the state of West Bengal. To show the gender parity among male and female, Gender Parity Index (GPI) has been used. The overall study discusses on gender inequality in terms of sex ratio, literacy rate, work participation rate, gross enrolment ratio and also study the gender gap among different community. Findings of the study indicate that relative to men, women in their group have more limited of both education and employment performance. The study also reveals that compare to others community; Scheduled communities considered to be less gender inequality in employment and sex ratio in West Bengal. [Keywords : Gender, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Literacy, Employment]
* Senior Research Fellow, Department of Geography, Aliah University, Park Circus Campus, Kolkata-700014, West Bengal(India) E-mail:
2. Review of Literature For more than two centuries researchers and writers have studied on gender inequality and status of women in India. Many researchers suggest that the status of women in Dravidian civilization prior to the Aryan invasions was quite high. These accounts of the Hindus claim that women’s position was equal to or even superior to man’s (Duley 1986; Morga, 1984; Sinha, 1983). But, (Sinha, 1983) claim that according to Hindu law books written in the second century BC, the position of women is one of the complete dependence on men -on fathers in childhood, on husbands as adult, and on sons in old age. Morgan (1984) accounted that women’s labour force participation rate is less than half that of men, and their unemployment rate is far higher than that of men. Doon (1993) studied on the situation of women in Scheduled Castes and Tribes in India. The study documented the extreme degrees of gender inequality among the scheduled groups and relative to men, women in this groups have more limited access to educational and employment resources. He suggested that socio economic development is to reduce the disadvantages of Scheduled group of women relative to men. Dollar and Gatti stated that relative status of women is poor in the developing world, compared to developed countries. This study finds that gender inequality in education is bad for economic growth. Waris and Viraktamath (2013) studied on gender gap and women’s empowerment in India. They argued that inequality among men and female are most obvious in; health and education, economic development, violence against women and participation in public life. They also examined four areas of inequality between men and women I.e. economic participation and opportunities, education attainment, political empowerment and health and survival. Jayachandran (2014) studied the roots of gender inequality in developing countries. And he stated that economic under development as a cause of gender inequality. This study also shows the gender gap in several domances is large in developing countries. Das, et.al argued that female labour force participation in India is lower than many other emerging market economies, and has been declined since the mid 2000s. Chatterjee (2014) examined that status of tribal women in terms of education, employment and health is low not just compared to tribal men but also in comparison to women belonging to the general population. She argued that mostly those tribal women are engaged in agricultural activities. They suggested that families need to have a sufficient income to enable them to cross poverty levels and it will help enrolment of female as well as decrease the gender inequality. Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 129 3. The Study Area West Bengal is selected as the study area which is located between 21o25/ to 26o50/north latitudes and 86o30/to 89o58/ east longitudes with three international boundaries i.e., Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. It occupies an area of about 88.752sq.km.(2.70 per cent of the India’s total geographical area) and stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. It is surrounded by Sikkim and Bhutan in the north, Assam and Bangladesh in the east and the Bay of Bengal and Orissa in the south and Jharkhand, Bihar and Nepal in the west. West Bengal is now the third most populous state in India; with a population density of a 1,029 persons per square km. The state continues to attract a large number of migrants from neighbouring states as well as neighbouring countries. Its topography is dominated by the alluvial plains of the Ganga and its tributaries, except for the hilly terrain of North Bengal, extending into the Himalayan foothills. During the last few decades West Bengal has recorded high rates of agricultural growth. It also has a strong industrial base which needs to be further strengthened and diversified.
Figure-1 4. Objectives Following are the main objectives of the present study : 1. To study the overall situation of women in different social group; such as, Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Non- SC/ST. 130 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun
2. To study the gender gap in the inter and intra group in terms of sex ratio, literacy rate, gross enrolment ratio and work participation rate. 3. To examine the nature of regional variation and as well as causes of male-female gap in West Bengal.
5. Database and Methodology The present study is based on secondary sources of data which have been collected from census records published by the Government of India, 2001-2011, various journals and books etc. Total five variables are selected for determine the gender inequality in state. To show the gender parity among male and female, Gender Parity Index (GPI) has been used. Gender parity index are designed to measure the differential among different Social Group. Equation is as follows : Vfji GPI = Vmji Where, Vfji = Value of the female of the variable Ith in district Jth. Vmji = Value of the female of the variable Ith in district Jth. Also GIS technique (MapInfo 2007) has also been used to visualise the data. 6. Scenario of Gender Gap in Different Social Groups Gender inequality forms in different aspects of society, such as; access to education, participation in workforce, food and health care and political empowerment. To study the gender gap between male-female the research has been made on selected five variables such as sex ratio, child sex ratio, literacy rate, work participation rate and gross enrolment ratio (5-19 years) are selected. 6.1 Gender Gap in Sex Ratio Sex ratio defined, as a number of females per thousand of males is an important social indicator to measure the extent of prevailing equality between males and females in society at a given point of time (Gupta, 2010). Gender gap in sex ratio means the difference of number of females from every 1000 males. Low sex ratio will generate high Gender gap and vice-versa. Table-1 : Gender Gap in Sex Ratio among Different Social Group in West Bengal, 2011
District/State Scheduled Scheduled Non-SC/ST Castes(SC) Tribes(ST)
Sex Gap Sex Gap Sex Gap Ratio Ratio Ratio Darjeeling 965 35 1015 -15 957 43 Jalpaiguri 942 58 1000 0 942 58 Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 131
Koch Bihar 941 59 931 69 943 57 Uttar Dinajpur 931 69 990 10 938 62 Dakshin Dinajpur 944 56 995 5 950 50 Maldah 930 70 993 7 943 57 Murshidabad 951 49 972 28 959 41 Birbhum 953 47 1024 -24 950 50 Barddhaman 960 40 1009 -9 934 66 Nadia 938 62 978 22 950 50 North Twenty Four Parganas 945 55 972 28 958 42 Hugli 974 26 1024 -24 953 47 Bankura 979 21 1009 -9 935 65 Puruliya 953 47 989 11 950 50 Haora 959 41 945 55 936 64 Kolkata 889 111 865 135 909 91 South Twenty Four Parganas 946 54 971 29 960 40 Paschim Medinipur 979 21 1001 -1 955 45 Purba Medinipur 943 57 969 31 937 63 WEST BENGAL 951 49 999 1 946 54 Source : Census of India, 2011 The sex ratio of West Bengal is slightly above the national average (940) but remained unfavourable to females (950 in 2011). The male-female gap among SC population and ST Population is 49 points and 1 point respectively. In case of district wise analysis of West Bengal, Kolkata recorded lowest sex ratio in every social group mainly because of male selective immigration due to growing job opportunities and incidence of female foeticide etc.In case of SC population, Bankura (2.1Points) and Paschim Medinipur (2.1Points) registered lowest gender gap in sex ratio where highest gender gap has been observed in Kolkata district with 111 points. Among Scheduled Tribes (ST) population the corresponding gap is only 1 point. This is mainly due to equal status granted to a woman in the tribal society. The incidences of foeticide as well as infanticide are low in a tribal society compared to the progressive society. Among tribal population of this state out of 19 districts total seven districts has female out numbers male. Highest sex ratio among ST is witnessed in Hugli district (1024) followed by Darjeeling with (1015). Table 1 show that the lowest sex ratio among ST population is 865 in Kolkata. The lowest gender gap in sex ratio among Non-SC/ST is found is South 24 Parganas. Highest gender gap in sex ratio i.e. low sex ratio among Non-SC/ST is observed in Kolkata district. 6.2 Gender Gap in Child Sex Ratio In West Bengal the scenario of child sex ratio is well above the scenario of national average (914 female child to total 1000 male child). In 2011 census the 0-6 132 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun female population is 955 per 1000 male child. The gender gap among child sex ratio is 55 points for Non-SC/ST, 50 points and 26 points for SC and ST population respectively. Table-2 : Gender Gap in Child Sex Ratio among Different Social Groups in West Bengal, 2011
District/State Scheduled Scheduled Non-SC/ST Castes (SC) Tribes (ST)
Child Gap Child Gap Child Gap Sex Sex Sex Ratio Ratio Ratio Darjeeling 972 28 962 38 943 57 Jalpaiguri 947 53 973 27 955 45 Koch Bihar 945 55 943 57 950 50 Uttar Dinajpur 951 49 984 16 952 48 Dakshin Dinajpur 956 44 968 32 953 47 Maldah 948 52 965 35 949 51 Murshidabad 971 29 956 44 968 32 Birbhum 963 37 1003 -3 952 48 Barddhaman 961 39 978 22 943 57 Nadia 953 47 983 17 962 38 North Twenty Four Parganas 959 41 986 14 953 47 Hugli 950 50 962 38 953 47 Bankura 963 37 972 28 934 66 Puruliya 956 44 970 30 948 52 Haora 958 42 982 18 963 37 Kolkata 941 59 874 126 932 68 South Twenty Four Parganas 964 36 944 56 963 37 Paschim Medinipur 972 28 981 19 954 46 Purba Medinipur 950 50 974 26 945 55 WEST BENGAL 957 43 974 26 953 47 Source : Census of India, 2011 Child sex ratio among SC population is 957 in West Bengal. The lowest child (0-6) gender gap among SC population has recorded in Darjeeling and Paschim Medinipur districts where as, the highest gap of child sex ratio is observed in Kolkata (53 points) preceded by Koch Bihar (55 points). In case of tribal population of West Bengal, Birbhum district is witnessed the female out number male in 0-6 population. About 63 per cent districts have below child sex ratio than the state average. Table-2 reveals that the child sex ratio among Non-SC/ST is 953 which are below the state’s average. Total five districts of the state have higher child sex ratio Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 133 than the state average. Whereas, among the Non-SC/ST population in the state, the highest male -female gap is observed in Kolkata (68 points) followed by Hugli district (66 points). Murshidabad showing the lowest male-female gap preceded by South 24 Parganas and Puruliya. 6.3 Gender Gap in Work Participation Rate The employment situation in West Bengal revealed that there is a monstrous presence of discrimination against women. In West Bengal work participation rate is 36.77 per cent but male-female gap is wide, where male work participation is 53.99 percent but female work force participation is only 18.32 per cent. The majority of female workers are in informal sector jobs, crowded into the low skill sector and usually in part time work. Whereas the average male-female gap of work participation is 35.67 percent points in West Bengal, the Non-SC/ST has constitute the gap of 41.76 per cent points and scheduled caste gender gap is 36.45 points but scheduled tribe gender gap is comparatively low (16.24 per cent points). Among Scheduled Caste population highest gender gap is observed in Nadia (45.12 per cent points) and lowest in Bankura (23.46 per cent points). In tribal society, tribal women are more important that women in any other social groups because tribal women are very hard working and in almost all the tribal communities participate in economic activities almost equally with men. Table-4 reveals that scheduled tribe male-female gap on work force is 16.24 per cent points, where as it is varied from the district Puruliya (11.61 per cent points) to Kolkata (37.55 per cent points). The male-female gap of Non SC/ST workers varied from district to district from highest (48.68 per cent points) in Hugli to the lowest (24.88) in Puruliya. The district having high gender gap in work participation rate is Haora (46.50 per cent points), Barddhaman (46.57), Nadia (48.61) etc. Whereas Puruliya has the lowest points of gender gap (24.88) followed by Darjeeling (31.34), Maldah (31.50), Uttar Dinajpur (34.72).In patriarchal society among Non-SC/ST, the gender gap in work participation is wide; the working capacities of the women are sub-ordinated and derecognized by the male members and the heads of the households. Table-3 : Gender Gap in Work Participation rate among Different Social Groups in West Bengal, 2011
District/ State Scheduled Scheduled Non-SC/ST Castes (SC) Tribes(ST) e e e l l l e e e p p p a a a l l l a a a a a a m m m G G G e e e M M M F F F
Darjeeling 53.60 20.52 33.08 48.78 30.81 17.97 51.30 19.96 31.34 Jalpaiguri 56.52 21.38 35.14 49.30 34.05 15.25 56.17 17.85 38.32 Koch Bihar 59.04 23.03 36.01 55.46 24.65 30.81 57.45 18.21 39.24 134 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun
Uttar Dinajpur 55.09 24.78 30.31 54.11 36.27 17.84 49.95 15.23 34.72 Dakshin Dinajpur 59.11 27.08 32.03 58.61 44.17 14.44 57.74 17.72 40.02 Maldah 55.19 27.48 27.71 55.49 36.97 18.52 52.02 20.53 31.50 Murshidabad 57.24 17.80 39.44 55.83 38.12 17.72 54.35 17.01 37.34 Birbhum 58.54 24.63 33.91 57.72 43.22 14.50 57.00 11.49 45.51 Barddhaman 58.65 23.64 35.02 57.14 41.89 15.25 57.52 10.95 46.57 Nadia 58.46 13.34 45.12 58.60 27.46 31.13 58.61 10.00 48.61 North Twenty Four Parganas 58.39 14.96 43.43 56.99 24.87 32.12 57.30 11.78 45.53 Hugli 61.74 23.04 38.70 60.64 48.96 11.68 60.61 11.93 48.68 Bankura 57.56 34.11 23.46 56.84 44.16 12.69 57.00 13.65 43.36 Puruliya 53.14 28.97 24.17 55.74 44.13 11.61 53.00 28.12 24.88 Haora 61.48 16.48 44.99 58.42 28.08 30.34 59.64 13.15 46.50 Kolkata 60.54 20.97 39.57 60.15 22.60 37.55 59.90 17.73 42.17 South Twenty Four Parganas 58.07 16.57 41.51 56.94 28.27 28.67 55.74 14.44 41.30 Paschim Medinipur 57.96 29.31 28.65 57.98 45.15 12.83 58.65 20.42 38.24 Purba Medinipur 55.69 17.02 38.67 58.15 37.82 20.33 57.98 15.66 42.32 WEST BENGAL 57.99 21.54 36.45 55.49 39.24 16.24 56.90 15.14 41.76 Source: Census of India, 2011 6.4 Gender Gap in Literacy Rate Literacy plays an important role in the overall development, individuals or groups better comprehension of their social, political and cultural environment etc. Literacy also enhances the gender awareness. Gender gaps in literacy reduced the total literacy level which reflects the negative results on growth of economy of the country, as education is the most active indicator of economic growth (Islam and Mustaquim, 2015). Although literacy rate among male and female is improved after independent, but the gender gap is still exists in terms of literacy. In West Bengal the overall literacy rate is 77.08 per cent (above national average) and where male- female gap is 11.51 per cent points in literacy 2011.In case of Scheduled Castes population, the gender gap among male and female in the study area is 15.99 per cent points. The highest gender gap in literacy is observed in Puruliya (28.19 per cent points) followed by Bankura (23.64 per cent points). Lowest gender gap in literacy is observed in Kolkata (3.83) closely followed by Nadia (5.71 per cent points), North Twenty Four Parganas (5.72 per cent points) and Haora (6.64 points). Although, literacy levels of Scheduled Tribes (ST) have improved, the gap in literacy levels from other community, and the gap between male-female tribal groups have not declined significantly. In this society women and girls receive far less education than men due to social norms and prevailing discrimination. The ST male-female gap (20.46 per cent points) in literacy is higher than that of Non-SC/ST gap (8.70 per cent points). The lowest gap (10.23 per cent points) is recorded in Kolkata district where as the highest gap is shows in Puruliya (28.07 per cent points) followed by Bankura with 26.92 per cent points. Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 135
In the study area, the literacy gap among male-female is low among Non-SC/ST population which is 8.70 per cent points, among Scheduled Castes population is 15.99 per cent points and this gap is relatively high (20.46 per cent points) in tribal society. There is a wide district wise variation of literacy gap among Non-SC/ST population which ranges from 26.72 per cent points in Puruliya to 3.83 per cent points in Kolkata. Table-4 reveals that the highest gender gap in literacy among selected three societies in Puruliya and Bankura and lowest gap in Kolkata. Table-4 also shows that the western underdeveloped parts of the state have recorded the highest male-female gap in literacy rate where as the developed part such as Kolkata has low literacy gap among different gender. Table-4 : Gender Gap in Literacy rate among Different Social Groups in West Bengal, 2011
District/ State Scheduled Scheduled Non-SC/ST Castes (SC) Tribes(ST) y y y y y y e e e c c c c c c l l l e e e a a a a a a p p p a a a l l l r r r r r r a a a a a a m m m e e e e e e G G G t t t t t t e e e M M M i i i i i i F F F L L L L L L
Darjeeling 80.59 65.00 15.59 81.50 67.16 14.34 88.37 77.85 10.52 Jalpaiguri 80.11 65.54 14.57 67.93 49.51 18.42 84.77 74.18 10.59 Koch Bihar 80.67 66.01 14.66 74.82 58.35 16.47 80.82 71.16 9.67 Uttar Dinajpur 70.87 53.31 17.55 51.96 35.48 16.48 64.36 53.08 11.28 Dakshin Dinajpur 73.82 58.24 15.59 65.54 48.50 17.05 84.43 77.14 7.29 Maldah 68.58 52.91 15.67 55.83 37.86 17.97 66.66 60.37 6.29 Murshidabad 68.45 55.68 12.77 59.15 43.32 15.84 70.33 64.49 5.84 Birbhum 67.98 50.42 17.56 57.57 37.67 19.90 82.96 73.33 9.63 Barddhaman 71.50 53.60 17.89 65.41 44.22 21.19 88.28 78.65 9.63 Nadia 79.01 67.29 11.71 65.35 49.98 15.37 79.16 73.45 5.71 North Twenty Four Parganas 85.37 73.69 11.68 72.90 56.40 16.50 88.75 83.03 5.72 Hugli 76.29 60.24 16.05 71.39 50.29 21.10 91.41 83.34 8.07 Bankura 65.74 42.10 23.64 72.93 46.01 26.92 88.99 72.82 16.17 Puruliya 69.82 41.63 28.19 67.84 39.77 28.07 83.23 56.50 26.72 Haora 77.29 65.12 12.17 77.08 64.23 12.85 88.64 82.00 6.64 Kolkata 85.02 72.85 12.17 86.81 76.57 10.23 88.53 84.70 3.83 South Twenty Four Parganas 84.38 67.76 16.62 69.03 50.17 18.85 83.13 73.39 9.74 Paschim Medinipur 78.58 59.50 19.09 71.04 48.13 22.91 90.15 78.66 11.49 Purba Medinipur 89.17 75.01 14.16 74.72 54.40 20.32 92.96 82.62 10.34 WEST BENGAL 77.22 61.23 15.99 68.17 47.71 20.46 84.22 75.52 8.70 Source : Census of India, 2011 136 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun
6.5 Gender gap in Gross Enrolment Ratio (5-19 years) Gross enrolment ratio (GER) for any stage (different classes) in defined as percentage of the enrolment in that stage to the estimated child population in the respective age group. Table 5 shows the gross enrolment ratio (5-19 yrs) of students in different social groups and their gender gap. Table-5 also reveals that the gender gap in GER is highest in Scheduled Tribe group (2.59 per cent points) followed by Scheduled Castes population (0.42 per cent points), where as this gender gap is showing positively for women among Non- SC/ST. In case of Scheduled Castes population GER is also satisfied for West Bengal but in district level analysis only six district (31.5 per cent) i.e. Darjeeling (-0.02), Jalpaiguri (-2.49), Koch Bihar (-2.63), Dakshin Dinajpur (-1.47), Hugli (-2.42) and Haora(-1.87) have the high female GER compare to their male counterparts. Puruliya has recorded highest GER male female differences (6.92 per cent points) followed by Bankura (5.03 per cent points). Gross enrolment ratio among Scheduled Tribe is low compare to other social group and it is interesting that the gap between male-female GER of the group is high (2.59 points). Only four districts has the surplus female GER, namely, Koch Bihar (-0.12), Nadia (-0.20), Hugli (0.13) and Kolkata (-0.25). The highest GER gap among male-female gap has seen in Purba Medinipur (6.24) district followed by Puruliya (6.01). Though the proportion of centrally sponsored programmes for education among tribal are enhanced and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) trying to universal access and retention, gender gap in gross enrolment ratio is still exist among STs groups. Table-5 shows that 84 per cent district has high GER of female compare to male population. Maldah recorded positive scenario in case of female GER (65 per cent) where as male GER has recorded only 59.74 per cent. Table 5 reveals that the male-female gap of gross enrolment ratio is high in every society in the district of Puruliya. This shows the dropout rate is high among female students and this area is characterizing by lack of educational development and inability to complete a specific level of education. Table-5 : Gender Inequality in Gross Enrolment Ratio (5-19 years) among Different Social Groups in West Bengal, 2011
District/ State Scheduled Scheduled Non-SC/ST Castes (SC) Tribes(ST) e e e l l l e e e p p p a a a l l l a a a a a a m m m G G G e e e M M M F F F
Darjeeling 75.79 75.81 -0.02 76.76 75.94 0.82 79.85 79.89 -0.04 Jalpaiguri 73.92 76.40 -2.49 66.99 65.72 1.27 73.74 75.43 -1.69 Koch Bihar 72.72 75.35 -2.63 67.65 67.77 -0.12 69.82 72.10 -2.27 Uttar Dinajpur 68.03 68.86 -0.83 54.12 51.89 2.23 58.75 60.30 -1.54 Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 137
Dakshin Dinajpur 71.89 73.36 -1.47 66.53 66.27 0.26 73.44 75.48 -2.03 Maldah 65.68 65.65 0.03 60.32 56.03 4.30 59.74 65.00 -5.26 Murshidabad 65.43 65.37 0.06 60.93 57.71 3.23 63.51 67.60 -4.09 Birbhum 63.05 60.70 2.35 56.93 52.79 4.14 66.77 67.97 -1.20 Barddhaman 62.84 62.03 0.81 59.82 57.43 2.39 71.10 71.76 -0.67 Nadia 73.42 73.36 0.06 63.52 63.72 -0.20 73.25 74.51 -1.26 North Twenty Four Parganas 71.78 70.98 0.80 62.35 61.21 1.14 70.07 72.26 -2.20 Hugli 63.79 66.21 -2.42 63.08 63.22 -0.13 72.44 74.90 -2.46 Bankura 61.35 56.32 5.03 68.39 65.98 2.41 74.03 73.27 0.76 Puruliya 63.38 56.46 6.92 64.95 58.95 6.01 71.42 67.53 3.89 Haora 62.00 63.87 -1.87 61.99 60.74 1.25 66.96 69.78 -2.83 Kolkata 70.75 69.80 0.95 73.05 73.30 -0.25 73.14 74.45 -1.31 South Twenty Four Parganas 69.64 68.31 1.32 59.95 56.92 3.03 61.44 64.35 -2.91 Paschim Medinipur 66.31 64.00 2.32 61.41 57.52 3.88 72.66 72.42 0.24 Purba Medinipur 69.98 69.08 0.90 62.68 56.44 6.24 70.60 71.43 -0.82 WEST BENGAL 67.91 67.50 0.42 63.87 61.28 2.59 68.34 70.19 -1.85 Source : Census of India, 2011 6.6 Overall Gender Inequality among Different Social Group The study has attempted to analyze the overall gender inequality with the Gender Parity Index (GPI) which is the ratio of female score to male score. Higher GPI scores indicate lower gender disparity and lower score indicate the higher gender disparity. Overall gender inequality has measured with the five variables; such as sex ratio, child sex ratio, literacy rate, work participation rate and gross enrolment ratio (5-19 years). Table-6 : Gender Parity Index among Different Social Groups in West Bengal, 2011
District/State Scheduled Scheduled Tribe Non-SC/ST Castes (SC) (ST) Darjeeling 0.825 0.840 0.834 Jalpaiguri 0.824 0.868 0.823 Koch Bihar 0.826 0.734 0.825 Uttar Dinajpur 0.819 0.862 0.809 Dakshin Dinajpur 0.833 0.895 0.830 Maldah 0.829 0.857 0.856 Murshidabad 0.809 0.855 0.844 Birbhum 0.808 0.915 0.801 Barddhaman 0.812 0.896 0.794 Nadia 0.794 0.761 0.806 North Twenty Four Parganas 0.802 0.746 0.817 138 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun
Hugli 0.825 0.929 0.810 Bankura 0.818 0.924 0.783 Puruliya 0.788 0.937 0.810 Haora 0.812 0.764 0.817 Kolkata 0.804 0.685 0.822 South Twenty Four Parganas 0.796 0.764 0.822 Paschim Medinipur 0.836 0.918 0.825 Purba Medinipur 0.805 0.843 0.810 Source : Computed by author’s basis on Census of India, 2011 The overall gender parity index score for the Non- SC/ST population and scheduled caste population is 0.82 and 0.81 respectively, where as the corresponding figures for the scheduled tribes is 0.88. Table number 6 shows that among the scheduled tribe women they enjoyed more gender parity compare to others social groups.
Figure-2 Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 139
The overall gender parity index among scheduled castes in W.B is 0.81 which varies from Paschim Medinipur (0.84) to the district of Puruliya (0.788) and Nadia (0.794) districts.Gender parity score for Scheduled Castes population in the state varies from 0.788 score in Puruliya and 0.836 score in Paschim Medinipur district (Table 6). The entire range of variation have been categorized into three groups such as high (above 0.828 score), medium (0.800 to 0.828 score) and low (below 0.800 score). Figure 2 depicts these three districts i.e. Dakshin Dinajpur, Uttar Dinajpur and Paschim Medinipur having high level of gender parity. Thirteen districts belong to medium level of gender parity. Low levels of gender parity comprising the districts of South Twenty Four Parganas, Bankura and North Twenty Four Parganas.
Figure-3 140 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun
The scheduled tribe gender parity index shows that the state average score is likely good compare to Non-SC/ST and SC population with 0.88 score. Gender parity score among scheduled tribes varies from 0.937 score in Puruliya to 0.734 score in Koch Bihar district. Figure 3 also reveals that only three districts of the state namely, Hugli, Bankura and Puruliya have high level of gender parity. It can be assumed that the scheduled tribes women in western plateau are enjoying more gender parity compares to other portion of the state. About 48 per cent of the state has medium parity. Low level of gender parity spread over 32 per cent of the state, this low grade gender parity i.e. high grade disparity spread mainly in the southern part of the state i.e. Kolkata, Haora, South Twenty Four Parganas, North Twenty Four Parganas and Nadia.
Figure-4 Gender Differences among Different Social Groups in West Bengal : A Geographical Study 141
Table 6 shows district wise overall parity index for Non-SC/ST population in West Bengal. Among the districts, Maldah has highest GPI score with 0.86 followed by Murshidabad with 0.84. The lowest GPI index is observed in Bankura (0.78) followed by Barddhaman with the score of 0.79. Figure 4 shows that two districts of the state lie under the high grade of GPI and they are Maldah and Murshidabad which lies in the southern most of the North Bengal and northern most of South Bengal respectively. About 80 per cent districts of the state fall under the medium category (0.801-0.835 score) of gender parity index. Two districts i.e. Barddhaman and Bankura are situated in low grade of gender parity.
7. Conclusion and Suggestions The above discussion reveals that, though the Constitution of India provides (Article 15(i)) prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, sex or place of birth; the discrimination against women is observed with the several fronts such as sex ratio, education and economic participation. Gender gap in sex ratio is high among SC and Non-SC/ST group, where as the sex ratio is quite satisfied on Scheduled Tribes population. It is observed that lowest sex ratios in the district like Kolkata, North 24 Parganas are among the richest districts in the state in terms of per capita income. Unwanted status of girl child which leads continuous declining sex ratio which is considered to be a major causational factor of victimization of gender discrimination. The study observed that women and girls receive far less education than men due to the social norms and prevailing discrimination. Literacy differences among male-female is lowest in Non SC/ST population and highest among Scheduled Tribe group. Findings of the study reveal that discrimination against women is observed in all the societies in the study area. The gender gap in work participation rates is lower for women than men, the disparity being particularly high among Non- SC/ST population. It is also found that the gross enrolment ratio among female is more compare to male counterpart in Non-SC/ST group. It is believed that Kanyashree Prakalpa Programme (initiated by Govt. of West Bengal, 2013) boost the girl education by providing conditional cash to incentive families to delay their daughter marriage and retain them in education. It suggested that a gender issue in every society in every aspect is needed to focus by government. There is a great need to continue to assess the economic output of women in West Bengal and to improve their financial inclusion in mainstream. There is also need to improve implementation of programmes which are already women oriented with special targets for women. Hence it can be concluded that compulsory female education, strengthening adult literacy programme, holding seminars and debates at the grass root level are essential to eradicate the gender gap. 142 Uttam Kumar Roy, Md Mustaquim and Rajani Khatun References
Chatterjee, P., “Socio and economic status of tribal women in India- The challenges and Road Ahead”, International Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Studies, 2(2), 2014, 55-60. Dollar, D. and Roberta Gatti, “Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth : are good times for women?”, Development Research Group, Working Paper (Numbered Series), The World Bank, 2012, 1-13. Duley, M.I., “Women in India”, M. Duley and M. Edward (eds.), The Cross-cultural Study of Women, New York : City University of New York, 1986, 127-236. Dunn, D., “Gender inequality in education and employment in the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in India”, Population Research and Policy Review, 1993, 53-70. Gender Equality and the Millennium Development Goals, available at http:// siteresources.worldbank access on 23.02.2017. Gupta, M. S., “Gender Inequality and Structural Reforms”, Sarkar, S. and Acheampong, I.K (eds.), Gender, Poverty and Sustainable Livelihood, New Delhi : Arise Publishers and Distributors, 2010, 107-123. http:www.nyu.edu/classes/Jackson/analysis.of.inequality/reading/declining sign Gender- Jackson. pdf. Access on 12.04.2017. Islam, M. M. and Mustaquim, M., , “Gender Gap in Literacy: A study of Indian Scenario”, Ismail, M. and Alam, A. (eds.), Life and Living through newer spectrum of Geography, New Delhi : Mohit Publications, 2015, 188-202. Jayachandran, S., (2014), The Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries, access from-www.annualreviews.org on 30/08/2017. Morgan, R., Sisterhood in Global Garden City, New York : Anchor Books, 1984. Sinha, B., Society in Tribal India, Washington, DC : World Priorities, 1983. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Census of India (2001, and 2011), Digital Census Library, Government of India, New Delhi. Waris, A. and Viraktamath, B.C., “Gender Gaps and Women’s Employment in India, Issues and Strategies”, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(9), 2013, 1-9. ê
Article Received on September 09, 2018; Accepted on November 29, 2018 13
Money Laundering and its Impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario : A Critical Study
Aayushi Goel* and Bhupinder Singh**
The topic titled as “Money Laundering and its impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario: A Critical Study” is a topic of essence keeping in view globalization and expansion of economic avenues. The Money Laundering has its different stages- Placement, Layering and Integration, etc. basically in money laundering the tainted money is presented as if legally begotten money. The aspect of money laundering does not know territorial barriers as it can initiated in one stage and proceeded further in different stages till the color of the money derived by committing offence becomes a legal tenure and accepted economic avenues of an individual or individuals. Its impact is in several minors including funding for terrorists activities, procuring narcotics, banned arms and drugs, trafficking woman and children, so on and so forth. To crack down on the offence of money laundering, The Global Legal Order has framed guidelines and conventions extra which the India state has also adopted by framing the law known as The Prevention of Money Laundering act, 2002. The law so framed has entered into the bank secrecy areas to the extent that it is obligatory on banks to disclose the suspicious transactions without any intimation to its customer. The Act lays different modes for tracing the money laundering, investigation thereto and adjudication thereof besides, the remedial measures for the aggrieved behold the tribunal and the courts extra. Despite all this there is a scope of for extra territoriality to be dealt on reciprocal basis with other countries in the globe so as to make it effective for which, the executive ought to strive for better administration and prevention on unjust enrichment. The topic as such has
* Ph.D Research Scholar, Amity Law School, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
1. Introduction Money produced from criminal activity in a huge amount is the process of money laundering. It includes drug trafficking activities and activity in terrorism, may be obtained from legitimate source. It is the dirty money which comes from illicit activities and the process which is used to disguise this dirty money into clean money is known as money laundering. The dirty money earned from illicit sources needs laundering so that it may be used effectively in other activities. If large amount of black money is used in dealings, it may be dangerous and inefficient as well. Always a way is needed by the criminals to deposit their black money in financial institutions but it is only possible if it appears to be white money and hence the laundering of money is done to show that the money is from legitimate source. 2. Steps in Money Laundering Money laundering three steps namely: placement, layering and integration. 1. In the first step of money laundering i.e. placement, the money which is obtained from illegitimate sources or by criminal means known as dirty money is introduced in some way or the other into the financial institutions. 2. The second step of money laundering that is layering involves the concealing part. It is the process of disguising the source of money obtained by any way or tricks for example book keeping tricks or by way of a series of transactions. 3. Now the last step that is integration includes the process of using that black money into white money. “Of these steps, placement of the money into financial institutions is the most difficult. This is because the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970 requires financial institutions to report deposits over $10,000 in a single day. To circumvent this step then, launderers funnel cash through a legitimate high-cash business, such as a check cashing service, bar, nightclub, or convenience store.”1 For obvious reasons when black money is obtained from illegal sources like gambling or drug trafficking, it is impossible to for anyone to deposit that money directly in any of the financial institution as it may suspicious and dangerous and it may be revealed that the money is obtained from criminal activity. Whenever the money is deposited in the financial institution, it is necessary to show from where the money is obtained and financial record is created and hence the money should be white in the eyes of law and this is the reason that money laundering is done to convert the black money to white money. Money Laundering and its Impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario 145
Money laundering is a crime and is defined differently in different jurisdiction whether it is foreign or domestic, they have their different definitions. Now the question arise that which agency is capable of investigating the crime of money laundering or punishing the criminals of this offence. Estimation has been made of at least $300 billion which has been laundered each year in United States. United States sentencing commission has published a study in 2009 which reveal the fact that more than 81000 people were convicted of the offence of money laundering each year in United States on some or the other level. Around at 1980, fraud was committed by the customers of BCCI and the board itself. They performed the activity of money laundering all over the world. When the money laundered was estimated then it was about 17.6 billion. “This gained BCCI a reputation as a banker to arms smugglers, drug cartels and dictators. In fact, it had relationships with officials in multiple countries from Argentina to Zimbabwe which ranged from questionable to the fully corrupt.” Afterwards in 1988, a senate from US was appointed so that investigation may be done as the BCCI was involved in money laundering. And later bank was fined with 11.3 million as he pleaded guilty for the crime of money laundering. Bank of England ordered an investigation in 1991 which is to be conducted by Price Waterhouse. “This reported ‘evidence of massive and widespread fraud’ taking place over several years. About one month after this, BCCI was shut down by international regulators whilst still owing over £10 billion to its creditors.”3 BCCI has been using a set which is of complex mechanisms to so that it may hide for what was done; it has mainly used shell companies and also the secrecy havens as well as layering its corporate structure. It had also enriched itself with kickbacks, bribes and also the well-placed insiders, who appreciably discouraged the governmental action. “This case is thought to be one of the reasons that Gordon Brown, when he became the UK’s Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1997, transferred banking supervision from the Bank of England to the Financial Services Authority.”4
3. Commission of Money Laundering Offence Money laundering has the same features all over the world. There are two characteristics to the offence of money laundering which are as follows :— 1. The necessary act of laundering itself i.e. the provision of financial services; and 2. A requisite degree of knowledge or suspicion (either subjective or objective) relating to the source of the funds or the conduct of a client. The offence of money laundering is performed in situations in which an individual is engaged in and arrangement and that arrangement includes the proceeds of crime. And these types of arrangements involve a huge variety of 146 Aayushi Goel and Bhupinder Singh relationship of business for example fiduciary and investment management, banking, etc.
4. Illegality of Money Laundering The aim of the offence of money laundering is none other than of earning of profit out of the proceeds of crime. It is kind of assisting criminals by providing financial services to the offenders which is harmful for individual and organization as well. And this financial help to the offenders makes it possible for them to commit the proceeds of crime.
5. Impact of Money Laundering According to a 2016 survey from PwC, “global money laundering transactions account for roughly 2% to 5% of global GDP, or roughly $1 trillion to $2 trillion annually. Although the act of money laundering itself is a victimless, white collar crime, it is often connected to serious and sometimes violent criminal activity. Being able to stop money laundering is, in effect, being able to stop the cash flows of criminals, including international organized crime.”5 Legitimate business is much more affected by the offence of money laundering as it hinders the interest of such business and it becomes difficult for them to compete in the market as products and services are provided at quite less value by the money launders. People committing money laundering enjoys the competition in the market and legitimate business suffers in such situations. “Businesses that associate with people, countries or entities that launder money face the possibility of fines. Deutsche Bank, ING, the Royal Bank of Scotland, Barclays and Lloyds Banking Group are among institutions that have been fined for being involved with transactions associated with money-laundering activities in countries such as Iran, Libya, Sudan and Russia.”6 In one of the leading case of money laundering, fine was imposed on international bank HSBC as it could not put proper measures of anti money laundering in the bank. According to the report of U.S. federal government, the international bank HSBC was guilty for having negligent over the transactions by the unit of Mexican and in some way helped in the proceeds of money laundering to different drug cartels which involve huge movement of cash to the United States by the international bank HSBC. Even the government was convinced that HSBC was incapable to maintain proper details and record as prescribed by the Anti Money Laundering measures. This also involves the proof of accounts which were not reviewed and thus was a failure to file suspicious activity report by HSBC. “After a year-long investigation, the federal government indicated HSBC had failed to comply with U.S. banking laws and consequently subjected the United States to Mexican drug money, suspicious traveler’s checks and bearer share Money Laundering and its Impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario 147 corporations. In 2012, the bank agreed to pay $1.92 billion in fines to U.S. authorities.”7 Some set of rules, regulations, procedures and laws are set up to avoid the practice of obtaining money from illicit actions, these rules are known as Anti Money Laundering (AML). It may be possible that these anti money laundering may cover quite less number of transactions and criminal activities but its effect is relatively far. For example, under anti money laundering rules institutions are required to keep full due diligence and KYC norms in issuing credit and in opening the accounts of the customers so that these financial institutions may be sure that the individuals are not involves in any type of money laundering activities or not aiding in the proceeds of any crime. These rules are to be followed by the financial institutions and customers and government are not to be blamed for such activities. The rules of anti money laundering includes corruption of public funds, market manipulation, tax evasion and trade of illegal goods and also the activities which are performed to disguise the proceeds of such crimes. “In 2012, the British bank Standard Chartered was accused, by New York’s Department of Financial Services (DFS), of helping the Iranian government to circumvent US money laundering regulations to the tune of an estimated £191.8 billion over 10 years.”8 The bank had to pay “a civil penalty of £262 million in 2012 by the DFS and the US Department of Justice for failures in its anti money laundering controls and for violating US sanctions on Iran, Burma, Libya and Sudan.”9 “It then had to pay a further £232 million in civil penalties in 2014 by the DFS for the bank’s internal controls failing to flag suspicious transactions. This arose from the regulator deeming that the bank had not improved its systems after promises in the 2012 settlement. It was also forced to discontinue certain activities such as exiting certain high-risk customers at its United Arab Emirates branch.”10
6. Financial Action Task Force An intergovernmental agency was made known as Financial Action Task (FATF) in 1989. It was formed by coalition of countries to promote and develop cooperation among international level for combating the offence of money laundering. The FATF included 34 countries as per the report of 2015 but the agency was with the aim of expanding its members to more and more regions. FATF worked to combat the financing the offence of terrorism and it had its headquarters in Paris and France. It had developed the suggestions and advice to combat the offence of money laundering and also had three functions in respect to criminal activity: 1. The progress of member countries was monitored in the measures taken by them for anti money laundering. 148 Aayushi Goel and Bhupinder Singh
2. Trends and techniques were reviewed and used to report them and new countermeasures as well to member countries. 3. FATF anti money laundering measures and standards were promoted globally. “In 1998, Russian criminals laundered an estimated £53.7 billion through shell banks in Nauru. They were able to do this as Nauru reportedly allowed its banks to function without verifying the identities of its customers or questioning where deposited money came from. Because of this, US sanctions were imposed by the US Treasury and Financial Crimes Enforcement Network on Nauru that were harsher than those imposed on Iran. Since 2001, however, Nauru has worked to clean up its act and has accepted aid from Australia in exchange for hosting a detention centre for asylum seekers that were trying to enter Australia illegally. The sanctions were eventually lifted in 2005 when the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) removed Nauru from its ‘blacklist’ after the island abolished its 400 shell banks.”11
7. Bank Secrecy Act Congress provided for The Bank Secrecy Act (the BSA) in 1970, it was an effort for combating the money laundering crime in financial institutions. “The Act contains laws that require financial institutions to report certain transactions to the United States Department of Treasury, including transactions in excess of $10,000. The institutions must also file a Suspicious Activity Report, or “SAR”, if they consider any financial transaction suspicious or believe the funds comes from unlawful activities. The Act is also responsible for the creation of the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, which makes reports of money-laundering or suspicious activity available to criminal investigators around the world.”12
8. Detection of Criminals Many complex money laundering technique are used to avoid detection by high level criminals. And the new criminals and smaller scale criminals use simpler methods to avoid detection of the offence of money laundering. Such techniques of money laundering may involve: 1. There may be a transfer of money from bank to bank or it may be from account to account. 2. It may also be also possible that the offender may break large amount of deposits into smaller deposits. 3. It also leads to the purchase of money orders in smaller amounts of money 4. It also breaks the cash into smaller amounts and purchase cashier’s checks. Money Laundering and its Impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario 149
For example, Neetu steals a good amount of cash from her company and wants that she should not be detected by anybody so she decide to break her deposit into smaller amount. So instead of depositing the whole amount in the bank altogether, she will break and deposit the smaller amount of cash in the bank each week. In this sense she won’t be detected by anyone and even the bank won’t look at her transaction as it will look like her casual transaction of smaller amount and she would not be suspected by any authority. 9. Penalties for Money Laundering Every offence has sanctions behind it. Similarly there is penalty for the offence of money laundering and it may differ as per the amount involved in the offence. If the offence is occurred in more than one jurisdiction then the penalty may be imposed accordingly. The penalty gets harsh as the amount involved in the offence is higher. It may include imprisonment, large fines, community service and restitution etc. “Back in 2012, HSBC forfeited £1.2 billion for having inadequate money laundering controls. This followed a report published by the US Senate which alleged, amongst other things, that HSBC had: 8 supplied banking services and American dollars to some banks in Saudi Arabia in spite of their connections to terrorist financing 8 dodged restrictions created to prevent transactions involving Iran, North Korea and other countries subject to international sanctions 8 HSBC US didn’t treat its Mexican counterpart as high risk even though it has a problem with drug trafficking and money laundering. Control issues like these allowed the laundering of an estimated £5.57 billion over at least seven years.”13 “HSBC was able to enter a five-year deferred prosecution agreement or DPA, which is essentially like being on probation. If the US government had pressed charges against HSBC, it could have lost its US dollar license.”14 Finally it can be said that government has been effectively vigilant to prevent money laundering since many years by passing rules and regulations like anti money laundering measures. It provides the institution to have preventive measures regarding detecting the money laundering activities and if suspected then report them to the authorities. “In 1989, the Group of Seven (G-7) formed an international committee called the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) in an attempt to fight money laundering on an international scale. In the early 2000s, its purview was expanded to combating the financing of terrorism.”15 Banking Security Act was passed in 1970 by United States. Department of Treasury should be reported for certain transactions by Financial Institutions like cash transactions above $10000 or any transaction which is suspicious in nature. 150 Aayushi Goel and Bhupinder Singh
The information provided by the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) to the treasury department is used by them so that it can be delivered to the domestic and criminal investigators, foreign financial intelligence units or any international bodies for the investigation. 10. Conclusion and Suggestion From the aforesaid it can be concluded that Money Laundering has different dimensions and consequence to show as clean money by adopting different steps towards the conversion of ill gotten money into the crime of money laundering can go beyond territorial limitations while commencing in one jurisdiction, entering into another for further process of completion. The money laundering is the cause for terrorist and disruptive actions, besides other immoral and unforeseen activities. Though India is taking its stand on prevention of money laundering by legislation but still there is deficiency with respect to extra territoriality while the country is dependent on other jurisdictions including international regime for prevention of money laundering. There is also some sort of deficiencies at prevention and investigation level in addition to adjudicatory delays in the matter. Thus there is need for addressing to extra territoriality, investigation/adjudicatory set up, besides in providing prompt and effective mechanism to tackle the offence of money laundering, white collar crime in the context of classification, causation and preventive measures.
Refereence
1. Available at: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/moneylaundering.asp, visited on: 8.12.2017 2. John A Cassara, Trade Based Money Laundering : The Next Frontier in International Money Laundering Enforcement, edition 5, John Wiley & Sons, 2015, 84. 3. Dr. N.V. Paranjape, Criminology & Penology with Victimology, Allahabad: Central Law Publication, 2012, 15th ed., p.125 4. Available at: http://www.int-comp.org/careers/a-career-in/what-is-money-launder ing, visited on: 24.12.2017 5. Kevin Sullivan, Anti Money Laundering in a Nutshell : Awareness and Compliance for Financial Personnel and Business Managers, edition 4, Kindle Edition, 2015, 72. 6. Chris Mathers, Crime School : Money Laundering, edition 6, Firefly Books, 2004, 84. 6. Available at: www.fintrac-canafe.gc.ca, visited on 4.1.2018 8. Ahmed Siddique, Criminology: Problems and Perspectives, Lucknow : Eastern Book Company, 2005, 5th ed., 406. Money Laundering and its Impact with Remedial Measures in context to Indian Scenario 151
9. Marshall Clinard, The Black Market, New York : Rinehart and Co., 1952, 127 (cited at Kam C Wong, “From White-Collar Crime to Organizational Crime : An Intellectual History”, Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, at http://www. austlii.edu.au/ au/journals/MurUEJL/2005/14.html) 10. John A Cassara, Trade Based Money Laundering : The Next Frontier in International Money Laundering Enforcement, edition 5, John Wiley & Sons, 2015, 114 11. Available at:www.jmlsg.org.uk/case studies, visited on: 17.1.2018 12. Varun Chandna, The Curious Case of Black Money And White Money : Exposing the Dirty Game of Money Laundering, edition 4, Notion Press, Inc., 2017, 217. 13. T. Hirschi & M. Gottfredson, “Causes of White Collar Crimes”, cited at Anthony Walsh & Lee Ellis, Criminology : An Interdisciplinary Approach, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1987, 401 14. Dr. Rachel Ehrenfeld, Evil Money : The Inside Story of Money Laundering & Corruption in Government, Banks & Business, edition 7, Spi Books, 1994, 65 15. Peter Reuter, Chasing Dirty Money : The Fight Against Money Laundering, edition 6, 2004, 143 ê
Article Received on October 09, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 14
Child Labour in India : A Profile
Hasibul Rahaman*
Child labour refers to the abuse of the labour of children who are either too young to work, or are of working age but work under conditions that subject them to risk. It is an adverse reality that children worldwide are often forced to undertake work that is physically, psychologically and morally damaging to them. If we willing damage their future than the development as whole will obviously stop as because today’s child is the future of the country. Now the time has come to think that how to escape from this kind of social problem. [Keywords : Child labour, Population, Socio-economic profile, Age, Category]
1. Introduction In many countries children lives are plagued by armed conflict, child labour, sexual exploitation and other human rights violations. Children living in rural areas have fewer opportunities to obtain good quality education. They have less access to services than children living in cities. The UN Convention on the Rights of Children (CRC) (Article 38) has explicitly prohibited person under age 18 being recruited into the armed forces or direct participating in hostility. In spite of this special provision under CRC, many countries still involve children below 18 years in hostilities. Child labour keeps children out of school and is a major barrier to development. To make the anti child labour law a reality, poverty and unemployment need to be eliminated. Unless the standard of living improves at the lower levels of the society, children will be forced to work. Many middle and upper class families do not hesitate to engage young boys and girls to help them with * Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Haldia Government College, P. O. Debhog, Distt. Purba Medinipur-721657, West Bengal (India) E-mail:
2. Objectives and Methodology The paper has an attempt to highlight a general scenario of the term of child labour as a social problem in Indian perspective and it is completely based on secondary sources which are analyzed by using the sociological tools and techniques. 3. Age of the Child According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child article (i) defines “The child as every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”. The Indian Penal Court (IPC) defines the child as being 12 years of age. Indian Traffic Prevention Act 1956 defines a “Minor” as a person who has reached the age of 16 years. Section 376 of IPC which punishes the perpetrators of the crime of rape defines the age of consent to be 16 years of age. Section 82 and 83 of the IPC states that a child under the age of 7 years cannot be guilty of an offence and further a child under 12 years is not considered to have attained sufficient maturity to have an understanding of the nature of the Act and the consequences of his conduct. Juvenile justice Act 2002 defines a male minor as being below 16 years and a female minor as being below 18 years of age From the above statements, it could be seen, in the Indian context the age of an Individual in order to be determined as a “Child” is not uniformly defined. The consequences of this are that it offers various gaps in legal procedures which are used by the guilty to escape punishment. 4. Child Population As per 2001 Population Census, children in the age group of 0-14 constituted about 360 million and accounted for 35.3 percent of total population. Children in the 5-14 age group constituted about 251 million and accounted for 24.6 percent of the population. Though there is an increase in the absolute number of children, the proportion of children in the total population is declining between1991 and 2001. By Census of India projections, the proportion of children (0 to 14)has further come down to 32.1 percent during 2006. Elementary school age children (5 to 14) in the total population constituted 241.7 million accounting for21.7 percent of the total population. The reduction in the proportion of children is attributed to drastic Child Labour in India : A Profile 155 reduction in the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in many of the major states, especially in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat. On the other hand TFR remains high in some of the major states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Thus the segment of child population varies across states depending on the TFR. In the Context of Contemporary Agrarian Crisis that the Proportion of children in the population has implications for the incidence of child labour. Number of empirical studies on child labour has associated large family size with high incidence of child labour (VVGNLI, 1999). The demographic approach to child work has provoked a lively debate on the causal relationship between high fertility and the utility of children for the rural household. Fertility behaviour is also related to various social and cultural factors. The results of these debates have so far been inconclusive. In India for example, the States that have experienced rapid decline in TFR have witnessed decline in the intensity of child labour. In contrast to this the states in Northern India where the trends in fertility decline have been rather slow the incidence of child labour has in fact increased between 1991 and 2001. Within India, Kerala State, where the fertility rate is lowest, has achieved highest literacy rates in the country and the incidence of child labour is negligible. Thus, the changes in the demographic structure in many states provide a positive ground towards elimination of child labour. Table-1 : All India Child Labour Population according to 2011 Census
Age Group Main Workers Marginal Total Workers Total 5-9 1108808 1066910 2175718 Total 10-14 3244439 2808324 6052763 Total 4353247 3875234 8228481 5. Indian Scenario of Child Labour & Legislation According to the UN Study about 150 Million children of age group five to 14 are working in various industries in India. They are found working in road-side restaurants, tea stalls and shops, at construction sites and in factories. Girls suffer labour exploitation to such a degree that million of girls die before they reach the age of 15. They are paid a pittance as low as Rs.20 per day and many live in shops or work places where they are subjected to various forms of exploitation. Besides the work they are abused physically, mentally and sexually by the scurrilous task masters. Mafia gangs bring children for “Begging” in urban cities. A child beggar of aged between five and ten collects the maximum. With a burn scar or decapitation they can earn more. As they grow older their earnings decrease. As a consequence they graduate to be big-time traders involved in drug peddling, pick pocketing, robbery and prostitution. A child beggar will only be paid 10% of his earnings of 156 Hasibul Rahaman
Rs.300 to 500 a day. If he fails to meet the target fixed by the contractor he is punished brutally. The girls by the time they reach 13 years switch over to prostitution. Begging is used as a profession by antisocial elements forcing children in begging. Begging is prohibited in some cities of India by local governments. The Indian government ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992 and introduced various pieces of legislation to curb child labour. The Labour Ministry of India has imposed a ban on children under age 14 from working as domestic help in hotels. Under this law any employment of children under 14 will invite imprisonment up to two years and a fine of Rupees twenty thousand. India has also banned employment of children in hazardous industries including the manufacture of fire crackers, carpet making, glass making etc. under Child Labour Act 2002 Although India has the second largest child population in the world, there is no single unified separate legislation to deal with all the offences against children. It is high time India introduced an all encompassing common act to safeguard the rights of a child.
6. Categories of Child Labour in India Child labour is a term that needs to be unpacked: it cannot be used in a sweeping manner but covers a range and variety of circumstances in which children work. Child Labour : Those children who are doing paid or unpaid work in factories, workshops, Establishments, mines and in the service sector such as domestic labour. The Ministry of Labour, Government of India has employed the term ‘child labour’ only in the context of children doing ‘hazardous’ work. It has been observed from Indian Context the main categories of child labor are Street Children, Bonded Children, Working Children, Children used for sexual exploitation,Migrant children and Children engaged in household activities etc. 8 Street Children : Children living on and off the streets, such as shoeshine boys, rag-pickers, newspaper-vendors, beggars, etc. The problem of street children is somewhat different from that of child labour in factories and workshops. For one thing, most children have some sort of home to go back to in the evenings or nights, while street children are completely alone and are at the mercy of their employers. They live on the pavements, in the bus stations and railway stations. They are at the mercy of urban predators as also the police. They have no permanent base and are often on the move. So their problem is more acute than that of children working in a factory and living at home. 8 Bonded Children : Children who have either been pledged by their parents for paltry sums of money or those working to pay off the inherited debts of Child Labour in India : A Profile 157
their fathers. Bonded child labour is an acute problem in some states. Bonded children are in many ways the most difficult to assist because they are inaccessible. If the carpet owner has bought them, they cannot escape. If the middle-class housewife has paid for them, they cannot run away. If the landlord in the village owns them, they will spend their life in servitude till they get married and can, in turn, sell their children. 8 Working Children : Children who are working as part of family labour in agriculture and in home-based work. If children are working 12-14 hours a day along with their parents at the cost of their education, their situation is similar to that of children working for other employers. In fact children, particularly girls, are expected to take on work burdens by parents in complete disproportion to their strengths and abilities. This is the largest category of children who are out-of-school and are working full time. And it is here that we find the largest percentage of girls working at the cost of education. 8 Children used for Sexual Exploitation : Many thousands of young girls and boys serve the sexual appetites of men from all social and economic backgrounds. Direct links between the commercial sexual exploitation of children and other forms of exploitative child labour are numerous. Factories, workshops, street corners, railway stations, bus stops and homes where children work are common sites of sexual exploitation. Children are especially powerless to resist abuse by employers, either as perpetrators or intermediaries. Village loan sharks often act as procurers for city brothels, lending money to the family which must be paid back through the daughter’s work. Almost all such children are betrayed by those they trust and end up with their trust abused. The physical (health, danger of HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases) and psycho-social damage inflicted by commercial sexual exploitation makes it one of the most hazardous forms of child labour. 8 Migrant Children : India faces a huge challenge with “distress seasonal migration”. Millions of families are being forced to leave their homes and villages for several months every year in search of livelihoods. These migrations mean that families are forced to drop out of schools, something that closes up the only available opportunity to break the vicious cycle generation after generation. At worksites migrant children are inevitably put to work. All evidence indicates that migrations are large and growing. The number of children below 14 years of age thus affected, may already be in the order of 9 million.14 Migrant populations overwhelmingly belong to Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Castes. They comprise the landless and land poor who possess the least amount of assets, skills or education. Studies reveal that the majority of migrant labour is to be found is states like Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Almost all major states appear to be affected by 158 Hasibul Rahaman
migration, although to varying degrees. Many industrial and agro-industrial sectors like brick-making, salt manufacture, sugar cane harvesting, stone quarrying, construction, fisheries, plantations, rice mills and so on run largely on migrant labour. 8 Children Engaged in Household Activities : Apart from children who are employed for wages (either bonded or otherwise) as domestic help, there are a large number of children (especially girls) who are working in their own houses, engaged in what is not normally seen as “economic activity”. These children are engaged in taking care of younger siblings, cooking, cleaning and other such household activities. As seen in the literature on women’s work, such activities need to be recognized as ‘work’. Further, if such children are not sent to school, they will eventually join the labour force as one of the above categories of child labour. 7. Socio-economic Profile The important characteristic of child labour in India is that about 90 percent of the working children are concentrated in the rural areas. They not only work in farm sector but also in various non-farm activities in rural areas. The same trend is reflected in Census as well as NSSO data. This is also a reflection of narrow jurisdiction of the law which focuses only on visible forms of child labour in urban areas. Further they remain as reservoir of cheap labour supply to be migrated to urban areas along with their families in the event of any distress in rural areas. Thus, the problem of child labour in India is essentially a rural problem. As per 2004-05 NSSO data, out of 9.07million child labourers, 12.16 million were in rural areas. Though there is a declining trend in the general magnitude of child labour in India, the concentration of child labourers in rural areas continue. Data on NSSO estimates on rural-urban magnitude of child labour is presented in Table below (NCLP Report,2011-2012). Table-2 : Estimate of Trends in India’s Child Labour by Rural-Urban, 1983-2009/10 (in millions)
Year (Round) 5-9 10-14 5-14 Rural 1993-94 (50th Round) 1.13 11.03 12.16 1999-00 (55th Round) 0.6 8.05 8.65 2004-05 (61st Round) 0.26 7.18 7.44 2009-10 (66th Round) 0.2 4.0 4.2 Urban 1993-94 (50th Round) 0.12 1.52 1.64 1999-00 (55th Round) 0.07 1.32 1.39 2004-05 (61st Round) 0.08 1.44 1.52 2009-10 (66th Round) 0.02 0.68 0.7 Child Labour in India : A Profile 159
Combined 1993-94 (50th Round) 1.27 12.59 13.86 1999-00 (55th Round) 0.63 9.5 10.13 2004-05 (61st Round 0.35 8.72 9.07 2004-05 (61st Round 0.35 8.72 9.07 Source : Derived from Respective Unit Level Records of NSS, (Collect from NCLP Report,2011-2012.)
8. Measures to stop Child Labour A million dollar question has arisen in regard to stop this social problem but no specific answer. All sections of the society need to work together to stop misuse and abuse of children. Stakeholders to tackle these issues include: 1. National Governmental agencies. 2. Non governmental organisations. (NGOs). 3. People’s forums. 4. Corporate entities. 5. Individual social service activists. Let us analyze why child labour is in existence in spite of various pieces of legislation. Poverty is the major cause for children being sent to work. The percentage of the Indian population living in poverty is high. It is estimated 37% of the urban population and 39% of the rural population is living in poverty. Poverty has an obvious relationship with child labour. The hardships arising out of abject poverty coupled with vices like drugs and alcoholism compel illiterate families especially in rural areas to initiate their children into back breaking work under tiring and sometimes dangerous conditions. The childhood of many children is shattered in the sinks of city hotels, dusty construction sites, hazardous factories and in waste heaps. The second reason, especially in India, is lack of educational facilities is in some parts of rural India e.g. Bihar, West Bengal etc. where abject poverty still exists. The third reason is the migration of adult labour with their children to urban towns where construction work is booming and plenty of job opportunities exist for poor families including children who are exploited and paid poor wages. Abject poverty and the lack of social security network systems are the basis of an even harsher type of child labour - bonded child labour. The bonded labour system is still prevailing in some states of India where poor peasants who owe money to land owners agree to give their children as bonded labour for long periods. In return they receive a one time payment or waver of their loans. 160 Hasibul Rahaman
Influential mafia groups are also engaged in trafficking children from remote rural areas to affluent towns. The children are then forced into labour and begging. Girls are forced into prostitution.
9. Conclusion Magnitude of child labour as reported by official sources show a declining trend. Though this is a welcome trend, the problem is with the inadequacy of coverage in the official statistics. Given the context of globalization and declining employment growth in the country, the reduction in the magnitude of child labour shown in NSSO 61st round (2004-05) could be due to reduction in general employment. However, there is need for policy advocacy on properly defining child labour from a child rights perspective in the official sources of data. Already many suggestions are made towards improving the scope of defining child labour by academics. At the same time efforts to make education compulsory up to secondary level will go a long way in addressing the issue of older children who complete their elementary education but unable to access high school education. Finally the mind set up of the people has needed to change to stop this social problem.
References
Basu, Kaushik, “Ideology, Economics and Labour Market Policy”, Rakesh Mohan (ed.), Facets of the Indian Economy, New Delhi : Oxford University. Burra, Neera, “Crusading for Children in India’s Informal Economy”, Economic and Political Weekly, December 3, 2005. Grootaert, C and R. Kanbur, “Child labour: An Economic Perspective”, International Labour Review, 134(2), 1995, 187-203. ILO (2011 - 12 ) Press Releases. MoLE, Policy and Programme for the Rehabilitation of Working Children & Manual for the Implementation of National Child Labour Projects, Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India, New Delhi. National level Field Survey for 7 states Conducted by Prognosys e Services. NSSO, Employment and Unemployment Surveys in India, New Delhi : Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. ê
Article Received on October 01, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 15
Health Problems and Medical Facilities of Rural Women
Kumkum Sagar*
In the study of health problems and medical facilities has been examined on the health related challenges of rural women and to find out the reproductive health problems of women in rural area secondary sources are used for his study. The study shows that rural women have to face many challenges for related to rural women health. Health care sectors are low quality. Poor accountability, do not regular medical checkup due to lack of awareness and pregnancy problem. [Keywords : Medical Sociology, Health, Health care, Rural health care, Medical facility, Women health, Reproductive health]
1. Introduction Medical sociology as the study of health care as it is institutionalized in society and of health, or illness and its relationship to social factors (Weiss, 2000 : 1). Medical sociology is concerned with the social and consequences of health and illness (Cockerham, 2011 : 1). Medical sociology is sociological analysis of medical organizations and institutions the production of knowledge and section of methods-professionals and the social or cultural (rather them clinical or bodily) effect of medical practice (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/medical sociology). Health is individual’s capacity to perform roles and tasks in everyday living and acknowledges that there are social references in defining health (Weiss, 2000:107). Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or injury (W.H.O).
* Ph. D. Scholar, Department of Sociology, Meerut College, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
Indian women have high mortality rates, particularly during childhood and in their reproductive years. India’s maternal mortality rates in rural areas are among the worlds highest. From a global perspective, India accounts for 19% of all live births and 27% of all maternal deaths (NFHS-3 data). The health of Indian women is intrinsically linked to their status in society, especially for those living in a rural area. There is a strong preference for sons in India because they are expected to care for ageing parents. This son preference and high dowry costs for daughter results in the mistreatment of daughters. Indeed, Indian women have low levels of both education and formal labour-force participation. They typically have little autonomy, living first under the control of their fathers, then their husbands, and finally their sons. These factors have a negative impact on the health status of Indian women. Poor health has repercussions not only for women, but also their families. Women in poor health are more likely to give birth to low weight infants. In rural areas where women are less educated and economically deprived, their health condition is worse. Health status is an outcome of a large number of factors : 8 Poverty, food security, food pricing and malnutrition. 8 Environmental pollution and degradation. 8 Occupational health problems. 8 Reproductive health problems. 8 Household economy and wages. 8 Economic development; represented by per capita income, urbanization and industrialization. 8 Social development; especially literacy rates. 8 Prices of private health care system. 8 Public health care delivery system. Rural Health care is one of biggest challenges facing the Health Ministry of India with more than 70 percent population living in rural areas and low level of Health facilities, Mortality rates due to diseases are on a high. Healthcare is the right of every individual but lack of quality infrastructure, dearth of qualified medical functionaries, and non-access to basic medicines and medical facilities the rate its reach to 60% of population in India. A majority of 700 million people lives in rural areas where the condition of medical facilities is deplorable. Considering the picture of grim facts there is a dire need of new practices and procedures of ensure that quality and timely health care reaches the deprived corners of the Indian villages. Medical Facilities a place where sick or injured people are given care or treatment as a hospital, urgent care center, or a clinic of relating to or concerned Health Problems and Medical Facilities of Rural Women 163 with physicians or the practice or medicine requiring or devoted to medical treatment (www.marriam-webster.com/dictionary/medical). Women’s health involves women’s emotional, social, cultural, spiritual and physical well-being, and is determined by the social, political, cultural and economic context of women’s lives, as well as by biology (www.medwomen’s health.html). Women’s health refers to health status and the disparities in health between the sexes of often critical indicators of equality in a society (W.H.O, 1986). Women’s health is the effect of gender on disease and health the encompasses a broad range of biological and psycho-social issues (http://medical-dictionarythefree dictionary.com). Reproductive health means a satisfying, safe sex life, free from the fear of disease and free from coercion and violence (Mathu, 2008 : 332). Reproductive health is a state which people have the ability to reproduce and regulate their fertility (Sinha, 2007 : 329). Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters related to reproductive system, its function and process (Sakhuja, 2008 : 102).
2. Review of Literature Vijyalakshami and K. Anbu (2011) studied health status of elderly in old age homes for this research an old age home was selected named Volantariate in Pondicherry. Census method and statistical tools like SPSS was used. This study find out that 36% old suffer from visual problems and weakness of muscles,24% joint pain, 4% suffer from problems of mobility, speech difficulty, low blood pressure and mental disease, 80% are towards homeopathy, 52% felt that they are not healthy. A. Neelima and Sudarshan Reddy (2009) have examined peoples perspectives on health care services. Kothapally village in Bheemdevarapally (mandal) of Kareem Nagar district in Andhra Pradesh for data collection a pre tested questionnaire was administrated on them. They found that their attitudes towards public health services, their perspectives on government policy and ultimately what they want. This study disclose the health status, pattern of health care dispensation. Sthiopragyan Roy (2007) analyzed examined Gram Panchayat and Health care delivery in the non-tribal lowest area of Himachal Pradesh. The extent of devolution of health care functions and power on the gram Panchayats and rural health care contributions of the Primary and secondary sources. The study shows that 90% of the villagers interviewed divide having any knowledge about organizations of health camps or community mobilization efforts by Gram Panchayat and 6% of Gram Panchayat Report having discussed health issues in Gram Panchayat and Gram Sabah meetings. 164 Kumkum Sagar
Nandini Bhatta Charaya (2009) to assessed practice of induced abortion among slum dwellers municipal word in Kolkata and reasons of abortion among the women of slums. She has been used questionnaire and schedule. The revealed that study respondents prefers limiting their family size analysis of both qualitative and abortion shows and indicates that the study participant go for induced abortion mainly for the purpose of birth spacing. Majumdar (1958) described sanitation, water supply, food habits, drainage system, diseases and their treatments in the village Mohana in Uttar Pradesh. He observed a gradual sanskritization and elaboration of ideas regarding diseases as one moves from lower to higher castes. The higher castes think of a disease more than the help of ideas in Great Tradition, whereas the lower castes seek explanations in tribal goods, spirits and magic that are localized. Hasan (1967) in his study observed that the habit of walking barefooted by village and habit of indiscriminate defecation increases of chance of infections. Further, habits of eating without clean consciousness leads to the unhygienic practices.
3. Objectives 1. To examine the health related challenges of rural women. 2. To find out the reproductive health problems of women among rural area.
4. Findings 1. This study shows about the health challenges face by women of rural areas. There are many challenges related to the women health care, rural health care sector is low quality, poor accountability, lack of awareness and limited access of facilitates. Lack treatment facilities for rural women and lack of private health care. Rural women do not family planning care delivery they do not get proper medical care in the case of complications also. There is limited emergency room for persons of limited funds and no transportation facilities. Rural people travel to bus for treatment. Ambulance take a long time to respond to calls in rural areas even there is emergency. 2. Study say that reproductive health on important aspect of even though pregnancy. We can say that women health in particular reproductive health, hardly prominence in rural areas. Most of the women had to undergo, lot of problems during pregnancy. Most of the women did not take medical care and tests during pregnancy and most of their deliveries look place in home. They did not go to hospitals and younger women also follow this tradition. Mostly rural women them did not take medical and they did not regular medical test lack of awareness for pregnancy. 3. Health and well being of rural women, it was found that only 10 per cent of the studied women consuming balanced diet. The women showed a poor Health Problems and Medical Facilities of Rural Women 165
intake of vegetables, fruits and milk products however, the intake of oil, sugar and jaggery was nearly adequate. 4. Government of India has been making several efforts in developing health and population policies. However, there are several problems in the implementation of appropriate interventions due to the poverty, gender discrimination and illiteracy in the population. 5. While malnutrition is prevalent among all segments of the population, poor nutrition among women begins in infancy and continues throughout their lifetime
References
Sakhuja, Swarn Lata, The Medical and Health Care of Women, New Delhi : Gyan Publishing House, 2008. Sunder, I and Manikavasayam, B., Medical Sociology, New Delhi : Sarup & Sons, 2007. Vijayalakshmi, V and Anbu, “Health Status of Elderly in Old-Age Homes”, Health and Development, New Delhi, Rawat Publications, 2011, 305-316 Cockerham, William C., Medical Sociology, New Jersey : Prentiy Hall, 1998. George, L.weiss and Lynee, E. Lonnguish, The Sociology of Health, Healing and Illness, New Jersey : Prentice Hall, 2000. Neelima, A and Reddy Sudarshan, A., “People’s Perspective on Health Care Services in Rural Andhra Pradesh: An Epidemiologic Study”, Social Change, 30(2), 2009, 257-269 Ray, Sthitopragyan, “Gram Panchayats Health Care Delivery in Himachal Pradesh”, Sociological Bulletin, 3(2), 2007. Hasan, K.A., Medical Sociology of Rural India, Ajmer : Scahin Publication, 1979. Majumdar, D.N., Caste and Communication in an Indian Village, Bombay : Asia Publishing House, 1958. Chandrashekhar, B., “Reproductive Health Problems of Women in Rural Areas”, The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention, 2, 2014, 95-101, ISSN : 2349-2031. Gram Vaani, Rural Health Care - Towards a Healthy Rural India, New Delhi : Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, 2009, 1-4 Sunil Kumar, M. Kamalapur and Somanath Reddy, “Women Health in India : An Analysis”, International Research Journal of Social Sciences, ISSN : 2319-3565 Vol. 2 (10 ), 2013, 11-15 Agarwal Sutapa and Sayeed Unisa, “Pregnancies, Abortion and Women’s Health in Rural Haryana, India, Journal of Nursing Science and Practice, 3(1)3(3), 2013, 1-5, ISSN, 2161-0711. ê
Article Received on October 09, 2018; Accepted on December 06, 2018 16
Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective
Indu Sharma*
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. A development path that is sustainable in a physical sense could theoretically be pursued even in a rigid social and political setting. But physical sustainability cannot be secured unless development policies pay attention to such considerations as changes in access to resources and in the distribution of costs and benefits. Thus the goals of economic and social development must be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries - developed or developing, market-oriented or centrally planned. Interpretations will vary, but must share certain general features and must flow from a consensus on the basic concept of sustainable development and on a broad strategic framework for achieving it. India is the seventh largest country in the world and Asia’s second largest nation with an area of 3.29 million square kilometres. The Indian mainland stretches from 8o 4 to 37 o 6 N and 68o 7 to 97o 25 E. The country is set apart from the rest of Asia by the Himalayas to the north, and is flanked by the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. India is characterized by variable terrain, starting from the Himalayas to flat rolling plains along the Ganges deserts in the west and an upland plain (the Deccan Plateau) in the country’s south. India has numerous perennial and seasonal rivers, a rich variety of soils and a great diversity of natural ecosystems. There are also diverse Climatic zones varying from tropical monsoon in the south to temperate in the north. [Keywords : Sustainable, Fresh water, Devolution, Bio-diversity, Governance, Technology] 1. Introduction The essential needs of vast numbers of people in developing countries for food, clothing, shelter, jobs - are not being met, and beyond their basic needs these * Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, D.A.V. PG College, Bulandshahr, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
3. Minerals and Energy Resources India is richly endowed with mineral resources, which include fossil fuels, ferrous and non-ferrous ores, and industrial minerals. There are about 20 000 known mineral deposits in the country and as many as 87 minerals (4 fuels, 11 metallic, 50 non-metallic, 22 minor minerals) are being exploited (TERI, 2001b). The country has abundant reserves of bauxite, coal, dolomite, iron ore, manganese, 168 Indu Sharma limestone, magnetite and adequate reserves of chromate, graphite, lignite, and rock salt. Besides conventional sources, the country is richly endowed with non-conventional energy resources such as solar, hydro and wind. The country stands out as being the only one in the world with a separate Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources. India’s renewable energy programme is one of the largest and most extensive in the world. Currently, almost 3% of India’s installed power capacity comes from non-conventional energy sources.
4. Forests and Biodiversity A large variety of forests is found in India ranging from evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats and the North-Eastern states to dry alpine scrub in the Himalayan region. Between the two extremes the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine forests and temperate forests. The forests of India have been divided into 16 major groups comprising 221 types. The forest cover of the country, as per the assessment by Forest Survey of India, is 63.73 million ha constituting 19.39% of the geographic area of the country out of which 37.74 million ha (11.48%) is dense forest (crown density more than 40%), 25.50 million ha (7.76%) open forest (crown density 10%-40%) and 0.49 million ha (0.15%), mangroves (FSI, 2000). Over 45,000 plant species are found in the country. Several thousand of them are unique to the country. Two international biodiversity hotspots have been identified in the Eastern Himalayan region and the Western Ghats.
5. Fresh Water India is considered rich in terms of annual rainfall and total water resources available at the national level. The average annual rainfall, equivalent to about 4000 billion cubic metres (BCM), however, is very unevenly distributed both spatially as well as temporally. This causes severe regional and temporal shortages. Utilizable resource availability in the country varies considerably from 18,417 cubic metres in the Brahmaputra valley to as low as 180 cu m in the Sabarmati basin (Chitale, 1992). Precipitation varies from 100 mm a year in western Rajasthan to over 9000 mm a year in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya (Engelmann and Roy, 1993). With 75% of the rain falling in the four monsoon months and the other 1 000 BCM spread over the remaining eight months, Indian rivers carry 90% of the water between June and November, making only 10% of the river flow available during the other six months. 6. Governance Structures India, at the time of its Independence faced many challenges. The partition of the country produced severe communal stress. There were a large number of small Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective 169 states ruled by dynastic monarchies. Assimilating these into the mainstream of the Indian Union was an uphill task. The country required a strong governance structure to ensure peace and rapid socio-economic development. The fundamental principles of governance that were enunciated then were democracy, equality and the rule of law. These principles have, over the last fifty years and more, taken deep roots and the country has had an unbroken democratic continuum. The basic democratic character of the Indian state has, since Independence, become stronger, wider and deeper. The country has a strong and vibrant legislature with an independent judiciary that have acted as a balance to the executive. The planning process in the country is so structured as to ensure a iterative mechanism of planning based on the interaction between the centre, states and local bodies. At the national level, the Planning Commission draws up Five-Year Plans in consultation with various ministries and state governments, reflecting the nation’s priorities. The Five-Year Plans are divided into annual plans, which set the prioritized and short-term developmental goals. The performance of programmes is regularly monitored, by a mid-term review of the Plan. The implementation of developmental programmes in the country is carried out through decentralized and broad-based governance machinery. The country has a fairly uniform pattern of devolution of responsibility between the centre and the states and between the states and the local bodies. There is an active and independent press and since the 90s an equally effective electronic media. A large number of NGOs are active and help to support the formal governance structure. Increasingly, information technology is playing an important role in bringing about greater awareness, peoples participation and transparency. These features of the Indian system of governance are elaborated upon in the following sections.
7. Legislature and Judiciary The Indian state is characterized by the classical division of powers between the executive, legislature and judiciary. The principles governing this division are laid out in the Constitution. Amendments have been made in the Constitution from time to time to meet the changing needs and to cope with unforeseen situations. The state is federal with 28 states while seven smaller administrative units are directly controlled by the centre (Union Territories). Elections to the legislature, both at the centre and the states, are supervised by an independent Election Commission, whose independence is safeguarded by constitutional provisions. Elections in India are the largest in the world and have been accepted as being fair with provisions for correction in case of any aberrations. The legislatures have the powers to approve/reject/modify all legislation, review financial allocations, expenditures, revenue collection and the overall performance of government. Proceedings of the legislatures are open. Important proceedings of the Parliament are also televised live to a national audience. 170 Indu Sharma
The Judiciary also has a federal character with the Supreme Court at the apex, High Courts in the states and other courts below the high court in the states. The Judiciary is independent and has acted as an effective check on both the executive and the legislatures. In the recent past the Judiciary has also played a pro-active role in upholding the rights of the citizens particularly through the route of Public Interest Litigation. In the area of environment, in particular, the courts have been active in achieving a greater degree of compliance with the laws and in upholding the right of the citizens to acceptable quality of water and air. The other positive feature of the State is that it has been continuously ruled by elected civilians. The large armed force of the country has protected the country borders from external aggression and plays an important role in countering terrorism in some of the Border States as also assisting the civilian administration to cope with internal disturbances and natural calamities.
8. Devolution to States The Constitution lays down the division of powers and responsibilities between the centre and the states. These have provided the basis for an enduring federal structure. Broadly, issues requiring a national perspective like defence, external affairs are with the centre. In the areas of social and economic issues there is shared responsibility. Often the centre takes the initiative on important issues and involves the states in the implementation. Thus the “green revolution” in agriculture was a central initiative implemented by the states. Financial flows to the states are guaranteed by leaving certain taxation powers with the states. This is supplemented by the awards of the Finance Commissions, set up every five years under the Constitution these lay down the principles of revenue sharing of central revenues between the centre and states.
9. Devolution to Local Bodies India has had a long history of local self government, starting well before Independence. After Independence greater use was sought to be made of these bodies in socio-economic development of the country. In 1993 the Constitution was amended to provide constitutional protection to these bodies. This was done in three ways. First there were constitutional safeguards for regular elections and the establishment of State Election Commissions to ensure free and fair elections. Second the powers and functions of these bodies were laid down in the Constitution and it was expected that states would follow this national pattern by amending the state legislation where required. Finally there was a provision for State Finance Commissions (on the lines of the National Finance Commission) that would ensure an adequate level of revenue sharing between the state and the local bodies. This move has provided the basis for greater devolution to elected local bodies and thus to the local communities. The amendment was also an important step towards the Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective 171 empowerment of women and increasing their participation in decision-making since it reserved 33% seats in urban municipalities and the panchayati raj institutions for women.
10. Education, Awareness and the Role of Media The rise in the literacy level along with efforts to mainstream the less privileged in the society have strengthened the decentralized governance system in the country. The media has played an important role in awareness generation. The country has an active press that has guarded its freedom zealously. Given the large diversity of the country, regional papers in the local language far outnumber the national press that is dominated by the English press. Of late there has been a veritable explosion of television channels, once again with a very large number of regional channels in the local languages. The media has played an effective role in upholding the basic rights of the people. It has thus acted as yet another forum where people can seek redress of their grievances, where the other forums are not effective. It is also an instantaneous barometer of public opinion on issues that are contentious. With growing literacy, the effectiveness of this medium in moulding public opinion has been growing. It has thus proved to be a valuable instrument to strengthen the basic democratic character of the Indian governance structure.
11. Transparency and People’s Participation There has been a growing trend to provide for greater transparency in the functioning of Government. The natural complement of this process has been the parallel trend of allowing people to participate in decision making at all levels. Important issues are debated and discussed before a decision is taken. Consultations are held, both by Government and by Parliament, with important stakeholders. The Five-Year Plans are also finalized only after consulting experts from various fields and disciplines. Similarly, in the case of environmental clearance all major projects have to go through the process of a public hearing. Again in the case of forests a new style of governance has been introduced in the form of Joint Forest Management where both, the government and the local community, participate in managing the forest resources. Use of independent regulatory commissions is yet another administrative innovation to impart greater transparency and people’s participation to the governance structure. The Indian system of governance has thus shown remarkable resilience in adapting to changing situations and learning from the experience of other countries. Throughout this process, the fundamental principles of democracy and openness have not only been retained but also strengthened. 12. Information Technology and E-Governance In this process the new opportunities thrown up by information technology have been made full use of. There is now a mass of information available on the 172 Indu Sharma
Internet on the performance of the government, important new initiatives and plans for the future. The Internet is also being used for wider consultations important documents, like the Convergence Bill (which seeks to provide a uniform regulatory structure for the converging telecommunications, entertainment and information technology sectors) are placed on the Internet for comments and feedback. The electronic media is also fostering efficient governance through speedier communications; uniform databases that can be used for multiple departments like ration cards, voter identity cards etc and public services such as tracking the status of rail reservations and passport applications.
13 Challenges and Administrative Reforms Governance is an ongoing process that has to continually adapt to new challenges, situations and the opportunities provided by new technologies. The Indian system, rooted as it is in the fundamental principles of democracy, respect for the rights of individual citizens and openness, and has shown ample evidence of its robustness in continuous adaptation to these changes. Administrative reforms have to be seen not as a onetime effort but an ongoing process of change, adaptation and improvement. At every level of governance, both within the various organs of the state and the other agencies like the media, NGOs and local communities, there have been a continuous process of change. This change has led to a progressive improvement in the openness of the system and a greater degree of responsiveness. Given the vast size of the country, the wide differences in traditions and cultures, this is an unmistakable sign of the basic health of the governance structure and its capacity for continuous correction and self improvement. 14. Social Development Drinking water and sanitation facilities are basic requirements for healthy living. There has been significant progress in improving these services, but there are marked rural-urban and regional inequalities in the country. Improvement in the health status of the population has been one of the major thrust areas in the social development programmes of the country. Over the years there has been a significant improvement in health standards particularly among the poor. Access to basic health facilities has improved and many dangerous diseases have been eradicated. This has been achieved through technological breakthroughs and improvements in the access to health, family welfare and nutrition services with special focus on the under-served and the under-privileged segments of the population. There has been steep fall in mortality and in specific diseases such as polio, neonatal tetanus and other vaccine-preventable diseases; the incidence of leprosy too, has declined. The disease burden due to communicable, non-communicable diseases and nutritional problems, however, continues to be high in the country. Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective 173
As the foregoing section indicates, there has been improvement in the various facets of human development; yet though there is still a long way to go. Levels of achievement are still not adequate. That poverty goes beyond lack of adequate income, and should be viewed more as a state of deprivation spanning the social, economic, and political context of the people that prevents their equal participation in the development process, is now well appreciated. Recognizing the need for this holistic view of welfare, the government has recently come out with a well-researched and contextually relevant approach to mapping the state of human development in the country in its many facets through a range of indicators that will be useful in formulating and monitoring public policy. As the Human Development Report brings out, the HDI (human development indicator) for the country has improved significantly between 1980 and 2001, improving by nearly 26% in the eighties and another 24% in the nineties (Planning Commission, 2002). There has been an improvement both in rural as well as in urban areas. Further, though the rural-urban gap in the level of human development continues to be significant, it has declined during the period. Inequalities across states on the HDI are less than the income inequality as reflected in per capita State Domestic Product. The index of gender inequality measuring the attainments in human development indicators for females as a proportion of that of males has also improved, though marginally, in the 1980s. At the national level, the GEI increased from 62% in the early eighties to 67.6% in the early nineties. This implies that on an average, the attainments of women on human development indicators were only two-thirds of those of men. At the state level, those that have done well in improving female literacy are also the ones that have substantially improved their gender equality. On the whole, gender disparities across the states have declined over the period.
15. Role of Science and Technology Technology is a fundamental input into sustained growth and welfare. The role of science and technology in decoupling economic growth with environmental degradation has also become important. The promotion of science and technology for the cause of development has been one of the guiding principles of planned development in Independent India. There has been significant growth in capabilities and achievements in several areas, namely, space sciences, astronomy, meteorology, disaster warning, electronics, defence, nuclear, material and medicine. Industry interface, community involvement and international co-operation in development of science and technology have been strengthened over time. Increasingly the government has sought to support socially oriented S&T interventions for rural areas and weaker sections. The role of remote sensing satellite system for natural resource monitoring and management has also gained importance. Since 1990s in particular, sustained efforts have been made for 174 Indu Sharma developing newly emerging areas such as information and communication services, biotechnology and new and renewable sources of sources. The government recognizes the enormous potential of information and communication technology as a catalyst towards sustainable development through access to information thus facilitating market access, education, and participative and transparent governance. India enjoys a competitive advantage in software and related services in the form of abundant qualified manpower and expertise in state-of- the-art hardware and software platforms. The Department of Information Technology in the Government of India is guided by the vision of making India and IT super power by the year 2008. Independent estimates suggest that by 2008, the IT industry will be the single largest contributor to the GDP of the country and large employment generator. In the area of biotechnology, the government strives for “attaining new heights in biotechnology research, shaping biotechnology into a premier precision tool of the future for creation of wealth and ensuring social justice - especially for the welfare of the poor”. Significant advances have already been made in the growth and application of biotechnology in the broad areas of agriculture, health care, animal sciences, environment, and industry. Specifically, several initiatives have been taken to promote transgenic research in plants with emphasis on pest and disease resistance, nutritional quality, molecular biology of human genetic disorders, brain research, plant genome research, development validation and commercialization of diagnostic kits and vaccines for communicable diseases, food biotechnology, biodiversity conservation and bio prospecting, setting up of micro propagation parks and biotechnology based development for weaker sections, rural areas and women. Sustainable energy development is a key element of a sustainable growth outlook. India has made rapid advances in harnessing clean energy and boasts of one of the world’s largest renewable energy programmes covering the whole spectrum of renewable energy technologies for a variety of grid and off grid applications. The country has the largest decentralized solar energy programme, the second largest biogas and improved cook stoves programme, and the fifth largest wind power programme in the world. A substantial manufacturing base has been created in a variety of new and renewable sources of energy, placing India not only in a position to export technologies but also to offer technical expertise to other countries. Renewable energy technologies are an important means of social development in the country, being an attractive and sometimes only option to provide energy to non-electrified areas that are too remote for grid electrification. 16. Environmental Sustainability Environmental sustainability considerations have been an integral part of the Indian culture. The need for conservation and sustainable use of natural resources has been expressed in Indian scriptures more than three thousand years Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective 175 old and is reflected in our constitutional, legislative and policy framework as also international commitments. Apart from concerns about increasing air and water pollution, degradation of land and forests along with loss of biodiversity have also come into focus. Specific measures were initiated way back in 1972 after the Stockholm Declaration. Since then a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests has evolved and an extensive legislative network now exists to address environmental issues. There have also been several policy initiatives to safeguard the environment. These are discussed in detail in later chapters. Environmental awareness programmes supported by the government and NGOs have also gained momentum in recent times. The country has signed and ratified several international conventions and agreements on the environment and related issues and has been effectively implementing these. The efforts made so far need to be carried forward by strengthening the existing attempts at the domestic level and reinforcing international cooperation in dealing with issues related to social development and the environment.
17. Towards Sustainable Development The governance structure of the country is founded on the principles of democracy, equality and the rule of law. The basic democratic character of the Indian State has, since Independence, become stronger, wider and deeper, even as the structure has itself evolved to accommodate new challenges. In order to strengthen the basic character of democracy i.e. the flow of power upward from the people- there has been emphasis on strengthening local self-governance in villages and urban areas alike. Education, awareness, a vibrant print and electronic media and the rapid spread of information technology have led to an ever-widening participation of the civil society in the development process of the country. The government has, over the years, developed a number of programmes that aim at eradicating poverty either through directly targeted programmes such as employment generation, training and building-up assets of the poor or indirectly through human development with an emphasis on health, education, and minimum needs including protection of human rights and raising the social status of the weak and the poor. The government recognizes the role of economic growth in improving the quality of life of the people. Growth enables expansion of productive employment and provides the necessary financial and technological resources for development programmes. Environmental considerations have been an integral part of the Indian culture and have increasingly integrated in the planning process. This is reflected in our constitutional, legislative and policy framework as also international commitments. The government recognizes that these laudable objectives are clouded by concerns. The economy is currently in a decelerating phase, which is compounded by the general slow-down in the world economy. On the social front, too, there 176 Indu Sharma remains much to be done. Despite the significant progress in areas of poverty eradication, literacy and health standards, there still remains a gulf between the standards prevailing in India and the rest of the world. The Government of India is cognisant of these challenges as the country sets out to prepare the first development plan of this millennium. While seeking to achieve a high and sustained economic growth, it realizes that economic growth standing on an unsteady social and environmental foundation cannot be sustained. The Tenth Five-Year Plan assigns primacy to enhancement of human well-being which includes not only adequate level of food consumption and other consumer goods but also access to basic social services especially education, health, drinking water and basic sanitation. It also assigns primacy to the expansion of economic and social opportunities for all individuals and groups and wider participation in decision-making. Conservation and management of natural resources is an important focus of the plan.
18. Conclusion Thus the strategy for sustainable development aims to promote harmony among human beings and between humanity and nature. In the specific context of the development and environment crises of the 1980s, which current national and international political and economic institutions have not and perhaps cannot overcome, the pursuit of sustainable development requires : a social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising from disharmonious development. A political system secures effective citizen participation in decision making. An economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self-reliant and sustained basis. A social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising from disharmonious development. These requirements are more in the nature of goals that should underlie national and international action on development.
References
Agrawala, Shardul, and Samuel Fankhauser (eds.), Economic Aspects of Adaptation to Climate Change : Costs, Benefits and Policy Instruments, Paris : Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2008. Bhagwati, Jagdish, “Development aid: getting it right”, OECD Observer, No. 249, May 2005. Dasgupta, Partha, “Optimal development and the idea of net national product”, I. Goldin and A. Winter (eds.), Sustainable Economic Development : Domestic and International Policy, Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press. 1994, 111-142. Hermann, S., and others, “Climate, land, energy and water (CLEW) interlink ages in Burkina Faso: an analysis of agricultural intensification and bio energy production”, Natural Resources Forum, 36(4) (November 2012, 245-262. Jackson, Tim, Prosperity without Growth : Economics for a Finite Planet, Abingdon, United Kingdom : Earth scan, 2009. Sustainable Development in Indian Perspective 177
Kapur, Devesh, and John McHale, Give Us Your Best and Brightest : The Global Hunt for Talent and Its Impact on the Developing World, Washington, D.C.: Centre for Global Development, 2005. Lipton, Michael, “From policy aims and small-farm characteristics to farm science needs”, World Development, 38(10), October, 2010. Mishra Rajeev Kumar, Parida Manoranjan and Rangnekar Santosh, “Urban transport system: An environmentally sustainable approach”, J. Environ. Res. Develop., 6 (3), 2012. Palley, Thomas, “Financialization : what it is and why it matters”, Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Working Paper No. 525. Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, December, 2007. Toye, John, “Human development in an environmentally constrained world in the post-2015 era”, Background paper prepared for World Economic and Social Survey, 2013. ê
Article Received on October 09, 2018; Accepted on December 02, 2018 17
Impact of Employees' Empowerment on their Performance
Reena*
In today’s global competitiveness, there is a great desire on the part of the employees to play an active role in organizational activities and as such, every effort should be made to accommodate employees? views. Employee Empowerment, as the name suggests, is to empower or uplift the employees in the organization by providing them the autonomy to take decisions of their own which essentially leads to various positive outcomes among which a better organizational performance is a part. If the employees in an organization are empowered and involved in various decision making activities, then they are positively motivated, their individual performance develops and contribute towards their own as well as organizational objectives. This paper basically deals with the relationship of the empowerment with the employee performance. [Keywords : Employees empowerment, Performance, Organization, Leadership]
1. Introduction For the organizations to achieve their goals and objectives, they must constantly adjust to their environment. In an increasingly competitive world and changing business, organizations need effective strategies to manage business, deliver services and goods to the customers. The markets, products, technology and competitive conditions are rapidly changing. Therefore, all the Organizations must possess the capacity to adapt to these changes effectively. According to Armstrong (2000), strategies for managing performance aim at achieving increased organizational effectiveness, better results for individuals and teams and higher
* Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce N.A.S. College Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
4. Employees Empowerment : An Overview Empowering employees is the long-term process of providing the tools, training and motivate the workers to perform at the optimum level. If organization is looking for a method to speed processes and still create quality materials and services, focus on employee empowerment. When an employee trusted, and given timely information and the authority to find solutions. Employee will be able to solve problems and provide solutions more quickly than someone without that empowerment. Empowerment offers employee with a sense of sovereignty, which will increase employee job satisfaction. It will be more comfortable at work because it develops self confidence and a sense of worth. A happy worker gives the most excellent customer service, and leaves a good thought of company with whomever it addresses. Employee empowerment refers to the delegation of power and responsibility from higher levels in the organizational hierarchy to lower level employees, especially the power to make decisions (Arneson and Ekberg, 2006). Entrepreneurs, managers and researchers in the field of management regard the employee as the major resource bringing competitive advantage to establishments, and they believe the involvement and empowerment of employees is key to the success of establishments (Siegall and Gardner, 2000). Studies conducted on employee empowerment reveal that it gives rise to organizational commitment (Spreitzer and Mishra, 2002), motivation (Janssen et al., 1997), performance (Sigler and Pearson, 2000) and customer satisfaction (Chebat and Kollias, 2000). According to Bateman and Snell (2002) empowerment is the process of sharing power with employees, thereby enhancing their confidence in their ability to perform their jobs and their belief that they are influential contributions to the Organization. Empowerment has been defined by Carver sited in Vikas (2000) as an authority, in terms of encouraging and allowing individuals to take personal responsibility for improving the way they do their jobs and contribute to the Organizational goals. Cook and Macaulay's (1997) defined empowerment as a change management tool which helps organizations create an environment where Impact of Employees’ Empowerment on their Performance 181 every individual can use his or her abilities and energies to satisfy the customer. It is all embracing how employees use their abilities and whether there are boundaries to responsibilities, the degree and type of power employees enjoy, power relation between employee, managers, individuals, teams and customers. Hanold (1997) defined empowerment as control of ones work autonomy on the job, variation of teamwork and pay systems that link pay with performance. He further divided empowerment into four categories which are the leaders role in creating empowerment context, the individual perspective of empowerment, collaborative work as empowerment and structural and procedural change as empowerment aims at changing organizational strategy with the objective of improving both individuals and organizations ability to act and enhance performance. Employees empowerment play an important role in increasing the company's performance. Researchers suggest different points of view on the problem of democratizing the working environment. Some of them state that it is very important to create a democratic environment in the company and follow principles of employee involvement. They emphasize that as long as people in the company are motivated to think creatively, Influence their own schedule, provide the monitoring of their own performance and participate in the activities of the company, they have much higher performance. They argue that it is very important to empower employees. Empowerment makes greater use of the knowledge, skills and abilities of the workforce. It encourages team working and if there is meaningful participation, it can lead to the successful implementation of change programmes. Nixon sited by Mullins (2007) suggested that by empowering staff right through the organizations structure, every employee will have the power to be innovative and ensure performance is good. The adoption of performance incentives in both the public and private sectors has elicited interest from researchers who explored the effectiveness of such schemes (Manolopoulos, 2008). Some researchers have examined employees? attitudes to performance incentive schemes (Mamman, 1998). Their main interest was on how these schemes affected employees’ motivation and performance (Manolopoulos, 2008)
5. Factors Influencing Employees Empowerment Traditional methods of motivation designed for organizations need in physical dimension of employees are currently not proper. Today, because of dynamic structure and complexity of competitive environment, the needs of organizations to creativity and intellectual power of their personnel has increased. Hence it is necessary to identify new methods to motivate employees in order to maintain and enhance competitive advantage. Various factors like job enrichment, 182 Reena performance based rewards, participative management, suggestion system, team-work formation, leadership and participation in goal setting are the main ways of empowerment. These are briefly described below : 8 Job enrichment has been considered as one of the most important factors of employee empowerment. It is the step used to make the employees feel that the organization is actually owning them and that thing empowers them and boost their performance on the job. This has a direct impact on their satisfaction level in the organization while performing their duties. That thing ultimately increases the level of performance of the employees on the job. 8 Performance based reward system is a process that allows linkage between the Performance Management System (PMS) and individual accountability through the development of performance objectives and employee reviews in a manner that will encourage continuous improvement. Nowadays there are many organizations that are relying on employees for success and competitiveness. As per the resource- based view, employees are the resources and assets of an organization. Consequently, organizations need to figure out strategies for identifying, encouraging, measuring, evaluating, improving and rewarding employees’ performance at work which in turn empowers the employees. 8 Participative management is the practice of empowering members of a group such as employees of a company or citizens of a community, to participate in organizational decision making. It is used as an alternative to traditional vertical management structures, which has shown to be less effective as participants are growing less interested in their leader’s expectations due to a lack of recognition of the participant’s effort or opinion. Participative management is recognized as particularly pertinent to organizations dealing with complex, knowledge-based problems. 8 The employees’ suggestion system is a strong tool that facilitates achievement of the goals for the organizations. Suggestion systems and programs are based upon the reasonable assumption that employee can contribute thoughts for the purposes of the organization’s operations and/or decreasing costs. Essentially, a contract is set up between employees and the organization in which the employees are offered rewards for worthy ideas(Michael, 2000). This system enables the employees to create innovative suggestions or solutions which can be beneficial for the organization. It has been proved as an effective factor to employee empowerment. 8 An effective teamwork is one of the important factors of employee empowerment. An employee can acquire maximum knowledge, skills and ability through an effective team. It usually helps an employee to share the Impact of Employees’ Empowerment on their Performance 183
ideas, learn some innovative tactics from the other members of the team which makes the employee more efficient in his work. Due to this reason the employees are empowered and therefore, their performance increases. 8 Leadership is the process of influencing followers. Leaders play an important role in the attainment of organizational goals by creating a climate that would influence employees attitudes, motivation, and behaviour. A leader is one who can motivate the employees to do the work effectively, influence them to take the risk while making decisions, proper co- ordination and a good attitude towards the work. A positive motivation always leads to the proper empowerment of the employees and enhances a healthy productivity of the organization. 8 The employee participation involves management actively encouraging staff to assist in running and improving business processes and operations. It includes management recognizing individual employees’ opinions and input, so the employees can understand that management views them as unique and individually valuable to running the business. This makes the employee feel empowered in the organization.
6. Employee Empowerment and Employee Performance Organizations need to manage and improve the performance of their employees as the power or capacity to produce a desired effect, efficacy of an employee is enhanced by empowerment, doubtlessly. The decisions concentrated at the top hampers flexibility and timely action at the lower levels, but pushing down decision making at lower levels, may lead to chaos, conflicting decisions and a discernible lack of common purpose. Therefore, to avoid such disadvantages, the decision of taking decisions, or to push it upwards should be left at employee „s prudence. To develop the prudence of employees on the other hand, the organization should develop its personnel and should create an organizational culture and a climate that would provide the employee with the right to decide or to push it up the hierarchy. Empowerment helps to achieve certain culture and an environment in the organization by increasing organizational effectiveness through developing and deploying competent influence in the human resource. It denotes the enhanced involvement of employees in the organizational processes and decision-making. All visions and strategies in the organization need able and empowered personnel. Unfortunately, empowerment is rarely used in the organizations and is less common than other management efforts like teamwork, quality management or inventory control. Although empowerment influence performance in a positive way, unfortunately it cannot be measured effectively, yet the figure below represents a view of empowerment process that churns out competent influence in the workforce and ultimately affects performance by leading to 184 Reena customer satisfaction, customer involvement, customer loyalty and customer recognition.
Factors of Performance Empowerment
G Job Less Enrichment Absenteeism G Performance Based Loyalty Reward System More G Participative Employee Employee Committeed Management Empowerment Involvement G Employees More Suggestion Capable System G Team Work Ethical
Figure : Employee Empowerment and its relation to Performance Each employee in the organization must consider the elements of the above model, in order to create empowered individuals and climate which also would secure a much better performance in the organization. The consequences of a better performance depicted in the above figure has been described below : Absenteeism : when an employee is empowered in his/her workplace, then he/she has the autonomy to take the decision on behalf of the organization and thus he is more and more involved in the work which makes him/her engaged to the workplace and creates less absenteeism. Loyalty : Employees who are loyal contribute extensively to the productivity of the organization. They can create the value required to put the organization on the path to success. This can be achieved through better performance and faithfulness of the employees. Commitment : Empowerment leads employee„s psychological attachment to the organization, that is commitment. Commitment towards the job is increased as accountability increases. Empowerment also leads to employee engagement. And when there is a shared purpose, employee becomes a self-directed decision-maker towards the goals and objectives of the organization. Capability : When an opportunity is given to a person with a right attitude he/she always has done the best of his means and capabilities. Therefore, by employing empowerment, employee is motivated and given the chance to make the best utilization of the opportunities given to him. Workplace will provide him freedom and fun and he/she will get the pleasure of fulfilment of his contribution to work and get full job satisfaction in return. Ethicality : Being in accordance with the accepted principles of right and wrong that govern the conduct of an employee is called ethicality. When employees are empowered, it will lead to exercising competent influence. Empowering by Impact of Employees’ Empowerment on their Performance 185 enhancing more freedom would cause employees express the truth and prevent them from falsehood, and pretends.
7 Conclusion Employees need to be provided with the greater authority to make independent decisions as more decision making responsibility is concerned through empowerment. There is no doubt that empowerment is achieved by objective and structural organizational changes which provides individuals greater convenience to make decisions and use greater influence regarding their work. When empowerment projects are launched, of course considerations regarding to some of the internal resistance of the organization should be taken into account. Employees attitude against change is generally due to their conditioned behavior to follow orders, and tendencies not to collaborate with others, and not willing to accept greater responsibilities and risks, in work environment. Such difficulties are potential in every organization, and therefore should be accepted as normal, and are expected to be overcome by shared vision of director, intensive organizational support, knowledge, continuous learning, and institutional recognition of the empowerment project team. A successful empowerment endeavour, as an important organizational challenge proves to be successful in providing employee feelings of self-efficacy, and removing conditions which cause restlessness and powerlessness. It also achieves job mastery by providing for role clarification, job enrichment and proper training. Empowerment also gives growth support to its employees through career planning, rewards and welfare, and by employing counseling, motivation, and appraisals techniques, uses social reinforcement and persuasion in the organization. When empowerment approaches adopted, employees gradually would start to feel that they are valued, competent and the jobs they are doing have so great meaning and impact, and, when legitimately empowered, they would continuously be in a mood to believe they have so vast opportunities to apply their skills. In return they are expected to change their behaviours towards using their talents in the work place better than before, and such employee driven changes are expected to bring contribution to the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization.
References
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Chebat, J. C., & Kollias, P., “The impact of empowerment oncustomer contact employees’ roles in service organizations”, Journal of Services Research, 3(1), 2000, 66 – 81. Cook and Macaulays ,“Practical steps to empowered complaint management”, Managing Service Quality : An International Journal, 7(1), 1997, 39-42. Grant, “Green marketing”, Strategic Direction, 24(6), 2008, 25-27. Hackman, J. R., & Lawler, E. E., “Employee reactions to job characteristics”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 1971, 259-286. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B., The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.). NewYork : John Wiley & Sons, 1959. Honold, L. “A Review of The Literature on Employee Empowerment”, Empowerment in Organizations, 5(4), 1997, 202-212. Kandula, S. R., Performance Management, New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India private limited, 2006. Mamman, “Waking up to the reality of the new workplace”, Team Performance Management : An International Journal, 4 (3), 1998, 83-92. Manolopoulos, “A Systematic Review of the Literature and Theoretical Analysis of Subsidiary Roles”, Journal of Transnational Management, 13(1), 2008. Mullins, L. J., Management and Organisational Behaviour, 8th ed. s.l.:Harlow : Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2007. Page, D., & Wong, P. T. P., “A conceptual framework for measuring servant leadership”, S. Adjibolosoo (ed.), The Human Factor in shaping the course of History and Development, Boston, MA : University Press of America, 2000. Siegall, M and Gardner S., “Contextual factors of psychological empowerment”, Personnel Review, 29(6), 2000, 703-722 Sigler, T. H., Pearson C. M., “Creating an empowering culture: examining the relationship between organizational culture and perceptions of empowerment”, Journal of Quality Management, 5(1), 2000, 27–53. Spear, R., “Autonomy and Adolescence: A Concept Analysis”, Public Health Nursing, 21(2), 2004, 144-152. Spreitzer, G. and Mishra A., “To stay or to go: voluntary survivor turnover following an organizational downsizing”, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 23(6), 2002, 707-729. Steele, Lowell W., “Loyalties”, David Allison (ed.), The R&D Game, Chapter 10, Cambridge, MA : The MIT Press, 1969. Wellins, R. S., Byham, W. C, & Wilson, J. M., Empowered teams : Creating self-Leadership and Work Teams 25 directed work groups that improve quality, productivity, and participation, San Francisco : JosseyBass, 1991. ê
Article Received on October 01, 2018; Accepted on December 03, 2018 18
Impact of Globalization on the Women of Urban Slums : A Sociological Analysis
Sonu Puri* and Amit Kumar**
Globalization is a double edged process as far as women are concerned. On the one hand, majority of women in India and other developing countries find themselves stripped off the benefit of social security, government subsidy protection of laboor rights and the safety nets. On the other, there were possibilities of better education facilities and opportunities at the transnational sense which are very attractive to the privileged few. The impact of globalization on slum has a tremendous influence which is positive as well as negative. India is getting global recognition and slowly moving forward to become a major economic and political life clearly. Thus the paper clearly elucidates that globalization is a complex phenomenon and its impact on women in slums. This is an empirical study carried out in Meerut city of Meerut district. The study proved, globalization is the major vehicle for the development of slum women. As a result globalization has shown remarkable changes in the life of slum women like contribution in family income, awareness about health, used means of communication and living pattern has been improved. [Keywords : Globalization, Urban slums, Labour rights]
1. Introduction Globalization, which gathered momentum during the last quarter of the twentieth century, has created unparalleled opportunities and posed unprecedented challenges for development. Yet, the virtual ideology of our times has transformed globalization from a descriptive word in to a prescriptive word.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Govt. Girls Degree College, Banger, Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
But the reality that has unfolded so far belies the expectations of the ideologues. The exclusion of countries and of people from globalization, which is partly attributable to the logic of markets, is a fact of life. Even so, there is a strong belief and an influential view that globalization is the road to development during the first quarter of the twenty first century. Globalization, now as much as then, promises economic prosperity for countries that join the system and economic deprivation for countries that do not. It needs to be stressed that this prescriptive view of globalization is contested and controversial. The process of urbanization and globalization is a part of the larger process of economic and social change, which is affecting not only the existing urban centers but the countryside as well. Globalization is a movement resulting from the daily need of people in general to deal with an advanced integrated and all-inclusive social economic. Globalization apparently emerged as an economic necessity. It was also a tool through which advanced technologies could be introduced and improve civilization. Advanced technologies became the only means of communication without which man or society feels “outside” the world. It indicates the changes and alternatives in special contexts in the whole of the world. There are numerous invocations in newspapers, popular books, magazines, on television and radio programs and in the internet communication in which the term is used without any impressive or clear definition. Globalization have posed several challenging threats to the developing and under developed countries primarily in generating social and economic inequalities and specially points of view inequality and poverty and their potential impacts on slum dwellers, lots of debates are raging on, yet concluding have been very hard to arrive it. Anita Trevedi (2002) examined the impact of globalization of labor organization through a sectoral analysis of a newly developing industrial Noida and Greater Noida region through the interviews and case study. She found that Indian society has had a close alliance with labor and is now under constant challenge from the forces of globalization. P.V.L. Ramana (1999) has been talked about in detail impact of globalization on living conditions of workers in the unorganized sector and found that the living conditions of slums are not good. The poor and the weaker sections get marginalized. Sabir Ali and S.N. Singh (1998) attempted to highlight the serious problems of Urbanization and observed that the National Capital territory of Delhi is facing today like sanitation situation, issues of public health socio-spatial situation of housing and strategy for the speedy and sustainable improvement. Most of the studies about slum dwellers are mainly descriptive, serving only to focus attention on the magnitude and gravity of the problem, through here and there some theoretical insights are added. It would appear that, for an understanding of the slum problem, a mere survey of the socio-economic background of the sociological dimensions also in more analytical manner. Majority of the studies have been conducted on rural women. There is dearth of the studies on impact of globalization on the slum women in this regard. Hence the Impact of Globalization on the Women of Urban Slums : A Sociological Analysis 189 present study intends to enquire the impact of globalization on the women of urban slum areas.
2. An Overview of Literature Globalization is not a new phenomenon for the twenty one century yet it is being treated as a most recent, mainly because certain aspects of globalization have posed several challenging threats to the developing and under developed countries primarily in generating social and economic inequalities. It is a comprehensive process, which includes both modernization and post moderni- zation liberal democracy, nation-state and capitalism are the major idiom of globalization. Globalization starting from the west has been diffusing across the globe but the effect may remain diluted from centre to periphery and within a country from urban to rural and urban centre to urban periphery where the slums are located. One of the major factors responsible in the spread of globalization has been media, particularly, television, internet and mobile. 2.1 Meaning and Definition of Globalization Globalization as a concept refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of conciseness of world as a whole both concrete global interdependence and consciousness of the global whole in the twentieth century. The many meanings of the word “globalization” have accumulated very rapidly and recently and the verb “globalize” is first attested by the Merriam Webster Dictionary in 1944. Globalization means, in brief, making the whole world a small village for some it is building up a “United Universal Empire”. A growing number of people around the world are leading globalized lives. The basic political-economic conditions of their daily existence are directly or indirectly affected by the restructuring of global capitalism and the state-market links underpinning it. Roland Robertson could be considered as father of globalization. In his article “Mapping the global condition : Globalization as the central concept”, published in year 1990, in the book “Global Culture” edited by “Mike Featherstone” for sage publications, London. He explained the globalization as analytical and empirical aspects of globalization as “Global Culture” is, necessarily trans-societal culture which takes a variety of forms which have preceded the inter-state relations in to which nation-states can be regarded as being embedded, and processes which sustain the exchange and flow of goods, people, information, knowledge and images which give rise to communication processes which gain some autonomy on the global level. “Meluhan” used the term “global village” in context of globalization. Anthony Giddens (1990) “Globalization as the intensification of worldwide social relations linking distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many thousands of miles away and vice versa.” 190 Sonu Puri and Amit Kumar
Malcolm Waters (1995) “Globalization is a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding.” 2.2 History of Globalization The history of globalization accepted in a planned way is not very old. It is the concept of the 1990s. Countries like U.S. and France have accepted globalization as their nation-state policy. Malcolm Waters (1995) state that the word 'Global' has been in usage for about 400 years from now, but it was not used in its technical connotation. In 1961 Webster Dictionary first defines the terms globalism and globalization. Robertson (1992) defines the history of globalization in terms of five major phases: Phase 1 : The Germinal phase (Europe, 1400-1750) : Globalization had begun in Europe during the period 1400-1750, as the beginning of international trade relations in Europe. Phase 2 : The Incipient phase (Europe, 1750-1825) : In this phase the formal relations began to take shape, it include, emergence of nation-states, diplomatic relations between nation-states, international agreements etc. Phase 3 : The Take-Off phase (1825-1925) : In this phase the idea of acceptable national society came up. There appeared very sharp increase in the number and speed of global forms of communications. Phase 4 : The Struggle for Hegemony phase (1925-1969) : Disputes and wars about the fragile terms of the globalization process were established by the end of the take off period. Globe wise international conflicts increased concerning forms of life. Phase 5 : The Uncertainty phase (1969-1992) : In this phase world community itself is not certain about its future direction. In this phase there is heightening of global consciousness in the world community aided by exploration of space, international relations, global environmental problems, and global mass media via space technology.
3. Slums In India, economic development plans undertaken to attain a faster rate of growth, coupled with natural growth of urban population have resulted in unprecedented expansion of urban areas, specially the metropolitan centers. The continuous increase of population in urban centers is creating several problems like housing shortage, crowding, congestion and environmental hazards etc. A large portion of urban growth today is carried over by illegal development taking place the shape of swims and squatter settlements. This has become a worldwide phenomenon and no major city in the world-developed or the developing is free from this. Such type of urban growth that takes place independent from the control Impact of Globalization on the Women of Urban Slums : A Sociological Analysis 191 of the authorities charged with the external or institutional control of local building and planning, large scale and uncontrolled migration is an imperative force in congregating large masses of population in substandard localities popularly known as slums. 3.1 Meaning and Definition The term 'slum' is known variously in different cities like in Delhi, slums are known as 'Katras', 'Gallis' or 'Jhuggi-jhopad patti', in Mumbai as 'Chawls', in Kolkata as 'Bustee', in Chennai as 'Cheris', in Kanpur as 'Ahatas' and in Banglore as 'Keris'. Slums are described as congested localities with substandard housing and insanitary surroundings accommodating poor people who follow low paid occupations or are underemployed or unemployed and who lead a life of crime and are morally deprived. Slum has been defined differently by economists, town planners, social workers, administrators, sociologists etc. keeping in view their own disciplines and professional backgrounds. Different definitions for the term slums are as follows: Hunter (1968) “The slum is a residential area in which the housing is so deteriorated, so substandard and so unwholesome as to be a menace to the health, safety, morality or welfare of the occupants.” Implied in this definition is the assumption that the poor housing is the cause underlying slum conditions. Bergel (1950) “Slum may be characterized as areas of substandard housing conditions within a city. A slum is always an area; a single, neglected building even in the worst stage of deterioration does not make a slum.” 3.2 Characteristics of Slums Anupurna Rathor in 2003 has been defined that slums are basically characterized by overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, absence of basic facilities and amenities of water, drainage, latrines, roads and electricity. 3.3 History of Slums Historically, slums have grown in Bombay as a response to a growth of population for beyond the capacity of existing housing. The first slum in India got developed in Mumbai. (Yadav and Srivastava, 2006) Mumbai is an old city with slums inhabited by rural migrants who have been pouring in to the city for the last many years. (Gill, 1994) The word 'slum' has been long in use almost since the 18th century when it was used as a term for squalid housing in densely populated districts of industrial cities (Yadav,1987). Suritola in now Dhaka, (Bangladesh), is a typical old inner city slum district having many multistory buildings interspersed with Shanties, built before 1990 in the old part of Dhaka that covers a total area of 20 hectors. (UNCHS, 1982) Slum has been a concrete social phenomenon since the time of industrial revolution in Western Europe, particularly in Great Britain where the bulk of rural 192 Sonu Puri and Amit Kumar population in search of employment migrated in to the new industrial centers. Their continued exploitation, poverty and overcrowded living conditions resulted in to sub-standard housing conditions and poor amenities. The entire social environment of the region where they were inhabited became polluted (Sinha, 1985). Slum and squatter settlements are growing at alarming rates. They are the product of failed policies, bad governance, corruption, inappropriate financial systems and a fundamental lack of political will, each of these failures adds to the toll on people already deeply burdened by poverty and constrains the enormous potential for human development that urban life offers. 3.4 Types of Slums N. Jayapalan (2002) has been pointed out three main types of slums in Indian cities, these are : 1. Original slum : This is a kind of slum which from the very beginning consisted of unsuitable buildings. These are usually areas around an old factory or mining site which is now given up or in the zone in transition. These sections are beyond recovery as they consist of age old structures and they need to be razed in order to be eradicated e.g. The Mexican slum in U. S. A. 2. Transitional zone : The second type consists of slums created by the departure of middle and upper class families to other sections or it may be due to the starting of a new industry or due to congestion and subsequent deterioration of the living area. These types of slums are to be found in the transition zone of developing cities such as south end slum in Boston (U.S.A.) these are the areas which house vice and crime and where all sorts and shades of people live. 3. Phenomenon of transition : The third and most unpleasant type of slum is mainly a phenomenon of transition once the area around a main business district has become blighted, physical and social deterioration spreads rapidly. This type of slum looms with flophouses, one night accommodations for the destitute, houses of prostitution and speaks easies. It is populated by transients, tramps, vagrant's chronic alcoholics, beggars, homeless men and habitual criminals. Its economic activities are carried out by proprietors of saloons and pool rooms' fences, pawn brokers, dope peddlers etc. Slums differ physically, thus there are rooming house slums, tenement slums and slums of one family home. Rooming house slums consist of structures where different rooms are let out for different persons and families. Tenement slums consist of multi-storied structure which house two or more families in a single dwelling. Rooming houses are let out on a temporary basis. Slums of one family houses are very rare which consists of typical small family structures. 3.5 Development of Slums Area With industrialization large numbers of people have migrated to cities for gainful employment. In the initial stages, nothing was done by industries to meet Impact of Globalization on the Women of Urban Slums : A Sociological Analysis 193 the housing needs of the laborers. Workers wanted to live near their work places. Most of the industrialization came up in the fringe areas of the central cities on agricultural lands acquired and allotted by the government. The tanks, canals and other common facilities of the agriculturists became government property. Government agencies did not have ready plans for these common lands to be immediately implemented. Hence, there were very little resistance from many quarters and the poorer sections erected their temporary, huts as their dwelling. In course of time more and more people came to erect their huts. These poor people did not have sufficient money to erect big huts or construct good houses. In the industrial regions of many cities, space occupied by tanks, canals and other common agricultural facilities have common slums areas. The city disowned the responsibility for this haphazard growth of hutments. No particular building regulations were imposed. Above all no provision was made to house these people. These slums have developed on the sites wholly unfit for human habitation.
4. Objective of the Study The overall objective of the present study is to analyze the impact of globalization on the women of urban slums in the Meerut city of Meerut district.
5. Area of the Study The area of present study is a notified slum in the Meerut city of Meerut district. Meerut city is governed by Municipal Corporation which comes under Meerut Metropolitan Region. Meerut district is one of the most important districts in North West region of the state Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh lies between Ganga and Yamuna close to the national capital Delhi. Geographically, the locale of the study, i.e. Meerut city lies between 29?.01' north latitude and 77?.43' east longitude. It is situated at an attitude of 290 meters. The major portion of the city lies on the fertile land. As per provisional reports of census India, population of Meerut city in 2011 is 1,305,429; of which male and female are 688,118 and 617,311 respectively. Total number of Slums in Meerut city is 92,034 in which population of 544,859 resides. This is around 41.74% of total population of Meerut city.
6. Methodology The purpose of this research paper is to analyze how globalization to promote the women of urban slums in Meerut city of Meerut district. The present study is basically empirical in nature, which is based on the primary and as well as secondary data of information for systematization analysis and conclusion. 100 respondents were selected through the purposive sampling. In the regarding impact of globalization development and change in socio-economic, political status of women in slums. The primary data have been collected through observation, 194 Sonu Puri and Amit Kumar interview and scheduled methods from the women in slums and secondary data have been collected through the census of India, research institutions, and relevant journal, article, newspapers, books and magazines and various departments of government and non-government etc.
7. Findings of the Study In the present study analysis the impact of globalization on the women in urban slums socio-economic and political perspective. The sample consisted of 100 respondents. The data analyzed through appropriate statistical technique revealed the following outcome : Table-1 : Type of Impact on the Respondents
S.No. Impact on the Respondents No. of Percentage Respondents 1. Living pattern has been improved 19 19% 2. Change attitude towards new globalized technology 16 16% 3. Used means of communication 12 12% 4. Education level has been increased 06 06% 5. Gain occupation 08 08% 6. Contribution in family income 09 09% 7. Awareness about health 10 10% 8. Awareness about fundamental rights enshrined in the 11 11% constitution 9. Decision making power has been increased 09 09% Total 100 100%
The above table shows that 19 respondents (19%) out of 100 respondents improved the living pattern, 16 respondents (16%) out of 100 respondents change attitude towards new globalized technology, 12 respondents (12%) out of 100 respondents used means of communication, 06 respondents (06%) out of 100 respondents increased the educational level, 08 respondents (08%) out of 100 respondents gain occupation, 09 respondents (09%) out of 100 respondents contribute in family income, 10 respondents (10%) out of 100 respondents increased awareness about health, 11 respondents (11%) out of 100 respondents increased awareness about the fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution, 09 respondents (09%) out of 100 respondents increase decision making power. Thus the largest segment of the respondents (19%) has been improved the living pattern.
8. Conclusion Globalization is a double edged process as far as concerned. On the other hand, majority of women in India and other developing countries find themselves Impact of Globalization on the Women of Urban Slums : A Sociological Analysis 195 stripped off the benefit of social security, government subsidy protection of labor rights and the safety nets. On the other hand, there were possibilities of better education facilities and opportunities at the transnational sense which are very attractive to the privileged few. Globalization has opened by broader communication lines and brought more companies as well as different worldwide organizations in to India. This provides opportunities for not only working women, but also women who are becoming a larger part of the work force. With new jobs for women, there are opportunities for higher pay, which raises self-confidence and brings about empowerment among women. This is turn provides equality between men and women, something that Indian women have been struggling with their entire lives. Globalization has the power to uproot the traditional views towards women, so they can take an equal stance in society. It is, however necessary to understand that effective development requires full integration of women in the development process as agents of change as well as beneficiaries because Indian women can be utilized as development resources in many ways.
References
Ali, Sabir and Singh, S. N., Major Problems of Delhi Slums, New Delhi : Vedams Books (P) Ltd., 1998. Bergel, E. E., Urban Sociology, London : McGraw Hill Book Co., 1950. Bhagwati, J., In Defense of Globalization, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Giddens, Anthony, The consequences of Modernity, Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1990. Gill, R., Slums as Urban Villages, Jaipur : Rawat Publications, 1994. Hunter, David R., The Slums Challenges and Response, New York : The Free Press, 1968, 10. Jayapalan, N., Urban Sociology, Delhi : Atlantic Publishers, 2002. Nayyar, D., “Globalization, History and Development : A Tale of Two Centuries”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 30 (1), 2006, 137-59. Panini, M. N., “Globalization, Culture Identities and social Change”, XXIAM Indian Sociological Conference, Delhi : J.N.U., December 19-21, 1994, 5-10. Ramana, P.V.L., “Globalization and slum Economy: A study of women in the unorganized Sector”, Rajmohini Sethi (ed.), Globalisation Culture and Women's Development, Jaipur : Rawat Publication, 1999. Rather, Anpurna, Slum Dwellers : Curse on Development, New Delhi : Sarup and Sons Publication, 2003. Robertson, R., Globalization : Social Theory and Global Culture, London : SAGE Publication Ltd., 1992, 57-60. Sachs, J. and A. Warner, “Economic Reforms and the Process of Global Integration”, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1, 1995, 1-118. Sinha, S., Slum Eradication and Urban Renewal, Patna : Inter India Publication, 1985, 02. 196 Sonu Puri and Amit Kumar
Samuelson, P.A.,“Where Ricardo and Mill Rebut and Confirm Arguments of Mainstream Economics Supporting Globalization”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18(3), 2004, 135-46. United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (Habitate), Survey of Slum and Squatter Settlements, Dubai : Tycooly International Publishing Ltd., 1982, 32. Waters, Malcolm, Globalization, London and New York : Routledge, 1995. www.google.com Yadav, A. K. and Srivastava, M., Primary Education in Delhi Slums - Access and Utilization, New Delhi : Manak Publication Pvt. Ltd., 2006. Yadav C. S., Slums, Urban Decline and Revitalization, New Delhi : Concept Publishing Company, 1987, 2-3. ê
Article Received on September 21, 2018; Accepted on December 03, 2018 19
Alienation among Male and Female Undergraduate Students of Government and Private Universities
Narendra Kumar*
In the present study, the researcher attempted to assess the alienation among male and female undergraduates of government and private universities in Rajasthan. For this purpose, 200 undergraduate students (100 male and 100 female) were randomly selected from government and private universities of Rajasthan. Students Alienation Scale developed by Dr. R. R. Sharma was used. Results show that male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. [Keywords : Alienation, Undergraduate students, Government and private universities]
1. Introduction It is well established opinion that advancements and developments in the society, culture, science and technology are contributing a lot of convenience and better ways in human lives, but these are also responsible to various problems as well. University life for youths should be a new and fascinating experience, but many difficulties and fast changes can make them one of the most challenging times of the life. Students at this level face ever-increasing pressure of work, a quickly changing scenario of world's demands, and adjustment problems with peers and institutions rules and policies. They worry about selecting careers. They
* Assistant Professor, School of Education, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, Rajasthan (India) E-mail:
2. Methodology 2.1 Method For the present study, descriptive survey method of research was used to accomplish the objectives of the study. 2.2 Population Population for the present study was male and female undergraduate students of government and private universities of Rajasthan. 2.3 Sample For the present study first of a list indicating the number of Government and Private Universities situated in the Rajasthan was prepared. Using simple random sampling technique, 100 male and 100 female undergraduate students were selected from government and private universities, thus constituting a sample of 200 students in all. The details of the sample are shown in table-1 on next page : Alienation among Male and Female Undergraduate...... Private Universities 199
Table-1: Sample
Type of Male Undergraduate Female Undergraduate Total University Students Students Government 50 50 100 University Private University 50 50 100 Total 100 100 200
2.4 Tool Used Students Alienation Scale developed by Dr R. R. Sharma was used to study the alienation among male and female undergraduate students. There are 54 items representing five dimensions of alienation in this Student Alienation Scale. Each agreed statement carries the value of 1 mark and each disagreed statement of zero mark. Thus, on the total scale maximum mark is 54 and minimum in zero. The scores of the scale can be used dimension-wise as well as in total.
3. Results 3.1 Comparison of Male & Female Undergraduate Students on Alienation To study the comparison of male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities on alienation and its all dimensions, t-test was used. analysis of data is given in table-2. Table-2 : Summary of t-test between means of male and female under- graduate students on Total Alienation and its dimensions
Dimensions of Male Undergraduate Female Undergraduate t- value Alienation students (N = 100) students (N = 100)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Powerlessness 3.240 1.985 3.260 1.931 0.072 Isolation 3.890 2.141 3.610 1.858 0.983 Self-estrangement 4.860 3.175 5.410 2.760 1.301 Meaninglessness 2.950 2.143 2.490 2.008 1.559 Normlessness 9.370 3.161 9.780 2.884 0.953 Total Alienation 24.310 9.328 24.550 8.048 0.194
It is evident from Table-2 that t-values between the means of male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities on total alienation and its dimensions powerlessness, isolation, self-estrangement, meaninglessness and normlessness were found to be 0.194, 0.072, 0.983, 1.301, 1.559, and 0.953 respectively, which were not significant at 0.05 level. This reveals 200 Narendra Kumar the fact that male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. This implies that apparent differences in the mean scores of male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities on total alienation and its all dimensions were not true. These were due to chance or sampling error. 3.2 Comparison of Male & Female Undergraduate Students of Government Universities on Alienation To study the comparison of male and female undergraduate students of government universities on alienation and its all dimensions, t-test was used. Analysis of data is given in table-3. Table-3 : Summary of t-test between means of male and female undergraduate students of government universities on Total Alienation and its dimensions
Dimensions of Male Undergraduate Female Undergraduate t- value Alienation students (N = 50) students (N = 50)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Powerlessness 2.84 1.899 2.96 1.969 0.307 Isolation 3.34 2.086 3.4 1.852 0.151 Self-estrangement 4.36 3.294 5.0 2.843 1.030 Meaninglessness 2.34 2.134 2.02 2.035 0.760 Normlessness 9.08 3.263 9.64 3.148 0.865 Total Alienation 21.96 9.348 23.02 8.759 0.579
It is evident from Table-3 that t-values between the means of male and female undergraduate students of government universities on total alienation and its dimensions powerlessness, isolation, self-estrangement, meaninglessness and normlessness were found to be 0.579, 0.307, 0.151, 1.030, 0.760, and 0.865 respectively, which were not significant at 0.05 level. This reveals the fact that male and female undergraduate students of government universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. This implies that apparent differences in the mean scores of male and female undergraduate students of government universities on total alienation and its all dimensions were not true. 3.3 Comparison of Male & Female Undergraduate Students of Private Universities on Alienation To study the comparison of male and female undergraduate students of private universities on total alienation and its all dimensions, t-test was used. Analysis of data is given in table-4. Alienation among Male and Female Undergraduate...... Private Universities 201
Table-4 : Summary of t-test between means of male and female undergraduate students of private universities on Total Alienation and its dimensions
Dimensions of Male Undergraduate Female Undergraduate t- value Alienation students (N = 50) students (N = 50)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Powerlessness 3.64 2.008 3.56 1.864 0.204 Isolation 4.44 2.072 3.82 1.859 1.559 Self-estrangement 5.36 3.002 5.82 2.639 0.806 Meaninglessness 3.56 1.991 2.96 1.884 1.532 Normlessness 9.66 3.061 9.92 2.617 0.452 Total Alienation 26.66 8.782 26.08 7.027 0.361
It is evident from table-4 that t-values between the means of male and female undergraduate students of private universities on total alienation and its dimensions powerlessness, isolation, self-estrangement, meaninglessness and normlessness were found to be 0.361, 0.204, 1.559, 0.806, 1.532, and 0.452 respectively, which were not significant at 0.05 level. This reveals the fact that male and female undergraduate students of private universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. This implies that apparent differences in the mean scores of male and female undergraduate students of private universities on total alienation and its all dimensions were not true. These were due to chance or sampling error.
4. Conclusion The results show that male and female undergraduate students of both government and private universities were not found to be differed significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. Similarly when it was studied for government universities only, it was found that male and female undergraduate students of government universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions. In the same way, it was also observed that male and female undergraduate students of private universities do not differ significantly on total alienation and its all dimensions.
References
El-Deep, H.A.E., “Analytical Study of Alienation Of Rural And Urban College Students in Sharkia Governorate After The Revolution of 25th of January 2011”, Australian Journal of Basic And Applied Sciences, 6(8), 2012, 546-563. Es, Lee, “The Influencing Factors on Alienation in High School Students”, Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 34(1), 2004, 45-52. 202 Narendra Kumar
Finifter, A. W., Alienation and the Social System, New York : John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1972. Malik, M. A., “Assessment of alienation among the Madrasa students of Kashmir Valley”, The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 2(2), 2015, 115-120. Sharma, R. R., Manual for Student Alienation Scale, Agra : National Psychological Corporation, 1988. Simsek, H. & Atas Akdemir, Ö., “Üniversite Ögrencilerinde Okula Yabancilasma. Curr Res Educ,1(1), 2015, 1-12 (http://dergipark.ulakbilim.gov.tr/article/download/5000136453 /5000125310). Wegerif, R., “The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks”, Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 2(1), 1998. Yu, J., & Bang, K. S., “Perceived alienation of, and social support for, siblings of children with cancer”, Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 32(6), 2015, 410-416. ê
Article Received on September 26, 2018; Accepted on December 05, 2018 20
Effect of a Visual Perception : Diagnosis & Remedation Program on Achievement in Hindi of Visual Perceptual Deficient Students at Primary Level
Rajive Kumar*
The researcher has attempted to study the effect of a Visual Perception: Diagnosis and Remedation Program designed on Achievement of Visual Perceptual Deficient Students. For this purpose, the researcher identified the visual perceptual impairments/deficient students at primary level with the help of developmental test of visual perception developed by “Marianne Frostig, Welty Letever and John R. B. Whitthesey, 1964”. Achievement of these students in Hindi was studied. The researcher prepared “A Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program” and it was provided individually to students. After the treatment of this remedation program, their achievement in Hindi was again observed. In conclusion, it was observed that the visual perception program has been highly effective in the improvement of their achievement in Hindi. [Keywords : Visual perceptual deficient students, Achievement in Hindi]
1. Introduction Without perception, a human being cannot get any message from his environment or respond to it. The most important of these are visual and auditory. As research shows, the most of our input goes in through visual modality. Perception is an important area of deficiency in learning disabled children. And because of this, these children are not able to perceive the world properly and hence * Assistant Professor, Department of Education, N.A.S. College, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
2. Objectives Following objectives were formulated : 1. To identify the visual perceptual deficient students at primary level. 2. To study the effect of “A Visual Perception: Diagnosis and Remedation Program” (Intervention) on achievement in Hindi of visual perceptual deficient students.
3. Method For the present study, two groups (experimental and control) of students were randomly formed. First of all, perceptually deficient students were screened out from various primary schools of West U.P. on the basis of their background information, school records, checklist for teachers, symptomology checklist of visual perceptual deficient and developmental test of visual perception (developed by Marianne Frostig, Welty Letever and John R.B. Whitthesey, 1964). On the basis of results, 300 students of class IV were identified as visual perceptual deficient students. Out of these 300 students, only 100 students were randomly selected. Then, theses were divided in two groups - cont. (50) and exp. (50). Both groups were Effect of a Visual Perception 205 equated on intelligence. These students were pre tested. Then, Experimental group was exposed to “A Visual Perception: Diagnosis and Remedation Program” developed by the researcher himself. This program was provided individually to all students. After treatment both groups were post -tested.
4. Results 4.1 Control of both Groups on Intelligence To control the students of both groups before treatment, they were administered intelligence test. t- value was calculated between the means of the scores of the students of both groups on intelligence test. The result of t-test for significance of difference between exp. group (N=50) and cont. group (N=50) before treatment on intelligence is given in table-1. Table-1 : Comparison of exp. and cont. group on Intelligence before treatment
Group N Mean S.D. S. Ed t-value Experimental 50 69.86 8.12 1.67 0.84* Control 50 68.45 8.42 * 0.05 level of significance It is observed from Table-1 that t-value between the students of exp. group and cont. group on intelligence was found to be 0.84. It was noted that the Table value for the degree of freedom (df = 98) was found to be 1.99 which was greater than the calculated value (0.84). It means that there no significant difference exists between the means of the students of exp. and cont. groups on intelligence. It is clear that the students of both the exp. and cont. groups were found to be equivalent on intelligence. Therefore, it was concluded that both the exp. and cont. groups were controlled on intelligence. 4.2 Control of both Groups on Achievement in Hindi before Treatment To study the achievement in Hindi of the students of both groups before treatment, they were administered achievement test in Hindi that was constructed by the researcher himself. t- value was calculated between the means of the scores of the students of exp. group (N=50) and cont. group (N=50) on achievement in Hindi. Table-2 : Comparison of exp. and cont. group on Achievement in Hindi before treatment
Group N Mean S.D. S. Ed t-value Experimental 50 26.56 4.16 0.97 0.91* Control 50 25.67 5.38 * 0.05 level of significance 206 Rajive Kumar
It is evident from Table-2, that mean and standard deviation on achievement in Hindi of the students of exp. group were found to be 26.56 and 4.16 respectively, while mean and standard deviation of the students of cont. group on achievement in Hindi were 25.67 and 5.38, respectively. The t-value between the means of the students of exp. group (N=50) and cont. group (N=50) before treatment on achievement in Hindi was found to be 0.91. Table value for significant difference at 0.05 level for degree of freedom (df=98) is 1.99 which is greater than the calculated value. It means that no significant difference exists between the means of exp. and cont. groups on achievement in Hindi. This indicates that the students of both exp. and cont. groups are equivalent on achievement in Hindi. Therefore, it was concluded that before treatment, both the exp. and cont. groups were controlled on achievement in Hindi. 4.3 Treatment of Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program The Researcher prepared Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program based on programs developed by Frostig, Letever and Whittlesey (1964). Based on survey of research, researcher decided to provide remedial program in the eight areas. After comprehensive treatment of Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program to experimental group, experimental and control groups were post tested on achievement in Hindi. 4.4 Comparison of Exp. and Cont. Group on Achievement in Hindi after Treatment To find out the significance of difference after treatment between exp. and cont. groups on achievement in Hindi, t- value was calculated between the means of the scores of the students of exp. group (N=50) and cont. group (N=50) on achievement in Hindi. Table-3 : Comparison of exp. and cont. group on Achievement in Hindi after treatment
Group N Mean S.D. S. Ed t-value
Experimental 50 29.86 4.64 1.05 3.48* Control 50 26.21 5.68 * 0.01 level of significance From table-3, it is observed that mean and standard deviation on achievement in Hindi of the students of exp. group were found to be 29.86 and 4.64 respectively, while mean and standard deviation of the students of cont. group on achievement in Hindi were 26.21 and 5.68, respectively. The t-value after the treatment between the means of the students of exp. group (N=50) and cont. group (N=50) on achievement in Hindi was found to be 3.48. Table value for significant difference at 0.01 level for degree of freedom (df=98) is 2.63 which is less than the calculated value. It means that significant difference exists between exp. and cont. Effect of a Visual Perception 207 groups on the means of the post-test scores of achievement in Hindi. This means both exp. and cont. groups were found to be differed significantly on post-test score means of achievement in Hindi. The Mean of exp. group is higher than that of cont. groups. To check the post-test achievement in Hindi results, given in Table-3, further gain scores (difference between pretest and post-test scores) means of exp. and cont. groups were used for analysis. To compare exp. and cont. groups on gain scores on achievement in Hindi, t-value was calculated. Table-4 : Comparison of exp. and cont. group on gain in achievement in Hindi after treatment
Group N Mean S.D. S. Ed t-value Experimental 50 3.87 2.65 0.43 5.12* Control 50 1.66 1.45 * 0.01 level of significance It is depicted from Table-4 that mean and standard deviation of exp. group on gain scores of achievement in Hindi were found to be 3.87 and 2.65, respectively, while Mean and standard deviation of cont. group on gain scores of achievement in Hindi were 1.66 and 1.45 respectively. t-value between the means of gain scores of exp. and cont. group on achievement in Hindi was found to be 5.12 which was very high than that of table value 2.63 for significance at 0.01 level for degree of freedom (df=98). This indicates that there was significant difference between exp. and cont. groups on gain scores mean of achievement in Hindi. This means both exp. and cont. groups were found to be differed significantly on gain scores of achievement in Hindi. It is also clear from the table-4 that mean of exp. group on gain scores of achievement in Hindi was found to be higher than that of cont. group mean. Since intervention program related to visual perception given to exp. group, therefore, it can be concluded that visual perception skills program is effective for improving the achievement in Hindi.
5. Conclusion It is clear from the results that after the treatment of Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program to experimental group, both experimental and control groups were found to be differed significantly on achievement in Hindi. Means of experimental group on achievement in Hindi post-test scores were found to be higher than control groups means on achievement in Hindi post-test scores. This means that experimental group, which was exposed to Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program, scored significantly higher on achievement in Hindi than those of control group, which was not exposed to Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program. It is also clear from results that both groups were equated on intelligence and pretest achievement in Hindi. Therefore, 208 Rajive Kumar significant difference were found due to treatment of Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program. Therefore, it can be concluded that Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program based on visual activities was found to be effective for improvement of achievement in Hindi of visual perceptual deficient students. The findings of present study are similar to the results of the studies conducted by researchers such as Frosting (1966), Nakra (1990), Englert (1994. So, the results have consistently. Significant effect of Visual Perception; Diagnosis and Remedation Program opens windows of researchers thinking to overcome problems of visual perceptual deficient students.
References
Curtis, M. & Chmelka, “Modifying the Laubach way to reading program for use with adolescents with learning disabled”, Psychological Abstracts, Washington : The American Psychological Association Inc., 1994. Englert, C. S., “Lesson talk as the work of reading groups : The effects of two interventions”, Psycholgical Abstracts, Washington : The American Psychological Association Inc., 1994. Hallahan, Danniel P. and Kauffman, James M., Introduction to learning disabilities : A Psycho-Behavioral Approach, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976. Geiger, G., Lettin, J. & Fahle, M., “Dyslexic children learn a new visual strategy for reading: A controlled experiment”, Psychological Abstracts, Washington : The American Psychological Association Inc., 1994. Frostig, M. & Maslow, P., Learning problems in the classroom, New York : Grune & Stratton, 1973. Frostig, M.; Lefever, D. W. & Whittlesey, J. R. B., The Marianne Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception, Palo Alto : Consulting Psychology Press, 1964. Nakra, O., “The teacher as mediator : An evaluation of Feurestein's Instrumental Enrichment Program in the classroom”, Psychological Abstracts, Washington : The American Psychological Association Inc., 1990. McCormick, S., “A case study of literacy acquisition by a sensory disabled reader”, Psychological Abstract, Washington : The American Psychological Association Inc., 1994. Sofie, Cecilia A. & Riccio, Cynthia A., “A comparison of multiple methods for the identification of children with reading disabilities”, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(3), 2002, 234- 244. ê
Article Received on September 28, 2018; Accepted on December 10, 2018 21
Role of Rehabilitation Center to Reduce Drug Addiction in Nepal : A Case Study of Different Rehabilitation Centers in Biratnagar Metropolitan City
Ramesh Bahadur Thapa*
Drug abuse as a term used to indicate the excessive use of a drug, regardless of whether an individual has reached the point of true dependence on it, or not. This study is mainly concerned with the role of three rehabilitation centers located at Biratnagar Metropolitan City to reduce or control the use of drug. This study explores the facts that rehabilitation centers help to enhance to increase the self confidence among the drug abusers and enable them to dislike drugs, to create public awareness in the society via various programmes showing the ill-effects of the drugs. It helps to decrease the criminal activities caused by drug addiction, to decrease the consumption of the drugs by the users and also to control the import and export of drugs. It gives treatment to the drug abusers and rehabilitates them in the family and society, to initiate them in income generating programmes and make them independent. Moreover, it also creates awareness about the diseases caused by the use of drugs and to save them from early death. [Keywords : Drug addiction, Role, Rehabilitation, Public awareness, Save life]
1. Introduction A drug is any chemical or biological substance, synthetic or non-synthetic. In general, drug is used to refer specifically to medicines, vitamins, consciousness expanding or recreational drugs. Many natural substances such as beers, wines, and some mushrooms are taken as drug in some society where as other define it as food. The blur line between food and drugs is determined after ingested. That * Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu (Nepal) E-mail:
6. Data Presentation and Analysis Table-1 : Period of Staying
Period in days Number Percentage 15 - 30 17 20.00 31 - 60 26 30.58 More than 60 days 42 49.41 Total 85 100.0
Source : Field Survey, 2018. Table-2 : Feelings after Coming for Treatment
Feelings Number Percentage As I Got New life 45 52.94 Pleasure 17 20 Painful Feeling 23 27.05 Total 85 100.0
Source : Field Survey, 2018. Role of Rehabilitation Center to Reduce Drug Addiction in Nepal 213
Table-3 : Most Favourable Programmes to Respondents at Rehabilitation Centers
Programmes No. of Respondents Percentage Meditation/Yoga 17 20 Encounter Session 17 20 Family Meeting 14 16.47 Counseling 11 12.94 P.T./ Exercise 9 10.58 Open Sharing 6 7.05 Relapse Prevention Class 4 4.70 Entertainment 5 5.88 Role Play 2 2.35 Total 85 100 Source : Field Survey, 2018. Table-4 : Expectation from Centers by Respondent
Expectation Number Percent More Helping Programmes 60 70.58 More Sympathy and Co-operation 17 20 More Tight Programme 4 4.70 Freedom 4 4.70 Total 85 100 Source : Field Survey, 2018. Table-5 : Future Plan/Outlook of Respondents
Plan Number Percent To Recover and Start Normal Life 17 20 Continue Further Studies 14 16.47 Involve in Social Work 14 16.47 Not Yet Thought about It 12 14.11 Engage in Own Business 12 14.11 Help to Family 5 5.88 Plan to Go Abroad 5 5.88 Pilot 1 1.17 Doctor 1 1.17 Engineer 4 4.70 Total 85 100 Source : Field Survey, 2018. 214 Ramesh Bahadur Thapa 7. Findings and Conclusions
8 The majority of the respondents 54 percent were coming to the center by their family forces and 40 percent by self awareness and 6 percent were influenced due to their own friends. 8 It was revealed that the majority of the respondents 55.55 percent felt that they had got new life after coming for treatment, 20 percent got pleasure and 24.45 percent got painful feeling. 8 Most of the respondents (60 percent) were satisfied with the treatments providing in the center and 80 percent of respondents were getting good co-operation from the staff of the centers and 46.67 percent respondents expected more love and co-operation from their family. 8 Out of total respondents 66 percent expected more helping programmes from the center, 20 percent expected more sympathy and co-operation, 8 percent expected much tight programme and 6 percent expected freedom. 8 It was revealed that 18 percent of respondents preferred meditation and encounter programme of centers, 14 percent family meeting, 12 percent counseling, 10 percent P.T./exercise, 8 percent of respondents preferred open sharing, relapse prevention class and entertainment and finally 4 percent preferred role play. 8 Out of total future plan/outlook of respondents 20 percent respondents want to recover and start normal life, 16 percent want to continue further studies and involve in social work, 14 percent didn't yet thought about it, 12 percent engage in own business, 6 percent of them want to help family and plan to go abroad, 4 percent of them want to be a doctor and pilot and 2 percent want to be a computer engineer. 8 The higher number of the respondents (80 percent) had thought about going for treatment. The majority of the respondents 60 percent knew somebody who got treatment. Among them larger number of respondents (80 percent) think that the treatment was successful. On the basis of findings of this study, the researcher reach in this conclusion i.e., the role of the rehabilitation centers enhance to increase the self confidence among the drug abusers and enable them to dislike drugs, to create public awareness in the society through various programmes showing the ill-effects of the drugs. It helps to decrease the criminal activities caused by drug addiction, to decrease the consumption of the drugs by the users and also to control the import and export of drugs. It gives treatment to the drug abusers and rehabilitates them in the family and society, to initiate them in income generating programmes and make them independent. It also creates awareness about the diseases caused by the use of drugs and to save them from early death. Role of Rehabilitation Center to Reduce Drug Addiction in Nepal 215 References
Bernstein, N. Ilene., “Top 8 Reasons why Teens Try Alcohol and Drugs”, 2015. (Retrieved December 29, 2018, from www.Partnership for Drug-Free Kids.com: http://www. drugfree.org/resources/top-8-reasons-why-teens-try-alcohol-and-drugs). Gosden, T. Brown., Drug Abuse : The Truth about Today's Drug Science, New York, USA : Brighton Publishing, 1987. Karki, B. Bal., Rapid Assessment and Response Survey among Drug users in Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal : NCASC, 1999. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Drugs, Brains, and Behavior the Science of Addiction, Maryland : National Institute of Health, 2014. Shahande, Behrouz., Rehabilitation Approach to Drug Alcohol Dependence, Geneva : ILO, 2007. UNODC, “Nepal : Discussing drug abuse in schools - youth centric programmes help in creating awareness”, July 30, 2013 (Retrieved December 29, 2018, from www.unodc.com: https://www.unodc.org/southasia//frontpage/2013/July/nepal-discussing-drug-abu se-in-schools.html) ê
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