A Means to a Cleaner Environment ENERGY EFFICIENT -CONTAINING FUEL CELLS TO BE INTRODUCED COMMERCIALLY IN THE EARLY 1990s The twelfth National Fuel Cell Seminar held Los Angeles in particular, the regulations will in Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A. from 26th to 28th require 40,000 zero emission motor vehicles by November 1990, was attended by some 450 1998, increasing to 200,000 by 2003. This will delegates from 17 countries, representing provide a major incentive for the development both developers and potential users world- of fuel cell powered vehicles. The SCAQMD is wide. “Fuel Cells - An Answer to a Cleaner working with the U.S. Department of Energy Environment” was the key theme running to promote development of a viable fuel cell throughout the conference. This was strongly system. The new standards will also require linked to the firm belief that fuel cells would greater efficiencies from the electricity make an important contribution to the world’s generation industries. This will present energy needs over the next ten years as further opportunities for the fuel cell economically viable fuel cell power plants developers. become commercialised. The conference heard The growing concern regarding environmen- that platinum containing phosphoric acid fuel tal problems had accelerated Japan’s fuel cell cells (PAFC) are soon to be produced on a com- research and development programme, accor- mercial basis. Both Fuji and Toshiba announc- ding to T. Sugimoto from the New Energy ed that they had opened PAFC production Development Organisation (NEDO).Coupled facilities in Japan during 1990. The key pro- with the increasing pressure to produce more gress regarding development of Proton Ex- efficient energy generation technology, this has change Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) was the led the Japanese Ministry of International announcement of a U.S. Government spon- Trade and Industry to expect fuel cell plants to sored programme, to be led by General Motors, be generating 1.9 million kW of power by the to produce a PEMFC powered motor vehicle. year 2000, and 8.3 million kW by 2010. The conference reflected the growing extent It was predicted by K. Joon of the of the multi-national collaborations that are Netherlands Energy Research Foundation that now underway to develop fuel cell technologies. in Europe too, current energy generating The Seminar Organising Committee comprised technologies would not be able to comply with the United States Department of Energy, the future emission standards. With the imposition Electric Power Research Institute, the Gas of carbon dioxide constraints, he forecast that Research Institute, the National Aeronautics fuel cells would achieve 10 per cent penetration and Space Administration, and, for the first of the Dutch combined heat and power (CHP) time, the Commission of the European Com- market by the year 2010. In Europe the PAFC munities and the Fuel Cell Development Infor- is generally regarded as the market opener for mation Centre, Japan. Over half of the the higher temperature molten carbonate and attendees were from Japan or Europe. solid oxide fuel cell systems. K. Seip of the Centre for Industrial Research, Norway, An Environmental Overview reported on his work using a model to quantlfy The “Keynote Address” was given by J. the benefits of fuel cells versus coal- and gas- Lents of South Coast Air Quality Management fxed electricity generation plants in terms of District (SCAQMD). Focus was directed their effects on the natural environment, towards the recently approved new U.S. Clean buildings and materials, socio-economic, and Air Act which will enforce ever more stringent health and safety impacts. His model predicted emissions standards over the next 20 years. In that on health costs alone, it would be cost

Platinum Metals Rev., 1991, 35, (l), 17-21 17 effective to switch from coal produced to fuel totype nearing completion at Tokyo Electric cell produced electricity. Power’s Goi Thermal Power Station. Plant costs of $2000/kW were said to be competitive Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells in Japan, although the fully commercialised for Stationary Applications target cost would be $lOOO/kW. For on-site Evaluation of PAFC demonstrator plants, systems Toshiba have supported the formation both in the 50-200 kW CHP and multi- of a subsidiary company to International Fuel megawatt utility power generation modes, and Cells (IFC), known as ONSI. Fifty-three 200 the progress being made towards commer- kW units have been ordered for U.S., Japan- cialisation of the technology, were reviewed by nese and European customers. Toshiba also has several speakers from Japan, Europe and the its own programme for cogenerators in the U.S.A. In recent years progress has been 50-200 kW size range. They anticipate enter- greatest in Japan. ing commercial production of these units in Activities at Fuji were described by R. 1993. Matsushita reported that Toshiba had Anahara. Following the successful demonstra- also opened a PAFC production plant during tion of a 50 kW on-site cogeneration plant by 1990, with current capacity of 10 MW/year. Tokyo Gas Company, Fuji have now received Although Toshiba are also working on molten orders for 31 of these units with options on carbonate electrolyte fuel cells (MCFC), they another 50. Seven sets of 100 kW have also believe that it would be sometime into the 21st been ordered. Although mostly destined for century before this technology could be com- Japanese gas companies, four of the 50 kW mercialised. They saw the PAFC and MCFC units will be supplied for demonstration pro- playing a role alongside each other, rather than grammes in Europe. Based on the experience competing, from about the year 2010 onwards. gained of a 1 MW power plant during the Progress on the 11 MW PAFC plant at Goi Moonlight Project, Fuji is now planning to con- was outlined in more detail by N. Kato of struct 5 MW plants suitable for electric Toshiba. The bulk of the plant has been install- utilities, in association with Kansai Electric ed, and process and control tests are currently Power Company. Compactness is seen as a key ahead of schedule. The final fuel cell stack design feature that will be a requirement for ur- assemblies, being manufactured by IFC, are ban installation. Fuji opened a semi mass pro- due to be installed early in 1991 with the plant duction facility in November 1990 to meet the becoming operational by the spring of the same early demand for 50 kW and 5 MW power year. Demonstration objectives will be to run plants. The current production capacity is 15 for over 10,000 hours, with 3000 hours of MW per year. Improved cell performance, uninterrupted operation, with electrical and principally through improved catalysis by the heat efficiencies of 41.1 and 31.6 per cent, platinum based , was seen by respectively. Several poster presentations Fuji as critical to the reduction of both the cost described the operation of IFC’s pre- and the size of the entire plant. Current power production 200 kW cogeneration plants in of- densities had improved to 160 mW/cm2, from fice and hotel situations. Several thousand 80 mW/cm2 in 1986. The target performance hours of operational experience has now been was cited as 230 mW/cm2 by 1992. Fuji were gained by both the gas and electricity power confident that these targets would be met. companies in Japan. Progress by Toshiba in commercialising the In the United States, the major customer for PAFC for both electric utility and on-site use, the ONSI 200 kW units is Southern California was discussed by T. Matsushita. Toshiba in- Gas Company who will start taking delivery of tend to commence production of the 11 MW the first of their ten units in 1992. David Moard units during 1995-96. Plant size would be reported that customer interest had been very about one third of the current size of the pro- high; he commented that through the provision

Platinum Metals Rev., 1991, 35, (1) 18 of Partial Energy Service (PES), fuel cells chromium, platinum-cobalt-chromium and would be a profitable business for Southern platinum--cobalt. Platinum alloy elec- California Gas. In this scenario the gas com- trocatalysts were also shown to have high activi- pany purchases the fuel cell, and installs and ty for oxidation in the presence of maintains the unit on the customer’s property trace levels of carbon monoxide. At platinum while the producer is responsible for perfor- loadings of 0.1 mglcm’ and with 2 per cent car- mance guarantees, provision of spare parts, etc. bon monoxide in hydrogen, an alloy catalyst ex- The customer has no primary responsibility for hibited minimal over-potential at 2OO0C, the fuel cell or its operation, nor direct invest- although this performance declined as the ment in the capital equipment. temperature was reduced to 160OC. Westinghouse Electric Corporation are pro- A poster presentation by T. Ito of NE Chem- ceeding with the development of their air cool- cat Corporation, Japan described the produc- ed PAFC system. With improved cell and stack tion of a higher power density fuel cell system technology they have now achieved cell perfor- with improved cost performance by the use of mance of 702 mV, with a decay of only 6mV per platinum alloy catalysts with higher loadings of 1000 hours. The 2.5 kW demonstration stack platinum than the conventional 10 per cent has so far achieved 5300 hours of operation. platinum supported on carbon. Hatinum-iron- The ultimate Westinghouse product will be a cobalt catalysts at 10,20, 30 and 35 weight per 400 kW module, and the first demonstration cent platinum loadings gave performances of will be at Norsk Hydro in Norway. This plant 734, 752, 765 and 769 mV, respectively, at 200 will be fuelled with by-product hydrogen from mA/cm2. At 700 mV, this translated into 21,36 the chloralkali process. The demonstration, and 39 per cent more power output with the currently at the design stage, is intended for higher loading materials compared to the con- start-up in mid 1992. Westinghouse see a niche ventional 10 per cent alloy catalyst. It was market for the PAFC in industrial applications. calculated that these increased power densities In Europe the major PAFC demonstration is can lead to benefits which outweigh the extra currently the 1 MW plant being built into a new cost of the catalyst. civic centre development in Milan. The plant is Work at the Institute CNR-TAE in Italy on being installed by Ansaldo using fuel cell stacks the influence of particle size of platinum supplied by IFC. Site work is nearly finished catalysts in PAFCs was presented by N. Gior- with installation of the fuel cell system due for dano. Catalysts with particle sizes ranging from completion in September 1991. It is intended to 15-125 exhibited a particle size effect, as commence power generation by mid 1992. The previously demonstrated by other groups, in plant is rated at 1150 kW with an output which the smaller particles possessed intrin- voltage of 23 kV/50 Hz. The power will be sup- sically lower activity. Giordano believed that plied to the Milan electricity distribution grid. this was related more to a change in the propor- tion of specific crystal faces at the surface as the Platinum Catalysts for particle size changed, rather than to the in- Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells fluence of inter-crystallite separation as propos- A paper on high stability platinum alloy elec- ed by other workers. trocatalysts was presented by K. Tsurumi of Tanaka Kikinzoku Kogyo. He reported cell Fuel Cells for Transportation performances of 780 mV with the latest alloy Applications material, compared to 680 mV with pure Over the past two years there has been platinum systems. Using metal dissolution increased interest in the potential application of as a guide to long term stability, this alloy fuel cells to vehicular transportation. This has showed very little decay in comparison to prior arisen due both to increased concern about, and art alloys of platinum-vanadium, platinum- regulation of, vehicle emissions in the United

Platinum Metak Rev,, 1991, 35, (1) 19 States, and the recent technical advances in the selectively oxidise the carbon monoxide (in the performance of Proton Exchange Membrane presence of hydrogen) to the required levels of Fuel Cells. For the first time, this year’s less than 10 ppm. seminar attached major importance to transpor- The benefits of a partial oxidation of tation applications. methanol reforming process were outlined by Details of a major new programme, spon- R. Kumar of Argonne National Laboratory. sored by the U.S. Department of Energy, to Although less efficient than steam reforming, build an advanced reformate/air PEMFC power the direct heat transfer characteristics of this plant were revealed at the conference. The pro- type of reformer facilitates good transient ject will be led by the Allison Gas Turbine Divi- response to fluctuating load demands. This sion of General Motors, which will co-ordinate property is seen to be very important for a fuel the effort between General Motors, Los Alamos cell automotive power system. National Laboratory, Ward Power Systems, Ballard Power Systems of Canada will be pro- Dow Chemical Company and the South Coast ducing the fuel cell stacks for the vehicle pro- Air Quality Management District. The overall gramme sponsored by the U.S. Department of aim of the six and a half year programme is an Energy. In addition, D. Watkins reported that actual fuel cellhattery hybrid vehicle further applications for their PEMFC stacks in- demonstration. Although it is intended that the clude a 100 kW unit for a British Columbia bus fuel cell will take as much of the load as possi- programme, with an on-the-road demonstra- ble, batteries are included in the system to cope tion by the end of 1992. Military and utility ap- with part of the power surge demands. Target plications of the PEMFCs are also being performances of the demonstration vehicle in- considered. Demonstrations in small two-man clude fuel economy improvements of 60 per submersibles and at the Dow chloralkali plant cent over conventional engines, a 40 per cent in Sarnia, Canada, are currently underway. reduction in carbon dioxide emission, and a 90 Other fuel cell types being evaluated for per cent reduction of the emissions currently transportation applications were also reported regulated in the U.S.A. A contract has been at the seminar. In particular, PAFCs have an awarded for the first phase of the programme, application in the 50-120 kW range for buses, which has the objective of producing a 10 kW trucks and heavy duty vehicles. R. Kevala of power source system evaluator over a 24 month Booz, Allen and Hamilton, and K. Okano of period. Component research and development Fuji presented updates on the Department of will be carried out in this initial phase and will Energy funded PAFChattery hybrid bus pro- include studies to improve the efficiency of the ject. A 25 kW brassboard design has been suc- platinum based . cessfully evaluated against typical bus driving One of the greatest challenges in this pro- cycles. The next phase of the project will ad- gramme will be the development of suitable dress the design of the test buses incorporating methanol reformer technology. Several papers both a 50 kW fuel cell and a 132 amp-hour lead addressed reformer concepts. N. E. Vander- acid battery. borgh of Los Alamos outlined the components of a reformer operating via the steam reforming Submarine and Space route. For use with a PEMFC it is necessary to Applications have three reactors in the fuel processing stage. Fuel cells continue to be developed for the After the initial fuel converter and shift reactors more specialised space power requirements, the hydrogen stream still contains 1 per cent and certain marine applications. In particular carbon monoxide. To avoid severe poisoning of there were several presentations on the use of the platinum catalyst the refonnate is passed PEMFCs as air-independent submarine propul- through a preferential oxidation reactor, into sion systems. W. Bette reported that Siemens which small quantities of oxygen are injected to are currently developing a 34 kW laboratory

Platinum Metals Rev., 1991, 35, (1) 20 module for this application. Performance potential for longer term catalyst stability targets are 540 mA/cm2 and 684 mV per cell, compared to the alkaline systems. with a cell active area of 1180 cm2.Small single cells operating under 2 bar pressure of COmdusionS hydrogen and oxygen have exceeded this target “Fuel cells are five years from commer- and shown excellent stability up to 18,000 cialisation’’ has been a frequently used phrase hours, with only 2 pV per hour decay. The cells for many years! We now, however, appear to comprised DuPont membranes and 4 have reached the time when this phrase can be mg of platinum/cm2 electrode loading. Recent stated more in truth than in false hope. Led by improvements in cell construction and water the Japanese companies, Fuji and Toshiba, the management have increased the current density phosphoric acid fuel cell will won become a to 700 dcm’ at the rated cell voltage. practical reality for 50-200 kW combined heat Emphasis on fuel cells for manned space mis- and power applications. Worldwide concerns sions is presently focused on the development about pollution and global warming continue to of systems, as evidenced increase, and in the coming years this will serve by presentations from NASA, Los Alamos and to broaden further the scope for commercialisa- the Hamilton Standard Division of United tion of these fuel cells. Similarly, a major new Technologies Corporation. The use of elec- opportunity for the Proton Exchange Mem- trolysers powered from solar arrays in conjunc- brane Fuel Cell has opened up, with the start of tion with either alkaline or PEM fuel cells, to programmes to build fuel cellhttery hybrid provide power during dark orbiting periods, of- power systems for transportation, which could fers the best opportunity as energy storage lead to the development of pollution free motor systems for the long duration space missions vehicles. As noted by several speakers, “the being planned for Mars and beyond. PEMFCs future for fuel cells is brighter now than ever appear to be attracting favour due to their before.” G.A.H.

Quasicrystals in Rapidly Solidified Alloys Five-fold electron diffraction patterns were tion have found two new hexagonal aluminium- found in a rapidly solidified aluminium- phases (Pages 27-35). L. Ma, R. Wang palladium alloy in 1978. Although a number of and K. H. Kuo confim the presence of quasicrystals have since been identified in decagonal quasicrystals in rapidly solid5ed particular alloys of aluminium with a platinum AlsPd, but Wt in AlsPt (Pages 37-49). metal, no systematic study has been made. Now a series of papers on the topic, reporting Grove Fuel Cell Symposium work carried out in the P. R. China, has been The successful First Grove Cell Symposium, published in the J. Less-Gnnnwn Met., 1990, held in London, England during September, 163, (1). An overview of quasicrystals in 1989, was reviewed here immediately after the aluminium-transition metal alloys in general, conference (D. G. Lovering, Platinum Metals and aluminium-platinum group metals in Rev., 1989, 33, (4), 169-177). A second particular, is presented by K. H. Kuo (Pages meeting is now planned, and this will again be 9-17). Aluminium-ruthenium and aluminium- held at the Royal Institution, London, from osmium alloys have been studied by Zhong- 24th to 27th September, 1991. Min Wang, Yi-Qun Gao and K. H. Kuo, main- In addition to those already engaged in fuel ly by transmission electron microscopy. They cell technology, the Symposium is expected to observed icosahedral quasicrystalsin melt-spun be of particular importance to people involved ribbons of Al,Ru, but not in Al,Os. Decagonal with advanced energy systems, and those quasicrystals form readily in the latter, but only responsible for energy and environmental rarely in the former (Pages 19-26). policy making. Rong Wang, Lina Ma and K. H. Kuo have Further information can be obtained from: discovered decagonal quasicrystals in both Kay Russell, Elsevier Seminars, 256 Banbury rapidly solidified Al Rh and Al Ir, and in addi- Road, Oxford OX2 7DH, England.

Phtinum Metals Rev., 1991, 35, (1) 21