Implementing Street Addressing System in an Evolving Urban Center. a Case Study of the Kumasi Metropolitan Area in Ghana' Kwasi Abebrese Iowa State University

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‘Implementing street addressing system in an evolving urban center. A case study of the Kumasi metropolitan area in Ghana’

Kwasi Abebrese

A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COMMUNITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Program of Study Committee: Francis Owusu, Major Professor Alenka Poplin Christopher Seeger

The student author, whose presentation of the scholarship herein was approved by the program of study committee, is solely responsible for the content of this thesis. The Graduate College will ensure this thesis is globally accessible and will not permit alterations after a degree is conferred.

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa

2019

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents without whose support I would not have been able to reach this far.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi

LIST OF TABLES ...... viii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT...... ix

ABSTRACT ...... x

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 6 1.3 Research Goal and Objectives ...... 11 1.4 Significance of Research ...... 12 1.5 Organization of the Thesis ...... 12

CHAPTER 2. STREET ADDRESSING AND URBAN MANAGEMENT ...... 13

2.1 Introduction ...... 13 2.2 The Concept of Addresses ...... 13 2.2.1 Definition and Components of an Address ...... 13 2.2.2 Brief Historical Review of Addresses ...... 15 2.3 Street Address System Standardization and Efficiency ...... 19 2.3.1 The use of Geographic Information Systems in Street Address Implementation .. 21 2.3.2 Approaches to Street Addressing Database Development ...... 23 2.3.3 Benefits of a Street Addressing System ...... 25 2.4 Globalization and Street Addressing ...... 27 2.5 Urbanization and Urban Management Challenges in SSA Countries...... 28 2.6 Urban Management Challenges in Ghana ...... 29 2.7 Street Addressing and Urban Management Applications ...... 31 2.8 Street Addressing and National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) in Ghana ...... 35

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 36 3.1 Introduction ...... 36 3.2 Research Design ...... 36 3.3 Case Study Area ...... 37 3.4 Sources of Data ...... 40 3.4.1 Tools and Methods of Data Collection ...... 42 3.5 Key Variables and Unit of Analysis ...... 43 3.6 Sampling Technique ...... 44

3.7 Method of Analysis ...... 45 3.8 Developing a GIS-Based Street Addressing System ...... 46 3.8.1 Design Approach and Methodology ...... 46 3.9 Limitations of the Study ...... 47

CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS OF THE KUMASI METROPOLITAN AREA ADDRESSING SYSTEM ...... 48 4.1 Introduction ...... 48 4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis ...... 48 4.2.1 Background Information on Implementation Strategies used in Kumasi...... 48 4.2.1.1 Street Codification ...... 49 4.2.1.2 House/Property Numbering ...... 51 4.2.1.3 Installation of street Name Signage Poles and House Number Plates ...... 53 4.2.1.4 Mapping and Database Management ...... 54 4.2.1.5 Citizen Engagement ...... 55 4.2.2 The Effectiveness of the Addressing System for Urban Management ...... 57 4.3 Survey of User Experiences ...... 64 4.3.1 Background Information on Respondents ...... 64 4.3.2 Awareness of Addresses ...... 66 4.3.2.1 Description of Home Address ...... 66 4.3.2.2 Use of other Address Forms and the Most Preferred Form of Address...... 66 4.3.2.3 Knowledge on Street Addresses ...... 69

4.3.2.4 Visibility of Addresses (Street Signs and House Numbers) ...... 69 4.3.2.5 Use of Street Names and House Numbers ...... 72 4.3.2.6 Use of Landmarks and Dependence on Local Knowledge ...... 75 4.3.3 Challenges encountered in giving out Locational Information ...... 75 4.3.4 Perception on the Implementation of Street Naming and Property Addressing System ...... 77 4.4 Summary ...... 78

CHAPTER 5. DEVELOPING A GIS-BASED STREET ADDRESS SYSTEM ...... 80 5.1 Introduction ...... 80 5.2 Tools and Techniques...... 80 5.3 Preparation of Datasets...... 81 5.3.1 Codification and Address Assignment ...... 82 5.3.1.1 Street Codification ...... 82 5.3.1.2 Property Addressing...... 85 5.4 Mapping and Coding ...... 87 5.5 Designing a Geo-database for Street Addresses ...... 92 5.6 Street Address Application...... 94 5.6.1 Integration of Street Addresses and Land Uses ...... 94 5.6.2 Management of Urban Facilities ...... 95 5.7 Limitations of the Model ...... 98

CHAPTER 6. SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ...... 99 6.1 Introduction ...... 99 6.2 Summary of Major Findings ...... 99 6.2.1 Implementation Strategies used for Kumasi Metropolitan Area ...... 100 6.2.2 Effectiveness of the Address System for Navigation ...... 102 6.2.3 Effectiveness of the Address System for Enhancing Urban Management ...... 103 6.2.4 Develop a GIS-based Street Address System and Demonstrate its Potentials for Urban Management ...... 105 6.3 Discussion and Recommendations ...... 105 6.3.1 Developing a GIS-Based Street Addressing System ...... 105 6.3.2 Approach to Addressing and Database Management ...... 106 6.3.3 Considering Informal Settlements and Low-Income Suburbs as Priority Areas .. 106 6.3.4 Citizen Engagement ...... 108 6.4 Further Research ...... 108 6.5 Conclusion ...... 109

REFERENCES ...... 111

APPENDIX A: SAMPLE GEO-DATABASE OF ADDRESS INDEX ...... 117

APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDES ...... 118

APPENDIX C: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 122

APPENDIX D: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL ...... 124

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 Different Numbering Systems ...... 18

Figure 2.2 Framework of an Efficient Street Addressing System ...... 21

Figure 2.3 Evolution of Geographic Information ...... 23

Figure 3.1 Kumasi Metropolitan Area in National and Regional Context...... 38

Figure 3.2 Map of the CBD showing Survey Locations ...... 39

Figure 4.1 Division of the Metropolitan Area into Sectors...... 50

Figure 4.7 Sample of a Street Address (Street Name and House Number) ...... 69

Figure 4.8 Sample of an Old Address System (Plot/Block Numbers) ...... 69

Figure 4.9 A House without a House Address in Ayigya Zongo, a Slum Area ...... 72

Figure 4.10 Challenges Encountered in Locating Places ...... 77

Figure 4.13 Perception of Residents on the Street Addressing System ...... 78

Figure 5.1 Processes used in Developing a GIS-based Street Addressing System ...... 81

Figure 5.2 Orientation of Streets ...... 83

Figure 5.3 Street Map of the Study Area ...... 84

Figure 5.4 Property Addressing using the Metric Numbering System ...... 86

Figure 5.5 Source Code for Leaflet Map in HTML and getting the Map Tile Layer ...... 87

Figure 5.6 Adding Map Dimensions in CSS ...... 87

Figure 5.7 A Sample of Attribute Data included in Address Database ...... 92

Figure 5.8 Using Firebase API...... 93

Figure 5.9 Interactive Map of Address Points and Hydrants within the Study Area...... 93

vii

Figure 5.10 Land use Map of the Study Area ...... 94

Figure 5.11 Distance Measurement between Hydrants and Parcels ...... 96

Figure 5.12 Display of Results in Console ...... 96

Figure 5.13 Selection of Working Hydrants by Location ...... 97

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2.1 Total Population and Percentage Urbanized in Ghana (1921 – 2010) ...... 30

Table 3.1 Number of Officials of the various Institutions that Participated in the Study...... 41

Table 3.2 Data Sources for Developing a GIS-based Street Addressing System ...... 42

Table 3.3 Respondents and Types of Data Collected ...... 44

Table 4.1 Background Information on Respondents ...... 65

Table 4.2 Description of Home Addresses ...... 66

Table 4.3 Most Preferred Form of Address ...... 68

Table 4.4 Visibility of Street Addresses ...... 71

Table 4.5 Use of Street Addresses by Age ...... 73

Table 4.6 Use of Street Addresses by Educational Attainment ...... 74

Table 5.1 Sample Geo-database of Selected Fire Hydrants ...... 98

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First, I thank the Almighty God for his protection and guidance during the course of this work. Secondly, my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Francis

Owusu for his guidance and input into this work. I say “Ayekoo” and may God richly bless you. In like manner, I am extremely grateful to my thesis committee members, Dr. Christopher

Seeger and Dr. Alenka Poplin for their positive comments and immense help. This work would not have been an exercise of futility without their guidance.

Also, I wish to express my profound gratitude to my family especially my uncles

Messrs. Asuama Yeboa Abebrese and George Abebrese for their immense support and contribution towards the successful completion of my studies. I also wish to thank the faculty

at the Department of Community and Regional Planning of Iowa State University for their words of encouragement and support throughout my graduate studies.

My gratitude is also extended to to my friends who have supported my journey especially ASP Adu Danso Abeam, Clement Osei Asiedu, Felix Twum-Barimah and Isaac

Agbemafle. God richly bless you all.

And to all those I could not mention, I say a big thank you and may the Almighty God continue to enrich and bless you all.

ABSTRACT

The need for a functional addressing system is increasingly becoming critical for the management of the rapid growing cities in developing countries, especially those in Sub-

Saharan Africa, where most cities lack a comprehensive and standardized addressing system.

This can be attributed in part to rapid urbanization and increased globalization which has resulted in greater integration of people, cities, companies and regions. Moreover, the advancement in geo-spatial technologies and location-based applications also underscore the need for a standardized addressing system. The lack of efficient and standardized addressing system in such cities hinders urban planning as it impedes the delivery of urban services as well as revenue generation by local government authorities. Against this backdrop, this study explores how to develop and implement an effective street addressing system in an evolving

urban center of Kumasi Metropolitan Area in Ghana. Specifically, through interviews of officials of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and Metropolitan Town and Country Planning

Department as well as service providers, the study examined current approaches used in the implementation of the city’s street addressing system. In addition, we conducted a survey of user experiences in the metro area to assess the usefulness of the addressing system for residents in navigating the city. Finally, we developed a prototype GIS-based street address system that goes beyond the existing system of only street names and property numbers and includes a database of land uses, property owners and utilities such as hydrants that can be used for effective management of the urban area, including the management of public service delivery, revenue generation etc. Based on the analysis, we recommend that implementing a standardized addressing system for an evolving urban center should involve the integration of

all the various approaches used within the metropolitan area to ensure data interoperability.

Moreover, informal settlements and low income suburbs must also be considered as priority areas for future implementation exercises in order to facilitate service delivery. Finally, implementation of street addressing should be accompanied by awareness campaigns to educate residents and institutions on the uses of the addressing system.

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The need for a functional addressing system has increasingly become paramount in discussions concerning the growth and management of cities in developing countries, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where most urban centers lack a comprehensive and standardized addressing system (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al., 2005; Njoh 2010; Bigon and

Njoh, 2013; Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017). This rising interest can be attributed in part to the rapid urbanization in the region as well as the globalization phenomenon, which has resulted in greater integration and interaction amongst people, companies, countries and all regions, including Africa. Thus, Africa’s ability to reap the maximum benefits from the globalization process depends, among others, on the existence of efficient and standardized addressing system in its cities (Njoh, 2010; Bigon and Njoh, 2013).

Another benefit of street addressing system is for ensuring the advancement in technology especially with the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) as well as other location-based services and applications, which depend on an addressing system in order to function.

An efficient and standardized addressing system which comprises a street naming and property addressing system does not only facilitate the operation of the above-mentioned modern technology and devices but more importantly, serves as an essential tool for effective urban development and management. The process involves using a system of maps and signs that assign names to streets and numbers to buildings or parcels of land to ensure easy identification of people and places (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005; Davis and Fonseca, 2007;

Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Zandbergen, 2008; Kubbara, 2010; Yildirim et al, 2013 and

Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017). An efficient street addressing system makes it possible to identify the location of a parcel or dwelling in an urban area to facilitate service delivery, revenue generation and emergency response services.

Rapid urbanization in Africa has increased the need for an efficient addressing system.

According to World Urbanization Prospects (the 2014 revision), Africa and Asia are urbanizing faster than anywhere else in the world. Historically, the level of urbanization in

Africa increased steadily from 15 percent in 1960 to 40 percent in 2010 and is projected to reach 60 percent by 2050 (UN Habitat, 2010). Although this rate of growth has the potential to stimulate economic and social development, it is also associated with a number of challenges, including the proliferation of informal settlements which have exacerbated the

problems associated with the lack of efficient addressing system (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al,

2005 and Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017). The addressing system found in many

African cities cover mostly the Central Business Districts (CBD) and high-income suburbs.

This situation, according to Njoh (2010) and Bigon and Njoh (2013) can be attributed to the continent’s colonial past. Under the influence of colonial models, addresses were allocated in the city centers, while plot and block numbers alone were used in many suburbs, and fewer or no address networks existed in most suburbs especially in the informal settlements and urban peripheries.

Coupled with the incidence of increased urban growth is the occurrence of rapid globalization which has deepened since the late 1980s. This is driven in part by international trade and investment as well as aided by information and communication technology that make

the world more integrated and therefore interdependent (Carmody and Owusu, 2016). Rapid globalization has necessitated the need for countries to provide the needed infrastructure that will enhance physical connectivity and communication amongst people, cities and companies in order to maximize the benefits that could be achieved from the process. An adequate supply of better infrastructure, including address infrastructure, therefore has the potential of ensuring a better and more efficient exchange within and between cities and countries (Njoh, 2010;

Bigon and Njoh, 2013).

Since the mid-1980s, over fifteen SSA countries, including Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali,

Senegal, Togo and Cameroon, have implemented efficient addressing systems which is based on systems that identify throughways and house numbers in their capital and secondary cities with the support of international development agencies such as the World Bank, the French

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the United States Agency for International Development

(USAID) (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005 and Dhamavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017).

However, the execution of these systems has been saddled with a number of challenges, making it difficult to use as a tool for urban management. Coetzee and Cooper (2007), Coetzee et al. (2011), Ditsela et al. (2011) and Dhamavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic (2017), highlight some of these inherent challenges including the use of inconsistent methodologies and approaches, which create problems of standardization when it comes to harmonizing and interpreting an address information within a particular area without any form of ambiguity.

In Ghana, this challenge is compounded by a number of inhibiting local factors. For example, the local government authorities (Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies -

MMDAs) which are constitutionally mandated to manage spatial development of the cities are

faced with a myriad of challenges that hinder the efficient planning and effective coordination and control of physical development. Previous studies (Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010;

MLGRD, 2010; Adarkwa, 2012; and Fuseini and Kemp, 2015) have shown that most local government authorities have shortfalls in the preparation of appropriate city layouts and even in instances where they are prepared; enforcement of land use regulations has been an area of grave concern. Moreover, the pace of development of properties in most urban centers has outstripped the rate at which the local government authorities are able to design approved layouts to be used as a basis for enforcement. This development has resulted in a situation where a considerable number of developed properties have no permits as well as addresses, as most of the developments hardly go through the approval processes of the MMDAs (Ubink and Quan, 2008 cited by Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010; and MLGRD, 2010).

Furthermore, many early project-based street addressing initiatives implemented through consulting firms did not translate into local capacity to sustain and expand on the pilot efforts. For example, Nissen (2012) identifies some of the issues associated with consultant- initiated approaches and processes such as the lack of inculcation of a Geographic Information

System (GIS) database in the implementation of the Ghana project. This subsequently diverted the focus and overall goal of the initiative from a well functional and coherent addressing system which encompasses an integrative approach to database management to the installation of street name signage poles without a GIS database that can aid in the collection and integration of data for spatial analysis, and planning to improve urban management (Nissen,

2012).

The Kumasi Metropolitan area is the second largest metropolitan area in Ghana and is one of the first urban centers in the country to implement street addressing system. This initial exercise was a consultant-initiated project that covered the CBD and some parts of the metropolitan area. The city is one of the fastest growing urban centers in the country (Ghana

Statistical Service, 2013). According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, Ghana’s urban population is skewed towards regions in the southern part of the country, particularly in the Greater Accra and Ashanti Regions, where major cities such as Accra and Kumasi are located. With more than half of Ghana’s population living in urban areas, the rapid rate of urbanization and its associated challenges including the proliferation of informal settlements coupled with the absence of an efficient and standardized addressing system have potentially serious consequences for urban management.

Over the years, the Government of Ghana and the Ministry of Local Government and

Rural Development (MLGRD)1 have made a number of efforts aimed at introducing street addressing systems. For instance, in 2012, the MLGRD introduced a National Urban Policy

(NUP) and an operational guideline to provide a framework for addressing some of the fundamental problems associated with urban development and management (MLGRD, 2010).

The guideline sets out the requirements to be complied with in implementing the two key dimensions of the addressing system: the naming of streets and the numbering of properties.

However, the effective adherence to the guidelines in subsequent implementation phases of the addressing system leaves much to be desired. Another significant effort towards improving the addressing system in the country is the introduction of a National Digital Property Addressing

1 The MLGRD is the highest institution that oversees planning in Ghana

System known as the Ghana Post GPS in 2017 (Daily Graphic, 2017). This system uses a different approach to addressing, which divides the country into grids (5m x 5m square) and assigns each one with a unique address in the form of postcodes. There is therefore the need to integrate the two different addressing platforms that are currently in place in order to harness the maximum benefit that could be derived from an addressing system towards effective urban management.

Against this backdrop, this study examines the effectiveness of the approaches used in the implementation of the addressing system within the Kumasi Metropolitan Area in Ghana with a view of drawing important lessons to inform current practices and subsequent implementation processes in the metropolitan area.

1.2 Problem Statement

Since the colonial period, most urban areas in Ghana have used the block system as a formal mechanism for locating people and places. This system entailed a process of dividing urban suburbs and neighborhoods into blocks and representing them with letters or numbers on planning schemes. These were combined with plot numbers assigned to land parcels located along designated streets to serve as addresses (Nissen, 2012). For instance, a house with an address such as Plot 10 Block 9, Asokwa, Kumasi indicated that, this particular house is sited on plot number 10 in the Block 9 zone located in the suburb of Asokwa in Kumasi. There were other formats such as BH/B1, Bomaah and NA 5 Nsuta - Ashanti (with BH and NA representing the initials of the towns the addresses can be located along with the numbers 1 and 5 indicating the respective property numbers). This system of addressing however does not include the use of street names. Though it had its own challenges with regards to locating

specific geographical reference points, it was still useful due to the small size of the urban population at the time (Nissen, 2012; and Twumasi-Fofie, 2015). Nevertheless, in this era of rapid urbanization and globalization, there is the need to develop an efficient and standardized addressing system to facilitate urban development and management (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al,

2005; Bigon and Njoh, 2013).

Ghana’s Decentralization and Local Government Reform established by the Local

Government Act, 1993 (Act 462) as well as the Legislative Instrument (LI 1589 of 1994), charge the MMDAs and their sub-structures including the Physical Planning Departments with the responsibility to name streets and number all properties within their respective jurisdictions. However, the execution of this function has been fraught with a number of challenges including the design of settlement layouts and the granting of building permits

(MLGRD, 2010).

The pace of the development of properties in the urban areas of Ghana has outstripped the rate at which the MMDAs are able to design layouts to manage urban growth. Even in instances where the designs are prepared before development, there have been laxes in the enforcement (Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010; MLGRD, 2010). Also, granting of building permits has been fraught with long periods of delay leaving many to continue with physical developments without the necessary approval from the MMDAs (Ubink and Quan, 2008 cited by Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010). Fragmentation of land ownership system in Ghana also exacerbates the problem. Most of the lands in many urban areas are owned by clans, families and individuals and held in trust by the respective family heads and traditional authorities

(Kasanga and Kotey, 2001). These lands are put to different uses in the interest of the “land

owners” disregarding approved land use planning. The result has been the haphazard development of properties that do not conform to planning and zoning regulations. In addition, most of these properties do not have well laid out access ways as well as an addressing system that is comparable to modern trends (Agyeman, 2006; Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010;

MLGRD, 2010; and Salami, 2016).

The Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project was started in 2002 by a private consultant with the support of the MLGRD to implement an addressing system within the CBD and some selected parts of the metropolitan area. The goal was to ensure an easy identification of people and places to facilitate revenue generation by the Kumasi Metropolitan

Assembly (KMA) as well as improve the delivery of services and access to utilities (Ghanaian

Chronicle, 2010; and MLGRD, 2010). However, studies carried out to assess the efficiency of

the system have identified a number of lapses in the implementation processes which have consequently affected the efficiency of the system (Nissen, 2012). This can be attributed to a number of factors. For example, the execution as well as the framework of the project was initially designed through the initiative of consultants due to inadequate trained personnel and lack of adequate logistics within the Physical Planning Department, which have been mandated to execute the project (MLGRD, 2010 and Nissen, 2012).

The smooth implementation of this pilot addressing system was complicated by the lack of funding for the development of the system. Nissen (2012) brings to the fore issues pertaining to funding as well as problems associated with the approaches used such as naming of streets after living persons through auctioning, lack of citizen engagement in the implementation process, as well as the absence of a GIS database management system. This

diverted the overall goal of the initiative from a well functional and coherent addressing system to just the installation of street name signage poles without enough public education on the use of the system and a GIS database management system that can aid in the collection and integration of data for spatial analysis, planning and decision making (Nissen, 2012).

Moreover, MLGRD (2010) highlights some of the problems associated with naming of the streets and numbering of properties including the application of wrong naming and numbering standards. In addition, the numbering of properties has not been consistent within the metropolitan area as well as with other MMDAs (Salami, 2016). As a result, many service providers such as Ghana Water Company, Electricity Company of Ghana as well as many courier service agencies continue to use their own numbering systems to identify properties to facilitate their operations, thus leading to a multiplicity of numbering systems. Some

organizations and individuals also use “informal ways” such as citing landmarks (Nometu,

2002; Agyeman, 2006; and Twumasi-Fofie, 2015). Although the act of attaching landmarks to an address as a location identifier is not a problem, when an information needs to be exchanged over a larger domain, it becomes necessary to standardize the address system to describe the location of a particular entity to ensure that, the accompanying data are interpreted without ambiguity (Nometu, 2002).

The lack of an efficient and standardized addressing system creates problems for both residents and visitors alike in locating their destinations easily (Daily Graphic, 2008). In recent times, many parts of Kumasi remain under-serviced in respect of urban and emergency services delivery. Locating points of interest and navigating through the city is a major challenge. The cumulative effect on the city’s socio-economic development especially with the provision of

services including water, electricity and sanitation as well as emergency response services in times of fire, robbery and accidents is a major issue of concern (Nissen, 2012).

Although, the introduction of the National Digital Addressing System (Ghana Post GPS) has the potential to salvage the situation and improve the current state of the addressing system, the question as to whether it fits the local context and also, whether residents of the metropolitan area are familiar with the nature of the addresses in the form of postcodes leaves much to be desired. In addition, the system also needs to be integrated with the existing street addressing system in order to maximize the benefits that could be derived from an addressing system towards effective urban management.

The focus and motivation for this research therefore stems from previous studies that indicate that the existence of an efficient and standardized address system as a common

reference tool provides a means for urban dwellers and visitors to locate places easily without necessarily relying on the use of extensive local knowledge. Moreover, the implementation of a uniform address system establishes a framework to standardize the acquisition, storage, processing as well as the dissemination of many forms of spatially distributed data such as census and business-related data. In other words, an efficient and standardized address system ensures efficient data collection, facilitates update of urban planning documents, guarantees planning investments, aides in the maintenance of facilities and infrastructure; and finally, enhances the mobilization of local resources more effectively to enhance urban development and management (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005; Dhamavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic,

2017; and Yildirim et al, 2013).

In light of the aforementioned, this study seeks to answer the following questions;

• What are the current implementation strategies used for Kumasi Metropolitan area

addressing system?

• How effective is the addressing system for:

a) navigating the metropolitan area?

b) enhancing urban management?

• What are the potentials of a GIS-based street addressing system for urban management?

• What lessons can be drawn from the Kumasi experience?

1.3 Research Goal and Objectives

The goal of the study is to examine the effectiveness of current approaches used in the

Kumasi metropolitan area and suggest ways of improving the system. In order to achieve this,

the study specifically seeks to:

• Understand the implementation strategies used for the Kumasi metropolitan

area addressing system.

• Examine the effectiveness of the address system for:

a) navigating the metropolitan area.

b) enhancing urban management.

• Develop a model GIS-based street addressing system and demonstrate its

potentials for urban management;

• Draw important lessons to inform current practices and subsequent

implementation processes within the metropolitan area.

1.4 Significance of Research

The significance of the study stems from among other things the importance of the existence of an efficient addressing system as an essential component for urban development and management in an era of globalization and technological advancement. It throws more light on the existing situation in developing countries where most urban centers are experiencing rapid growth and expansion amidst a myriad of challenges.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

There are six chapters to this report. The next chapter reviews the literature on the concepts and the evolution of street addressing with a focus on the approaches and urban management applications. Chapter three discusses the methodology of the research. An analysis on the current state of the addressing system is presented in Chapter four. Chapter five

focuses on the development of a model GIS-based street address system whiles the final chapter presents a summary of major findings and explores lessons for developing addressing system in Ghana.

CHAPTER 2. STREET ADDRESSING AND URBAN MANAGEMENT

2.1 Introduction

Despite the increasing awareness about the significant role of a functional street addressing system in effective urban management, the phenomenon has not been given much attention in relevant literature especially as it relates to Ghana and SSA countries. Many researchers (Njoh, 2010; Bigon and Njoh, 2013; and Ditsela, 2017) underscore the neglect of the issue over the years. With the exception of few studies (Farvarcque Vitkovic, 2005;

Coetzee et al., 2008; Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Njoh, 2010; Bigon and Njoh, 2013;

Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017; and Ditsela, 2017) carried out to underscore the importance of the phenomenon, not much has been done to explore this area of study. As a

result, several gaps still remain in the body of knowledge about the implications of a functional addressing system towards effective urban development and management.

2.2 The Concept of Addresses

2.2.1 Definition and Components of an Address

Addresses serve as one of the basic facilitators of communication among people, institutions and businesses within the built environment. It refers to a structured place name which usually identifies a plot of land, a building or a part of a building and relates it to a named street and a locality (Barr, 2007). According to Coetzee and Cooper (2007), an address refers to an unambiguous specification of a point of delivery or an actual location where a service could be provided. In other words, an address can be defined as a description of the geographical location of people and places. This description often includes names and

complementary pieces of information, which allows an individual to uniquely identify a place.

These pieces of information are expatiated further by Davis and Fonseca (2007) to encompass a combination of basic elements (such as thoroughfare name, building number, name of city, landmark, post code e.t.c) to determine a unique location. The sequence and arrangement of the exact elements that make up an address differs from one country to another. However, in most countries, an address is made of components such as unique individual locators that provide different levels of detail. Davis and Fonseca (2007), Coetzee and Cooper (2007) and

Ditsela, (2017) identify these locators to include a ‘house number’, ‘street name’, or ‘street number’, ‘unit’, ‘office’, ‘floor’ or ‘flat number’, ‘suburb name’, ‘town’ or ‘city name’, and finally a ‘postcode’ or ‘zipcode’. An example is given below;

Recipient’s Name Mr. John Smith

Street Address (Street name + house number) 23 Pineapple Avenue,

Suburb Name Bronx

City Name New York

Zip Code 10457

In some contexts, there is a distinction between postal and residential addresses. For example, in most SSA countries, a postal address normally refers to the post office box (P.O

Box) where an addressee receives mail. The residential address basically refers to where an addressee lives or can be located (Universal Postal Union (UPU), 2012; Nissen, 2012).

Addresses can either be direct or indirect references to places. Direct references provide a structured description such as a street or postal address or a definite place name while indirect references comprise numbers or codes that refer to a location through some previously created relation (Davis and Fonseca, 2007). Typical examples of indirect references include the use of cadastral codes, highway exit numbers and some types of postal codes.

Direct addresses can further be categorized into absolute or relative. The absolute form serves as references to a definite place while the relative form usually depicts the form of an absolute reference attached to an indication of relative positioning. An example of the direct absolute addresses includes the use of landmarks. For example, “close to the mango tree” or

“10 miles to the north of New York”. Other examples of direct absolute addresses include postal codes, linear references, and composite addresses. However, in this study, we focus on

street addresses as an essential component for enhancing urban management.

2.2.2 Brief Historical Review of Addresses

The notion of street addressing in both rural and urban areas evolved as a means to facilitate the identification of people and places in a particular geographic area. Cities have implemented and maintained different addressing systems for historical reasons. For instance, in most western countries, the sequential system of numbering is the most widely accepted numbering system used but this is not the dominant system adopted by many other countries

(Davis et al., 2003; Davis and Fonseca, 2007; and Favarque-Vitkovic et al, 2005).

The first addressing initiatives originated in Western Europe and China in the eighteenth century. Addresses mainly consisted of a street indication of where a particular

house or property was located as well as additional information on the approximate location

(Davis and Fonseca, 2007; Tantner, 2009). In general, street names developed from informal references to landmarks to formalized names. Naming increasingly followed a pattern that organized the urban space into neighborhoods and later included the designation of house numbers. Numbering every building was not a general rule until most governments realized the positive impact an efficient addressing system would have on cadastral and fiscal initiatives. In 1779, one of the first numbering initiatives which encompassed the use of odd and even numbers was introduced in Paris. Many French cities and several others around the world later adopted this system during the early parts of the nineteenth century. However, this was met with resistance from residents, especially from the dominant classes in France, who complained about being “equaled” to the lower social strata for being referred to by a simple

number within a street (Davis et al., 2003; Davis and Fonseca, 2007; Tantner, 2009; Favarque-

Vitkovic et al, 2005). During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, increasingly complex systems and networks of street addresses developed in the United States as well as in the

European cities.

One of the most popular addressing systems used in western countries is the metric numbering system. With this system, buildings are assigned numbers according to their metric distance from the beginning of the street. The numbers are rounded up to the nearest odd or even number or approximated in a way that every building gets a unique number. The metric system has the advantage of enabling an easy approximation of the distance between two addresses on the same street, while allowing for simple adaptation to new developments along each street (Davis et al., 2003; Favarque-Vitkovic et al, 2005).

Despite the advantages of the metric system, different numbering systems continued to be used in different parts of the world for several reasons including long term usage, mode of operation and their adaptability to local needs and characteristics. For instance, in Japan, houses are not numbered according to consecutive numbers along a road, but rather according to their date of construction (Longley et al cited by Davis and Fonseca, 2007). Also, in South

Korea, house numbering is done inside neighborhoods within particular urban sectors (Davis et al., 2003; Davis and Fonseca, 2007).

There are other numbering systems such as decametric numbering which involves the use of both odd and even numbers as used in the sequential system but using specific measurements regarding the length of the street (Favarque-Vitkovic et al, 2005).

Although, there are several addressing systems throughout the world, there seem to be

too few standardizing initiatives. Coetzee and Cooper (2007) highlight some of the standardization initiatives made in South Africa in efforts to enhance the efficiency of the address system, while McCart Wells et al., (2008), Lind (2007) and Barr (2007) describe attempts made in countries such as the United States, Denmark and the United Kingdom respectively.

Sequential System Metric System

Decametric System

Figure 2.1: Different numbering systems Source: Farvacque-Vitkovic et al (2005)

2.3 Street Address System Standardization and Efficiency

A street address is considered as a basic unit among all variations of location information. It makes it possible to identify the location of a parcel or dwelling in an urban area. Street addressing involves using a system of maps and signs that gives name to streets and numbers to buildings or parcels of land. The process goes beyond the mere naming of streets and numbering of properties to include developing digitized maps for use in the management of both rural and urban communities. The maps with the information can be developed into a GIS as a database.

An efficient and standardized street addressing system refers to a system that eliminates ambiguities in address interpretation and usage. The standardization of addresses refers to the scheme according to which addresses are assigned and this improves the efficiency of the use

of addresses amongst different institutions and across sectors (Coetzee et al., 2008; McCart

Wells et al., 2008). In that, an address assignment scheme identifies the components that make up an address and describes how values are assigned to these components. It encompasses a set of requirements that need to be complied with in implementing the two key dimensions of an addressing system namely, the naming of streets and the numbering of properties. This entails a form of interaction between people, the physical environment and its digital representation (Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Coetzee et al., 2008; Coetzee et al., 2011).

People refer to all the “human” requirements of an addressing scheme. It underscores the ability of residents of a particular urban area to read, understand and remember addresses.

In other words, a street address system should reflect the local culture and be in harmony with intended goals as well as support the social and civic identity of people living at the address

(Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005). As Lind (2007) asserts, an essential property of a good and efficient addressing system is the simplicity and the easiness with which people are able to identify with it.

The physical environment refers to the actual location of the address and how it is used.

This also encompasses the visibility and the details of the address. For instance, (Lind 2007) argues that a major property of a good addressing system can be seen in the suitable details

(street name and house number) it presents. In that, a good addressing system should be detailed enough to enable an individual to navigate through the built environment or locate a particular place. The physical environment component therefore entails an installation of sign posts for the address as well as other components such as street and place names of the address, entrances to the object in relation to where the address is allocated or signposted, multiple

addresses for a single object, as well as multiple objects that share an address (Barr, 2007;

Lind, 2007; Coetzee et al, 2011; Ditsela, 2017).

Finally, the digital representation of an addressing scheme relates to the efficiency of the representation for storage and processing by computers, harmonizing data and addresses from different sources, maintenance in databases, non-ambiguity or uniqueness of addresses, as well as integration with other systems such as land administration (Lind, 2007 and Coetzee

& Cooper 2007; Yildrim et al, 2013; Ditsela, 2017).

Physical Environment Digital Representation

Storage and Processing, Computer Location and Orientation algorithms, Character recognition & Data models

Street Address System

People

Read, Understand and Remember addresses

Figure 2.2: Framework of an efficient street addressing system Adopted from Ditsela (2017: 66)

2.3.1 The use of Geographic Information Systems in Street Address Implementation

In order to understand the application of GIS in street addressing under the digital representation requirement of an addressing scheme, Hong (2008) in his conceptual modelling of ubiquitous geographic information (UBGI) describes the widespread use and development of geographic information (GI) under four (4) evolutionary stages which is very essential in the development of a digital representation of an address scheme. The first stage encompasses the capturing and delivering of geographic information in the form of paper maps with the intent to provide a means to visualize information. However, with the advent of digital maps

and geographic databases, “digital geographic information” began to emerge. The main objective of this second-generation GI is to handle information on spatial features.

The third generation encompasses the evolution of Web GI and Mobile GI, which developed as a result of the advancement in information and communication technology, such as World Wide Web and mobile devices including smart phones, PDA’s and other devices which has led to the development of new type of information services including location-based services, google maps, what3words, bing maps, open street map and many more (Hong, 2008;

Ditsela, 2017).

Drawing from the aforementioned technological advancements and the application of

Geographic Information System, Hong (2008) describes the fourth generation as the

Ubiquitous GI and emphasizes “context awareness” and “ease of use” as its main

characteristics in the digital representation of computer systems. “Context awareness” refers the compatibility of GI applications to the user’s environment whiles ‘ease of use’ underscores the easiness with which people are able to use a particular GI application irrespective of the user’s background. Ensuring that GI applications are context-appropriate results in “ease of use” of such applications.

1st Generation

Paper Map Visualization + Digital Maps

+ Geographic 2nd Generation Databases

Feature Digital GI (Contents) + Mobility

Accessibility + + Location- Awareness 3rd Generation Context + GI Streaming Web GI Mobile GI Ease of Use Context- Awareness

4th Generation

Ubiquitous GI

Figure 2.3: Evolution of Geographic Information Adopted from Hong (2008)

From the foregoing, the integration of GIS technology that suits the local context in street addressing implementation therefore has enormous benefits as it improves efficiency in way-finding and mapping processes. A GIS based street addressing system ensures an easiness in navigation within the built environment, and aids in the development of databases which can be used in spatial analysis and planning to improve urban management.

2.3.2 Approaches to Street Addressing Database Development

There are several approaches used in developing street addressing and the development of an address database including the attribute or customer-orientated approach, entity approach and the integrated approach (Lind, 2007; Coetzee and Cooper, 2007).

The attribute approach also known as customer-orientated approach mainly focuses on an address and its characteristics. With this approach, an address is regarded as a property of the physical entity it represents (e.g an individual, dwelling, business and so on). The addresses are stored in several address line fields, with no structure to the content of the address in a GIS.

Also, the suburb and street information of the address can appear randomly in any of the address lines (Lind, 2007). Most often, address information is managed as a simple attribute, that is, as a characteristic in the database record without any kind of validation. The main disadvantage of this approach is that, it prompts each individual computer system to develop its own address registration without any connection to other systems. This results in inconsistencies such that, properties, buildings, businesses and other entities that have reference to the same address, are registered with different addresses in different systems

(Lind, 2007; and Coetzee and Cooper, 2007). More importantly, the attribute approach promotes a situation where each administrative system creates its own frame of understanding for the addresses. This leads to the influx of different address definitions and conceptual schemas that further undermines the cross sector and multipurpose aspects of an address system (Lind, 2007).

On the other hand, the entity approach focuses on an address as an object in its own rights

(Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Lind, 2007; Davis and Fonseca, 2007). In other words, the addresses are regarded as a separate object of registration to be managed with the same attention as other comparable administrative designations, such as personal and cadaster numbers. An advantage of this approach is that, it positions the address entity more centrally as a common object type and not just a simple attribute of a building, a plot of land, a business

entity and so on. According to Lind (2007) and Coetzee and Cooper (2007), this provides a high degree of flexibility. In that, a new address could be created and registered whenever appropriate, for example in the planning phase prior to land division or building construction.

The approach was adopted in Denmark in 1995 to solve the inconsistencies in the Danish address system that developed from the use of the attribute approach. The system was also used in some cities in South Africa such as Johannesburg, Cape Town and Tshwane (Coetzee and Cooper, 2007).

However, several researchers have argued that these different ways of storing addresses complicate the interoperability between the addresses (Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Lind, 2007;

UPU, 2012). Therefore, the integration of the attribute and entity approaches which entails linking the attribute data to an address is regarded as the best way of achieving an efficient and

standardized addressing system. This has been affirmed by prior studies (Coetzee and Cooper,

2007; Lind, 2007; Davis and Fonseca, 2007; UPU, 2012). For instance, according to Davis and

Fonseca (2007 p.126), “addresses cannot be considered as mere attributes of buildings or of traffic accidents but as entities in themselves in the modeling level and in the conceptual level”.

Countries such as Denmark now use the integrated approach which involves the linkage of the attribute data to a spatial reference system (Lind, 2007 and Coetzee and Cooper, 2007).

2.3.3 Benefits of a Street Addressing System

The benefits of street addressing system can be categorized under the following:

- Support to urban residents and visitors:

A standardized street addressing system makes urban areas more “user friendly” through enhancing the system of street coordinates which makes it easier for people to find

their way around cities and towns. This helps in the delivery of health, fire and security services in times of emergencies especially in informal settlements as well as facilitates the easy location of critical facilities in towns and cities (Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Njoh, 2010;

Zandbergen, 2008; and Yildirim et al, 2013). It also facilitates the operation of modern devices such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) and other location-based services and applications such as Google Maps, Bing Maps, Open Street Maps, etc. which enhance navigation within the built environment.

- Support to Local Government Authorities:

An efficient and standardized street addressing system is also a tool for planning and managing urban services by making it possible for local government agencies to identify and monitor population trends and public assets with regards to their number, and condition to

facilitate urban planning and programming of investments and management. It plays a key role in the development of urban management tools (Farvaque-Vitkovic et al, 2005), the creation of an address database for population and housing censuses, facilities management and for investment programming.

- Support to utility and service providers:

An efficient street addressing system also enables the private sector and utility providers such as water, electricity and telecommunications companies to provide targeted services to clients as well as track their locations for relevant follow-ups and maintenance of infrastructure and business transactions (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005; Coetzee and Cooper, 2007;

Zandbergen, 2008; and Yildirim et al, 2013).

2.4 Globalization and Street Addressing

The need for a functional street and property identification system in cities in SSA countries has been intensified in recent years by the globalization phenomenon. Globalization refers to the worldwide processes of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments of different nations that have deepened since the late 1980s, driven in part by the international trade and investment and aided by information and communication technology that make the world more integrated and therefore interdependent (Murphy and Carmody, 2015 cited in Carmody and Owusu, 2016). Cities are not isolated entities and their success is closely linked to their physical connectivity with domestic and international markets. An adequate supply of better infrastructure, including address infrastructure, allows better and more efficient exchange within and between cities and countries. By facilitating navigation of the

built environment, a street address system has the potential of increasing the efficiency and functioning of cities in SSA countries as well as transforming the economy of African countries into a modern and globally competitive one (Njoh, 2010; Bigon and Njoh, 2013).

Furthermore, the advancement in technology especially with the use of the Global

Positioning System (GPS) as well as other location-based services and applications, online transactions, e-commerce and many other systems that have become widespread as a result of constant communication and interactions among people, companies, and countries underscore the importance of a functional address system in modern times. Moreover, investment in address infrastructure benefits international trade by improving identification of delivery points. Transportation and logistics companies affiliated with mail delivery and address maintenance comprise a large business, and address infrastructure allows these companies to

become more efficient through adoption of improved parcel-tracking utilities, which improve customer satisfaction and ensure better delivery of items. Efficient logistics firms use track- and -trace systems to monitor export and import shipments between countries. The quality of logistics is strongly related to the availability of street addresses. By facilitating the movement of goods around the globe, address infrastructure becomes an essential element of world trading systems.

2.5 Urbanization and Urban Management Challenges in SSA Countries

Rapid urbanization in Africa has increased the need for an efficient addressing system.

According to the world urbanization prospects (the 2014 revision), 54 percent of the world’s population now reside in urban areas. The urban population of the world has grown rapidly since 1950, from 746 million to 3.9 billion. This increasing population growth and the rate of

urbanization are projected to add 2.5 billion to the world’s population by 2050. Africa and Asia which currently have about 90 percent of the world’s population are expected to contribute enormously to this global increase.

A number of studies (Freire et al., 2014; Potts, 2015; Carmody and Owusu, 2016;

Cobbinah and Niminga, 2016) have been conducted to ascertain the impacts of rapid urbanization on Africa’s urban environment. Most of these studies indicate that although, urbanization has the potential to stimulate socio-economic development due to the fact that cities serve as administrative, commercial, and growth centers, its adverse effects are worth noting. Many (Farvacque Vitkovic et al, 2005; Freire et al, 2014; Cobbinah and Niminga,

2016) argue that urbanization is one of the contributory factors to poor urban management and the proliferation of informal settlements in most urban areas in Africa. According to Shah

(2012), about 32 percent of the world’s urban population live in slums and this percentage is much higher (37 percent) for developing countries and highest in Sub-Saharan Africa, at 62 percent. Slum and informal settlement proliferation accounts for almost all the current urban spatial growth in some of the fast-growing African cities. For example, in Kenya, about a quarter of the total population in Nairobi live in slums. These areas house the urban poor, who are excluded from basic services such as water and sanitation, electricity and other infrastructure (UPU, 2012; U.N Habitat, 2016).

Poverty, deprivation, crime, and general human insecurity have become more widespread in many African cities, especially in the slums. From the foregoing, the challenge for most SSA countries lies in their ability to maximize and harness the benefits of the urbanization process towards socio-economic development amid rapid globalization.

2.6 Urban Management Challenges in Ghana

In line with trends in Africa, the rate of urbanization in Ghana has outpaced planning schemes. Although Ghana’s contribution to global urbanization is negligible, the adverse effects are significant due to increasing and often unregulated informal settlements (Ubink and

Quan, 2008; Amoako and Cobbinah, 2012), increasing urban poverty and crime (Owusu et al.,

2016), unprotected ecological systems, fragile economic base and poor urban planning and management (Grant and Yankson, 2003 cited in Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010; Adarkwa,

2012). According to the 2010 population and housing census, over half of the country’s population now reside in urban centers (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Ghana’s urban population increased from 23 percent in 1960 through 29 percent and 32 percent respectively in 1984 and 2000 to 51 percent in 2010 (see table 2.1). This is projected to increase to over 65

percent and 70 percent by 2030 and 2040 respectively (Ghana Statistical Service 2005,

Favarque-Vitkovic 2008 cited in Owusu et al., 2016). It is important to mention here that, urban areas in Ghana are defined to include human settlements with population of 5000 and over.

Table 2.1: Total Population and Percentage Urbanized in Ghana (1921 – 2010) Year Total Population Percentage Urbanized 1921 2,298,000 7.8 1931 3,163,000 9.4 1948 4,118,000 12.9 1960 6,727,000 23.1 1970 8,559,000 28.9 1984 12,296,000 32.0 2000 18,912,000 43.8 2007 23,000,000 49.0 2010 24,659,000 51 Source: Ghana Statistical Service, 2014.

According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2014), Ghana’s urban population is skewed towards the regions in the southern part of the country, particularly the Greater Accra and

Ashanti Regions where major cities such as Accra and Kumasi are located. With more than half of Ghana’s population living in urban areas, the rapid rate of urbanization and its associated challenges including the proliferation of informal settlements coupled with the absence of a functional addressing system have potentially serious consequences for urban management.

According to Owusu (2010), the population of slum dwellers in Ghana is estimated to be over 5 million representing about 58 percent of the total urban population in 2001 and growing at the rate of 1.8 percent per annum. Despite this increasing growth in population in

urban centers, there has not been a corresponding level of investment in infrastructure.

Moreover, capacity constraints and inability of MMDAs to design settlement layouts to manage spatial development, lack of enforcement of land use planning and zoning regulations as well as inability to meet the growing demand for urban services have become issues of grave concern in the management of Ghanaian cities (Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010; MLGRD,

2010).

2.7 Street Addressing and Urban Management Applications

The definition of urban management as a concept is often contested (Stren, 1993;

Mattingly, 1994; McGill, 1998). For example, Stren (1993), observed that the concept lacks in content and definition and that the central core of the meaning has been elusive. Mattingly

(1994) in confirmation to this, asserts that a clear view of the meaning and substance is required. However, operational definitions of what the concept entails in practice are easy to come by. For instance, according to Njoh (2010), urban management encompasses the political and administrative structures of urban areas and the mechanisms adopted by these structures in attempts to tackle the challenges of urbanization. Thus, urban management as a concept entails a holistic approach and the integration of institutional structures that encompasses various sectors in dealing with the problem of cities.

As already indicated, rapid urbanization poses a major challenge to both governments and urban residents especially in the SSA countries. In order to create resilient cities that can respond to the rapid change in urban growth requires investments in a street addressing system to facilitate the location of people and places as well as access to services within the built environment. Thus, a street address system is one way to reclaim urban areas for sustainable

development (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al, 2005; Njoh, 2010; Dharmavaram and Farvacque-

Vitkovic, 2017).

As part of efforts to achieve the set targets and overall goal of the New Urban Agenda and Sustainable Development Goal eleven (11)2, an efficient street addressing system, among others, can be considered as a catalyst for ensuring the creation of an inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities. The system has a number of applications that can be used to improve the functioning of cities and enhance their efficiency and competitiveness, including supporting the development of urban information systems; urban service delivery; tax systems; land tenure systems; and slum upgrade programs (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al., 2005;

Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic 2017).

Taking into consideration urban information systems, a street addressing system

enhances the process of gathering comprehensive baseline data on a city. Sustainable urban planning which plays a pivotal role in the New Urban Agenda as a critical step for achieving sustainable development at the global, national and local levels (UN-Habitat, 2017), requires an assessment of the current and future needs of the population (Berke and Conroy, 2000;

Berke et al., 2006). However, critical issues such as growing urban population densities, intensive land use, insecure land tenure and space constraints inhibits the development of sustainable urban plans and therefore serve as a challenge to sustainable development (UN

2 The New Urban Agenda and Sustainable Development Goal eleven (11) represent a shared vision for a better and more sustainable cities and communities (UN Habitat, 2017). It underscores the socio- economic opportunities offered by a well-planned and well-managed urbanization process for both developing and developed countries.

Habitat, 2016). According to UNDP (2016), a large proportion of the urban poor in Africa are disconnected from urban life and do not have access to basic facilities and services. Anson

(2007) in reaction to the phenomenon, asserts that a comprehensive and efficient addressing system is capable of moving the “unconnected” out of the poverty trap (Anson, 2007 cited in

Njoh, 2010) as in most instances, the urban poor areas are not incorporated into urban plans which impedes the delivery of basic services such as water, electricity, and proper sanitation facilities (Anson, 2007; Tibaijuka, 2008 cited in UPU, 2012).

A street address system therefore enables local government authorities to rise to these urban challenges through enhancing the identification of land and making it possible for communities to be mapped easily and incorporated into an urban plan, where urban suburbs can be regulated, and land use planned more sustainably and efficiently (Farvacque-Vitkovic

et al, 2005). Furthermore, a street address system contributes to other initiatives including spatial information management, poverty mapping, vulnerability assessment and many more, which are also aimed at providing information on urban areas (Farvacque Vitkovic et al, 2005).

Njoh (2010) and Dharmavaram and Farvacque Vitkovic (2017) underscore the significance of the advancement in technology and urban information systems in improving access to location- information on emergencies, healthcare, transportation and other services through the use of smart phones and other portable devices. This development also has significant impact on efforts aimed at maximizing the socio-economic benefits from the globalization process. For instance, Njoh (2010: 423), in his description of the state of the addressing system in

Cameroon, argues that the inability of SSA countries to harness the benefits from the globalization process to their advantage is neither a matter of bad luck nor fate but rather a lack

of “physical connectivity” which impedes communication among people and businesses that in turn, increase the cost of the delivery of services.

Moreover, towards slum improvements, the implementation of the New Urban Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goal eleven, although not fully the panacea for salvaging the situation, is expected to contribute towards reducing the growth of informal settlements as well as ensuring the provision of basic services and infrastructure at the global, national and local levels. A street address system in this regard, helps to map urban areas, for spatial analysis and enable the implementation of plans to tackle urban sprawl and exclusion. In other words, an addressing system presents an opportunity to understand the characteristics of these areas by locating throughways, settlements and dwellings thereby recording previously inaccessible locations and providing local government authorities with information about the extent of these

settlements (Davies and Fonseca, 2007, Coetzee and Cooper, 2007; Njoh, 2010; Yildirim et al,

2013).

As a result, the first suggested component of the New Urban Agenda entails the adoption and implementation of national urban polices which emphasizes that cities require a high priority attention in national development strategies. Inclusion of national urban policies as one of the policy units for Habitat III and as a proposed indicator for Goal 11 of the SDGs comes as a recognition of the crucial role, they have to play in any sustainable urban development agenda (UN Habitat, 2016).

2.8 Street Addressing and National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) in Ghana

In 2012, Ghana introduced its comprehensive National Urban Policy Framework as part of the broader agenda with the goal to promote a sustainable, spatially integrated and orderly development of urban settlements with adequate housing and services, efficient institutions, sound living and working environment for all people to support rapid socio- economic development (MLGRD, 2012). Specifically, under the National Urban Policy framework, the street addressing initiative is aimed at achieving the objective of promoting urban safety and security.

Moreover, under the NUPF, a number of urban projects including the Ghana Urban

Management Pilot Project (GUMPP) is being implemented with the goal to promote a comprehensive city-wide approach to urban development in four metropolises in Ghana

including the Kumasi metropolitan area. The program seeks to address urban infrastructure investment, spatial planning, street addressing, as well as urban management and delivery of basic services. An important aspect of the spatial planning effort under the GUMPP program is its link to improving internally generated revenues of the MMDAs for better management of investments. This objective is linked to the Street Addressing Project which is relevant at the local plan level to facilitate identification of properties, execution of property valuation and improvement in revenue generation. Thus, the objective of the street addressing project under the GUMPP program among other aspects including enhancing navigation is geared more towards improving revenue generation of the MMDAs.

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The issues in the foregoing chapter offer a basic theoretical backdrop for developing street addressing system in an evolving urban center, such as most African cities. This chapter focuses on the general research design and methodological framework of the study. It includes a choice of research design, sources of data, tools and methods of data collection, variables studied, unit of analysis, and sampling techniques used to select the required respondents for the study. In effect, the chapter provides a discussion on how the study was conducted to answer the research questions.

3.2 Research Design

The study employed the use of mixed methods approach within the case study method.

The case study approach offers the opportunity to investigate and understand the dynamics of a particular system (Yin, 2003). In other words, it provides an intensive study of an individual unit or community stressing development factors in relation to the unit’s own environment.

With this approach, the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon (the case) bounded by time and activity and collects detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures during a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009 cited in Cresswell, 2014).

The reason for the adoption of this method stem from the fact that, the study requires multiple data sources of evidence and also, the issue being investigated is a contemporary phenomenon which is ongoing and for which the researcher has little control over.

Again, the case study method is appropriate for this study because it is mainly suitable for research seeking to answer “how” and “why” questions (Yin, 2003; Baxter & Jack, 2014)

which are relevant for providing answers to the research questions in this study. Moreover, it is important to mention that both the exploratory and descriptive approaches to a case study research were adopted.

3.3 Case Study Area

Kumasi is the second largest city in Ghana and serves as the administrative capital of the Ashanti Region. It is a fast-growing urban area with a total population of about 1,730,240 and an annual growth rate of 5.4 percent (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Kumasi is a nodal settlement, a commercial as well as industrial center.

The city is located approximately 270 kilometers north of Accra, the national capital.

The Metropolis shares boundaries with Kwabre East and Afigya Kwabre Districts to the north,

Atwima Kwanwoma and Atwima Nwabiagya Districts to the west, Asokore Mampong and

Ejisu-Juaben Municipality to the east and Bosomtwe District to the south (see figure 3.1). The city has a total road length of 2,100 km and a total of 5,184 distinct streets. Also, it has a total of 103,681 properties (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).

The study was conducted in Adum, a suburb of the metropolitan area which is part of the CBD and the original nucleus of the city. It is bounded on the North by Stewart Avenue, on the South by Victioria Opoku Ware Street and Prempeh I Street. Osei Tutu I Road bounds the East and on the West by Ellis Avenue and Fuller Road (see figure 3.2). Adum was chosen as the location for the survey because the CBD serves as one of the suburbs within the metropolitan area with a completed phase of the street addressing project and moreover, enjoys a relatively high level of accessibility to several parts of the city as well as the major transportation hub.

MAP OF GHANA .

0 15 30 60 90 120 Miles

MAP OF ASHANTI REGION 38

LEGEND

! Suburbs Major Roads

City Boundary

0 1.25 2.5 5 7.5 10 KM 0 1 2 4 6 8 Km

Figure 3.1: Kumasi Metropolitan Area in National and Regional Context.

MAP OF GHANA .

0 15 30 60 90 120 Miles

MAP OF KUMASI

LEGEND Major Roads Minor Roads Stream 0 1.25 2.5 5 7.5 10

KM Railway 200 100 0 200 400 600 Meters Figure 3.2: Map of the CBD showing survey locations

3.4 Sources of Data

Data for the study was obtained from both primary and secondary data sources. The secondary data was obtained from both published and unpublished institutional reports, journal and newspaper articles as well as written theses. These secondary sources provided the meaning and relevance of concepts embodied in the topic.

The primary data collection comprised two (2) main stages. These include the following;

(1) An interview of public officials with knowledge on the addressing system within the

Kumasi Metropolitan Area from twelve (12) identified institutions. These institutions

were selected due to their role in the implementation as well as use of the addressing

system in their day-to-day activities within the metropolitan area. They are grouped

into three (3):

i. Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA);

ii. Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD); and

iii. Service providers (Metropolitan Ambulance Service, Postal Service, Fire

Service, Police Service, Electricity Company of Ghana, FedEx and EMS

services, Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) and Progressive

Transport Owners Association (PROTOA).

Table 3.1: Number of officials of the various institutions that participated in the study Name of Institution Number of Officials Title Interviewed Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly 1 Assistant Development Planning officer Metropolitan Town and Country 2 Regional Director and Planning Department Technical officer Ambulance Service 1 Field staff

Postal Service 1 Regional Manager

Fire Service 1 Deputy Operations Officer

Ghana Police Service 1 Assistant Superintendent of Police Ghana Water Company 1 GIS Manager

Electricity Company of Ghana 1 Field officer/Meter reader

FedEx and EMS services 2 Field officers

Ghana Private Road Transport 3 Taxi drivers Union (GPRTU) Progressive Transport Owners 3 Taxi drivers Association (PROTOA). Total 17

(2) The second stage of the data collection process entailed a survey of user experience.

This encompassed a face to face survey of sixty (60) randomly selected residents

within the CBD of the metropolitan area.

Moreover, collection of spatial and non-spatial data for the development of a model

GIS-based street address system was also carried out from both primary and secondary

data sources. Table 3.2 illustrates type of data used, format as well as the corresponding

sources.

Table 3.2: Data Sources for Developing a GIS-based Street Addressing System Data Format Source

Cadaster Layer Hard Copy sheets/shapefile Kumasi Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department

Road centerlines Open street map/ Hard Copy Open Source data / Kumasi Sheets Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department

Fire Hydrants Shapefile Ghana water company/GPS Field Survey

3.4.1 Tools and Methods of Data Collection

The primary data was obtained using semi-structured questionnaires. The first stage of the primary data collection process was conducted through phone interview of public officials from the identified institutions. In carrying out this process, prospective respondents from the various institutions were contacted and letters of information were sent through emails to inform them about the purpose of the study. A phone interview was then conducted with the aid of an interview guide. The conversation was recorded and transcribed. The interviews basically sought answers on questions regarding the approaches used in the implementation of the addressing system and how effective the system is for navigation as well as enhancing the management of the metropolitan area.

The second stage entailed a face to face field survey of sixty (60) residents within the metropolitan area. The reason for the selection of this sample size was due to time and financial constraint. The purpose of the survey was explained to each respondent to seek their consent.

The survey was conducted through a face to face interview with the use of semi-structured questionnaires. The questionnaire was translated into the local dialect and the responses were transcribed in English. These questions obtained gender and age distribution as well as educational background of respondents, their familiarity with the addressing system in the metropolitan area, challenges encountered in navigating the urban area as well as their perception about the implementation of the street addressing system.

Prior to administering the survey instruments, a pilot study involving a small sample was conducted, in order to determine the clarity, validity, adequacy, relevance, suitability and

length of the survey instruments. This was followed by an intensive field investigation from residents within the CBD and the identified institutions to obtain relevant primary data.

3.5 Key Variables and Unit of Analysis

The study’s variables included the following;

• Ages, sex and educational level of respondents;

• Respondents’ familiarity with the addresses (forms of addresses used, most preferred

form of address, awareness of street names, use of street addresses);

• The state of the address system (visibility of street signs and house numbers); and

• The implementation strategies used for Kumasi metropolitan area addressing system.

• Effectiveness of the addressing system for urban management.

Table 3.3: Respondents and Types of Data Collected Respondents Data Techniques Residents of the metropolitan - Ages, sex and educational level of Field Survey area respondents - Awareness of the addressing system within the metropolitan - Challenges encountered in navigating the metropolitan area. - Perception on the implementation of the street addressing system.

Officials of the Kumasi - The implementation strategies used Interview Metropolitan Assembly and for the addressing system within the the Physical Planning metropolitan area. Department - Effectiveness of the implementation strategies towards achieving an efficient and standardized addressing system in the metro area and with other MMDAs. - Impacts of the address system on urban management.

Service Providers (Postal - Strategies used in locating target Interview Service, Fire Service, areas and points of interest. Ambulance Service, Police - Challenges encountered in Service, Ghana Water navigating the metropolitan area. Company, Electricity Company of Ghana, Ghana Private Road Transport Union)

3.6 Sampling Technique

The study adopted the use of both purposive and simple random sampling techniques.

The purposive sampling technique entailed a selection of specific units for the study due to their unique characteristics. In a sense, the various institutions identified were selected

purposively, due to their role in the implementation and use of the addressing system within the Kumasi metropolitan area and as a result, possessed the kind of information needed to answer the research questions.

On the other hand, the simple random sampling technique was used in selecting participants for the survey. With this, every resident within the metropolitan area had an equal chance of being selected from the population. However, the method has some disadvantages which include the selected participants not being very representative.

3.7 Method of Analysis

Data on study variables reflecting the current state of the addressing system within the metropolitan area were analyzed using univariate and bivariate statistics. The univariate descriptive analysis was used to identify the current state and user experience of the addressing system, taking into consideration the study variables. In analyzing this information, frequency counts and distributions were used to summarize the current state and user experience of the addressing system. Furthermore, demographic characteristics such as gender composition, age distribution, and educational attainment of respondents were analyzed using univariate statistics.

Bivariate descriptive analysis was used to make inferences and establish the relationship that exists between the various study variables such as the use of other address forms and the most preferred form of address, home addresses and visibility of street signs and house numbers, use of street addresses by age as well as by educational status. Moreover, the pearson chi-square test of independence was used to determine the probability that the

variables including use of street addresses by age as well as by educational status are independent.

The planning and policy implications of the statistics generated were made by the researcher after carefully studying the data and identifying trends and patterns. The content analytical approach was used to analyze the qualitative data.

3.8 Developing a GIS-Based Street Addressing System

3.8.1 Design Approach and Methodology

The design of the GIS-based street address system encompassed the use of two major approaches. These include the use of ArcGIS and web mapping tools and technology. The mapping softwares used include ArcMap 10.5 as well as web mapping tools such as Leaflet map, QGIS, Geojson.io, HTML, JavaScript, AJAX, Github, Firebase, Turf.js and JQuery. The methodology used include preparation of datasets, mapping and coding, creation of a geodatabase, and analysis.

The data preparation process began with sorting and data cleaning in preparation for the development of an address geodatabase. This stage entailed first of all, scanning and georeferencing of cadastral maps using ArcGIS. The scanned maps were digitized and projected in UTM and the attribute data populated on the shapefile generated. In addition, road centerlines were digitized with the aid of open street map as well as scanned copies of maps obtained from the TCPD. To ensure compatibility with web mapping technology and data format, the digitized data were converted from shapefile into geojson format using QGIS and geojson.io. The geojson files were then uploaded on github to serve as a landing page for the project.

In order to demonstrate the potential of a GIS-based street addressing system towards urban management with regards to improving emergency response services, revenue generation etc data collection on land uses, as well as utilities such as fire hydrants were also carried out. This included a GPS survey and also, a process of coordinating the field data with existing database on the location of hydrants within the study area. Attribute data including both spatial and non-spatial data such as shape, status and condition of each hydrant was integrated into the geo-database development. The next stage encompassed spatial analysis on hydrants with the aid of tools such as turf.js, a tool for spatial analysis used in web mapping applications.

3.9 Limitations of the Study

A major limitation faced was the difficulty in accessing information from the various respondents. Officials from the various institutions were not willing to divulge information and, in some cases, they had to seek permission from their headquarters which delayed the interviews. The researcher overcame this hindrance with follow-up phone calls and continued assurance that the information they gave would be treated with the deserving confidentiality.

Also, due to financial and time constraints, the researcher relied on the services and assistance of field staff who administered the survey in Ghana. To ensure the credibility of results, each conversation with a respondent was recorded and reviewed to give the researcher a sense of what pertained on the field with regards to the reactions of respondents to each of the questions.

CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS OF THE KUMASI METROPOLITAN AREA

ADDRESSING SYSTEM

4.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the state of the addressing system within the Kumasi metropolitan area. The main objective is to understand the implementation strategies used in

Kumasi and examine the effectiveness of the addressing system for navigation and efficiency in the management of the urban area. The literature review identified the three basic requirements for designing an address scheme, which serves the foundation of effective implementation of the system: human, physical environment, and its digital representation.

Premised on these factors, the analysis of the addressing system began with a cursory look at

the implementation strategies used in Kumasi, followed by an assessment of the effectiveness of the address system for the management of the urban area, and a survey of user experience of the system for navigating the built environment.

4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis

4.2.1 Background Information on Implementation Strategies used in Kumasi

Interviews with city officials from the Metropolitan Town and Country Planning

Department and the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly revealed that the initial approach adopted in the implementation of the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project entailed a street naming and house numbering exercise based on an orientation system that divided the city of Kumasi into four (4) parts namely North West, North East, South West, and South East.

About 60 percent of the metropolitan area was covered under this phase; mainly the CBD and

other high- and middle-income suburbs including Bomso, parts of Asafo, Bantama, Ahodwo,

Asokwa, Patasi, and many other areas. However, this phase of the project did not include a

GIS database attached to the streets named and properties numbered. This necessitated the launch of a new phase of the street naming and property addressing system in 2012 as a result of the introduction of the New Urban Policy and Street Addressing Operational Guidelines developed by the MLGRD.

The current approaches used in the implementation of the addressing system for the purposes of this study has been categorized into: namely street codification, house/property numbering, installation of street name signage poles and house number plates, surveys and numbering assignment, creation of an address map and GIS database management system as well as citizen engagement.

4.2.1.1 Street codification

Street codification entails a process whereby each street is allocated a number from where it starts to the end point. To facilitate the process of street codification, the urban area is sub- divided into nine (9) sectors with each containing a number of streets as shown in figure 4.1.

This particular process is expected to take into consideration the pace of urbanization of the metropolitan area to ensure adequate provision is made for a sizeable increase in the number of streets.

Street numbers start with a sector or community code or prefix where they are located.

For instance, a street with the number 1.002 refers to a street bearing the number 2, located in sector 1. Usually, this approach is applied in instances where there are no street names available or as an initial approach before names are allocated. However, the two systems of numbering

and naming can be combined where major streets are named and their numbers also displayed

with the street names.

LEGEND

Sector 7 Sector 2

Sector 9 Sector 8 Sector 6 Sector 5 Sector 4 Sector 1 Sector 3 0 1 2 4 6 8 Kilometers City Boundary

Figure 4.1: Division of the metropolitan area into sectors according to boundaries of sub- metropolitan authorities.

With regards to street name allocation, the factors that are considered in the process

include hierarchy of streets, themes for names (famous people, historic dates, towns, plants,

animals and many more), as well as division of the urban area (see figure 4.1). The naming is

done in consultation with traditional authorities and subsequently approved by the Street

Addressing Team (SAT) of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly. From the interviews, it was revealed by city authorities that street naming in Kumasi initially entailed the use of a different approach which encompassed the naming of streets after living persons through auctioning as a means of generating revenue to support the implementation of the project. In this reagard, one official with the TCPD asserted that:

“The street addressing operational guidelines states that streets should not be named after living persons because you know, if you name a street after me, currently I am alive and if I go and do something which is not ethical and my reputation comes into disrepute it means that, people mention the name and there is nothing good associated with it. Street names should at least tell something good about the people that they are being named after”.

With the exception of the CBD where priority of naming was given to traditional authorities,

streets in other parts of the metropolitan area were auctioned and named after individuals and influential personalities who could afford to pay. The approach as identified by Nissen (2012) and corroborated by city officials had its own repercussions which affected the smooth implementation of the project. However, with the introduction of the street addressing operational guidelines, this approach has been abrogated.

4.2.1.2 House/Property numbering

With regards to the numbering of properties, the beginning points for numbering of properties are based on the start and end points of streets. Numbers are assigned based on the metric system. By this, houses on the right side of a street are assigned even numbers and odd numbers on the left side from the point of beginning. In instances where there are uncompleted

developments or vacant parcels in between properties, the number assigned is allocated by the

Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly when application is presented to develop the parcel.

Numbering in infilling areas usually happen after numbering has been done for the main property. Depending on the nature of the infilling, a number of options are used. For instance, if a new structure is within the same compound and uses the same entrance as the original property, the number allocated the original property is maintained and used. On the other hand, if the new structure has a walled compound different from the original property, then it is allocated a new number.

With regards to numbering in informal settlements, my interviews with city authorities revealed that not much has been done in slum areas within the metropolitan area in terms of basic data gathering and ground truthing exercises. In effect, most buildings in these areas have

not been assigned addresses. Although, central and local government directives and policies for street addressing has given the impetus for a country-wide street address implementation, my interviews with city officials revealed that the focus of the project has been on the CBD as the commercial center of the metropolitan area for easy identification of properties to enhance internal revenue generation by the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly.

Although, under the NUPF and as part of the GUMPP, the street addressing project is being implemented for the attainment of several objectives including enhancement of urban security and safety, improvement in revenue generation, among others, these objectives have not been well integrated and largely carried out in a piecemeal manner with a focus on revenue generation. Thus, the focus has been on the CBD to the neglect of other suburbs including informal settlements within the metropolitan area.

4.2.1.3 Installation of street name signage poles and house number plates

Taking into consideration the ‘physical environment’ of an addressing scheme, the installation of street name signage poles and house number plates are important components that enhance the visibility of an address.

My interview with city officials revealed that, a total number of 81,268 properties and

10,625 accesses (streets and major paths) within the metropolitan area have been identified.

Out of this, only 1,312 accesses and 1,482 properties have their signages installed most of which are located within the CBD. In effect, most suburbs within the metropolitan area lack visible signs of street names and house numbers.

Figure 4.2: A Street with no signage located in the Central Business Area.

4.2.1.4 Mapping and database management

Taking into consideration, the digital representation of an addressing scheme, it was revealed by city authorities that the current phase of the addressing project is expected to be carried out on the GIS platform. This encompasses mapping and database management processes as well as integration with land administration systems (Land Use Planning and

Management Information Systems). The mapping processes used entail first of all, the acquisition of orthophotos. This is then followed by a ground truthing exercise to identify all accesses (streets and major paths), existing street names and update of maps as well as execution of initial numbering of properties. The next step encompasses digitizing data obtained from the ground truthing exercise and the preparation of an address map.

From the interviews, it was made known by city authorities that, there have been some

efforts made towards the implementation of an integrated approach to address database management which entails linking the attribute or customer orientated data to the address.

However, due to challenges including funding and the lack of technical know-how, the execution of the exercise within the metropolitan area is still at the data collection stage. Major activities concerning mapping and database management in the metropolitan area is still at the preparatory stages. With the exception of the CBD, where about 80% of attribute data has been collected as well as mapping processes such as digitizing has begun, activities for the rest of the metropolitan area is yet to commence.

4.2.1.5 Citizen engagement

To promote the use of an address system, it is imperative to consider the ‘human requirements’ which underscore the ability of residents of a particular urban area to read, understand and remember addresses. As argued by Farvacque-Vitkovic (2005) and Coetzee et al. (2011), a street address system should reflect the local culture as well as support the social and civic identity of people living at the address. The inclusion of residents throughout all the stages of the implementation exercise is crucial towards not only promoting the use of the addressing system by residents but also creating a sense of community ownership of the address system.

The street addressing operational guidelines underscore the need for citizen engagement and outlines the approach and processes that could be used including launching regular

educational campaigns to sensitize and engage the public throughout all stages of the implementation exercise (MLGRD 2010: 34). However, my interviews with the institutions revealed that, although a number of community outreach programs have been carried out to sensitize stakeholders such as chiefs and opinion leaders on the purpose of the addressing system and especially on the mode of assigning street names, little attention has been given to the inclusion of the residents of the metropolitan area in the implementation process. Generally, the approach used in the implementation exercise has been top-down. For instance, one official with the TCPD remarked that:

“For Kumasi, we (Street Addressing Team) have done a number of community engagements but I think there is still more to be done. For example, I remember we (Street Addressing Team) encountered some opposition from some residents when we

embarked on data collection at Adum (the Central Business Area) because they (residents) were not aware of what was going on".

In effect, this undermines the purpose and use of the addressing system. All the service providers interviewed asserted that, although they were aware of the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project, they do not use the addressing system in their day-to-day activities. About 95 percent of these institutions highlighted the lack of involvement in the implementation exercise, unavailability of a GIS database, as well as the lack of visible street name signage poles and house numbers as the main causes of this phenomenon. For instance, one fire officer asserted that:

“We (Fire Service personnel) are aware that the streets have been named and some houses numbered, but my men (fire officers) are not familiar with these addresses”.

Another officer with the Ghana Water Company also remarked that:

“We (Ghana Water Company staff) are aware that a street naming and property addressing system has been implemented within the metropolitan area, but we do not use the addresses. We (Ghana Water Company staff) got to know about it when we wanted to integrate our system with the new street addresses, but we realized there was no GIS database available”.

Moreover, all the commercial drivers (taxi drivers) interviewed under the two major institutions involved in transportation in Ghana including the GPRTU and PROTOA indicated that they do not use addresses in navigating the metropolitan area. For instance, one taxi driver remarked that “we (drivers) use landmarks and most often depend on the direction given to us by passengers and this sometimes becomes daunting when the passenger is a visitor”.

4.2.2 The Effectiveness of the Addressing System for Urban Management

As already indicated, the definition of urban management as a concept is contested

(Stren, 1993; Mattingly, 1994; McGill, 1998). However, according to Njoh (2010), urban management encompasses the political and administrative structures of urban areas as well as the mechanisms adopted by these structures to tackle the challenges of urbanization. Thus, urban management entails a holistic approach and the integration of institutional structures that encompasses various sectors in dealing with the problem of cities. Principal among these challenges in most developing countries, especially SSA countries include the effective management of urban economic resources such as land and assets of the built environment to ensure socio-economic development.

On the other hand, an effective addressing system refers to one that is backed by a

comprehensive database on the built environment whereby information gathered can be associated with an address to make it easily locatable. In measuring the effectiveness of the system for urban management, some of the parameters used include the impacts of the existence of a standardized addressing system on urban information systems and data exchange amongst institutions, delivery of urban services such as water, electricity, and courier services.

Others include prompt response to emergency situations such as fire outbreaks, crime and accident scenes.

Traditionally, people have used addresses to direct themselves to buildings and their occupants. However, the advent of computers has opened up a whole new range of possibilities including routing and vehicle navigation, spatial demographic analysis, utility planning, and many others. The result has been a renewed interest in and demand for a standardized

addressing system that facilitates interoperability whiles taking into consideration the local cultural characteristics.

Considering the different approaches and methodologies used in the implementation of the addressing systems in many cities of developing countries as described by Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic (2017), the situation in Kumasi is no different. For instance, one city official of the TCPD noted that:

“The initial approach used in Kumasi since the inception of the street addressing exercise in 2002, was not consistent with what was being done in other MMDAs and the street Addressing Operational guidelines”.

Moreover, there are still in existence multiple addressing systems that entail the use of different approaches including Ghana Post GPS and other addressing systems used by utility companies

and service providers such as the Ghana Water Company and Electricity Company of Ghana.

In describing the current state of the addressing system within the metropolitan area as well as other MMDAs in Ghana, another city official with the TCPD remarked that:

“With the digital addressing system (Ghana Post GPS), multiple coordinates can be generated for one property, but it tells you to only use the one which you pick at the entrance of the building. This helps in making navigation easier. However, it does not provide any information as to the property owner’s information, land use types and so on”.

Figure 4.3: A building with Multiple Addresses located in the Central Business Area

In order to maximize the full potential of the addressing system towards effective urban

management, there is the need to integrate the various addressing platforms with the street addressing system as this provides an opportunity to create a map of the city; conduct a systematic survey that collects targeted information about the city and its population; as well as set up an address database on the built environment; whereby information gathered can be associated with an address to make it easily locatable (Farvacque Vitkovic, 2005; Coetzee et al., 2008; Coetzee et al., 2011; Njoh, 2009; Dharmavaram & Farvacque Vitkovic, 2017).

Due to the absence of an efficient addressing system within the metropolitan area, various institutions have developed their own system of identification to aid in their operations.

My interview with various service providers revealed that, all of them first and foremost use landmarks to facilitate their mode of identification of target areas and destinations. In addition to this, some have devised mechanisms which encompass the use of GPS coordinates and a

unique coding system of the suburbs and properties within the metropolitan area. For instance, the Electricity Company of Ghana for purposes of identifying its customers, has its own unique addressing system which involves the use of maps and codes that are composed of numbers.

For example, with a code such as 434-090-60, the first three digits (434) indicate the district, followed by the suburb (090) and then the plot number (60).

Figure 4.4: Map Used by the Electricity Company of Ghana to Identify target areas and Customers

Also, institutions such as Postal Service use the digital addressing system (Ghana Post GPS).

With the goal to formalize the Ghanaian economy as well as transform and improve the operations of business activities, the Ghana Post GPS uses a different approach to allocating addresses within the metropolitan area and other MMDAs with the aid of geocoding technology. The system entails the use of alphanumeric codes. For example, with a code such as AK-192-4539, the letter “A” represents the region (Ashanti) and “K” represents the MMDA

(Kumasi Metropolitan Area). The remaining four digits indicate the coordinates of the particular property or building.

Figure 4.5: Ghana Post GPS Addressing System

The Ghana Water Company also uses plot numbers and GPS coordinates to navigate the built environment as well as map out assets and target areas.

GPS Coordinates

Figure 4.6: Identification system used by Ghana Water Company Limited

The effect of this phenomenon is the increase in many under-serviced suburbs within the metropolitan area especially in the informal settlements. For instance, a study conducted by Amoako and Cobbinah (2011) in six (6) slum communities and low income surburbs including Aboabo, Asawase, Sisakyi, Anloga, Oforikrom, and Ayigya Zongo, shows that these areas lack access to regular electricity and water supply. This to a large extent can be attributed to the nature of housing coupled with the absence of an efficient and standardized addressing system. For instance, one official with the Ghana Water Company describing the challenges encountered in locating target areas and customers in the metropolitan area noted that:

“Sometimes using landmarks makes it difficult for us (Ghana Water Company) in our operations especially in the slum areas and in instances whereby a new meter reader without extensive knowledge of the local area comes in”.

Furthermore, my interview with the police service and institutions such as the fire and ambulance services revealed that, the delivery of emergency services such as attendance to crime and accident scenes, as well as fire outbreaks within the metropolitan area is often hampered due to increase in response time as a result of the lack of a functional addressing system. For instance, according to a fire officer:

“Due to the lack of efficient addressing system, we find it difficult in locating the right place an incident occurs on time. Sometimes, we get missing and this affects our response time”

In addition to reaching vulnerable areas rapidly, emergency services need to be able to identify the people involved in a crisis. Information detailing house numbers and residents is crucial in this regard; without such data, calculating the people affected becomes difficult, especially in

the informal settlements.

In summary, the findings of the study indicate that the address system within the

Kumasi metropolitan area has had minimal impact on the management of the urban area with regards to facilitating data interoperability among institutions, delivery of urban services such as water, electricity and courier services, as well as prompt response to emergency services such as fire outbreaks, crime and accident scenes. Due to the lack of efficient and standardized addressing system, many service providers such as Ghana Water Company, Electricity

Company of Ghana as well as many courier service agencies continue to use their own addressing systems to identify properties to facilitate their operations, thus leading to a multiplicity of addressing systems. Most of these institutions also rely on the use of landmarks which impede service delivery especially in the informal settlements.

4.3 Survey of User Experiences

4.3.1 Background Information on Respondents

The survey took place on eleven (11) principal streets within the CBD of the metropolitan area. These are categorized into major and minor roads. The major roads are composed of the principal streets within the CBD with notable land marks as well as high vehicular and pedestrian traffic whiles the minor roads consist of streets and accesses that serves a lesser purpose (see figure 3.2). The streets were randomly selected from different locations within the study area to ensure a variety of inputs.

In all, sixty (60) respondents made up of 67 percent males and 33 percent females from all ages participated in the survey with majority (56.7 percent) being young people within the

21 to 35 age cohort. The dominance of the youth amongst the total number of respondents

conforms to the demographic characteristics of the metropolitan area according to 2010 population and housing census. About 74 percent of the total population of the metropolitan area are composed of people within 0 – 35 age cohort (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).

With regards to the educational attainment, 80 percent of the respondents were literate

(have been through formal education and can therefore read and write) whilst 20 percent had no formal education. The survey established that 18.3 percent of respondents had received basic education (less than high school) whilst 45 percent and 16.7 percent had high school diploma and bachelor’s degree or higher respectively. It is important to mention here that the level of education commensurate with the ability of people to read, understand and remember addresses which encompasses the “human requirement” of an efficient addressing scheme.

Analysis of the survey results with regards to the educational background of respondents

revealed that majority could read and understand addresses and therefore understood the import of the implementation of the street addressing project in the Kumasi metropolitan area.

Table 4.1 shows the background information on respondents.

Table 4.1: Background information on respondents

Gender Variable Male Female Age Percentage Percentage Total Percentage Under 20 years 8.3 6.7 15 21 years - 35 years 40 16.7 56.7 36 years - 50 years 15 8.3 23.3 51 years - 65 years 3.3 1.7 5 Total 66.7 33.3 100 Educational Attainment No Formal Education 10 10 20 Less than high school 13.3 5 18.3 High school diploma or equivalent 31.7 13.3 45

Bachelor's degree or higher 11.7 5 16.7 Total 66.7 33.3 100

Survey Location Knowledge on Street Names Yes No Major Roads Percentage Percentage Total Percentage Prempeh II Avenue 8.3 5 13.3 Adum Road 3.3 10 13.3 Harper Road 11.7 5 16.7 Stewart Avenue 1.7 6.7 8.3 Fuller Road 1.7 5 6.7 Afia Kobi Ampem Road 3 6.7 10 Minor Roads Ellis Avenue 1.7 3.3 5 Ankobea Street 1.7 8.3 10 Guggisberg Road 0 3.3 3.3 Nkraam Road 0 5 5 Osei Tutu I Avenue 0 8.3 8.3 Total 33.3 66.7 100.0 Source: Field Survey, May 2018.

4.3.2 Awareness of Addresses

4.3.2.1 Description of home address

The survey revealed that, majority (63.3 percent) of respondents were able to provide their home addresses which mainly comprised of plot and block numbers when unprompted.

An example of some of the addresses given include Plot 10 Block 2, Ayigya where “plot 10 and block 2” represents the home address and Ayigya indicates the suburb the address can be located within the metropolitan area. The rest (36.7 percent) could not provide their addresses or had no idea either because their homes do not have an address or were not familiar with the addresses.

Table 4.2: Description of Home Addresses Address Number Percentage Category

Plot/Block 38 63.3 numbers

No idea of 22 36.7 addresses

Total 60 100

Source: Field Survey, May 2018.

4.3.2.2 Use of other address forms and the most preferred form of address

When prompted on other forms of addresses used, a sizeable proportion (53.3 percent) of respondents identified other address forms used such as digital address (Ghana Post GPS), street addresses, and post office box addresses, in addition to the traditional plot and block numbers.

Considering the characteristics of the various address categories in existence in regard to the determination of location specificity, 48.3 percent of respondents asserted that their most preferred form of address is the street address (street name and house number). The major reason underlining this preference is that, the system provides a unique and an easy means of identifying a particular location within the urban area. Furthermore, in contrast to the P.O Box addresses, the street address as a location identifier has the potential to link individuals to a unique location. Some respondents also remarked that, this form of address is easy to remember when compared to the digital address (Ghana Post GPS) which is in the form of postcodes.

On the other hand, 30 percent of respondents preferred the use of plot and block numbers due to its long existence and more importantly, their familiarity with the address

system especially as some of them have not been through formal education and for that matter are not aware of the street address system. Moreover, 20 percent of respondents preferred the

Ghana Post GPS as a location-based system with the major reason being that, it is convenient to use and easily accessible on mobile devices. Table 4.3 shows the most preferred form of address of residents.

Table 4.3: Most Preferred form of address Use of other address Most Preferred form of address Total forms Street Ghana Plot/Block Electronic Address Post Numbers Mail GPS Address

Yes Number 9 9 14 0 32

Percentage 15 15 23.3 0 53.3

No Number 20 3 4 1 28

Percentage 33.3 5 6.7 1.7 46.7

Total Number 29 12 18 1 60

Percentage 48.3 20 30.0 1.7 100.0

Source: Field Survey, May 2018.

However, a comparative analysis of the other address forms used by respondents and their most preferred form of address revealed that a greater number of respondents (33.3 percent) who used only one address system (plot and block numbers) expressed their preference for street addresses. On the other hand, a sizeable number (23.3 percent) who used other addresses in addition to the plot and block numbers still preferred the use of the old addressing system (plot and block numbers) whilst 15 percent expressed their preference for street addresses and Ghana Post GPS respectively.

Figure 4. 7: Sample of a Street Address (Street Figure 4.8: Sample of an Old Address system Name and House Number) (Plot/Block Numbers)

4.3.2.3 Knowledge on street addresses

Taking into consideration respondent’s knowledge on street addresses with regards to

street names within the metropolitan area, majority (67 percent) had no idea or could not

identify the name of the principal street on which the survey took place at that particular point

in time. With this, the survey established that a considerable number of respondents (29.7

percent) who could identify the street names were more familiar with the names of the major

roads than the minor roads within the CBD including Prempeh II Avenue, Harper Road,

Stewart Avenue, and many others. Table 4.1 shows knowledge of respondents on street names.

4.3.2.4 Visibility of addresses (street signs and house numbers)

The movement of people and goods from one geographical location to another within

the metropolitan area is a daily affair. In well planned urban centers all over the world, this is

achieved with ease and forms part of the basic enablers for the functioning of the city. This

ease of movement is also partly complemented by the availability of appropriate street signs

and property numbers at every part of the city. This is also connected to the “physical environment” requirement in the design of an efficient addressing scheme which refers to the actual location of an address and its visibility to people (Barr, 2007; Lind, 2007; Coetzee et al,

2011; Ditsela, 2017). The study revealed that although majority (66.7 percent) of respondents had visible signs of street names in their places of residence, only 47 percent indicated that there were visible signs of house numbers in their places of residence which were mainly located in high and middle-income suburbs within the metropolitan area. 53 percent of respondents mainly from some middle- and low-income suburbs and slums such as Oduom,

Atonsu, Asawase, Oforikrom, Aboabo, Ayigya, and Anloga indicated there were no visible signs of house numbers in their places of residence.

A comparative analysis of the number of respondents who provided their home

addresses and the visibility of the addresses revealed that, out of the 63.3 percent of respondents who gave their home addresses, 45 percent asserted that there were visible signs of street names in their places of residence whiles 18.3 percent indicated the lack of visible street signs. Moreover, 35 percent had house number plates installed at their places of residence whiles 28.3 percent asserted that there were no visible signs of property numbers in their neighborhoods. On the other hand, with regards to respondents who had no idea of their addresses, 21.7 percent asserted that there were visible signs of street names in their localities but were not familiar with the addresses whiles 15 percent reiterated the absence of visible signs of street names. Furthermore, 11.7 percent indicated the availability of house numbers but were not familiar with the addresses whilst 25 percent had no house number plates installed in their neighborhoods.

An analysis of the corresponding suburbs of the home addresses given by respondents and address visibility revealed that most of the suburbs without visible signs of street addresses comprised some middle and low-income neighborhoods and informal settlements within the metropolitan area including Oduom, Atonsu, Asawase, Oforikrom, Ayigya, Aboabo and

Anloga. Tables 4.4 shows the visibility of street names and property numbers.

Table 4.4: Visibility of Street Addresses Home Address Visible signs of street Total Visible signs of Total names house numbers

Yes (*Mainly Yes No Yes No Plot/block Number 27 11 38 21 17 38 numbers) Percentage 45 18.3 63.3 35 28.3 63.3

No (*No idea of Number 13 9 22 7 15 22 home address) Percentage 21.7 15 36.7 11.7 25 36.7

Total Number 40 20 60 28 32 60

Percentage 66.7 33.3 100.0 46.7 53.3 100.0

Source: Field Survey, May 2018.

Figure 4.9: A house without a house address in Ayigya Zongo, a slum area

4.3.2.5 Use of street names and house numbers

Considering the use of street names and house numbers as a tool for navigating the

urban area and giving out locational information such as filling important documents, majority of respondents (68.3 percent) claimed that they do not use their addresses in giving out locational information as well as navigating the urban area.

With regards to age distribution and address usage, the survey established that out of the 31.7 percent of respondents who indicated a reliance on addresses in giving out locational information, majority (95 percent) were composed of young people (35 years and below). The pearson chi-square for the association between age and address usage indicated a p-value

(0.03) that is less than the chosen significance level (0.05), meaning that age distribution of respondents is associated with use of addresses. Thus, as age increases, the use of the street addresses decreases.

Table 4.5: Use of street addresses by age Age Use of Street Addresses Total

Yes No Under 20 years Count 7 2 9 Expected Count 2.8 6.2 9.0 Residual 2.5 -1.7 21 years - 35 years Count 11 23 34 Expected Count 10.8 23.2 34.0 Residual .1 .0 36 years - 50 years Count 1 13 14 Expected Count 4.4 9.6 14.0 Residual -1.6 1.1 51years - 65 years Count 0 3 3 Expected Count 1.0 2.0 3.0

Residual -1.0 .7 Total Count 19 41 60

Expected Count 19.0 41.0 60.0

Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 14.132a 3 .003 Likelihood Ratio 15.374 3 .002 N of Valid Cases 60 a. 4 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .95. Souce: Field Survey, May 2018.

Furthermore, analysis of the survey results revealed that a sizeable proportion of respondents (20 percent) who had no formal education claimed they do not use addresses. A considerable number (15 percent) who used the addresses were people with high school diploma whilst 10 percent and 6.7 percent had bachelor’s degree or higher and basic education respectively as shown in table 4.6.

On the other hand, a greater proportion (48.3 percent) of respondents who were literate asserted that they do not rely on addresses in giving out locational information as well as navigating the urban area. The pearson chi-square for the association between educational attainment and address usage indicated a p-value (0.07) that is greater than the chosen significance level (0.05), meaning that there is no association between educational attainment of respondents and use of the addresses. This therefore implies that irrespective of educational background, majority of residents are still not attuned with the street addressing system.

Table 4.6: Use of street addresses by educational attainment Educational Attainment Use of Street Addresses Total Yes No No Formal Education Count 0 12 12 Expected Count 3.8 8.2 12.0 Residual -1.9 1.3

Less than high school Count 4 7 11 Expected Count 3.5 7.5 11.0 Residual .3 -.2 High school diploma or Count 9 14 23 equivalent Expected Count 7.3 15.7 23.0 Residual .6 -.4 Bachelor's degree or higher Count 6 8 14 Expected Count 4.4 9.6 14.0 Residual .7 -.5 Total Count 19 41 60 Expected Count 19.0 41.0 60.0 Chi-Square Tests Pearson Chi-Square Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Likelihood Ratio 7.075a 3 .070 N of Valid Cases 10.589 3 .014 60 a. 3 cells (37.5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.48.

Source: Field Survey, May 2018.

4.3.2.6 Use of landmarks and dependence on local knowledge

As described by Lynch (1960), landmarks are points of references considered to be external to the observer which may vary widely in scale. There is the tendency for residents who are more familiar with a city to rely on systems of landmarks as a guide in navigating the built area. Since the use of landmarks involves the singling out of one element from a host of possibilities, the key physical characteristic is its singularity, an aspect that is unique or memorable in context (Lynch, 1960). In that, a landmark should be more easily identifiable and unique to a particular location. Similar to what pertains in most urban areas in SSA countries, many residents within the Kumasi metropolitan area depend on the use of descriptive addresses which encompasses the use of landmarks. It is observed from the survey that, a greater number of respondents (29 out of 41) who do not use addresses asserted they use

landmarks in giving out locational information. Many of these landmarks consist of temporary structures such as kiosks, vending tables or frequent activities that dominate a particular area.

For example, some of the notable descriptions of locations provided by some respondents included “behind the blue kiosk”, “near the rice seller”, opposite the mango tree and many more.

4.3.3 Challenges encountered in giving out Locational Information and Navigating the Metropolitan Area

From the analysis, it is evident that the situation of very limited visible street name and house number signs has led many to find ways and means to navigate through the city. Standard referencing has given way to subjective means of directions, often created out of years of interaction within the city. These means of giving out locational information and navigating

the metropolitan area is associated with a number of challenges which has serious implications for effective urban management. Majority of respondents (46 out of 60) enumerated some of the challenges encountered in giving out locational information which often results in unnecessary delays and confusion in locating addresses especially under emergency situations such as during fire outbreaks, and prompt response to crime and accidents scenes. For instance, one respondent asserted that, “most of the time, it takes a long time for the fire service to reach us in times of emergency due to the lack of residential addresses”.

Out of this number (46 out of 60) of respondents, majority (50 percent) underscored the lack of visible signs of street names and house numbers whilst 17 percent enumerated the problems associated with temporary nature of landmarks used. Also, a sizeable proportion (33 percent) highlighted the numerous challenges encountered as a result of reliance on local

knowledge of the urban area which mainly bordered on seeking assistance from people. For instance, one respondent recounted that “when I ask people for directions to a particular location, they give me wrong directions, so I think we (residents) should be sensitized on the addressing system”. Although, many residents are used to descriptive addresses and feel comfortable when narrated to on how to get to a particular location, there is a contradiction that eventhough some people know how to get to a certain location, giving directions to others can be a challenge as people interpret descriptive directions according to their orientation or local knowledge.

60% 50% 50%

40% 33% 30%

Frequency 20% 17%

10%

0% Temporary nature of Wrong directions from Lack of visible signs of landmarks used people street names and house numbers Challenges encountered in giving out locational information

Figure 4.10: Challenges encountered in locating places

4.3.4 Perception on the Implementation of Street Naming and Property Addressing System

Regarding the general perception of respondents concerning the implementation of the street addressing exercise, 42 percent rated the project as very important with the major reason being that, the system facilitates navigation within the city and also, crucial in this contemporary times due to the rapid urbanization the metropolitan area is experiencing. On the other hand, 8 percent viewed the implementation exercise as not important.

Thus, although most respondents are not familiar with the addresses, the majority of them consider the street address system as an important tool that has the potential to propel socio-economic development.

60%

50% 50% 42% 40%

30% Frequency 20%

10% 8%

0% Very important Important Not important Perception of Respondents

Figure 4.13: Perception of residents on the street addressing system

4.4 Summary

The chapter presented an analysis of the addressing system in Kumasi. In order to understand the implementation strategies, it was observed that the early phase of implementation of the street naming and property addressing project employed a different approach, which invloved auctioning and naming of streets after living persons. Moreover, the project focused on the central busisness district, which is the main commercial center presumably for easy identification of properties to enhance revenue generation. As a result, the middle- and low-income suburbs of the metropolitan area still lack visible signs of street names and property addresses.

Regarding the effectiveness of the addressing system for urban management, the study established that the system has had minimal impact on the management of the city due to lack

of a GIS database as well as lack of engagement of the various institutions and service providers in the implementation exercise. This is reflected in aspects such as on the development of urban information systems and data exchange amongst the institutions, delivery of urban services such as water, electricity and courier services. Others include prompt response to emergency situations such as fire outbreaks, crime and accident scenes.

Furthermore, although majority (68 percent) of respondents indicated they do not rely on addresses in navigating the urban area, majority perceive a street address system as an important tool that has the potential to propel socio-economic development.

CHAPTER 5. DEVELOPING A GIS-BASED STREET ADDRESS SYSTEM

5.1 Introduction

The previous chapter focused on the analysis of the current state of the addressing system within the Kumasi metropolitan area and emphasizes the benefits of a street addressing system as an important urban management tool. This chapter focuses on the digital representation of an effective addressing scheme. It specifically demonstrates how street address implementation goes beyond just naming of streets and numbering of properties to include developing digitized maps for use in the management of the Kumasi metropolitan area.

The maps with the information can be developed into a Geographic Information System (GIS) as a database to manage public service delivery, revenue generation, as well as enhance

navigation within the built environment.

5.2 Tools and Techniques

As already indicated, the approach used in the design of the GIS-based street address system encompassed two main stages. These include the use of ArcGIS and web mapping tools and technology to develop an interactive web application. This encompassed the use of

ArcMap 10.5 as well as web mapping tools and technology such as leaflet map, QGIS, Github,

Firebase, Geojson.io, HTML, JavaScript, AJAX, Turf.js and JQuery.

The processes used in developing the model GIS-based street addressing system include preparation of datasets, mapping and coding, geodatabase creation, and analysis.

Preparation of Datasets

Mapping and Coding

Database Creation

Analysis

Figure 5.1: Processes used in Developing a GIS-based Street Addressing System

5.3 Preparation of Datasets

The preparation of datasets began with sorting and data cleaning in preparation for the development of an address geodatabase that encompassed an integrated approach to an address database development. This stage entailed first of all, scanning and georeferencing of cadastral maps. These were digitized and projected in UTM using ArcGIS and the attribute data populated on the shapefile generated. In addition, road centerlines were digitized in ArcGIS with the aid of open street map as well as scanned images of maps obtained from the TCPD.

To ensure compatibility with web mapping technology and data format, the digitized data was converted from shapefile to geojson using QGIS and geojson.io. The geojson files were then uploaded on github to serve as a landing page for the project. Furthermore, the preparatory stage entailed the development of an address map which includes street codification/naming and address assignment.

5.3.1 Codification and address assignment

After all street centerlines and parcels were digitized, the next stage involved codification and address assignment. This phase entailed systematically assigning names to streets and numbers to the digitized parcels/properties within the study area. In addition, the coordinate points of start and end points of each street were generated together with the address points centroids of each parcel.

5.3.1.1 Street codification/naming

The street codification process used in this model basically entails the process of orienting the digitized streets in relation to a reference point (point zero) and determining the start and end points of the streets. The next step involved sorting roads on orientation basis, that is, into two categories comprising all roads-oriented from North to South and those

oriented from West to East. The reason underlining this orientation, is to enable easy codification of the streets whereby streets from North-South are assigned odd numbers whiles those from East-West are assigned even numbers from point zero. This system is normally used in instances where no street names have been assigned or in some situations both the names and numbers are used together. However, for purposes of using a street identification system that the public can easily relate with, the GIS-based street address system developed in this study utilizes assigned street names within the study area.

The next stage of the model building process encompassed adding the existing street names within the study area to the attribute of the street centerlines in the database as shown in figure 5.2.

Reference 83

Point

LEGEND North - South Streets

East - West Streets 0 20 40 80 120 160 Meters

Figure 5.2: Orientation of Streets

MAP OF CBD

± LEGEND

Street centerlines

Cadastral Layer

0 75 150 300 450 600 Meters Figure 5.3: Street Map of the Study Area

5.3.1.2 Property addressing

With regards to the numbering of properties, the model demonstrates the use of the metric system of addressing adopted within the CBD and the metropolitan area at large. With this system, buildings are assigned numbers according to their metric distances from the beginning of the street. The numbers are rounded up to the nearest odd or even number or approximated in a way that every building gets a unique number.

The metric system has the advantage of enabling an easy approximation of the distance between two addresses on the same street, while allowing for simple adaptation to new developments along each street. Moreover, this system of numbering is especially suited to areas of rapid urbanization and allows for numbering isolated buildings. However, numbers containing three or four digits (in reference to distance in meters) are harder to remember than

two-digit numbers. Furthermore, numbers are not sequential and this sometimes confuses those unfamiliar with the numbering system.

This system of numbering was adopted because of its suitability and easiness to be implemented in informal settlements. Figure 5.4 shows the numbering assignment within the study area.

Even Numbes on

the right side of the street 0 12.5 25 50 75 100 Meters

Figure 5.4: Property Addressing using the metric numbering system

5.4 Mapping and Coding

With regards to using web mapping tools, the source codes for the leaflet map, markers and JQuery were queued in HTML as well as scripts of converted geojson files of digitized streets and parcels in github. This stage also encompassed a process of defining the map dimensions (see figure 5.9) and the outline of the map in CSS. Furthermore, codes for the maps ie, basemaps were inserted in javascript as shown in figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 Source Code for Leaflet map in HTML and getting the map tile layer in Javascript

Figure 5.6 Adding map dimensions in CSS

5.5 Designing a Geo-database for Street Addresses

A geodatabase refers to a collection of geographic datasets of various types held in a common file system folder (ESRI, 2018). Geodatabases come in many sizes as well as have varying numbers of users and can scale from small, single-user databases built on files up to larger workgroup, departments, and into enterprise geodatabases which can be accessed by many users.

In designing a GIS geodatabase of address index and attribute data using ArcGIS, the integrated approach to address database development which encompasses linking the attribute data to the address was adopted. Attribute data including land use types, information on property owners (name), and property description including the type of building were used

(see Appendix A). Building and designing a geo-database in ArcGIS of street address index

and hydrants entailed a process of importing datasets of street centerlines, cadastral layer and fire hydrants in the form of feature classes and tables and executing table joins.

Figure 5.7: A Sample of Attribute data included in address database

Moreover, using webmapping tools and technology, the database development process encompassed uploading of data on street addresses in geojson format in github and linking the website to firebase (server) using an API to send and retrieve address data as shown below;

Figure 5.8 : Using Firebase API

The database was further used to create an interactive map of address points and location of

hydrants within the study using github as the landing page for the project.

Figure 5.9: Interactive map of address points and hydrants within the study area

5.6 Street Address Application

5.6.1 Integration of Street Addresses and Land Uses

With a street address geo-database, it becomes easy to populate land use attributes, as

well as develop and integrate land use maps with addresses. The street addresssing system

backed by a comprehensive database, facilitates the identification of properties, and more

importantly categorises properties according to landuses and addresses (see Appendix A).

Land uses are important components that facilitates revenue generation. With a database, an

inventory of land uses can be conducted. For instance, queries can be peformed to identify all

commercial land uses to provide a sense of the number of taxable properties within the study

area.

± LEGEND Street centerlines

Land Use Civic and Culture Commercial

Health Industrial 0 75 150 300 450 600 Residential Meters Nature Reserve

Figure 5.10 Land use Map of the Study area

5.6.2 Management of urban facilities

The application of GIS and street addressing system in urban management has enormous benefits on the siting and management of urban facilities. For instance, with regards to emergency service delivery such as increasing access to fire incidents, a GIS based street addressing system has the potential of facilitating the location of fire hydrants to aid in the operations of the fire service such as reducing response time to emergency situations.

The model developed focuses on how street addresses can facilitate the location and management of fire hydrants within the study area. This includes a development of a geodatabase of the hydrants and integrating it with the street address database. With this, queries could be performed on the number and spatial distribution of hydrants such as locating the nearest hydrant to a parcel with an address. For instance, with the aid of applications including

the distance tool in turf.js, the distance between a fire hydrant and a parcel (with blue marker) as well as the distance from one hydrant to another could be determined and the result can be displayed in the browsers console as demonstrated in figures 5.11 and 5.12.

However, a major limitation of this tool is that, it does not consider the actual shape and curvilinear nature of streets but rather measure distances in a straight path based on coordinates.

Figure 5.11: Distance measurement between hydrants and parcels

Figure 5.12: Display of Results in Console

Moreover, queries such as select by location and proximity analysis including spatial buffering can be performed in order to determine possible locations and allocations of hydrants and their corresponding addresses as shown in figure 5.13.

Furthermore, as a way of facilitating navigation, the model GIS-based street address system demonstrates that street addressing can complement to the cadastral system since it adds geo-spatial information of precise address location of parcels with features such as streets

and their corresponding names that the public can easily relate. In order to ensure the ‘ease of

use’ of the system as described by Hong (2008), it is important to emphasize the sensitization

of residents and institutions on the use of the system as well as an integrated approach to

address database management. This is vital towards harnessing the potentials of the system

towards effective urban management.

LEGEND

! Fire Hydrants Street centerlines Selected Parcels

Cadastral Layer

0 37.5 75 150 225 300 Meters

Figure 5.13: Selection of working hydrants by location

Table 5.1: Sample Geo-database of Selected Fire Hydrants and their corresponding addresses ID Type Status Street Address Longitude Latitude 1 Hydrant Working 8 Okomfo Anokye Rd 740593.3453 651991.7276 2 Hydrant Working 5 Nyarko Kusi Amooah Str 740204.5463 652230.6539 3 Hydrant Working 32 Pampaso Rd 740142.5027 652124.0917 5 Hydrant Working 6 Stewart Ave 740122.2531 651576.3467 6 Hydrant Working 26 Adum Rd 739758.7048 652467.2865 7 Hydrant Working 4 Ellis Ave 740166.9839 651293.2787 8 Hydrant Working 4 Stewart Ave 740159.8939 651497.0010 9 Hydrant Working 5 Ellis Ave 739971.3524 651423.5180 10 Hydrant Working 5 Ellis Ave 739715.8699 651660.5401 11 Hydrant Working 5 Raintree Rd 739594.5720 651763.5218 12 Hydrant Working 8 Atwereboana Ave 739459.3235 652353.8330 13 Hydrant Working 1 Denteso Str 739191.6564 652824.6735 15 Hydrant Working 7 Prempeh II Ave 739788.7406 652232.5319 16 Hydrant Working 4 Apremoso Walk 739941.0588 652260.5887 17 Hydrant Working 15 Stewart Ave 739859.4801 652151.9215 18 Hydrant Working 15 Stewart Ave 739802.8002 652168.4423 19 Hydrant Working 4 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd 739218.3100 651552.0525

20 Hydrant Working - 739580.9269 651249.2178 Source: Author’s Construct, 2019.

5.7 Limitations of the Model

A major limitation of some of the tools used including the distance tool in turf.js does

not provide accurate measurements as it does not consider the actual shape of streets but rather

measure distances in a straight path based on coordinates. Moreover, this model focuses only

on the CBD of the metropolitan area. However, with the expandable and sustainable nature of

a GIS-based street addressing system, the model can be rolled out to other suburbs especially

the informal settlements and other urban centers and also the database can be updated with

ease to enhance urban management.

CHAPTER 6. SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the major findings of the study and explores lessons that can be used for developing an efficient and standardized addressing system for effective urban management in Ghana.

6.2 Summary of Major Findings

As already indicated, in order to create resilient cities that can respond to the rapid change in urban growth requires investments in a street addressing system to facilitate the location of people and places as well as access to services within the built environment. In

effect, an efficient and standardized street addressing system serves as an important urban management tool and among others has the potential of contributing towards achieving the

New Urban Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goal eleven (11) which focuses on the creation of sustainable cities and communities.

To ensure the implementation of an efficient addressing system calls for the need to consider the three basic requirements which encompass human, physical environment and its digital representation in the design of an address scheme (Coetzee et al., 2008; Coetzee et al.,

2011; Ditsela, 2017). As argued by Lind (2007) and Coetzee et al., (2011), an essential property of a good addressing system is its practicality and easiness to be read, understood and interpreted by people as well as reflect the local cultural characteristics. The human requirement is complemented by the physical environment and digital representation in a

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tripod relationship as part of the framework of an efficient addressing system. The absence of one of these components might impact negatively on the attainment of an efficient addressing system (Coetzee et al., 2011; Ditsela 2017).

The major findings of the study are summarized as follows under the objectives of the study.

6.2.1 Implementation Strategies used for Kumasi Metropolitan Area Addressing System

The current implementation strategies used for the addressing system in Kumasi for the purposes of this study have been broadly categorized under street codification, house/property numbering, installation of street name signage poles, mapping and database management as well as citizen engagement.

To facilitate the process of street codification, the Kumasi metropolitan area is sub- divided into nine (9) sectors (according to the boundaries of sub-metropolitan authorities including Subin, Manhyia, Tafo, Suame, Asokwa, Ahodwo, Kwadaso, Oforikrom and

Nhyiaeso) with each containing a number of streets. This particular process is expected to take into consideration the pace of urbanization of the metropolitan area to ensure adequate provision is made for a sizeable increase in the number of streets. Streets are allocated numbers as an initial approach in instances where there are no street names before street names are allocated.

The factors that are considered in the process of naming streets include hierarchy of streets, themes for names (famous people, historic dates, towns, plants, animals and many more), as well as divisions of the urban area. Street names in Kumasi comprise of a mixture of

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traditional names (dead kings and traditional rulers) as well as famous people and influential personalities who have contributed in diverse ways towards the development of their communities. This promotes the culture and values of the community (Farvacque Vitkovic et al., 2005). Street naming in Kumasi initially entailed the use of a different approach which encompassed the auctioning and naming of streets after living persons as a means of generating revenue to support the implementation of the project. This approach as identified by Nissen

(2012) and corroborated by city officials had its own repercussions which affected the smooth implementation of the project. However, with the introduction of the Street Address

Operational Guidelines, this approach has been abrogated.

With regards to property addressing, the metric system is the numbering system used within the metropolitan area. With this system, buildings are assigned numbers according to

their metric distance from the beginning of the street. The numbers are rounded up to the nearest odd or even number or approximated in a way that every building gets a unique number.

The study established that the focus of the project has been on the CBD as the commercial center of the metropolitan area with the goal of enhancing revenue generation by the Kumasi

Metropolitan Assembly. In effect, most buildings in the informal settlements and low-income areas have not been assigned addresses.

The next stage of the implementation process entails the installation of street and house number signs as a means of ensuring address visibility within the metropolitan area. This is followed by mapping and development of database management system.

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The mapping processes used within the metropolitan area entails first of all, the acquisition of orthophotos. This is then followed by a ground truthing exercise to identify all access (streets and major paths), existing street names and update of maps as well as the execution of initial numbering of properties. The final stage encompasses digitizing data obtained from the ground truthing exercise and the preparation of an address map.

To promote the use of the address system, it is imperative to consider the ‘human requirements’ which underscore the ability of residents to read, understand and remember addresses at both the design and implementation stages. The study established that, the approach used in the implementation of the address system within the metropolitan area has been basically top – down. Although a number of community outreach programs have been carried out to sensitize stakeholders such as chiefs and opinion leaders on the purpose of the

addressing system and especially on the mode of assigning street names, little attention has been given to the inclusion of residents of the metropolitan area in the implementation process.

6.2.2 Effectiveness of the Address System for Navigation within the Metropolitan Area

The survey results show that majority (53 percent) of respondents indicated that there are no visible signs of addresses in their places of residence which mainly comprised of middle- and low-income suburbs within the metropolitan area. This finding was corroborated by the results of the interviews with city officials which revealed that, not much has been done with regards to ensuring proper address visibility within the metropolitan area. For instance, out of a total of 81,268 properties and 10,625 accesses (streets and major paths) identified, only 1,312 accesses and 1,482 properties have their signages installed which are mostly located in the

CBD.

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The phenomenon has led many to adopt a plethora of ways and means to navigate through the urban area. Most (68 percent) of respondents indicated they do not use addresses. Out of this, 71 percent indicated a reliance on the use of landmarks many of which consist of temporary structures such as kiosks, vending tables or frequent activities that dominate a particular area. For example, some of the notable descriptions of locations provided by some respondents included “behind the blue kiosk”, “near the rice seller”, opposite the mango tree” and many more. As described by Lynch (1960), landmarks are points of references that should be more easily identifiable and unique or memorable in context. However, a major challenge encountered as identified by some respondents (17 percent) and all service providers interviewed is that many of these landmarks are not easily noticeable and also temporary structures that are not in existence always. More importantly, when an information needs to be

exchanged over a larger domain, it becomes necessary to standardize the address system to describe the location of a particular entity to ensure that, the accompanying data are interpreted without ambiguity (Nometu, 2002).

6.2.3 Effectiveness of the Address System for Enhancing Urban Management

In measuring the effectiveness of the address system for urban management, some of the parameters used include the impacts of the existence of a standardized addressing system on urban information systems and data exchange amongst institutions, delivery of urban services such as water, electricity and courier services. Others include prompt response to emergency situations such as fire outbreaks, crime and accident scenes.

The study revealed that there is the existence of multiple addressing systems, an addressing phenomenon that is characteristic of the attribute approach (Lind, 2007). In that,

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various service providers have developed their own system of identification to aid in their operations including the use of GPS coordinates and other coding systems such as Ghana Post

GPS and many others. The repercussion of this approach is that, it results in inconsistencies because one property or building can be registered with different addresses by different institutions which in turn affects the efficiency and the multipurpose aspects of an address system (Lind, 2007). In addition, all the service providers interviewed such as fire, police, ambulance as well as courier service indicated a reliance on the use of landmarks in identifying target areas and destinations.

The lack of an efficient and standardized addressing system amongst others has resulted in the proliferation of under-serviced suburbs within the metropolitan area especially in informal settlements. A study conducted by Amoako and Cobbinah (2011) in six (6) slum and

low-income communities including Aboabo, Asawase, Sisakyi, Anloga, Oforikrom, and

Ayigya Zongo, indicate that these areas lack access to regular electricity and water supply.

Officials of utility companies including Ghana Water Company underscored the poor nature of addressing in the slum areas which in turn affects regular water supply to the area.

In addition, the response time of emergency and security service providers such as the fire, ambulance and police service within the metropolitan area is also affected by the lack of a functional addressing system.

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6.2.4 Develop a GIS-based Street Address System and Demonstrate its Potentials for Urban Management

With the advancement in technology and increasing globalization, the use of street addresses has become critical across sectors. The model GIS-based street address system demonstrates that street addressing can complement to the cadastral system since it adds geo- spatial information of precise address location of parcels in forms that the public can easily relate. The main objective of this model is to demonstrate the potentials of a GIS-based street addressing system in urban management using an integrated approach to address database development. Thus, the model illustrates that the integration of geo-spatial information component to properties, facilities such as hydrants and land uses has the potential to enhance revenue generation and improve the operations of the fire service.

6.3 Discussion and Recommendations

6.3.1 Developing a GIS-Based Street Addressing System

The model GIS-based street addressing system basically focused only on the CBD of the metropolitan area. However, with the expandable and sustainable nature of a GIS-based street addressing system, the model can be extended to other suburbs especially the informal settlements as well as replicated in other urban centers in Ghana as well as other SSA countries to enhance urban management.

With regards to ensuring the “ease of use” of the system as described by Hong (2008), it is recommended that the use of the system should be combined with the other recommendations made in the study including database management and frequent sensitization of the various stakeholders including residents and institutions on the use of the system.

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6.3.2 Approach to Addressing and Database Management

To achieve a standardized addressing system calls for the need to integrate the various approaches to addressing used within the metropolitan area. Lind (2007) in describing the

Danish address data model, projects an address as a common asset. In that, an address exists in itself and no longer as an attribute of utility companies, businesses and so on. This provides a high degree of flexibility as new addresses could be created and registered whenever appropriate. For instance, in the planning phase prior to land division or building construction.

More importantly, an integrated approach to addressing encourages address information sharing and exchange amongst institutions.

In efforts to achieve an efficient and standardized addressing system, the various stakeholders involved in the implementation as well as the use of the system including the

Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, Physical Planning Department,

MMDAs, as well as the various service providers must come together and identify a common mechanism that can be used to integrate the various addressing platforms to ensure interoperability in order to maximize its efficiency towards effective urban development and management.

6.3.3 Considering Informal Settlements and Low-Income Suburbs as Priority Areas

In an era of rapid urbanization and globalization, an efficient and standardized addressing system serves as an essential tool towards effective urban development and management. The implementation of this system in urban areas must be considered for all categories of people in the various suburbs especially the urban poor areas. In a people centered development where every individual matters, policy and planning is expected to touch all

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stakeholders irrespective of their status to make a meaningful impact and to reduce poverty and ensure the socio-economic wellbeing of people.

Addresses help to map areas that are often overlooked especially informal settlements within urban areas, while providing a platform for vital census data gathering and infrastructure planning. A street address in slum areas creates a sense of identity and belonging. It facilitates service delivery and also serve as a basis for residential tenure and eventual property ownership

(Farvacque-Vitkovic et al., 2005; Dharmavaram and Farvacque-Vitkovic, 2017). Like most developing countries, the street addressing system in Ghana is being implemented as part of the broader urban agenda including the NUPF and GUMPP. Thus, the addressing project is being implemented towards attaining the goal of promoting a sustainable, spatially integrated and orderly development of urban settlements in Ghana. In achieving this goal, the project is

being executed for several objectives including promoting urban safety and security, enhancing revenue generation, improving emergency service delivery, among others. However, these have been carried out in a mostly piecemeal manner. When these objectives are strategically combined, street addressing can be used effectively in initiatives in urban resilience and slum upgradation.

In recent times, many parts of Kumasi remain underserviced especially in the informal settlements. According to Amoako and Cobbina (2011) and Adubofour et al., (2013), most slum areas within Kumasi lack regular access to basic services such as water, electricity and sanitation facilities. For instance, with about 47 percent of slum dwellers in Kumasi lacking access to regular water supply (Amoako and Cobbina 2011), better address network coverage

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offers an opportunity to improve the sustainable delivery of water with vast implications on socio-economic development.

With regards to improvement in the environmental condition in slum areas, Favacque

Vitkovic et al., 2005 presents a case study of how street addressing was used to improve the sanitation condition in the city of Conakry, Guinea where address maps and database were used to design solid waste zones.

6.3.4 Citizen Engagement

Most respondents and institutions including Fire Service, Police, Ambulance,

Electricity Company of Ghana, and several others interviewed asserted that engagement of stakeholders in the implementation exercise is key to promoting the use of the address system and making it locally viable and sustainable. Adequate provision for funding should be made

to enable the sensitization of residents within the metropolitan area on the addressing system through radio, television and the print media. In addition to this, frequent awareness campaigns should be organized for the various institutions including fire, ambulance, police and taxi drivers within the metropolitan area targeting the two major transport unions (GPRTU and

PROTOA). This is vital to ensuring that the project achieves it intended goal and objectives.

The effort must be repeated, and the message should emphasize how useful the system will be for the delivery of public services.

6.4 Further Research

Due to the essential role a functional addressing system plays in urban development and management especially in this era of rapid urbanization and globalization, it is anticipated

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that further studies be carried out to determine the implications of a standardized and GIS- based addressing system on socio-economic development with a particular focus on the provision of basic services, poverty mapping, and vulnerability assessment in the informal settlements in developing countries especially SSA countries.

Furthermore, due to the fact that the street addressing project within the Kumasi metropolitan area is still ongoing, it is expected that subsequent studies should be carried out to ascertain residents’ perception and user experience of the address system. This would help establish residents’ familiarity with the system and perception regarding their changing environment and how this new urban information systems influence the identification of people and places.

6.5 Conclusion

The study underscores the importance of street addressing system in ensuring effective urban management in an evolving urban area. It specifically examines the effectiveness of current implementation strategies used in the Kumasi Metropolitan area and suggest ways of improving the system. With this, the study sought to understand the implementation strategies used for Kumasi metropolitan area addressing system and examine the effectiveness of the system for navigation purposes as well enhancing urban management. Furthermore, a model

GIS-based street addressing system for an evolving urban area was developed to demonstrate the potentials of the system for urban management.

The findings of the study indicated that the design of the framework of an efficient and standardized addressing system depends on three basic requirements which encompass human,

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physical environment and its digital representation. These requirements in turn serve as the foundation for an effective implementation process to take place. The human requirement is complemented by the physical environment and digital representation in a tripod relationship.

The absence of one of these requirements may affect the attainment an efficient addressing system.

The integration of GIS in the implementation of street addressing aids in the development of databases which can be used in spatial analysis and planning to improve urban management. The implementation of an efficient address system requires the integration of the various approaches to addressing and database management system used to ensure data interoperability amongst institutions to facilitate service delivey.

In order to harness the benefits of an addressing system for effective urban management

also requires a consideration of informal settlements and low income suburbs as priority areas in the implementation process as this is crucial to facilitating service delivery and also contributing to initiatives towards urban resilience and slum upgradation. Finally, implementation of street addressing should be accompanied by awareness campaigns to educate residents and institutions on the uses of the addressing system.

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APPENDIX A: SAMPLE GEO-DATABASE OF ADDRESS INDEX AND LAND USES ID Address Land use Property Description 1 26 Stewart Ave Commercial Detached 2 24 Stewart Ave Commercial Detached 3 15 Old Bekwai Rd Commercial 1-Storey 4 10 Raintree Rd Civic & Culture Uncompleted 5 4 Ellis Ave Civic & Culture Detached 6 4 Bantama Rd Commercial Compound 7 14 Pampaso Rd Commercial Detached 8 18 Pampaso Rd Commercial Compound 9 20 Pampaso Rd Commercial Compound 10 4 Ministries Rd Civic & Culture Compound 11 5 Maxwell Str Civic & Culture 2-Storey 12 32 Pampaso Rd Commercial 2-Storey 13 30 Pampaso Rd Mixed Use Compound 14 2 Kwadane Rd Civic & Culture Compound 15 14 Stewart Ave Civic & Culture Detached 16 2 Okomfo Anokye Rd Civic & Culture 2-Storey 18 3 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Compound 19 6 Ellis Ave Civic & Culture Compound

20 6 Bantama Rd Residential Compound 21 12 Stewart Ave Civic & Culture 23 8 Stewart Ave Residential 2-Storey 24 6 Stewart Ave Open space 27 1 Stewart Ave Civic & Culture 2-Storey 28 2 Stewart Ave Civic & Culture 2-Storey 30 7 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Compound 34 5 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Compound 35 9 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential 3-storey 38 11 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Detached 39 13 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Detached 40 15 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Compound 44 17 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Detached 45 19 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Compound 46 21 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential Detached 67 23 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential 2-Storey 68 25 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential 1-Storey 69 27 Victoria Opoku Ware Rd Residential 1-Storey 72 4 Okomfo Anokye Rd Civic & Culture 1- Storey 73 9 Ellis Ave Civic & Culture Compound 74 7 Raintree Rd Commercial 1-Storey Source: Author’s Construct, 2019.

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APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDES KUMASI METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY/ METROPOLITAN TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING DEPARTMENT

Name of Institution:………………………………………………………………………..

1. To begin, I’d like to get a better understanding of your background. How long have you been working in this position and what is your role in the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project?

2. Since the completion of the pilot phase in 2009, has there been any effort made towards the expansion of the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project? Explain.

3. What measures have you put in place to accommodate newly developed properties and sites in the implementation processes?

4. What are the current tools and techniques used in mapping, address data storage and database management? Should the current techniques used in mapping, address data storage and database management be maintained or changed and why?

5. Do you have the necessary expertise and resources to manage this system?

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6. Which of the following approaches to addressing and database management would you like to see implemented within the KMA and why? (a) Attribute Approach [ ] (b) Entity Approach [ ] (c) Integrated Approach [ ]

Please explain

7. Were there specific efforts made towards awareness creation and the use of the pilot phase of the addressing system by the general public and private institutions? Please explain

8. Has the pilot phase of the addressing system impacted property rate collection and revenue generation within the metropolitan area? Yes [ ] No [ ]. If yes, please explain.

9. What measures have you put in place to integrate the Ministry of Local Government’s Operational Guidelines and other addressing systems provided by institutions such as Ghana Post, Ghana Water Company and Electricity Company of Ghana with the addressing system within the metropolitan area?

10. Who are the stakeholders involved in the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing System? Is there any form of collaboration between the Town and Country Planning Department and other agencies such as the Land Survey Department, Lands Commission, Lands Valuation Board, Administration of Stool Lands and the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly in regard to the implementation of the addressing system?

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11. What other challenges do you face in the implementation of the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing System?

12. In your opinion, what do you think can be done to enhance the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing System?

13. What else would you like to tell me about the street naming and property addressing system in Kumasi? Also do you have any reports or materials that support any of the issues you have raised that I can have access to?

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SERVICE PROVIDERS

Name of Institution: ……………………………………………………………………………

1. To begin, I’d like to get a better understanding of your background. What is your title and how long have you been working in this position?

2. Which suburbs within the Kumasi metropolitan area do you operate?

3. Are you aware of the pilot phase of the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project? Yes [ ] No [ ] If yes, please explain how you got to know about the project

4. Do you use street addresses within the Kumasi metropolitan area in your day-to-day operations? Yes [ ] No [ ]. If yes, please explain.

5. If no, what methods or ways do you use in locating your target areas/delivery points/destinations?

6. Do you face any challenges in locating addresses?

7. In your opinion, what recommendations would you make to enhance Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing System?

8. What else would you like to tell me about your operations and the addressing system within the metropolitan area?

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APPENDIX C: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY TICKING [ ] THE OPTIONS

YOU CHOOSE AND INDICATE IN WRITING WHERE APPROPRIATE.

Section A: Background (Socio-Demographic Profile)

1. Survey location:………………………………………………………………….

2. Sex of respondent A. Male [ ] B. Female [ ] 3. Age of respondent A. Under 20 years [ ] B. 21 years – 35 years [ ] C. 36 years – 50 years [ ] D. 51 – 65 years [ ] E. Over 65 years [ ] 4. What is your highest level of educational attainment? A. No Formal Education [ ] B. Less than high school [ ] C. High school diploma or equivalent [ ] D. Bachelor’s degree or higher [ ] E. other specify ………………………………………………………………………………………..

Section B: Familiarity of Respondents with street addresses

5. What is your home address? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… Are there any other forms of addresses you use? A. Yes [ ] B. [ ] 6. If yes, what are they? A. Plot/Blk numbers [ ] B. GhanaPost GPS [ ] C. Other, please specify………………………………………………………………………………… 7. What is your most preferred form of addressing? ………………………………………………………………………………………… Why do you prefer using this form of address? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… Do you know the name of the street on which we are now? A. Yes [ ] B. [ ]. If yes, please provide the street name…………………………………………………………

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8. Is there a visible house/property address where you live? A. Yes [ ] B. No [ ] 9. Are there visible signs of street names in your community? A. Yes [ ] B. No [ ]

10. Do you use your street names and house numbers in giving directions to your house? A. Yes [ ] B. No [ ]

11. If no, what is the reason why you do not use your street names and property addresses in giving directions to your house? A. I don’t know the addresses [ ] B. I usually use landmarks [ ] C. I use my plot/block numbers [ ] D. Other specify…………………………………………………………………………………

12. How do you locate places/businesses within Adum? A. Ask people for assistance [ ] B. Use Landmarks [ ] C. Use street addresses [ ] D. Other specify ………………………………………………………………… 13. What challenges do you encounter in locating places? …………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. In your, opinion, what do you think can be done to address these challenges? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… 18. What is your view about the Kumasi Street Naming and Property Addressing Project?

A. Very important [ ] B. Important [ ] C. Not important [ ] D. Indifferent [ ]

19. What is your reason for the above?

………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

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APPENDIX D: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL