English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language: A

English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language: A Comparative Study Kata Kerja, “Fall” Pada Bahasa Inggris dan Kata Kerja yang Terkait Dalam Bahasa Makassar:Sebuah Kajian Comparasi

Nur Wahidah

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY MAKASSAR 2018

English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language: A Comparative Study

Thesis

As Partial Fulfilment to Achieve Master Degree

Program

English Language Studies

Arranged and Submitted by

Nur Wahidah

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY MAKASSAR 2018 ii

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A STATEMENT OF THESIS AUTHENTICITY

The undersigned

Name : Nur Wahidah

Study Program : English Language Study

States truthfully that this thesis was the result of my own work. If it is proven later that some or entire part of this thesis is the work of others, I am willing to accept any sanctions for my dishonesty.

Makassar,17 January 2018

Nur Wahidah

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillahi Robbil Aalamiin, the researcher expresses her sincere gratitude to the almighty God, Allah SWT, who has given guidance, mercy, bless and good health to complete this masters’ thesis. The greeting is conveyed to the prophet Muhammad SAW who has brought us to this brighter era.

The researcher would like to express deepest proud and gratitude to her consultants. Prof. Abdul Hakim Yassi, Dipl, TESL., M.A. and Dr. Hj.

Sukmawaty, M.Hum., for their guidance, valuable advice and correction for better result of this thesis.

The highest appreciation goes to examiners, Prof. Dr. M. L. Manda,

M.A., M.Phil., Dra. Nasmilah, M.Hum, Ph.D., Dr. Andi Kaharuddin Bahar,

M.Hum, for their insightful corrections and the suggestions on this thesis.

The researcher profoundly thankful to her beloved parents, H. Baso

Nompo, S.Pd., (alm) Dewi and Hj. Hamdani, S.IP, beloved twin sisters Nur

Fitriana and Nur Fitri Ani, beloved brother Muhammad Nur Tawakal, who always give motivation, prayer and encouragement.

Big thanks to the researcher best friends in ELS program 2015, especially in Linguistics class who always support and give motivation in completing this thesis. The researcher realizes that this thesis is far from the perfection, thus she expects critics and constructive suggestions to v

complete this thesis. May Allah SWT always bless, protect, and forgive us.

Aamiin Ya Robbal Aalamiin…

Makassar, January 2018

Nur Wahidah

ABSTRACT Nur Wahidah, English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language: A: Comparative Study (supervised by Abdul Hakim Yassi and Sukmawaty). The aims of this research were (1) To identify related Verbs of English “Fall” Verb in Makassarese Language. (2) To explain the similarities and differences of English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language in terms of semantical and grammatical construction. The data of this research consist of English and Makassarese Language. English data were collected from Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), while data of Makassarese Language were obtained from field research through process of observation and in depth interview. Both of the data were analyzed with descriptive and qualitative analysis. The result of this research shows that (1) there is one kind of “Fall” verb that use in English. While, in Makassarese language there are nine kinds of “fall” verbs that different in semantic aspect. They are; ta’tindola’, ammattung or amma’bung, ta’tindola’, angra’ba, rurusu’, junang, lelasa’, runang and runtung. (2) The main differences of Verb “Fall” in English and Makassarese Language can be seen from three aspects, semantic, clause structure and preposition. From syntax aspect fall verb in English is categorized as intransitive verb. While all kinds of “fall” verbs in Makassarese Language are categorized as transitive verb. In fact, there is data that found as transitive verb in English. The data is I fell down the slippery slope. Thus, in Dixons’s theory is not suitable to this research because data of Coca and Makassarese language have same clause construction. For clause structure English and Makassarese Language are different also which Verb phrase in English is followed by a preposition and Noun phrase as Locus, those fall verbs intransitive verb. Nevertheless, all fall verbs in Makassarese Languageare Verb Phrase is followed by Noun Phrase as Moving Object. Those are marked as transitive verb. However, the clause structure in Makassarese Language has six patterns, namely; VP+NP+NP, VP+NP+ADV, ADJ.P+VP+N, ADV+VP+NP+NP, VP+ADV+NP and VP+NP+NP+ADV. Key Words: fall verb, semantic types, syntax and moving object.

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ABSTRAK Nur Wahidah. Kata Kerja Fall dari Sub Bagian Drop Pada Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Makassar Berdasarkan Teori Dixon (dibimbing oleh Abdul Hakim Yassi dan Sukmawaty). Tujuan penelitian ini adalah (1). Untuk mengidentifikasi hubungan kata kerja dari kata kerja bahasa inggris “Fall” di bahasa Makassar. (2). Untuk menjelasakna persamaan dan perbedaan dari kata kerja “Fall” dan hubungan kata kerja tersebut dalam bahasa Makassar dari istilah semantik dan konstruksi grammatikalnya. Data dari penelitian ini terdiri dari bahasa inggris dan bahasa Makassar. Data bahasa inggris dikumpulkan dari Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), sedangkan data bahasa Makassar diperoleh dari penelitian lapangan melalui proses dari pengamatan dan dalam wawancara yang lebih dalam. Kedua data telah dianalisa dengan penjabaran dan analisa kualitatif. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa (1) ada satu jenis dari kata kerja “Fall” yang digunakan dalam bahsa inggris. Sedangkan, dalam bahasa Makassar ada Sembilan jenis kata kerja “Fall” yang berbeda dalam aspek Semantik. Mereka adalah; ta’tindola’, ammattung or amma’bung, ta’tindola’, angra’ba, rurusu’, junang, lelasa’, runang and runtung. (2) perbedaan utama dari kata kerja “Fall” dlaam bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Makassar dapat dilihat dari tiga aspek. Semantik, Stuktur Klausa dan kata depan. dari aspek Sintak kata kerja “Fall” dalam bahasa Inggris dikategorikan sabagai kata kerja Intransitif. Sedangkan, semua jenis kata kerja “Fall” pada bahasa Makassar adalah dikategorikan sebagai kata kerja Transitif. Faktanya ada kata kerja yang ditemukan sebagai kata kerja Intransitif pada bhasa Inggris. Data sersebut ialah I fell down the slippery slope. Jadi, teori Dixon tidak sesuai dalam penelitian ini karena data dari Coca dan Bahasa Makassar memiliki construksi clausa yang sama. Untuk struktur klausa bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Makassar juga berbeda yang mana Phrase Verba pada bahasa Inggris diikuti oleh sebuah kata depan dan Phrase Noun sebagai Locus, kata kerja “Fall” tersebut kata Kerja Intransitif. Namun, semua kata kerja “Fall” pada bahasa Makassar Verba phrase yang diikuti oleh Pharase Noun sebagai objek yang bergerak. Itu ditandai sebagai kata kerja Transitif. Namun, struktur klausa pada bahasa Makassar memiliki enam pola, Namanya;VP+NP+NP, VP+NP+ADV, ADJ.P+VP+N, ADV+VP+NP+NP, VP+ADV+NP and VP+NP+NP+ADV. Kata Kunci : Kata Kerja “Fall”, tipe semantic, sintaks dan objek yang bergerak,

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TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE ...... i

APPROVAL FORM ...... iii

A STATEMENT OF THESIS AUTHENTICITY ...... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... v

ABSTRACT ...... vii

TABLE OF CONTENT ...... ix

LIST OF TABLE ...... xii

LIST OF FIGURE ...... xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background ...... 1

B. Research Questions ...... 8

C. Objective of the Research ...... 9

D. Significance of the Research ...... 9

E. Scope of the Research ...... 10

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Previous Related Studies ...... 11

B. The Semantic Structure of a word ...... 14

C. Semantics and Grammar ...... 15

D. Aspect of Syntactic ...... 18 ix

E. Dixon’s Semantic Principles ...... 19

1. Semantic Kinds Associated with Noun Class ...... 19

2. Semantic Kinds Associated with the Adjective Class .... 20

3. Semantic Kinds Associated with the Verb Class...... 23

F. Motion Verbs Types ...... 24

G. Process of Grammaticalization ...... 31

H. Lexical and Grammatical Meaning ...... 32

I. Makassarese Language ...... 32

J. Conceptual Framework ...... 34

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method ...... 36

B. Techniques of Collecting Data ...... 37

C. Techniques of Analyzing Data ...... 39

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. Finding ...... 41

1. Recapitulation of English and Makassarese Language .. 63

2. Componential Analysis of Makassarese Language ...... 66

3. Table of Componential Analysis of Makassarese ...... 67

B. Discussion ...... 68

1. Motion Verbs in English and Makassarese Base on Fall verb

in Drop subtype divided by Dixon ...... 68

2. The similar and Differences of Motion Verbs in English and

Makassarese Bse on Fall verb in Drop Subtype Divided by

Dixon ...... 69

a. Similarity ...... 70

b. Differences ...... 70

1). Linguistic Aspect of “Fall” verb ...... 70

2). Clause Structure ...... 71

3). Triangulation Analysis ...... 76

4). Additional Context ...... 77

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion ...... 79

B. Suggestion ...... 81

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 82

APPENDICES I ...... 85

A. Data From Coca ...... 85

B. Data From Observation ...... 122

C. List of Questioner ...... 124

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE 1. COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS OF MAKASSARESER LANGUAGE MOTION VERB ...... 67 TABLE 2. LINGUISTIC ASPECT FOR “FALL” VERB ...... 70

TABLE 3. THE PATTERN OF MAKASSARESE LANGUAGE CLAUSE CONSTRUCTION ...... 34

xii

LIST OF FIGURE

TRANSCRIPT OF LONTARA FOR MAKASSARESE ...... 33

CONTEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ...... 34

TRINGULATION ...... 75

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

1. Adj. Adjective

2. Adv. Adverb

3. V. Verb

4. Prep. Preposition

5. Np. Noun Phrase

6. Vp. Verb Phrase

7. Adj.p. Adjective Phrase

8. Poss. pro Possessive Pronoun

9. Deit. Deictic

10. 1 sg. First Singular

11. 2 sg. Second Singular

12. 3 sg. Third Singular

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher explains some elements starting from the background of the research, research questions, objective of the research, and significances of the research to scope of the research.

A. Background

Language is one of the elements of interaction that used by human to communicate in daily life. Language is very important because all of aspects in human life use language started from people born until died. For example, when people were born in this world, automatically their parents give names to their baby and this name is used as mark and this mark is always used by the society to distinguish with other people. This process is one of way, how the language also has function to give symbol or mark in one thing and then that symbol can be received and used by the society in daily life. Hermogenes (1994:2) argued that in process of giving of something by someone is always related to habit and agreement of all people in one society. Certainly, this case is different from one society to the other society, especially when they give the name to the thing or object where they relate it to their habits, so the name of thing or object is different even that thing or object refers to the same thing or object.

Besides, Socrates (1994:2) admitted that to give assigning name of one thing, people must consider what kind of skill that the people have.

His statement:

“Then, as to names, ought not our legislator also to know how to put the true natural name of each thing into sounds and syllables, ad to make and give all names with a view to the ideal name, if he is to be name in any true sense?. . . Then, Hermogenes. I should say that this giving of names can be no such light matter as you fancy, or the work of light of chance persons. And Cratylus is right is saying that things have names by nature, and that not every man is an artificer of names, but he only who looks to the name which each thing by nature has, and is able to express the true of things in letters and syllables.”

Moreover, Webster (2007:1) explained that Language is a sound that produced by human articulation that audible to express, and to share anything of what the people think and feel to another. The fact, all people free to express what they want to share with the other people because the function of language itself is as tool unifier between human in the society so that there is no limited relation with another. Besides that, another function of language is to make student easy to get knowledge because in getting knowledge required interaction between the student and their teacher in the school. It is same with the seller in the market which the seller also used language as tool to make popular their sell.

From the examples above the people can understand that the human life never walk alone. It is meant that the people always need help from people around them. It is the reason why the people always called as 3

“social beings”. There is a hesitancy that in one community there are many people that different to another. Begin from social status, background of education until different of their languages. Even though, the people never difficult to do activity everyday with their neighbor because the people can switch or combine their languages, thus by switching or mixing two languages, the people automatically can study other language.

The activity to combine two languages and used them together when want to do communication in one situation is called code switching.

Gumperz (in Yassi, 2016:28) explain that code switching or code mixing is processed to combine two languages. The differences include different grammatical system until different varieties of same language, afterwards are used together in same time. Code switching or code mixing is part of language that very important to know because the functions itself not only for making the conversation better but also for continuing the study. The people want to continue the next level of education. Automatically, the people have to study more than two languages. This situation is pushed somebody to switch or mix their language.

One of impact if someone never studies about function of language is he or she will do mistake to translate words in language. Someone can misunderstands about meaning of language that said by other people. Thus, after knowing the impact that can happen if one never studies about function of language. Next section is talked about semantic. The term of semantic

appear to help in explaining different lexical relation, grammar and process of semantic.

The reason of semantics’ existence is to understand contradiction of meaning in languages, because in learning semantics material, meaning of languages have strong relation to express a sign form. Which is a sign form also related to logic, phenomenon, and attitude. Meaning word “logic” is something that makes sense and can be perceived. It can happen when relation between language and sign form become synchronous to understand about meaning, and then term of social behavior appear to make specific meaning. This case can be happened because the mostly sign of linguistic suspended on social behavior. According to Palmer

(2001:1-2) main of linguistic that study of meaning in language, but sometimes the meaning is difficult to be found. This case can happen because semantic term is related between phenomenon in the world or context. Which is semantic called as “Science” of meaning. The other hand

Dixon (1994:18) semantic term is part of linguistic approach that is dependent because must be combined with syntactic to analyze grammar of language

Aside from Semantic, Syntax term is part of Linguistic that important to understand the construction of sentences in a language. Syntax itself related to grammar. Matthews (1982:1) defined syntax “the expressions of a language involve a relationship between a sequence of 5

sounds and meaning and this relationship is mediated by grammar, a core component.”

Language that used in daily life is regulated by grammar when the people say something. According to Barnbrook (2002:1), that ”grammar is a major aspect of the English language in general, and the parser which implements it facilitates the proper analysis of some of the most basic metalinguistic statements in common use.” There are many aspects of the language that always related to grammar. Such as, in Syntax terms a grammar has important role in making sentences in language because grammar combined some words in structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences become language that has meaning.

Every sentences in languages has organized appropriate their part of speech in classes. Those classes can look at their function and also their place that related with other part. Basically, all of languages have a basic distinction between a group of words, such as different in concept, grammar, event and action. It is also happen in “fall” verb that different function in grammar.

In making grammatical structure, construction of subject, predicate and object or called as a complete sentence has role to determine meaning in one language. This construction is valid for Indonesian language. For

Indonesian language, predicate can be called as verb. While the

construction in English, the sentences is completed enough to have subject and verb but can be added with adverb.

A verb is defined as referring to an action or state (Blaszczak,

1993:76). In addition, according to Dixon (1991:9-10) a verb is the center of clause. A verb may refers to some activity and there must be a number of participants who have roles in that activity (e.g. Sinbad carried the old man); or a verb may refer to a state, and there must be a participant to experience the state (e.g. My leg aches). Something that related to English construction aside from subject is verb. Here, Dixon’s theory also explains about English verbs which have two main separations. They are; primary and secondary verbs. In his theory talk about some of subtypes and one of section in the subtype is about motion verbs.

Motion itself come from in Latin language that motion is moving object that marked by move one object from one place to another place.

Motion also related to human daily conversation in this life because each language that people say in this world always be expressed through motion in linguistic expression although human language is differ to another.

Motion verbs are verbs used commonly in human daily actions and their meaning refer to verbs showing the motion such as return, pull, throw, spill and fall. And then this motion also related to preposition for example: she returns that book to you, she pulls the toys, I throw stone in the tree. 7

Dixon (2005:109) explained that Drop subtype is one of covers verb that show motion in juxtaposition to some moving object. All member of drop subtype are intransitive excepted fall verb. In generally, the motion can happen because there is combination of natural forces such as gravity and weather.

Fall verb is part of Drop subtype which somebody or something that moving place from up to down that has moving action and normally uncontrolling motion towards the ground. Thus, It is marked as intransitive categories (Dixon,2005:110).

The reason why this study is very important to be conducted because when “fall” verb in English is marked as Intransitive Verb because there is not moving object after “fall” verb only there is NP as locus, e.g. (A tree fell on the librarian's house). Nevertheless another case “fall” verb in

Makassarese language is marked as transitive Verb, e.g. (Tu’guru ki care- care na i Lina). This case can happen because all kinds of “fall” verbs in

Makassarese language have moving object after “fall” verb position.

Besides that, “fall” verb in English only use one word. While, in fall verb of Makassarese language have nine verbs based on the semantics meaning. The first Tu’guru’ is kind of fall in Makassarese language if there is something fall from the top to bottom. The second Ammattung or

Amma’bung This kind has similar meaning with verb tu’guru’ but, particularly for this “Fall” Verb, have a noisy sound when the thing falls . The

thirt Ta’tindola’ means there is somebody fall in the chair or table because the chair or table is not balance. The fourth Angra’ba something “fall” and it is stuck. The fifth Rurusu’ means “fall” verb for a leaf. The sixth Junang is something can falls because wind factor. The seventh Lelasa’ refers to fall verb for Branches. The eighth Runang means something falls because deliberately action. The last Runtung something falls because falls to pieces in the ground.

Seeing from the explanation above, the researcher is interested in conducting a research about motion verbs in these two languages under the title English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related Verbs in Makassarese

Language: A Comparative Study. This research is expected to have significant help and to contribute to the existing theoretical background of language and to make people get easier in learning and mastering both

English and Makassarese language.

B. Research Questions

In relation to background, the problem can be formulated. They are as follow:

1. What are the related Verbs of English “Fall” Verb in Makassarese

Language?

2. What are the similarities and differences of English Verb, “Fall” and

Its Related Verbs in Makassarese Language in terms of semantical

and grammatical construction? 9

C. Objectives of the Research

The correlations between statements of the problems mention above, the researcher has some aims that related to this research. The aims are:

1. To identify related Verbs of English “Fall” Verb in Makassarese

Language .

2. To explain the similarities and differences of English Verb, “Fall” and

Its Related Verbs in Makassarese language in terms of semantical

and grammatical construction.

D. Significance of the research

To facilitate the readers who are interested to study this research, the researcher takes some significance that related to this research. Those significances are:

1. Theoretical Benefits,

This research used Dixon’s theory, specifically the motion verbs that

is the part of Semantics. Then, the result of this research can

increase knowledge for the reader which it can become a reference

for the next researcher who want to analyze an object which similar

with this study.

2. Practical Benefits,

The practical benefits of this research are it can help the reader to

study both English and Makassarese, in particular about Semantics

and Grammar aspect. Beside that, this study is also as an effort to

maintain Makassarese as cultural heritage.

E. Scope of the Research

This research discuss about English Verb, “Fall” and Its Related

Verbs In Makassarese Language: A Comparative Study based on Dixon’s theory. Where Makassarese language is one of local language in Indonesia that used by Makassar people, and English as a foreign language and that is also International language.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter explains some parts in the review of related literature that consists of previous studies that can indicate that the findings from other previous researcher are dissimilar. And then the theoretical background which covers some parts starting from semantic and grammar, Dixon’s semantic principles, motion verb types Makassarese language until the conceptual framework.

A. Previous Related Studies

The researcher has found some previous findings after searching some research and tries to compare with this research. These are the previous finding that has similarity with this thesis:

The first is Lukman (1994) conducted research entitle “The

Soppeng Buginese Verb Phrase, A Generative Transformational Analysis”.

He used descriptive qualitative method. The result of his research showed that there are three types of transformation found in Buginese verb phrases, namely the obligatory absolute maker transformation, optional intensifying and interrogative transformations.

Second, Frostad (2006) conducted research entitled “Syntactic and

Semantic Aspects of some Verbs of Motion and Location in Äiwoo”. The purpose of his research was to study verbs used in the description of the location and movement of inanimate entities in Äiwoo, from data produced through elicitation tests using video clip stimuli. The result of this thesis showed that many of the posture verbs, causative verbs and motion and path verbs combine in serial verb constructions, both on the nuclear and core layer of the clause structure.

The third is Jessen (2013) wrote entitle “Semantic Categories in the

Domain of Motion Verbs by Adult Speakers of Danish, German and

Turkish”. This study applies cluster analysis to understand how and remember the language that exists in the way they express motion events.

Further arranged what parameters of semantic space structure are, based on data collected from participants who are adult speakers of Denmark,

Germany and Turkey. The participant describes 37 video clips that like various kinds of motion events. The results showed that segmentation of semantic space displayed large variations in all three groups. Turkey is different from German and Danish in terms of features used for semantic space segments. German and Danish are very different in relation to (a) how the grain of difference is made, and (b) how verb motions with

Germanic roots are commonly distributed across semantic spaces.

Next, a research about motion verbs also conducted by Janisz (2014) entitled “Urdu/Hindi Motion Verbs and their Implementation in a Lexical 13

Resources”. This research is intended to discuss how the spatial understanding of figures, bases, way and means of motion is manifested in

Urdu / Hindi and to apply that insight in a lexical source that can be used on an ongoing basis. The result showed that the factors determining the syntax-semantics interface of Urdu/Hindi motion verbs allow for a multitude of theoretical insights on motion verb expressions in the language.

Fahruddin (2016) in his thesis entitle “The Affect Verbs Subtype in

English and Buginese Language: Semantic and Syntactic Approach” used descriptive qualitative method and found that English and Buginese affect verbs have equivalences and differences. Cultural background plays important role in determining the variants of the verb. It can be seen in

Buginese “stab” subtype (a pointed or bladed tool penetrating below the surface of Target) that has more variant than English “stab” subtype. New feature of “stretch” subtype (the Agent using a Manip to change the shape or state of a Target) that is Agent using Manip to change the taste of the

Target. Buginese verbs included in this new feature are fejjei (put salt in), fissingi (put monosodium glutamate in), santangi (put coconut milk in), fellengi (put candle nut in) and cempai (put tamarind in).

Shown from above previous studies, the first the researcher focused on Syntactic and Semantnic Aspects of some Verb of Motion and

Location In Äiwoo”. The second researcher focused on Semantic

Categories at Domain Motion Verbs by Adult Speakers of Denmark,

Germany and Turkey. The next researcher mapped the Urdu / Hindi Motion

Verbs and its Implementation in Lexical Resources. The last researcher focused on The Affect Verbs Subtype in English and Buginese Language:

Semantic and Syntactic Approach. The last researcher, Fahruddin investigated the ‘affect’ verbs subtype in English and Buginese language.

From all previous related studies above there are similarity and contrast with this research. The similarity is in the case to investigate motion verbs in two languages. While the contrast is this research focused on fall verb in drop subtype as part of motion verb and also different in object.

B. The Semantic Structure of a Word

In Linguistics, study of semantic is major branch linguistic that explain about how to understand the lexical meaning of the words in a language. Anything kind of knowledge or science, the first step is to understand meaning that used in each concept depends on the knowledge or sciences itself. This step does not only understand meaning in each concept, but the main thing is must know if study of meaning is related by linguistic expression such as statement people said is true or false. It means that the use of logical system very important when analysis statement or utterance in one language in many sciences. It is the reason why semantic does not only major branch of linguistic.

Koulikova (2006:3) stated that words can be analyzed and described in terms of their semantic component. As it is known, a word 15

presents a complex semantic structure. The best units of the lexical semantic level are lexical-semantic variants that can be decomposed into meaning units and more fundamental components of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit. As a result, a word’s semantic structure is seen as a structural multitude of its possible lexical-semantic variant

Furthermore, the concept of semantic features and semantic components is a unit of different levels. The former includes a higher level of abstraction.

This shows that the qualitative difference between the lexical meaning of a word. The semantic component of a word is the unit of content level included in the feature and is the carrier in the specific lexical meaning of the word.

Consequently, the semantics structure of a keyword as a system of meaning.

C. Semantics and Grammar

A language itself consists of two part, those parts are word and grammar. Grammar has a separate section. Parts of Grammar are

Morphology and Syntax. Definition of Morphology is related by structure of words in which all word consists of morpheme. Besides that Morphemes also consist of two types. The first type is free morpheme. Free morpheme is types of morpheme that can stand alone as a word e.g. polite. The second type is bound morpheme. Bound morpheme is types of morpheme that must add or combine into a word, it can be prefix or suffix. Its mean this type cannot stand alone. For example; word polite in free morpheme example.

When addition prefix and suffix can be im-polite-ness (im as prefix and ness as suffix) it becomes bound morpheme. The next is a word can develop in two methods; derivation and inflection. Derivation itself a word that developed through the addition a morpheme and produces different kinds of the word, e.g. structure of verb write is the development of noun writer.

While inflection changes some elements that come from different meaning and kinds of the word in one morpheme that is required by the grammar in the language.

Syntax is the manner how to combine some words and use together into phrase, clause or sentence in a language. The structure sentence of English preceded by article, adjective and noun such as, the handsome boy. When a verb phrase requires transitive verb (must study) or intransitive verb (fall) and combine a noun phrase (his book). The result of combination of structure in sentence is (must study his book). Combination of noun phrase and verb phrase can form sentence such as the handsome boy must study his book (Dixon, 2005: 5).

According to Dixon (2005:6) stated that a simple sentence is a sentence that has one clause. While a complex sentence is a sentence that have several clause. In complex sentence consists of a main clauses and subordinate clause that followed by a conjunction for indicating reason. E.g. the handsome boy is crying because he is fall or for temporal sequence e.g. the handsome boy is crying after he is fall in the tree. 17

Words and grammar is study about meaning and both of them are related to semantic. The meaning of the words itself have two kinds. First,

‘reference to the world’ or the meaning of the word refers to real meaning, e.g. white refers to water, green refers to the tree. Second, there is ‘sense’.

Word has ‘sense’, the sense itself semantic meaning which is related with the other word or expression. The other word, one word has anonym or synonym meaning. Such as, black has anonym meaning with white and big synonym meaning with large (Dixon, 2005:6).

As Dobrovolsky (1989:90-91) described that the minimal meaningful units are called Morpheme. In one word there are one or more morphemes. Thus, each morpheme has meaning. For example, in word

Friend, when addition if suffix- ly become friendly. The word friendly has two morphemes and this word can be three morphemes when added suffix –ly and ness such as friendliness. In addition, Dixon (2005:6) said that morpheme that follow different kind of a word can has different meaning, e.g. prefix im-dis- impossible, dislike.

Meaning is the relation between sounds or statement that said by speaker. Where idea that said by human mind can combine among words, phrase, clause become a sentence that suitable the grammatical construction.

D. Aspect of Syntactic

The essential aspect in study about grammar in language is Syntax aspect. Miller (2002) argued that syntax is process to put some words put together to make phrase and how the phrases put together to make clause and how the clause put together to make sentence. In small and informal situation, people can communicate with using single and many gestures, but complex messages for complex situation or complex idea needs more than single word. Thus, syntax appears to construct phrases and clauses because every human language need device to make speech. Syntax also studies about the difference meaning in English central location. The

Difference between past and present tenses, progressive and simple verb, and also singular and plural.

As the explanation above, Dixon (2005:6) assumed that syntax is study of language that considered meaning aspect of the word and still paid attention to the grammatical constructions. In English sentence construction, first subject put in first position that followed by verb and the object is followed by verb.

The structure elaboration that important to analyze the language is syntax. It can know from those explanations some statements above.

E. Dixon’s Semantic Principles 19

Giving the differences of other linguists, Dixon proposes a new approach, starting from the idea that a speaker gives the code of meaning into a grammatical form to communicate it to the listener, which restores its meaning. He investigated the attributes of grammar and meaning, and found that the various grammatical behavior of words was a consequence of their different meanings, for example, one could say that I wanted to go and I wished if he would leave, next I want to go But I did not want his must go.

Every single word has been limited by common meaning component in a large group. Such as, form of major word classes in semantic kinds that have unlimited member which in each major word classes has member in noun, adjective, and verb (Dixon, 2005: 81-101).

1. Semantic Kinds Associated with Noun Class

In semantic kinds associated with noun class, Dixon (2005:82) said that there are five grammatical class nouns in English. Namely; Concrete reference is the kinds that mention animate and inanimate like, boy, cat, hair, grass, moon, lake, town, rain, air, water, building, monument, window, father, and so on. Abstract reference is subtype that includes time, place, quantity, variety, language, and general abstract terms, such as, behind, south, mile, age, character, circle, word, noun and truth. States (and properties) is kinds of semantic associated with noun class that related to some basic nouns, e.g. anger and hunger but many of those kinds come from adjective, e.g, jealousy and a little from Verb, e.g delight. Beside that,

states (and properties) also related to both the mental (pleasure, joy, ability, sagacity) and the corporeal domains ( ache and strange).

The next, there is activities. Commonly this kinds same with states

(and properties). Where both of them is basic noun, e.g. war and game, but in activities mostly derive from verb, e.g. decision, whipping, sale. From almost every activity noun there is a corresponding verb, even if it is not always cognate, e.g. play for game.

The last, Speech acts such as question, order, report, description, talk and promise. This kind is related by verb in each case usually cognate, e.g. answer, congratulat(ion) although there are some exceptions, e.g. question/ask.

2. Semantic kinds associated with the Adjective class

Based on Dixon (2005:84) explained that semantic types associated with the grammatical class adjective in English are ‘Dimension’

(e.g. small, long, thin, round, wide) , ‘Physical property’ (e.g. weak, clean, cool, sweet, expensive, quiet, noisy; this includes a corporeal subtype (e.g. well, sick, dead, absent, beautiful, ugly). ‘Speed’ (e.g. (quick (at), fast (at), slow (at), rapid, sudden). ‘Age’ (e.g.new, old, young, modern). ‘Colour’ (e.g. white, black, pink and blue). ‘Value’ (e.g. good, lovely, atrocious, perfect, odd, strange, curious, necessary, important, lucky). ‘Difficulty’ (e.g. easy, difficult, tough, hard, simple). ‘Volition’(e.g. deliberate, accidental, purposeful). ‘Qualification’, ‘human propensity’ and ‘similarity’.

Qualification, with a number of subtypes: 21

(1) Definite, a factual qualification regarding an event, e.g. definite,

probable, true, obvious.

(2) Possible, expressing the speaker’s opinion about an event,

which is often some potential happening, e.g. possible,

impossible.

(3) Usual, the speaker’s opinion about how predictable some

happening is, e.g. usual, normal, common.

(4) Likely, again an opinion, but tending to focus on the subject’s

potentiality to engineer some happening, e.g. likely, certain.

(5) Sure, as for (4), but with a stronger focus on the subject’s

control, e.g. sure.

(6) Correct, e.g. correct, right, wrong, appropriate, sensible. These

have two distinct senses, commenting (i) on the correctness of

a fact, similar to (a) (e.g. that the whale is not a fish is right), and

(ii) on the correctness of the subject’s undertaking some activity

(e.g. John was right to resign).

Human propensity, again with a number of subtypes:

(1) Fond, with a similar meaning to liking verbs, e.g. fond (taking

preposition of).

(2) Angry, describing an emotional reaction to some definite

happening, e.g. angry (with/at/about), jealous (of), mad, (about),

sad (about).

(3) Happy, an emotional response to some actual or potential

happening, e.g. anxious, keen, happy, sorry (all taking about);

proud, ashamed, afraid (all taking of)

(4) Unsure, the speaker’s assessment about some potential event,

e.g. certain, sure, unsure (all taking of or about), curious (about).

(5) Eager, with meanings similar to wanting verbs, e.g. eager,

ready, prepared (all taking for), wiiling

(6) Clever, referring to ability or an attitude towards social relations

with others, e.g. clever, stupid, lucky, kind, cruel, generous (all

taking at)

(7) Honest, judgement of some person or statement as fair and just,

e.g. honest (about/in/at), frank (in)

(8) Busy, referring to involvement in activity, e.g. busy (at/with),

occupied (with), preoccupied (with), lazy (over)

‘Similarity’, comparing two things, states or events, e.g. like, unlike

(which are not the only adjectives to be followed by a NP with no preposition), similar (to), different (from), equal (to/with), identical (to),, analogous (to), separate (from), independent (of), consistent (with) (which introduce the second role, obligatory for an adjective from this type, with a preposition).

3. Semantic Kinds Associated with the Verb class

The last of major word classes in semantic kinds is verb because group of verbs require the same set of participant role. A verb itself may 23

refers to state or activity that required by participants either to have role in the activity or experience.

English verbs by Dixon (2005: 96) are divided into two main divisions, eg. Primary and Secondary, where each division on the 'shared meaning component' which by verb is called a semantic type. Each subtype name is taken from the name of the most important member of the verb in the group that can represent other members. Primary on some circumstances or activity; Those who can independently be the only verbs in a sentence with the noun phrase corresponding to semantics, eg. Eat, swim, watch, and so on. . A secondary closing verb that provides semantic modification of some other verbs, e.g. Hopefully, try, come on, stop and stuff.

On the other hand Leech (2004: 22) categorizes the English verbs based on tense and aspect. The simple use of verbs is now divided into

'basic verb', ie. Life, you know, have 'Event verbs', e.g. Do it, say, find and

'habitual verb', wrong. Wear, talk, walk. Some verbs like saving, holding, thinking can easily switch between 'event' and 'state' in context. Verbs with progressive aspects are divided into eight classes: 'momentary verb'

(hiccough, hit and jump), 'transition event verb' (arriving, dead and fall).

'Verb activity' (drinking, eating, playing). 'Process verb' (change, grow) 'Verb inert perception' (feel, hear, see). 'Verb inert cognition' (believe, forget, guess). 'Verbs of attitude' (hate, hope, likes). 'State and own' (belongs, contains, contains). And 'body sensation verbs' (pain, hurt, feeling) .In

Leech's categorization only concerns a set of grammatical forms in its access to a set of meanings, without increasing the secret of Syntax and

Morphology.

F. Motion Verb Types

The term 'motion' refers to a verb such as running, walking, returning, taking, taking, dropping, and so on. The type of motion is a member of a Primary-A verb that refers to a verb that indicates movement.

The general role for all verbs of motion is (things) moving, ie. Mary ran.

There may also be a Locus specification, place with respect to where the motion occurs. For some of the verb specification from Locus is mandatory, e.g. I just slipped (in something).

Levin (1993: 263-270) proposed the following twenty motion verb classes:

Inherently directed motion: advance, arrive, ascend, climb, come, cross, depart, descend, enter, escape, exit, fall, flee, go, leave, plunge, recede, return, rise, and tumble. The meaning of these verbs includes the direction specification of the motion, even in the absence of an overtly direct complement. For some verbs, this specification is in deictic terms; for others, there is no deictic term. None of these verbs determine the mode of motion. However, members of this class do not behave uniformly in all respects. They are different in how they can express a destination, a source, or a path of motion; Depending on the verb, it can be expressed through a 25

prepositional phrase, as a direct object, or both. The verb of the cross has been included here because of its meaning, but does not behave in all things like other verbs in this class; For example, always transitive. The verbs in this class have received some attentions in the literature on the Hypothetic not accusative.

Leave verbs: abandon, desert, and leave. These verbs do not specify the mode of motion; they only show that the motion away from the location has occurred. The immediate object of the verb is understood as an abandoned location. Location cannot be expressed in prepositional phrases.

Roll verbs: bounce, drift, drop, float, glide, move, roll, slide, swing.

Plus verbs describing motion around an axis: coil, revolve, rotate, spin, tum, twirl, twist, whirl, wind. The verb is related to the behavior of motion which is the characteristic of the lifeless entity (i.e, where there is no control of the protagonist of the moving party entity). In the absence of a prepositional phrase that determines direction, none of these verbs indicate the direction of motion. Levin says that there are many verbs of scroll depicting the motion of the axis around taking a somewhat limited range of prepositions that lead to a prepositional phrase that describes the path of motion.

Run Verbs: amble, backpack, bolt, bounce, bound, bowl, canter, carom, cavort, charge, clamber, climb, clump, coast, crawl, creep, dart, dash, dodder, drift, file, flit, float, fly, frolic, gallop, gambol, glide, goosestep, hasten, hike, hobble, hop, hurry, hurtle, inch, jog, journey, jump, leap_, limp,

lollop, lope, lumber, lurch, march, meander, mince, mosey, nip, pad, parade, perambulate, plod, prance, promenade, prowl, race, ramble, roam, roll, romp, rove, run, rush, sashay, saunter, scamper, scoot, scram, scramble, scud, scurry, scutter, scuttle, shamble, shuffle, sidle, skedaddle, skip, skitter, skulk, sleepwalk, slide, slink, slither, slog, slouch, sneak, somersault, speed, stagger, stomp, stray, streak, stride, stroll; strut, stumble, stump, swagger, sweep, swim, tack, tear, tiptoe, toddle, totter, traipse, tramp, travel

, trek, troop, trot, trudge, trundle, vault, waddle, wade, walk, wander, whiz, zigzag, zoom. Most of these verbs describe the behavior in which living entities can move, although some can be used to describe the movement of inanimate objects. Although this verb describes the transfer of an object in a certain way or in a certain way, no specific direction of motion is implied unless it occurs with an explicit directive phrase. Levin (1993: 267) suggests that Run verbs may need to be subdivided because their syntactic behavior is not uniform.

Verbs that are Vehicle names: balloon, bicycle, bike, boat, bobsled, bus, cab, canoe, caravan, chariot, coach, cycle, dogsled, ferry, gondola, helicopter, jeep, jet, kayak, moped, motor, motorbike, motorcycle, parachute, punt, raft, rickshaw, rocket, skate, skateboard, ski, sled, sledge, sleigh, taxi, toboggan, tram, trolley, yacht. These verbs mean roughly ‘go using the vehicle named by the noun.

Verbs that are not vehicle names: cruise, drive, fly, oar, paddle, pedal, ride, row, sail, tack. This group of verbs denotes motion using a 27

vehicle but the vehicle name does not coincide with the verb. For instance, fly implies an aircraft, pedal a bike; cruise, row, sail and tack a ship or boat.

Similarly to the previous verb class, no specific direction of motion is implied unless an explicit directional phrase is present.

Waltz verbs: boogie, bop, cancan, clog, conga, dance, foxtrot, jig, jitterbug, jive, pirouette, polka, quickstep, rumba, samba, shuffle, square dance, tango, tap dance, and waltz. Those verbs mean about 'doing a dance'. No specific direction of motion is implied unless no explicit directional phrase exists. Like a vehicle noun, it appears that every noun dance can be used as a motion verb.

Chase Verbs: chase, follow, pursue, shadow, tail, track, and trail.

The verbs are usually transitive, with the hunter as the subject and the person being pursued as the object.

Accompany verbs: accompany, conduct, escort, guide, lead, shepherd. These are related to one person talking another from one place to another. According to Levin, the verbs are distinguished semantically by the nature of the relationship between two participants.

According to Dixon (2005:102) stated that motion verbs divided into seven subtype. Such as:

a. Motion–a, Run subtype, refers to a mode of motion., such as run,

walk, crawl, slide, spin, roll, turn, wriggle, swing, wave, rock, shake,

climb, dive, stroll, trot, gallop, jog, dance, march, jump, bounce,

swim, fly, and one sense of play ( as in the child is playing in the

sand). Verbs in this subtype are basically intransitive. Since it

describes a mode of motion, the only obligatory role is moving. A

locus can be included, but this is optional, e.g. He loves strolling ( in

the park) Mary is sitting down at last ( in her favorite armchair). b. Motion –b, Arrive subtype, deals with motion with respect to a definite

Locus.e.g. (i) Arrive, return, go, come; (ii) enter, exit, cross, depart,

travel, pass, escape; come in, go out; (iii) reach, approach, visit,

(which spams the motion and attention types). Since verbs from this

subtype refers to motion with respect to a Locus, the Locus must

normally be stated, either an NP or an adverbial, e.g. He has

remained outside/ in the garage, she hasn’t yet travelled to

Spain/there. c. Motion–c, the Take subtype, refers to causing something to be in

motion with respect to a Locus, e.g. (i) take, bring, fetch; (ii) send (iii)

move, raise, lift, steal. These are all transitive verbs with a Causer

(normally human) in A function. Set (i) involves double realization of

the moving role-both A and O NPs normally refer to something in

motion, e.g. John (Causer, moving) brought his dog (moving) to the

party. For sets (ii) and (iii) the Causer need not be moving but of

course the O NP must be. d. Motion–d, The Follow subtype, refers to motion with respect to

something which is moving, e.g. (i) Follow, track, lead, guide,

precede, accompany; (ii) meet. These are all transitive verbs with 29

moving role in A and Locus (typically, also Moving) in O function, e.g.

MbWra tracked the car/ Mary, Fred met the train/Jane. Follow has a

further sense in which the O NP is geographical feature extended in

space, e.g. they followed the river. A further extension of meaning,

applying to both follow and meet, has geographical features in both

A and O slots, e.g. that road follows the spur of the hill; those two

rivers meet at the foot of the mountain. Let may have a variety of non-

human NPs in A function, in extensions fron its central meaning, e.g.

The path/ Those tell-tale noises/ Her sense of direction led Mary to

the robbers’lair. e. Motion-e, the carry subtype, refers to motion in juxtaposition with

some moving object ( prototypically, a person’s hand), e.g. carry,

bear, transport, cart. These are all transitive verbs with the moving

role mapped onto O function. The subject maps a Causer role

(normally human) and the Locus is likely to be some part of the

human’s body; the actual body part involved can be specified by a

prepositional NP, e.g. John carried/ held the banana in/ with his

hand/teeth. ( if no body part is specified it is taken to be the unmarked

one- hand for a human, mouth for a dog, etc) the carry includes some

more specialized verbs whose meaning involves specification of the

Locus, e.g. cart ‘carry on a cart’ (cf. land ‘put on land’). Here Causer

and Locus are distinct although the Causer will move the Locus (i.e.

John goes with the cart in John carted the potatoes (to market).

(Nowadays, cart is also used to describe carrying something

unwieldy or heavy, by any meangs).

f. Motion-f, the throw subtype, describe causing something to be in

motion, e.g. throw, chuck, Xing, pour, spray, water, push, press; pull,

jerk, drag, tug, one sense of draw (e.g. draw sword from scabbard).

These are transitive verbs with the thing Moving as O and the Causer

( which need not be moving) as A. The meanings of individual verbs

describe both the mode of motion of motion and the way in which it

was caused.

g. Motion-g, the drop subtype, refers to unwanted motion, e.g. Fall,

drop, spill, tip (over), upset, overturn, capsize, trip, slip. These verbs

may be used intransitive, with the Moving thing in S function. The

motion may be due to a combination of natural forces such as gravity

(the apple fell from the tree) and weather (the boat overturned in the

storm). All drop verbs, with the sole exception of fall, are also used

transitively, with the thing Moving as O. The a NP is Causer- either a

natural force responsible for the movement ( the storm overturned

the boat) or some human who brought the movement about either

through planned action (John deliberately dropped the vase) or-and

this is the unmarked circumstance-through miscalculation ( John (

accidentally) dropped the vase).

As the focus of this research, the explanation of member of drop subtype it is ‘verb fall’ that provided by Dixon’s theory is not general in the 31

world. In this research, the verb fall member of drop subtype in Makassarese is used transitive and need an additional explanation. The object not always moved by person’s hand and the prepositional noun phrases is not needed to specify the Locus because most of the meanings of that verbs involve the specification of the locus such as tu’guru’, ammattung/amma’bung, ta’tindola’, angra’ba, rurusu’, junang, lelasa’, runang, and runtung.

G. Process of Grammaticalization

The process of semantic change in which the words of open class content (nouns, verbs and adjectives) switch to closed class functional forms such as adaptation, conjunction, pronoun, particle and demonstrative.

Significant elements are deletion and their possible grammatical context is limited (Reimer, 2010: 384).

H. Lexical and Grammatical Meaning

According to Bickford (1998: 81) lexical meaning refers to the meaning given in the dictionary and can be translated into appropriate words or phrases in other languages. Contrary, grammatical meanings are translated directly from one language to another. This is because they have expanded the grammatical structure. On the other hand, Sapir (1921)

explains that the complete meaning in themselves refers to the lexical meaning. Words that express lexical meanings are content words like, nouns, verbs and adjectives.

I. Makassarese Language

Makassar is the capital and administrative centre for the province of South Sulawesi. It is also busy port city, with over one million in habitants.

For centuries Makassar has been the gateway to the famous ‘spice islands’ of Eastern Indonesia, while the Bugis, the most widely known of the local inhabitants, are recognised for their magnificent trading ships that still ply the waters of the Indonesian archipelago(Turner,2003:2).

In addition there is Cumming (2010:5) stated that Makassarese is related with the spread of Islam in South Sulawesi, the contents of the early entries also deal extensively with the birth and deaths of rulers. This genealogical component comes as no surprise given the central importance of rulers in the life of Makassarese and their pivotal role in historical chronicles. Patturioloang were structured as elaborate genealogies relating of the history of Gowa and Talloq’s chains of kings. It was the lives of rulers that defined eras and marked the passage of time. This conception of the past dominated Makassar at the beginning of the seventeent century.

Beside that Makassarese also have a traditional language that called as “Lontara” language that different form to other language in the 33

world. The transcript Lontara palm for Makassarese can shows in the

pictures, such as:

Figure 1. Transcript of Lontara for Makassarese Language. (Ager, 2017).

J. Conceptual Framework

Fall verb in Drop subtype

Makassarese Dixon’s English Language semantic principles

Grammatical Grammatical Meaning Meaning Construction Construction

Similarities and differences of Fall Verb between English and Makassarese Language

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework shows the concept which describes

relationship between the theory and other important variables of the

research. This research exposes Drop Subtype in English and Makassarese

using Dixon’s semantic principle focusing on “Fall” Verb. The theory guides

the researcher to work out the meaning of each “Fall” Verb, which is then

used as the base comparison to go to their grammatical constructions. As

the result, similarities and differences of Fall Verb between English and 35

Makassarese language can be seen both in the level of meaning and grammatical construction.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The researcher uses some methods to deal this chapter that beginning from research method, technique of collecting data and technique of analyzing data

A. Research Method

In analyzing the data, the researcher used descriptive qualitative method in conducting this research. Where the researcher collected and analyzed some data to compare English Verb, “Fall” and its related Verbs in Makassarese Language. Both of languages have given description about form of comparison in meaning aspect and also in grammatical construction.

The characteristic of this method was the researcher does not use variable.

The researcher reported the events that occurred (Kothari 2004:3).

According to Mack, et.al (2005: 1), the power of qualitative research is potentially to give complex textual description about how the human experience as outline in a research. This qualitative research gives information about the side of human issue such as, the contradiction of human behaviors, human trust, opinion, emotion and relation between individuals. Qualitative method is also effective to identify abstract element 37

such as, social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity and religion. Whose role in research problem may not be easy to see.

B. Techniques of Collecting Data

In the first step of collecting data, the researcher listed English verb and Makassarese language verb which indicate motion verb in “fall” verb of

Drop subtype, where both of those data were obtained in different ways.

The next, data of English was collected from Corpus of Contemporary

American English (COCA), corpus.byu.edu//coca. Among the categories of text’s source provided in COCA, the researcher chooses spoken texts which were expected to be equal with Makassarese language data. The last,

Makassarese language data was obtained from observation. In depth interview, the researcher gives questionnaire to people who as native of

Makassarese language. A process of watching and memorizing the things happened around is called observation.

Participant observation is a qualitative method, which aims to help researchers study the perspectives held by the study population. Qualitative researchers do this through self-observation or by observing and participating, to vary degrees, in the daily learning activities of the community. Observation of the participants is always done in the community, in locations believed to have relevance to the research question. This method is different because researchers approach participants in their own neighborhoods rather than having participants

come to the researcher. In general, researchers involved in participant observation try to learn what life is like for an "insider" while staying, inevitably, is "our person". While in this community setting, researchers note carefully and objectively what they see, repeat all accounts and observations as field notes in field notebooks (Mack, et.al.2005).

In addition to observation, researchers also used in-depth interviews to obtain data that could not be obtained from observation.

(Mack, et.al.2005). Saying that an in-depth interview is a technique designed to produce a clear picture of the participants' perspectives on the research topic. During an in-depth interview, the interviewee is considered an expert and the interviewer is considered a student. The interview technique of the researcher is motivated by the desire to learn all the things participants can share about the research topic. Researchers engage with participants by asking questions neutrally, listening carefully to the participants' responses, and asking questions and follow-up cloaks based on those responses. They do not lead participants according to prejudice, nor do they encourage participants to give specific answers by expressing approval or disapproval of what they say. In-depth interviews are usually conducted face-to-face and involve one interviewer and one participant. If security is an issue for the interviewer, the presence of two interviewers is appropriate. This situation, however, should be taken not to intimidate the participants 39

The Makassarese language data was collected from people who as native of Makassarese language in Makassar city. The researcher chooses Makassar city because she can understand well the typical

Makassarese language there and it makes the researcher gets easier to collect the data.

C. Technique of Analyzing Data

The researcher uses some techniques of analyzing data in order to answer the research questions in the first chapter. Such as:

1. Transcribed the data that had been collected. Makassarese

language data that have been taken from result of investigating

and interviewing was transcribed. While Coca was aimed to get

English data and these data did not need to be transcribed

anymore. It was the first ways to transcribe some data from

English and Makassarese language.

2. The numbers of transcribed data were reduced by selecting data

that can display the other.

The collected English and Makassarese language data were

subsequently reduced by selecting data that could represent

others.

3. The presented data is reduced.

The next step is to present the data. The English verb which has

keyword fall is embraced by the Makassarese language based on

the type of construction in Dixon theory.

4. Then, the data were analyzed.

The current data was first constructed based on the semantic role

and syntactic relationships proposed by Dixon in the type of

construction of the fall verbs. Furthermore, data reveal the general

activity that related to fall verbs, and then the researcher analyzes

its meaning by reading the context.

5. Conclusion was made.

After doing the analysis, in the last step the researcher made some

conclusions that could reflect the main points of the analysis.

CHAPTER IV

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

This chapter outlines English Verb, “Fall” and Its related Verbs in

Makassareser language. It Complete by included the similarities and differences between the two languages as the result. It is divided into two sub chapter; finding data displays and discussion. The list and identification are structured as follows: English fall verb of Drop subtype come first and followed by Makassarese language. Due to the limitation of accessing the

COCA, it takes one or two English verb to represent the other verbs that have similar construction.

A. Finding

Drop subtype related to unwanted motion or spontaneous motion.

There are nine motion verbs categorized in Drop subtype of English. They are fall, drop, spill, tip (over), upset, overturn, capsize, trip and slip. All members in Drop subtype are transitive verb exception fall itself, which is moved role in this verb is causer as intransitive verb that is moved natural force. The locus role is an NP that most often marked by preposition but locus is not obligatory. The lists identifications are as follow:

a. English Verb, “Fall”

Researcher has found there were 60 data English Verb “Fall” that found in Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), corpus.byu.edu//coca. Some data were marked as extended meaning because the data have more than two meaning. Thus, researcher was only described some data which have the real meaning. The data were:

Data 1 1. His initials fall in love with computer. (Extended meaning because “fall” verb in this data is mental verb categories).

Table 2. Data 2.

2. A tree fell on the librarian's house. A tree Fell on the librarian’s house Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 3. Data 3 3. I fell into bed […] each night shredded by attention. I fell into bed Pro V Prep. NP Locus

Table 4. Data 4 4. It did not fall distinctly outside of the bounds […] of counselors’ work.

It did not distinctly Outside of the fall bounds Pro V Adv. Prep. NP Causer Locus 43

Table 5. data 5

5. Children fall into a' gray zone'. ( extended meaning) because mean of a’ gray zone’ is ambiguity ) Children fall into a ‘gray zone ‘ Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 6. Data 6

6. An object fall short of a target. An fall short of a target object Pro V Adj. Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 7. Data 7

7. These studies all fall within the microsystem […] or mesosystem and

additional research is needed to better understand the broader

contexts beyond the two systems most directly connected to

students. .

These studies fall within the all microsystem Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Data 8.

8. The next evening, a beautiful distant relation visited and caused […]

one brother to fall in love with her.(Extended meaning because fall

verb in this data is mental verb categories ).

Table 9. Data 9.

9. You fall […] and get a bump. You fall Pro V Causer

Data 10

10. It would be easy to fall in love with someone. (Mean of fall verb in

this data is mental verb. Thus, it is categories as extended meaning).

Data 11

11. Ms. White also needed an actor who could make […] the

audiences fall in love with him. (Extended meaning because fall verb

in this sentence is mental verb).

Data 12

12. He keeps these details in a large, overflowing book held together with

tape and a shoestring, inherited from his matchmaker father and

possessed, he says, of supernatural romantic powers (if you touch it

with one hand, […] you will fall in love in six months; both hands,

you will be married in six months; and if you are already married, [...]

you will fall in love all over again).

(extended meaning because fall verb in this sentence is mental verb).

Table 13. Data 13 45

13. A tree may fall on your head. A tree may fall on your head Pro Modality V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 14. Data 14

14. Don't fall into the water. Don’t fall into the water V Prep. NP Locus This data shows that this is imperative sentence which in first

position is verb don’t fall. It is imperative categories, so in

imperative categories and there is no causer as subject

intransitive.

Table 15. Data 15

15. The water fall into the washing machine. The fall into the washing Water machine Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Data 16

16. We fall in love with it. ( extended meaning)

Table 17. Data 17

17. I don't falldown. I don’t fall down Pro VP Causer

Table 18. Data 18

18. We fall into the Carter trap. We fall into The Carter trap Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 19.Data 19

19. The wall fell in Moscow. The Wall fell in Moscow Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 20. Data 20

20. A tear fell from his eye. A tear fell from his eyes Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 21. Data 21

21. A tree fell onto a canopy. A tree fell onto a canopy Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 22. Data 22.

22. Snow fell close to midnight […] in Durango. Snow fell close to midnight in Durango Pro V Adv. Prep. NP Prep. NP Causer Locus Locus

Table 23. Data 23 47

23. He fell in the bedroom closet. He fell in the bedroom closet Pro V Prep NP Causer Locus

Table 24. Data 24.

24. The rains fell two years ago. The rains Fell two years ago Pro V NP Adv. Causer Locus

Table 25. Data 25.

25. He fell at home […] while getting out of the bathroom. He fell at home Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 26. Data 26.

26. You fell out a window. You fell out a window Pro V Adv. NP Causer Locus

Table 27. Data 27.

27. He fell to his knees […] beside his wife and his son. He fell to his knees Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 28. Data 28

28. Champagne fell between the glasses. Champagne fell between the glasses Pro V Prep NP Causer Locus

Table 29. Data 29.

29. I fell into the chair in front of my desk. I fell into the chair in front my desk of Pro V Prep. NP Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 30. Data 30.

30. He fell to the floor. He fell to the floor Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 31. Data 31.

31. Snow fell into the tops of her snow boots […] with her first step into the deep snow. Snow fell into the tops of her snow boots Pro V Prep. Adj.P Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 32. Data 32.

32. A spoon fell from a bowl. A spoon fell from a bowl Pro V Prep NP Causer Locus

Table 33. Data 33. 49

33. We fell together to the floor of the elevator. We fell together to the of the floor elevator Pro V Prep NP Prep. NP Causer Locus Locus

Table 34. Data 34.

34. I fell in the lake. I fell in the lake Pro V Prep NP Causer Locus

Table 35. Data35.

35. She fell into the water. She fell into the water Pro V Prep NP Causer Locus

Table 36. Data 36

36. He actually fell into a chair. He actually fell into a chair Pro Adv V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Data 37

37. I fell in love with you. (Extended meaning). Table 38.Data 38

38. I fell down the slippery slope. I fell down the slippery slope Pro V NP Causer Moving Object Table 39. Data 39

39. He fell overboard. He fell over board Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 40. Data 40

40. He fell on to was one of the beams […] that supports the lifeboats on the ship. He fell on to was one of the beams Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 41. Data 41

41. He fell off a chair while he was trying to change the curtains. He fell off a chair Pro V Adv. NP Causer Locus

Table 42. Data 42

42. It actually fell from this tree above. It actually fell from this tree above Pro Adv. V Prep. NP Adv. Causer Locus

Table 43. Data 43

43. I just about fell out of my chair.

I just about fell out of my chair

Pro Adv. V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 44. Data 44

44. I fell in the Corpus Christi […] bay one night and laughs it was dry off and go home. I fell in the Corpus Christi Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 45. Data 45

45. Forgy fell onto the landing […] and died. Forgy fell onto the landing Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 46. Data 46 . 46. She fell into the water. She fell into the water Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 47. Data 47

47. She fell into the sand. She fell into the sand Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 48. Data 48

48. Scraps of wood fell to the floor.

Scraps of wood fell to the floor Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 49. Data 49

49. Sugar fell onto the page. Sugar fell onto the page Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 50. Data 50

50. The jar fell from his hands. The jar fell from his hands Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 51. Data 51

51. It fell to the floor. It fell to the floor Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 52. Data 52

52. She fell into a hole. She Fell into a hole Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table 53. Data 53

53. Two people fell into an ice hole in the lake.

Two people fell into an ice in the lake hole Pro V Prep. NP Prep. NP Causer Locus Locus

Table 54. Data 54

54. Jen fell into the sofa a tear slipped onto her lap. Jen fell into the sofa Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table. 55. Data 55

55. A bright red tablet fell onto the tablet [...] in front of him.

A bright red tablet fell onto the tablet Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table.56. Data 56

56. The box in her hand fell to the floor.

The box in her hand fell to the floor Pro Prep NP V Prep. NP Causer locus

Table 57. Data 57

57. The holocaust began a little bit later, but now, all of a sudden, it's

forgotten and we remember November 9th as the day when[…] the

Berlin Wall fell apart

The Berlin wall fell apart Pro V Adv. Causer

Table 58. Data 58

58. A steel beam fell on him. A steel beam fell on him Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table. 59. Data 59 59. The students fell in front of the tanks. The fell in front of the tanks students Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Table. 60. Data 60.

60. Snow fell in such unlikely places as Oceanside.

Snow fell in such unlikely places as Oceanside Pro V Prep. NP causer Locus

b. “Fall” Verb in Makassarese Language Data

1. Tu’guru’

Table 61 Data 61.

61. Tu’guru’mi ladaku. Tu’guru’ mi ladaku V Adv. NP Moving object

Tu’guru’ mi lada ku 55

Fall over particle chili sauce me (poss.pro.)

My chili sauce felt over.

Table. 62. Data 62

62. Tu’guru’ ki Anakku ri sapedana.

Tu’guru’ ki anakku ri sapedana V Pro NP Prep. NP Causer Moving Locus object Ta’guru’ ki anak ku ri sapeda na

Fal 3 sg (deict.) child my(poss.pro.) from bicycle her( poss.pro).

My daughter falls from her bicycle.

Table 63. Data 63

63. Tu’guru ki care-care na i Lina. Tu’guru’ ki care-care na I Lina V Pro NP Causer Moving object Tu’guru’ ki care-carena I Lina

Fall 3 sg (deict.) clothes 3sg(deict.)

Lina’s clothes falls

Table 64. Data 64

64. Tu’ guru’mi ceregen nu[…] ka tena baji batenu ammoli’. Tu’guru ’ mi ceregen nu V Adv. NP Pro Moving object Causer Tu’guru’ mi ceregen nu

Fall already jerry can your (poss.pro)

Your jerry can falls because you are not careful to put it.

2. Ammattung/ amma’bung

Table 65. Data 65

65. Ammattungi taipayya batttu ri pokok na.

Ammattung I taipayya battu ri pokok na V Pro NP Prep. NP Causer Moving Locus object Ammattung I taipa yya battu ri pokok na

Fall 3sg (deictic) mango our (poss.pro) from tree its(poss.pro)

The mango falls from the tree.

Table 66. Data 66

66. Ammattungi katoan na […] ka tena na bajiki batenna ammoli’ Ammattung I katoanna V Pro NP Causer Moving object Ammattung I katoan na

Fall 3 sg (deictic) washbasin her (poss.pro)

Her washbasin falls.

Table 67. Data 67

67. Uh, karaeng! amma’bung anjo lamariyya. Uh, karaeng amma’bung anjo lamariyya Expression V Pro NP Causer Moving object Uh, karaeng amma’bung anjo lamari yya

Expression V 3 sg cupboard its (poss. pro)

Oh my god! that cupboard falls.

Table 68. Data 68

68. Ammattungi pannena dg. Caya. Ammattung I panne na Dg. Caya V Pro NP Causer Moving object Ammattung I panne na dg. Caya

Fall 3 sg (deict) plate her(poss.pro)

Dg. Caya’s plate falls

Table 69. Data 69

69. Lompona sa’ranna amma’bung anjo telepisi na dg. Ngugi. Lompona sa’ranna amma’bung anjo telepisi na Dg. Ngugi Adj. Frequency V Pro NP Causer Moving object Lompona sa’ranna amma’bung anjo telepisi na dg. Ngugi

Very voice fall 3 sg (deict.) television her(poss.pro)

The voice of dg. Ngugi’s television is noisy when falling down.

Table 70. Data 70

70. Ammattungi anjo kappala’ angri’baka ri langi’. Ammattungi anjo kappala’ang ri langi’ ri’baka V Pro NP Prep. NP Causer Moving object Locus Ammattungi anjo kappala’ri’baka ri langi’

Fall 3sg plane from the sky

The plane from the sky falls.

Table 71. Data 71

71. Teako angngambiki poko’taipayya[ ammattung ko Sallang!] Ammattung ko sallang V NP Adv. Moving object ammaattung ko sallang

fall you(2sg) later

you will fall!

Table 72. Data 72

72. Oh, karaeng Allah ta’ala! ammattungi anakku ri tuka. Oh, ammattung I anakku ri tuka’ karaeng Allah ta’ala Expression V Pro NP Prep. NP Causer Moving Locus object Oh my god! Amma’bung I anak ku ri tuka’

Expression fall 3 sg(deictic) child my(poss. pro.) from the ladder .

Oh, my god! My daughter falls from the ladder.

3. Ta’tindola’

Table 73. Data 73

73. Ta’tindola’ ki Mejanna amma’ku. Ta’tindola’ ki mejanna amma’ku V Pro NP Causer Moving object Ta’tindola’ ki mejan na amma’ ku

Fall 3sg(deic.) table her( poss. Pro) mother my (poss.pro). 59

My mother’s table falls.

Table 74. Data 74

74. Ta’tindola’ki kaderana i baso […] ka jai dudu I giyo’-giyo’na ammempo. Ta’tindola’ ki kaderana i baso V Pro NP Causer Moving object Ta’tindola’ ki kadera na i Baso

Fall 3sg(deict.) chair his(poss.pro) 3 sg(deict.). Baso.

Baso’s chair falls

4. Angra’ba

Table 75. Data 75 75. Angra’ba i kalli’ bulo na subanggi […] na pakamma alitana.

Angra’ba I kalli’ bulo na subangngi V Pro NP Adv. Causer Moving object Angra’ba I kalli’ bulo na subanggi

Fall 3sg(deict.) bamboo fence 3sg (deict) yesterday.

Her Bamboo fence fell yesterday.

Table 76.Data 76

76. Angra’ba i poko’-poko’ ka. Angra’ba I poko’-poko’ ka V Pro NP Causer Moving object Angra’ba I poko’-poko’ ka

Fall 3sg(deict.) tree 3sg(deict.).

The tree falls.

5. Rurusu’

Table 77. Data 77

77. Sanna’jai na rurusu’ leko’-leko’ ri aganga […] na pakamma anging.

Sanna’ jai Na rurusu’ leko-leko’ ri aganga Adv. Pro V NP Prep. NP Causer Moving Locus object Sanna’ jai na rurusu’ leko’leko’ ri aganga

Many 3sg(deict) fall leaves in the street

Many leaves fall down in the street that happens the wind.

6. Junang

Table 78. Data 78

78. Junangi anjo layang-layang marrak[…] na erang anging. Junang i anjo layang-layang na erang anging marrak V Pro NP clause Causer Moving object Junang I anjo layang-layang marrak na erang anging.

Fall 3sg(deict.) big kite dependent clause.

The big kite falls because it was brought by the wind.

7. Lelasa’

Table 79 . Data 79

79. Lelasa’ki tangken na poko’ jambua. Lelasa’ ki tangkenna poko’ jambua V Pro NP Causer Moving object 61

Lelasa’ ki tangken na poko’ jambu a

Fall 3sg(deict.) stem its(poss.pro) guava tree its(poss.pro).

The stem of guava tree falls.

8. Runang

Table 80. Data 80

80. Runang kabusu’ jambu na dg. Sambara’[…] na sambila batu anak- anak sikolayya. Runang kabusu’ jambu na dg. Sambara’ V NP Pro Moving object Causer Runang kabusu’ jambu na dg. Sambara’.

Fall all guava 3sg(deict,) dg. Sambara’

All guavas of Dg. Sambara’ falls.

9. Runtung

Table 81. Data 81

81. Na runtungngi kalambua Na runtung ngi kalambua Pro V Pro NP Causer Causer Moving object na runtung i kalambu a

3sg fall 3sg(deict.) mosquito net its (poss.pro).

Mosquito net falls on him or her.

Table 82. Data 82

82. Na runtungiya’ kalambu.

Na runtungi ya’ Kalambu Pro V Pro NP Causer Causer Moving object Na runtung i ya’ kalambu.

1sg (deict.) fall 1sg(deict.) 1sg mosquito net.

Mosquito net fall on me.

Table 83. Data 83

83. Na runtungi Balla’ suciyya. Na Runtung i balla’ suciyya Pro V Pro NP Causer Causer Moving object Na runtung I Balla’ suci yya

3sg(deict) fall 3sg Balla’suci its (poss.pro).

The Balla suci falls.

1. Recapitulation of English and Makassarese Language in Fall

Verb of Drop Subtype as well as Grammatical Construction of

Related example

Fall means to somebody or something that moving place from up

to down which the move action is uncontrolling motion towards the

ground. The moving role is the intransitive subject, while the subject slot

is filled by the causer. The moving role may be noun phrase is often

specified by either a natural force responsible, and then noun phrase of

Locus is always specified marked by preposition. 63

Tu’guru’ means fall that has distance between starting position to the falling position is short and the moving process is from up to down.

The moving role is always in the object slot and the causer in the subject slot. The subject may be omitted and represented by the adverb.

Ammattung or Amma’bung means something fall up to down which is marked by a noisy sound because has distance fall that far or deep.

The moving role is always in object slot and the causer in the subject slot, and then subject always after verb slot.

Ta’tindola’ refers to something or somebody fall on the chair or table. Its mean that a chair or a table is not balance. The moving role is always in the object slot and the causer is in the subject slot. Locus is always stated because the locus as explanatory of moving object.

Angra’ba refers to something fall which the something is embedded or stuck in the ground. The moving role is the object slot and in the subject slot is filled by the causer.

Rurusu’ means a leaf that falls from its tree. The moving and the causer role are in the object and subject slot respectively. The noun phrase as locus that marked by position of preposition before noun phrase.

Junang refers to something that fall waved from the sky because there is wind. The moving role is always in the object slot and the cause in the subject slot. There is subject in second slot or after the verb slot.

Lelasa’ refers to a branch fall down because the branch had

decayed. The moving role is always in the object slot and the causer in

subject slot.

Runang means something fall from high to down because there is

deliberately action such as, thrown with stones. Thus, the subject or

something fall down. The moving role is always in the object slot and

the causer in subject slot.

Runtung come from word ‘Runtuh’ in Indonesian language. Its

mean ‘falls to pieces’. Runtung mean something fall because fall to

pieces in the ground. The moving role is always in the object slot and

the causer in subject slot. Besides that, the causer in subject slot may

be there are two in a clause.

In short time, Drop subtype covers verbs indicating motion in collocation with some moving object. These verbs are all transitive, except for fall verb. It refers to unwanted motion. The moving role is mapped by intransitive subject in causer slot which often specified either a natural force responsible for the movement. While locus slot is part of place that is marked by noun phrase intransitive that is followed by preposition but is not obligatory.

In Makassarese language, there are nine verbs that implied the specification fall position. There are several verbs that is specified base on the distance of fall in movement and noisy sound, such as Tu’guru’ and 65

Ammattung or amma’bung. Even there are also verb that not only implied the part in fall position, but include the things or noun. They are, Ta’tindola’, rususu’ lelasa’ and junang. Besides that, tu’guru’ and ammattungor amma’bung are verbs that always is used by Makassar people. The last, runang verb is the deliberate action.

2. Componential Analysis of Makassarese Language

Componential analysis is based on the presumption that the meaning of a word is composed of semantic components. Thus, the essential features that form the meaning are elementary units on semantic level. From the componential analysis, it is possible to state the smallest indivisible units of lexis or minimal components (Aitchison, 2003:92)

Componential analysis is particularly applicable to distinguishing the meaning of lexemes that are semantically related or in the same semantic domain. It is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal distinctive features; that is, into components which contrast with other components. It refers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as

‘‘present’’ or ‘‘indifferent with reference to feature’’. To describe the presence and absence of a feature binary rules are used. The symbol ‘+’ means the feature is present, while ‘-‘means the feature is absent (Saeed,

2009:260).

In this research, some Makassarese language motion verbs almost have similar meaning, so that it is important to make a componential analysis. It is very useful to make differentiation between verbs with another.

The componential analysis of Makassarese language is in the following table:

B. Discussion

1. Motion Verbs in English and Makassarese Language Base on Fall

verb in Drop subtype divided by Dixon

Fall verb is part of Drop subtype which somebody or something that moving place from up to down that has moving action is uncontrolling motion towards the ground. The moving role is the intransitive subject. While the subject slot is filled by the causer .The moving role may be noun phrase is often specified by either a natural force responsible. Then noun phrase of

Locus is always specified marked by preposition. The prepositions are some of the actual body part of human and some others are non-moving locus. It shows in the data number 13, 20, 27, 51 which the preposition shows the actual body part that involved in the activity, namely: you head, his eyes, his knees, and his hands.

Preposition shows the additional non-moving locus in data numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 15, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 42,

44, 45, 47, 49, 52, 54, 55, 59 and 60. They are; the librarian’s house, bed, the bounds, the water, the washing machine, the carter trap, canopy, the bedroom closet, home, a window, the lake, the water, a chair, board, was one of the beams, this locus, the corpus cristi, the landing, the sand, the page, a hole, the sofa, the table, the tank, such unlikely places as

Oceanside. 69

The other verbs the specification of locus is optional and the preposition shows the non-moving locus. They are a kind of place word.

Those are; Moscow and Durago that shows in data number 19 and 22.

In Makassarese language there are nine verbs refers to “Fall” verb that different in Semantic aspect. Nam ely; tu’guru’, ammattung or amma’bung, ta’tindola’, angra’ba, rurusu’, junang, lelasa’, runang and runtung. In generally, all of fall verb in Makakassarese are different with fall verb in English which in English fall verb is intransitive verb its mean there is no objet. Meanwhile, in Makassarese language, fall verbs are transitive verb which meaning of those verbs are distinguished by object movement.

“Fall” verbs in Makassarese language have similar meaning with

English based on the locus slot. Both of those languages have noun phrase as locus that is marked by preposition. For Makassarese language moving locus there is sapedana (her bicycle) in tu’guru’. Besides Makassarese language also have non - moving locus such as pokokna (its tree), langi’

(sky), tuka’(ladder) and aganga (street).

2. The Similarities and Differences of Motion Verbs in English and -

Makassarese Base on Fall verb in Drop subtype divided by Dixon

a. The similarities

Both English and Makassarese language can be compared by

using Dixon’s theory. Generally, both languages can occur on various

objects such as somebody, something, heavy things and weight things.

When the object moves from up to down then, it will result sound as sign

that the process of “fall” had been occurred.

In addition, both languages have their own factors which cause that

movement such as the existence of wind, deliberate action and broken.

So, something (moving object) will fall.

b. Differences

(1) Linguistic Aspect for “Fall” verb

Based on the result of data analysis, the researcher found out the differences between English and Makassarese language data in their linguistic aspect for fall verb, where the researcher emphasizes between

Semantic and Syntax of both data. His categorization is below:

Linguistic aspects for “Fall” verb 71

English Makassarese Language

Semantic Fall 1. Ta’tindola’

2. Ammattung or Amma’bung

3. Ta’tindola’

4. Angra’ba

5. Rurusu’

6. Junang

7. Lelasa’

8. Runang

9. Runtung

Syntax Intransitive Transitive

Table 2. Linguistic Aspect for “Fall” verb.

2) Clause Structure

Generally, as shown in finding before, the basic clause structure of

Makassarese language is different from English. In English, the construction mostly are started by subject or something as causer slot which is followed by fall as verb without noun phrase as moving object because fall verb in

English categories as intransitive verb. The locus slot is marked by preposition. Meanwhile in Makassarese language, the construction mostly are started by fall as verb, subject in causer slot, noun phrase as moving object and the locus slot that is marked by preposition such as:

English construction:

A steel beam fell on him Pro V Prep. NP Causer Locus

Makassarese language construction:

Ammattung i taipayya battu ri pokok na V Pro NP Prep. NP Causer Moving Locus object

Based on the Makassarese language data shown in finding, there are six variations or patterns of constructions in Makassarese language as in the follow table:

No. Pattern Verb Makassarese Language Data

1. VP+NP+NP Tu’guru’ [VP[V tu’guru’ki] [NPanakku] [NP

sapedaku]

My daughter falls from the bicycle .

[VP[V tu’guru’] [NP ki][NPcare-care na I

Lina]

Ammattu Lina’s clothes falls.

ng/amma [VP[Vammattungi] [NP taipayya] [NP

’bung pokokna]

The mango falls from tree.

[VP[Vamma’bungi] [NPkappala’ri’baka]

[NPlangi’] 73

The plane fall from thesky.

[VP[Vammattungi] [NPanakku] [NPtuka’]

My daughter fall from the ladder.

VP[V amma’bung] [ NP anjo] [lamariyya]

That cupboard falls.

[VP[Vamma’bung] [NPi] [NPpanne na dg.

Caya].

Dg. Caya’s plate falls.

[VP[Vammattungi] [NPkatoanna]

Her washbasin falls.

Runang [VP[Vrunang] [NP kabusu’jambu] [NPna dg.

Sambara].

All rose apple of dg. Sambara’ falls.

Runtung [VP[Vna runtung] [NPi] [NP kalambua]

Mosquito net falls on him or her.

[VP[V na runtung] [NP iya’] [NP kalambu]

Mosquito net fall on me.

[VP[Vna runtung] [ NP i] [ NP balla’ suciyya]

The Balla’ suci falls.

Ta’tindola VP[V ta’tindola’] [NP ki] [NP mejanna

’ ammakku].

My mothers’ table falls.

VP[Vta’tindola’] [NPki] [NP kaderana I

Baso]

Angra’ba Baso’s chair falls.

VP[Vangra’ba] [NPi] [NP poko’-poko’ ka]

The tree falls.

2. VP+NP+ADV Ammattu VP[Vammattung] [NP ko] [ADV sallang]

ng Don’t fall you will fall!

3. ADJ.P+VP+N Amma’bu ADJ.P[lompona] [VP[V amma’bung]

P ng [NPtelepisina]

The voice of dg. Ngugi’s voice is noisy

when fall down.

4. ADV+VP+NP+ Rurusu’ [ADV sanna’jaina] [VP[rurusu’] [NPleko’-

NP leko’] [NP agang]

Many leaves fall down in the street that

happen the wind.

5. VP+ADV+NP Tu’guru’ VP[V Tu’guru’] [ADVmi] [NPladaku]

My sauce falls.

VP[Vtu’guru’ki] [ADVmi] [NPceregennu]

Your jerry cans falls because you are not

careful to put it.

6. VP+NP+NP+ Angra’ba VP[V[ angra’ba][ NP i] [NP kalli’bulona]

ADV [ADV subanggi] 75

Her Bamboo fell yesterday

Table 3. The pattern of Makassarese language clause’s constructions

From the table above shows that it is general to not begin the sentence with noun phrase (NP) as subject but with verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (ADJ.P) or adverb (ADV). In general, it is different from

English which is all the data of “fall” verb in English based on Drop subtype follow the pattern of NP( subject)+VP(intransitive)+ ADV as optional.

Most of the VP in Makassarese language sentence consist of prefix or suffix which reflect the subject pronoun of the sentence. They are prefix-

‘na’, and suffix-‘I’, ‘iyya’,’a’, Prefix-‘na’ and suffix-‘iyya’ reflects first person singular pronoun of the sentence. While suffix-‘I’ and ‘a’ reflects third person pronoun of the sentence.

From Coca’s data, it is identified that there is gap in Dixon’s theory about fall verb in Drop subtype that subject or something as causer slot which is followed by fall as verb without noun phrase as moving object because fall verb in English categories as intransitive verb. The locus slot is marked by preposition. The fact, the researcher found one data in Coca which contrast to Dixon’s statement. The data is;

3. I fell down the slippery slope. I fell down the slippery slope Pro V NP Causer Moving Object

The data above shows that there is NP as moving object in English clause’s construction that indicates if theory of Dixon is not suitable to this research.

(3) Triangulation analysis

Dixon’s theory

Tringulation

COCA Makassarese language

Figure 3. Triangulation Analysis

The tringulation analysis shows that in the process of analysis data, the researcher finds out the similarity between English which was examined through data from coca and Makassarese language which was found through native speakers of Makassar city. The similarity was shown by the data above “I fell down the slippery slope” where this data was categirized as transitive. It is same with Makassarese language. Thus, in Dixon theory, the position of Fall verb in coca and Makassarese language is similar.

(4) Additional Explanation about context of Data 77

This part explains about detail explanation of data context where the researcher suggests to describe the data more specific for gaining the understanding of the reader.

Table 61 Data 61

61. Tu’guru’mi ladaku. Tu’guru’ mi ladaku V Adv. NP Moving object Tu’guru’ mi lada ku

Fall over particle chili sauce me (poss.pro.)

My chili sauce felt over.

Note:

In generally chili sauce always drips but in this case, this chili sauce

is in a bowl and it falls with its bowl.

Table 83 Data 83

84. Na runtungi Balla’ suciyya. Na Runtung i balla’ suciyya Pro V Pro NP Causer Causer Moving object Na runtung I Balla’ suci yya

3sg(deict) fall 3sg Balla’suci its (poss.pro).

The Balla suci falls.

Note:

Balla Suci is formed like as the roof of house.Its poles are made by bamboo and its roof is made by the leaves of coconut tree.

The function of Balla’ suci is as the sign of sacred ritual, especially for marriage ritual.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion

The preceding chapter has explained “fall” verb of Drop subtype in

English and Makassarese language entirely. Based on that, some conclusions can be drawn as follows;

In English there is fall verb that only one kind for all context and situation. While, “fall” verb in Makassarese language there are nine kinds of

“fall” verb found in this research that different in Semantic aspect. Namely; ta’tindola’, ammattung or amma’bung, ta’tindola’, angra’ba, rurusu’, junang, lelasa’, runang and runtung. There are several verbs that is specified based on the distance of fall in movement and noisy sound, such as tu’guru’ and ammattung or amma’bung.

Even there are also verb that not only implied the part in fall position, but include the things or noun. They are, ta’tindola’, rususu’ lelasa’ and junang. Besides that, tu’guru’ and ammattungor amma’bung are verbs that always is used by Makassar people. The last, runang verb is the deliberate action.

In addition, from coca’s data, it is identified that there is gap in

Dixon’s theory about fall verb in Drop subtype that subject or something as

causer slot which is followed by fall as verb without noun phrase as moving object because “fall” verb in English categories as intransitive verb. The locus slot is marked by preposition. The fact, data from Coca there is one data that contrast with Dixon’s statement such as; I fell down the slippery slope. ‘The slippery slot’ is marked as NP moving object in English sentence’s construction. Thus, it can be categories as transitive verb same with fall verb in Makassarese language.

The main differences between English and Makassarese language of “fall” verb in Drop subtype are different in the grammatical constructions.

The particular differences of “fall” verb in Drop subtype both of them can be seen from two aspects, semantically and sintax. From clause structure, it can be found that basically the clause structure of Makassarese language is different from English. English construction mostly are started by subject or something as causer slot which is followed by fall as verb without noun phrase as moving object because “fall” verb in English categories as intransitive verb. The locus slot is marked by preposition. While in

Makassarese language the construction mostly are started by fall as verb, subject in causer slot, noun phrase as moving object and locus slot that is marked by preposition.

However, the clause structures in Makassarese language have some variations and can be simplified to become only a verb (or a verb phrase) as long as the subject is plainly comprehensible from the previous context. The variations of Makassarese language clause structure are 81

VP+NP+NP, VP+NP+ADV, ADJ.P+VP+NP, ADV+VP+NP+NP,

VP+ADV+NP and VP+NP+NP+ADV.

B. SUGGESTION

This current study applies semantic approach to analyze grammar of language. There are some other categories that are proposed by Dixon.

This current study takes one verb that is “Fall” verb which “Fall” verb is one of member in Drop subtype. The future, the researcher expects that there will be another researcher who takes other subtype of Dixon to analyze or applies another local language to be compared to English.

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APPENDICES I

A. DATA FROM COCA

Data 1:

Source Information:

Date 2015 Publication Feb2014, Vol. 57 Issue 5, p387-396. 10p. 2 Color Photographs, 1 information Chart. Title The Role of Digital Literacy Practices on Refugee Resettlement Author Gilhooly, Daniel; Lee, Eunbae; Source ACAD: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy

Expanded context:

Dell laptop. Chit Poe was usually found in the living room watching YouTube videos or reading about events in Burma at the family desktop. Other times they were all huddled around the family desktop watching a movie or music video. # One of Narko's drawings provides a telling account of his personal isolation and reliance on online friendships (Figure 1). In the picture, he depicted his daily routine of chatting online with his girlfriend. The picture illustrates him lying in bed with his laptop. In the talk bubble he wrote, " HGH his initials fall in love with computer (indiscernible) so far? " He also included two hearts on the screen. # Such online interactions not only provided companionship but also became critical in alleviating the trauma and isolation often associated with resettlement (Lewig, Arney, Salveron, & Barredo, 2010). Moreover, the brothers were able to create new friendships and networks within the Karen diaspora community. These relationships served a psychosocial function for the brothers and exposed them to a vast network of information that assisted them with

Data 2:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Mar/Apr2015, Vol. 43 Issue 4, p54-61. 8p. 1 Color Photograph. information Title THE PARADOX OF OUR PROFESSION Author Martin, Ann M.; Panter, Suzanna L.; Source ACAD: Knowledge Quest

Expanded context:

school libraries. In this report the school librarian was seen as a professional and " under no circumstance should be expected to do clerical work " and " should have the ability to work for and with teachers " (NEA 1918, 12). This report is evidence that school librarians have a rich history collaborating with teachers to up the instructional game in the school. Instructional partnerships transform learning by integrating literacy skills and core dispositions into curriculum content. In an elementary school collaborative library activity, students studying about the weather were asked to determine when a tree fell on the librarian's house. To determine the approximate time, students explored general information about the weather from digital and print resources. They researched how hard the wind blew each hour and whether it was raining. Next, at the whiteboard they created a graph by plotting the wind, temperature, and rain. Most--though not all— the students decided that the time of day when the wind was the strongest and the rain the hardest was when the tree fell on the house. Students then summarized their findings in

Data 3:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Sep2015, Vol. 206 Issue 5, p517-526. 10p. information Title Poetry and the Memory of Fame Author McCARTHY, THOMAS; Source ACAD: Poetry

Expanded context:

grandson of the Duke of Leinster sent a car to Shannon to collect me. But in Iowa, at the International Writing Program, I had encountered the modern and this had punctured the balloon of the hermetic aristocracy. I tried to settle down to a more modern and humiliating ordinary life in the city library. But in those years, when I was still only in my mid-twenties, work was just an interlude of rest between flights; for when you're 87

young and suddenly visible the world absolutely adores you. It literally wants to eat you. I fell into bed each night shredded by attention. It is truly impossible to explain, but it is bigger than any personal strength that one can muster against it; one is simply carried along and constantly, youthfully, so ungrateful. # Those were my two great encounters with fame: seven glorious years that have been followed by over two decades of a productive quiet. There is a time for everything, I think, and life is generally very wise. It comforts the poet who will listen. In

Data 4:

Source Information : Date 2015 Publication Spring2015, Vol. 43 Issue 2, p27-43. 17p. information Title Counselors As Policy Actors: Challenges to Systemic Involvement in College and Career Readiness Policy In Secondary Schools Author STONE-JOHNSON, CORRIE; Source ACAD: American Secondary Education

Expanded context: career aspects of their work, unlike teachers whom they felt had a larger role. # Challenges to Systemic Involvement and Policy Engagement # The findings in this study show differing perceptions about counselors' work and about whose responsibility it is to support students. First, the counselors in this study perceived that teachers' lack of knowledge about the role of counselors was used to shift work onto counselors. Because the territory of what counselors did was nebulous, teachers might recognize that this work was not clearly the counselor's role, but also perceive that it did not fall distinctly outside of the bounds of counselors' work. Interviews with teachers revealed that, while they understood that counselors are n distinctly ot social workers or teachers, they continued to rely on them for these duties, at times rather than doing the work themselves. This reliance created a challenge to systemic involvement because it gave teachers a sense that they did not have to do the work with counselors. A second-year special education teacher stated: # We don't have a social worker anymore, which I think, in

Data 5:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Autumn2014, Vol. 22 Issue 3, p183-187. 5p. information Title 'Wondering and waiting' after obstetrical brachial plexus injury: Are we underestimating the effects of the traumatic experience on the families? Author DeMatteo, Carol; Bain, James R.; Gjertsen, Deborah; Harper, Jessica A.; Source ACAD: Plastic Surgery

Expanded context:

, with risk factors including birth weight >4000 g, shoulder dystocia, multiparity, prolonged labour, assisted delivery, maternal diabetes and breech presentation (2, 3). The Narakas system classifies OBPI according to nerve injury severity, from least severe Narakas level I (C5-C6 lesion) to most severe Narakas level IV (C5-T1 lesion with Homer's sign) (4). # Spontaneous recovery for infants with OPBI is variable (30% to 80%) (5) and infants who do not recover spontaneously may undergo microsurgery to repair the damaged plexus. Children fall into a' gray zone' when the decision regarding the benefits and risk of surgery versus no surgery is unclear (6). Reports vary with regard to outcomes with and without surgery (1, 6, 7). # Although most of the literature has focused on the biological aspects of OBPI, a growing body of knowledge addresses the effects of this injury on the family. Kerr and McIntosh (8) reported that parental response to OBPI (shock, panic, denial, grief and anger

Data 6:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication LateWinter2015, Vol. 72 Issue 1, p20-43. 24p. information Title Insidious Influence of Gender Socialization on Females' Physical Activity: Rethink Pink Author Mullins, Nicole M.; Source ACAD: Physical Educator

Expanded context:

& Eccles, 1998; Jacobs, 1991; Tiedemann, 2000) provide more verbal and nonverbal interaction, more constructive criticism, and more appropriate praise to males than females and demonstrate higher expectations for males' abilities. These differential 89

behaviors can profoundly enhance boys' and limit girls' learning; for example, constructive criticism from competent sources is a form of augmented feedback known to enhance the acquisition of motor skills (Magill, 1994). Although individuals can learn some skills using inherent sources of feedback, such as the senses (e.g., see an object fall short of a target and learn to throw it with more force), augmented feedback is helpful in learning complex skills and attaining higher levels of proficiency (e.g., learn to throw the object with optimum efficiency, power, consistency). When individuals attempt complex skills wherein they cannot discern their own errors and do not receive augmented feedback, their learning may be severely impaired (Schmidt, 1991). When girls err, they are less likely to receive such feedback and therefore to enhance their physical

Data 8:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication 2015, Vol. 44 Issue 2, p147-149. 3p. information Title Environmental Context of Learning: Introduction to the Special Topic Author Burns, Matthew K; Source ACAD: School Psychology Review

Expanded context: were most at risk before the intervention began (e.g., students of minority ethnicity, students receiving special education, and students with initial achievement risk). # The special topic concludes with a meta-analysis by Noltemeyer, Ward, and Mclough-lin (2015) that demonstrates the negative effect that school suspensions have on student achievement and identifies the variables that affect that relationship. Investigating school suspensions as disciplinary policy has obvious systems implications. The five studies presented here all examine the context of student learning and provide research that is consistent with EST. However, these studies all fall within the microsystem or mesosystem, and additional research is needed to better understand the broader contexts beyond the two systems most directly connected to students. School psychology is ideally situated to conduct broader systems research, and these five articles represent an excellent addition to that line of inquiry. # REFERENCES Ayyash-Abdo, H. (2002). Adolescent suicide: An ecological approach. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 459475. # Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development:

Data 8:

Source information:

Date 2015 Publication Sep2015, Vol. 38 Issue 3, p255-274. 20p. 6 Color Photographs, 1 information Black and White Photograph, 3 Illustrations, 1 Map. Title 'Dear Old Phosphorescent Foolishness': End-of-Life Programs on American Radio Author Freeman, James; Source ACAD: Journal of American Culture

Expanded context:

blackness because no taxi would convey them to " Graveyard Mansion. " Once arrived, they remarked on the property's odd mists, distorting Spanish moss, silences, and neglected burial ground. Inside the decayed house, bats assaulted them. Most frighteningly, they saw a shimmering female form that raced down a hallway and disappeared into a dank crypt in the cellar. There they read the plaque on a wall tomb revealing that nearly 130 years ago the family immured a young woman. The next evening, a beautiful distant relation visited and caused one brother to fall in love with her. She called only during darkness. Subsequently, the two men discovered in the attic a miniature portrait of the woman who died in 1804; the departed looked exactly like the new love object. The smitten brother soon developed a wasting illness. After a restless night, he displayed two puncture marks on his neck that distressed the local doctor. By this point, most radio audiences recognized how the story must end. The mysterious woman indeed was the undead ancestor who prowled our world

Data 9:

Source information: Date 2015

Publication Jul2015, Vol. 46 Issue 3, p207-221. 15p. 1 Diagram, 4 Charts. information Title Vocabulary Instruction on Sesame Street: A Content Analysis of the Word on the Street Initiative Author Larson, Anne L.; Rahn, Naomi L.; Nippold, Marilyn; Masterson, Julie;

Source ACAD: Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools

Expanded context:

1995; Moses & Duke, 2008), we noted missed opportunities to include target words within each episode, with a significant deficit during the street scene. For example, in the episode titled, " Jack's Big Jump, " Jack stumbles while attempting to jump over a line of candlesticks. Onscreen characters encourage Jack to try again but do not label the 91

stumbling action that is shown on screen. The target word stumble is used only one time in the street scene when a kangaroo sings, " Don't worry if you stumble or if you fall and get a bump. " Multiple exposures to the same verb through similar, but different, video examples can increase young children's knowledge of that word (Twomey et al., 2014). The street scene provides an excellent opportunity to teach words within a story context and to facilitate initial understanding of a new word. It is unfortunate to note that the street scene is the most underutilized segment of the Word on the Street initiative. We suggest increasing opportunities for vocabulary learning within the street scene by

Data 10: Source information: Date 2015 Publication Jul/Aug2015, Vol. 206 Issue 4, p356-367. 12p. information Title How It Feels Author ZHANG, JENNY; Source ACAD: Poetry

Expanded context: needed to pee every twenty minutes, my diseased urine dribbling through the leafy branches. " O! " I said, " I hope I don't accidentally pee on someone's head. " Afterward we said goodbye in the doorway of the studio I was subletting in the Bastille he was leaving to go back to Scotland and I was leaving to go back to the US and just as I was beginning to mourn what I had to leave behind, I heard a knock at the door and it was him again. " It would be easy to fall in love with someone like you difficult in fact not to, " he said, granting me my lifelong wish of being my own protagonist in a movie. " O " I said, " I won't be able to forget you. " " O! " I said when I saw my grandmother for the first time in three years, chilled by how old she looked this time, too old to dye her hair black like how she used to and how the hair dye she used was

Data 11:

Source information:

Date 2015 (150104) Publication Section AR; Column 0; Arts and Leisure Desk; Pg. 18 information Title Showing the Smarts to Play the Genius Author By CHARLES McGRATH Source NEWS: New York Times

Expanded context:

to earth is that it took him awhile to succeed. " " He knows what it's like to struggle, " she said. Ms. White hired him not so much for his star quality as for his intelligence and quick- wittedness. The script, by Tom Stoppard, was dense and complicated, she explained, and Mr. Stoppard, who was on the set a lot, was fussy about having his lines spoken the way he wrote them. Because the character of Tietjens is not immediately likable, Ms. White also needed an actor who could make the audience fall in love with him. " It was a hell of a challenge, " she said. " But he has boundless energy -- he just keeps coming and coming. And he has this pure ability to inhabit a character. " When she goes anywhere now with Mr. Cumberbatch, she said, they're mobbed. " He's not a matinee idol -- he doesn't have those looks -- but people adore him. Everyone does: My teenage daughter. My mum, who is in her 90s

Data 12:

Source information: Date 2015 (150204)

Publication Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; LISDOONVARNA JOURNAL; Pg. 11 information Title A Matchmaker and a Festival Keep an Irish Tradition Alive

Author By SALLY McGRANE

Source NEWS: New York Times

Expanded context: the annual matchmaking festival in nearby Lisdoonvarna -- a weekslong autumnal event famed for its all-day dancing and spontaneous, often late-night, marriage proposals. While the festival is on, Mr. Daly conducts business in a pub. For a small fee (usually $10 to $15), he takes down the details of those seeking partners. He keeps these details in a large, overflowing book held together with tape and a shoestring, inherited from his matchmaker father and possessed, he says, of supernatural romantic powers (if you touch it 93

with one hand, you will fall in love in six months; both hands, you will be married in six months; and if you are already married, you will fall in love all over again). Then, sometimes with no more than a twinkle and a nod, he might introduce two people, buying a woman a drink or nudging a farmer toward the dance floor. " There's a good deal of magic in it, " he said. " I'm not a big believer in too many words. "

Data 13:

Source information: Date 2015 (150505) Publication Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 information Title Odd Push in Drug-Averse Norway: LSD Is O.K. Author By ANDREW HIGGINS; Henrik Pryser Libell contributed reporting. Source NEWS: New York Times

Expanded context:

serious threat to public health. The United Nations' Commission on Narcotic Drugs added MDMA to Schedule I in 1986. The United Nations convention banned their use " except for scientific and very limited medical purposes by duly authorized persons. " It also exempted psychedelics contained in plants " used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites. " Mr. Johansen said the dangers connected with psychedelic drugs had been exaggerated by stories that did not take into account probability. " Everything carries a risk. If you walk in a forest, a tree may fall on your head, but does this mean you should never go in the woods? " Dr. Madsen, of the Norwegian Medicines Agency, conceded that there " are a lot of myths " about psychedelic drugs like claims that " if you use LSD, you will jump from the roof. " All the same, he sees no quick way around a thicket of laws and strict regulations on their use. " Everyone sees we have to be very careful with these drugs, " he said. "

Data 14:

Source information: Date 2015 (150604) Publication Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 4 information Title In Yangtze Disaster, Doubts on Captain^s Judgment Author By MICHAEL FORSYTHE; Austin Ramzy contributed reporting from Hong Kong. Kiki Zhao, Vanessa Piao, Cherie Chan, Adam Wu and Yufan Huang contributed re Source NEWS: New York Times

Expanded context:

But the former crew member said safety was played down on the Oriental Star when she served as a tour guide on the ship in 2010. " Before the ship set out, the senior tour guide spent an afternoon teaching us, the new guys, about the safety instructions, " said the woman, who declined to be identified out of fear of retribution. " Actually, we were not taught how to deal with emergencies at all, but only things like:' Grannies should sit tight. Don't injure yourself on board. Don't fall into the water.' " Mr. Zhang was rescued downstream several hours after his ship capsized and has been held by the authorities since. Calls to his cellphone were answered by a message that the phone was off. Reached by phone, the captain of one of the Oriental Star's sister ships, the Oriental Prince, who gave only his surname, Chen, said that the company's ships are equipped with 20 percent more life jackets than there are passengers and crew members onboard and that passengers receive

Data 15:

Source information: Date 2015 (150108) Publication MONEY; Pg. 3D information Title Best of the best from the floor Source NEWS: USA Today

Expanded context:

. It doubles as a pedestal and is designed to be gentle on your clothes. Those who want a second washer to run a delicates cycle at the same time as their normal laundry should be pleased with this space-saving, time-saving concept. Samsung Active Wash Washing Machine Most folks who pre-treat their laundry do so on top of the washer. But the Samsung Active Wash top-load washer hides a small glass basin and water jet beneath its lid that can be used for soaking and pre-treating. When you're done using the basin, 95

you can just let the water fall into the washing machine. It's like adding a sink to your laundry room, and it doesn't take away from the washer's capacity. Whirlpool Sunset Bronze Kitchen Suite Sunset Bronze is Whirlpool's new true stainless steel color option inspired by rose gold. It promises a unique -- yet still familiar -- look, for those who want something a little different from traditional silver stainless. Countless hours of research went into developing a new color that will match the cabinetry of both existing kitchens and new remodels.

Data 16:

Source information: Date 2015 (150709) Publication SPORTS; Pg. 1C information Title Smoltz: Young pitchers not handled properly Author Bob Nightengale, Source NEWS: USA Today

Expanded context:

with velocity. These players have never learned to really pitch. So when they blow out, they come back too quickly, throw as hard as they can and are soon back on the operating table. " We're not developing pitchers the right way, " Smoltz said. " We're asking them to go as hard as you can and as short as you can, and that's not good enough. " So when they come back from this, that's all they really know. It looks sexy. It feels good. And we fall in love with it. But these guys are not given the balance, or they're not given the proper time to figure out what kind of pitcher they are. I'm fearful and feel bad for a lot of these guys. " The rash of surgeries and the neglect to teach the art of pitching leaves Smoltz incensed, and his passion will be reflected in his Hall of Fame speech. " I really want to really capture how it happened for me, not just getting to the Hall

Data 17:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Jul2015, Vol. 46 Issue 3, p82-89. 8p. 8 Color Photographs. information Title ORANGE LIKE US Author Solomon, Akiba; Source MAG: Essence

Expanded context:

're like, " She likes me, " and I'm like, " No, I'm just trying to connect with you. " # I can hang with the boys at the gym: I try to run three or four miles at least two or three times a week and lift weights. I like going to the parts of the gym where only men exercise. I'm a little overly ambitious sometimes. I'll wonder, Can I pull myself up here? I won't know, but I'll try and hope I don't falldown. # UZO ADUBA (Crazy Eyes), 34 # The daughter of " very traditional " Nigerian parents, Boston-born Aduba always thought she would pursue a career in law. But at the urging of a high school drama teacher, she majored in classical voice at Boston University and eventually found her way to Broadway. Aduba made her TV debut on Blue Bloods after landing Orange. The risk of doing a show on a brand-new platform paid off: Aduba has won two Screen Actors Guild Awards and

Data 18:

. Source information: Date 1990 (19901030) Title Why New Hostage Emphasis? Source SPOK: ABC_Nightline

Expanded context: our policy be held hostage to his hostage policy. McWETHY: voice- over So why raise the painful issue of the hostages in the first place? JUDITH KIPPER, The Brookings Institution: The administration is probably thinking that by focusing on the human dilemma, the real tragedy and suffering of the people who are there, that they can bring public opinion back around to support the President. MARTIN INDYK, Washington Institute for Near East Policy: There's a real danger that by raising concern about the hostages, we then may become fixated on them and then we fall into the Carter trap. But we're not there yet. There's a tension, but we're not sufficiently focused on them that our hands are tied. And the President has made clear - and I believe will continue to make clear - that concern about the hostages will not stay our hand, in terms 97

of fulfilling our objectives. McWETHY: The President and secretary of state are betting that they will not get caught up in a paralyzing hostage crisis, and that they can, in fact

Data 19:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Jan/Feb2015, Vol. 177 Issue 5, p69-74. 6p. information Title BROKEN PEACES Author Casertano, Stefano; Source ACAD: World Affairs

Expanded context: accord should be considered as the final goal of a stable Mideast region, not as its starting point. # Is it too far-fetched to see the fall of the Berlin Wall as an analogy? Decades of efforts to tear it down resulted in very little. Although it echoed resoundingly in the West, John F. Kennedy's " Ich bin ein Berliner " speech did not penetrate those concrete blocks. The wall fell only when the factors that shored up its foundation -- most notably, the USSR's support for the East German regime -- collapsed. The wall fell in Moscow, in other words, and not in East Berlin. # Similarly, the Israeli- Palestinian conflict is actually a " hyperconflict " influenced by local, regional, and global factors. It is no accident that the main accords producing temporary stability have been reached in periods of relative calm for the whole Middle East. The Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel were signed in 1978, after oil prices had been falling steadily since the crisis of 1973-74, which in turn reduced the aggressiveness of producing countries.

Data 20:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Sep2015, Vol. 38 Issue 3, p255-274. 20p. 6 Color Photographs, 1 information Black and White Photograph, 3 Illustrations, 1 Map. Title 'Dear Old Phosphorescent Foolishness': End-of-Life Programs on American Radio Author Freeman, James; Source ACAD: Journal of American Culture

Expanded context:

forcibly extracted her white teeth. He instantly realized she had been put away while alive, a revelation that tortured him (" Berenice "). # A show nearly one hundred years

after Poe's tales distressed listeners because the victim of catalepsy was Ernest, an ordinary man. A car hit him. His medical alert bracelet and a letter cautioning strangers that he might become temporarily paralyzed disappeared. Laid on a cold slab in the city morgue, he remained conscious but could not speak as the lab attendants prepared to embalm him. Happily, a tear fell from his eye and the astounded technicians rescued him (" Dead Ernest "; Arthur, 1951). # Ernest's plight revived memories of a phobia, supposedly left behind in sensational literature of the nineteenth century. Before laws allowed anatomists to obtain fresh bodies for study, medical students coveted any inert person. Among many other works, Shelley's Frankenstein, John Hovey Robinson's Marietta, Or, The Two Students: A Tale Of The Dissecting Room, and " Body Snatchers " (Figure 7

Data 21:

Source information: Date 2015 (150806) Publication NEWS; Pg. 4A information Title STATE-BY-STATE; News from across the USA Source NEWS: USA Today

Expanded context: the 46-year-old Wild West-styled campground and theme park west of Ocean City, was sold July 31 for an undisclosed amount to Sun Communities, the Daily Times reported. Massachusetts Pittsfield: A man and his 11-year-old daughter have been found dead in what police believe may be a murder-suicide, The Berkshire Eagle reported. Michigan Saginaw: Police shut down vehicle traffic on a popular island in the Saginaw River after 4 p.m. Sundays, and some visitors contend the restrictions are too onerous, The Saginaw News reported. Minnesota Albert Lea: A man died after a tree fell onto a canopy that he was standing under, KTTC-TV repored. Mississippi Columbus: Police told WCBI TV (http: //bit.ly/1HnrKAy) that a robber didn't bother getting out of his pajama pants when he pulled a gun on the clerk at the Quality Inn last week. Investigators say he first came in asking for a quote on a room for the night. He wore a dark hat, white shirt, and University of Alabama pajama pants. Missouri Columbia: The Boone County Commission is expected to decide

Data 22

Source information: Date 2015 (150509) Publication Z; Pg. 0Z information Title Colorado weather: Denver corridor could get up to 10 inches of snow; tornados on plains Author Kirk Mitchell Source NEWS: Denver Post

Expanded context: to use our north boat ramp and to use extra caution on the water as there is increased debris from the flooding, " park officials say. The water level is predicted to increase over the next several days and may affect more facilities and areas of the park. If necessary, additional announcements will be sent out. The storm system will move away from the area on Sunday. Kirk Mitchell: 303 954 1206, denverpost.com/coldcases or twitter.com/kirkmitchell 6770 Snow fell close to midnight in Durango and the only grocery store open was a 3 mile bike ride away. Inside a home, a hungry kindergartner cried because he wanted milk. His uncle, Rufino, who cared for him at night, could do nothing. Forbidden to drive because he didn't have a state issued driver's license, Rufino a Mexican citizen who has lived in Colorado for more than a decade could only watch the snow fall as his 5 year old nephew cried through the night. Colorado

Data 23:

Source information: Date 2015 (150913) Publication SPORTS; Pg. 1CC information Title VOICE RETURNS Author John Meyer Source NEWS: Denver Post

Expanded context:

and wondered if I'd ever get out of there, much less get back to where I am right now. So yeah, I'm pretty excited. I just don't want to show it. " " You don't sound fine " Zimmer stayed up late the night of Oct. 4 to watch the late game on the Pac 12 Network, California vs. Washington State. His wife, Brigitte, was sound asleep when Larry went upstairs to join her just past midnight. The last thing he remembers was hanging up his shirt. Then he fell in the bedroom closet, and the noise awakened Brigitte. " Are you

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OK? " " Yeah, I'm fine. " " You don't sound fine. " Brigitte found her husband on the floor and told him to get up, but he couldn't. She went to call 911, and when she got back to where he lay, he was unconscious. " I was in total panic, " Brigitte said. She begged the 911 operator, " Please, please rush.

Data 24:

Source information: Date 2015 (150913) Publication ASECTION; Pg. 1A information Title Colorado floods: Two years later NIGHTMARE DOESN^T EBB Some still trying to rebuild homes, lives Author John Aguilar and Joey Bunch Source NEWS: Denver Post

Expanded context:

has yet to respond to the SEC's motion to reconsider Sullivan's deal. " At the end of the day, the SEC

consent program is not going to be derailed unless a court of appeals somewhere rejects the approach, " Shoemaker said. " That's not happened yet. " David Migoya: 303- 954-1506, dmigoyadenverpost.com or twitter.com/davidmigoya 6955 A large rectangle of dirt is all that is left of Doug Miller's life from the days before the rains fell two years ago. " That will be home one day again, " the 50 year old custom home builder said, standing in front of the empty footprint that served as the foundation for his home of nine years. " That's never swayed. " But exactly when his property, located on a quiet block of Park Street near the confluence of the north and south forks of the St. Vrain River in Lyons, will be restored to a livable state is vexingly elusive. " Sometimes I'm

Data 25:

Source information: Date 2015 (150405) Publication HEALTH SCIENCE MEDICINE & TECHNOLOGY; Pg. B-1 information Title BACK FROM THE BRINK; JAVIER OJEDA WALKED OUT OF UPMC, 3 WEEKS AFTER BRAIN SURGERY FOR A LATENT MALFORMATION Author Joyce Gannon, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Source NEWS: Pittsburgh Post-Gazette

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Expanded context:

he was admitted to the intensive care unit. " We left the house planning to meet him at the school health center and got a call he was going to the Cleveland Clinic, " said Ramon Ojeda, who arrived in Cleveland with his wife, Amarillys, 50, and was told Javier's brain was bleeding but that doctors were hopeful the hemorrhaging would stop on its own. Several days later, the Ojedas brought their son home and he began outpatient physical therapy to deal with his weak limbs and sluggish movements. A few days later, he fell at home while getting out of the bathroom. On March 8, his parents brought him to the emergency room at UPMC Presbyterian. After he was admitted, Dr. Wecht's team confirmed the cavernous malformation in Javier's brain. Because the surgery needed to stop the bleeding would be in such a delicate area of the brain, the neurosurgeon told Javier's parents he wanted to wait and transferred Javier to the UPMC Rehabilitation Institute at Montefiore, which is adjacent to UPMC Presbyterian. Surgery would be inevitable if

Data 26:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Mar2015, Vol. 67 Issue 3, p60-62. 3p. 2 Color Photographs. information Title “Nobody Expected Me to Survive, Let Alone Win” Author SHIMER BOWERS, ELIZABETH; Source MAG: Prevention

Expanded context:

Virginia Medical School and spokesperson for the American Gastroenterological Association # 13155 Section: In Every Issue After her near-death fall, doctors told Amy Morosini she'd never walk unassisted again. But she's running away from that predictionand proving that raw passion changes everything. # When I look back on that first day in the hospital, I'm astonished. # Eighteen years ago, I opened my eyes in the ICU in the most intense pain. " You fell out a window, " my mom said. " You're lucky to be alive. " # I'd suffered a crushed skull, a broken hip, and extensive nerve damage along the entire right side of my body. When I looked in the mirror, my face was paralyzed and drooping on the left side from a traumatic brain injury. During 8 months of physical therapy, I had to relearn how to put one foot in front of the other. # After barely surviving all that,

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Data 27:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Jul/Aug2015, Vol. 287 Issue 4, p62-80. 6p. information Title Saving Grace Author FLOYD, JOHN M.; Source MAG: Saturday Evening Post

Expanded context:

her child to her chest, the woman blurted to her even more dazed-looking neighbor, " Call my husband. Tell him to come quick. " In a trembling voice she told the neighbor the phone number. Neither she nor Billy said another word. Her son, however, did. He pointed a chubby finger at the dog and whimpered, " Oscar pushed me in the water, Mama. " # Five minutes later the boy's father arrived, storming in through the side gate with his tie loosened and eyes as big as quarters. He fell to his knees beside his wife and his son, who now looked listless but otherwise good as new. The neighbor had vanished, probably to tell everyone on her phone list about all the excitement. # Mrs. Westbrook didn't seem to know whether to be grateful or outraged. Her husband just knelt there and listened as she told him about leaving little Richie, then hearing the window break, then realizing she couldn't see Richie, and then watching this boy here dive into the pool and pull

Data 28:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication New York : Spiegel & Grau,Edition: First edition. information Title At the water''s edge :a novel Author Gruen, Sara, Source FIC: At the water''s edge :a novel

Expanded context:

! Concentrate! " I said. # Hank snapped back to life. " What? " # " Maddie thinks that man needs help, " said Ellis. # " That thing's enormous, " I said. " I don't think he can hold it on his own. " # " I should think not. That's a Balthazar, " said Ellis. # " That's not a Balthazar, " Hank said. " That's a Nebuchadnezzar. " # The footman's arms were quaking. He began pouring but missed. Champagne fell between the glasses, splashing 103

onto the table and floor. His gloves and sleeves were saturated. # " Uh-oh, " said Hank. # " Uh-oh indeed, " said Ellis. " Mrs. Pew will not be pleased. " # " I rather suspect Mrs. Pew is never pleased, " Hank said. # Rivulets of sweat ran down the footman's forehead. It was plain to see that he was going to fall forward, right onto the glasses. I looked to Mrs. Pew for help,

Data 29:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication New York : Minotaur Books,Edition: First edition. information Title Gone cold Author Corleone, Douglas. Source FIC: Gone cold

Expanded context:

, and Hailey, standing in front of Cinderella Castle at the Magic Kingdom in central Florida, smiles all around. It was taken on our last vacation together, mere months before Hailey went missing. # The twelve-year-old photo was faded, curled on all sides from age. I'd stared at the picture so often that any new thought it conjured punched me in the gut with surprise. Yet now I thought, That week may have been the last time I truly felt happiness. # " Quit pitying yourself, " I muttered aloud. # I fell into the chair in front of my desk and clicked on the icon for Firefox. The browser immediately opened and I pulled down my history and tapped on the address to my in-box. # Kati Sheffield's e-mail was waiting for me, right at the top of the bin. # No subject line. # I opened the e-mail and quickly reread the message: Finder, open the two attachments and call me right away. It occurred to me that I'd have to charge my cell phone before I

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Data 30:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Fall/Winter2012, Vol. 33 Issue 3/4, p29-59. 31p. information Title Whatever Breaks You. Author Oaks, Greg (AUTHOR) Source FIC: Texas Review

Expanded context:

of your soul. I am your fate come to dinner, and the reason you will die alone on this godforsaken island. I am finally here in the flesh, boy, and I'm a'laughing at you. " That was it. Everything that had kept Hyrum huddled in his bed for the last four days, all the bitterness and self-hatred, exploded out of him, and he dove for the man in darkness and started hitting him. He bit and he punched and he kicked. Then he was hit square in the face, and he fell to the floor. Then he was up and swinging again, yelling. They clinched, gasping and sweating, and then he was hit again. He woke up some time later on the floor and saw the man sitting in a chair by the window. Hyrum jumped up again and started hitting and clawing and pushing close to the edge of something. He was hit again and then woke up on the floor with dawn in the air. His nose hurt. His jaw wouldn't hardly open,

Data 31:

Source information:

Date 2015 Publication Nov/Dec2012, Vol. 284 Issue 6, p64-82. 6p. information Title Mae's Street. Author Hendricks, Joan Source FIC: Saturday Evening Post

Expanded context: 105

Propped the doll on the windowsill and looked down the street at the Mitchells' house. Maybe one of Wanda and Owen's kids would like this doll. Wouldn't it be something when they opened their door on Christmas morning to find the Johnny doll on their doorstep? She looked at the snow piling up and wondered if she could make it across the street and down three houses. She thought she could. She bundled herself in her long woolen coat, a scarf around her neck, and woolly mittens that she'd knitted years ago. Snow fell into the tops of her snow boots with her first step into the deep snow. She was glad that she brought her cane to help keep her balance. By the time she reached the Mitchells' porch, she was dog-tired and cold to the bone. She placed the Johnny doll at the doorstep and turned back for the trek to her house, the only house on the street with lights still on inside. As she stepped from the Mitchells' last porch step, she felt the exhaustion of

Data 32:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Sep2015, Vol. 316 Issue 2, p96-106. 11p. 1 Color Photograph. information Title Scenes From a Marriage. Author GROFF, LAUREN (AUTHOR) Source FIC: Atlantic

Expanded context:

Shiatsu massage every day, any time, in your own home. Whether you choose the iconic Dream Wave or the new Inada Flex 3s, you'll experience a deep, soothing massage that melts away stress, relieves back pain and improves your overall sense of well-being. them, and they were so sudden, so unpredictable. Just so: at once the people rose, shrieking, gathering things up in their arms, rushing about. The cat was startled that they were startled, because she had smelled the rain long before she heard it. A spoon fell from a bowl of tabbouleh and spun into the dirt and was abandoned, spattered by the mud kicked up by the frst raindrops. The people were gone. A hand came out of a ground-level window and unplugged the tree lights. In the plunge of darkness, the yellow cord writhed into the window like a snake and the cat hungered to chase it, but it disappeared and the window closed. The cat dabbed her paw delicately at one fat drop on the edge of a leaf, then galloped.

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Data 33:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Spring2015, Vol. 51 Issue 2, p313-322. 10p. information Title Elevator Rides. Author GORDON, PETER Source FIC: Southern Review

Expanded context:

a far corner; Vince and my brother stood near the doors. That's when he put his hefty arm around my brother and said, " Hell, maybe you'll go here someday. I think you've caught the old Eagle spirit. " I thought my brother was going to shatter into little pieces of joy. " That would be really cool, " he said. He paused. He swallowed hard. " Dad. " I lunged at him. I drove my head into the small of his back like a battering ram. We fell together to the floor of the elevator, me on top of him, riding his back, the two of us making that hard, hollow thud you get when you hit the surface of something that has no real bottom. I wasn't planning to hit him, I really wasn't, but when he twisted around and tried to bite me I instinctively crashed my fist onto the bridge of his nose. The gush of blood was instantaneous, coming forth like a red-brown mudslide. " Oh,

Data 34:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication May/Jun2015, Vol. 128 Issue 5/6, p110-148. 39p. information Title Trapping the Pleistocene. Author Sarafin, James Source FIC: Fantasy & Science Fiction

Expanded context: wormhole to save her, when he went back to his own time she'd still be dead. It wouldn't be his own Katie that he'd saved. Hank rubbed his head. Bits of dried mud broke and flaked off as he did. " I'm starving. I got some water in there from the dive hole but only had a couple energy bars to eat. " " It's about lunchtime for me, too. Let's go back to camp and grab a bite. " " I did get one trap set before I fell in the lake, " Hank said as they climbed the hill, " on a dam crossover partway to the other side. Soon as we eat, let's go check it. " A well-used game trail ran through the tall grass and protruding logs and sticks along the top of the dam. The trail dipped down in channels 107

where the lake water overflowed. The channels dropped into cascades running over the face of the dam to the big pool of the river below. On the lakeside the dam

Data 35:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Spring2015, Issue 220, p36-44. 9p. information Title PYRENE. Author GAMIELDIEN, ZAHID Source FIC: Overland

Expanded context: just swallowed something disgusting. Nick rolled her onto her side and stepped away from her and June knelt and put Juniper's slimy hand to her chin, and she whispered to her, promises and cajolement and gratitude. Nick turned to his sons, who were fixed in their positions, and his look was one not of rage but of horror, of incomprehension. I watched the thought flicker in his mind and recede, as if he were unwilling to contemplate it. He took Juniper's shirt from Will. What happened? he asked gently. She fell into the water, replied Pat. I tried to fish her out with my stick. I couldn't. Is that what happened? Nick eyed Will, who nodded big and boyish. Okay. It's okay. You go and play. The boys headed for the gazebo and Nick handed the shirt to June and walked back to the house. Juniper lay in the recovery position a while and then, with a bewildered look on her face, sat up slowly. June pulled her shirt over

Data 36:

Source information: Date 2015 (150516) Title "Janet`s Secret" Source SPOK: CBS

Expanded context:

took a drink out of a water fountain and would throw his cup away. PETER-VAN- SANT- (vo# Investigators had the police chief's secretary standing by to pick up the trash after Hopkins' morning water break and retrieve the cup. It was tested and the result was the moment cops had waited for. Hopkins was a match to the crime scene DNA profile. That enabled investigators to get an official warrant for Hopkins' DNA. ANDY-GALL# I said, hey, Scott, I told you I'd be back. I have a warrant. And he actually fell into a chair. And he says you think I did this. PETER-VAN-SANT- (vo# All that was left was to wait for the results of Hopkins' court-ordered DNA test. ANDY-GALL# Rocky DeMailo calls

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and says it's done. It's sure. It's him. We're getting an arrest warrant. PETER-VAN- SANT- (vo# Andy Gall, who'd been first through the door when Janet Walsh was killed, was the first man through the door when Hopkins was arrested in January 2012. ANDY- GALL# I brought my

Data 37:

Source information: Date 2015 (150119) Title Teen to Marry Own Father; "Biggest Loser" Contestants Reveal Show`s Dirty Secrets; MLK-Themed "Selma" Snubbed by Oscars; Machete Rampage; Bruce Jenner`s Photoshop Source SPOK: CNN

Expanded context:

a lot of grief. And, so, this sort of propelled us into this intense hyper-relationship where we were constantly communicating, constantly trying to find out more about each other. And, the more we got to know, the more we realized how much we connected. PINSKY# Is there a sexual component to it now? JULIE# Oh, there was not at first. PINSKY# But then there was? JULIE# Well, exactly. What happened was I actually said to my husband, I said, I feel the same feelings that I felt when I fell in love with you. (END-VIDEO-CLIP) PINSKY# I am back with Sam, Jennifer and Judy in a segment we call " WTF, " indeed. That was, of course, Julie. We are using her first name only. She was on our show in 2012. She has herself experienced something called genetic sexual attraction, and she joins me by phone. Julie, I wonder if you have any reaction to this article in " New York " Magazine? JULIE# Hi, Dr. Drew. Good evening.

Data 38:

Source information: Date 2015 (150625) Title Take The Money And Run Source SPOK: NPR

Expanded context:

Imaginings of all the possible outcomes, I didn't think of myself sitting in a U.S. court before a U.S. judge and waiting for a U.S. sentence. JULIA-DEWITT# Turned out that Oleg was under investigation by the FBI, which means attention was drawn to Leigh. And the FBI didn't care if Leigh was trying to undo what he did. Leigh was living with his parents when he got e-mail, the feds were moving to indict. LEIGH-SPRAGUE# To this day, I resist saying that it was about greed, but it was. Yeah, yeah. I fell down the 109

slippery slope. JULIA-DEWITT# Do you think of yourself as a bad guy? LEIGH- SPRAGUE# I do. I justified what I did by demonizing him. By saying, setting myself up as a good guy and him as bad and telling myself I was stealing from a thief so it doesn't sound so bad, right? But over time, I realized that by stealing from a thief, I'd become a thief top, just like him. JULIA-DEWITT# When I caught up with Leigh, he

Data 39:

Source information: Date 2015 (151109) Title Texas Judge Gunned Down in Driveway/Mom Shoots Back at Home Invaders. Aired 8-8:30p ET Source SPOK: CNN

Expanded context:

this guy, and what this guy did to me is a tort. And this homeless guy may not be homeless for much longer. 20:45:00 GRACE# Caught on camera. The very last moments of a luxury cruise line passenger's life on an all-inclusive trip through the Caribbean falling to his death off the side of the Royal Oasis luxury cruiser. The cruise line insisting it was suicide. And if so, the cruise line escapes liability. But did the cruise ship overserve him to total intoxication before his death fall? (BEGIN-VIDEO- CLIP) UNIDENTIFIED-MALE# (inaudible), he fell overboard. And Royal Caribbean was right there on the scene as he fell in. UNIDENTIFIED-FEMAL# Royal Caribbean painting a different picture. (END-VIDEO-CLIP) GRACE# Chris Spargo joining us. Reporter with dailymail.com. Chris, this is what's disturbing me. Justin, can you pull up? Hold on, I want to see this video. This is the video we're talking about. The last moments of this guy's life before he falls to his death. Look at him hanging on right there. Look at this

Data 40:

Source information: Date 2015 (151109) Title Texas Judge Gunned Down in Driveway/Mom Shoots Back at Home Invaders. Aired 8-8:30p ET Source SPOK: CNN

Expanded context:

the ocean. And I am telling you. This is what I've learned, Chris Spargo, Dailymail.com. He was there celebrating an anniversary with his partner. CHRIS-SPARGO, -DAIL# That is correct. GRACE# And I just don't see him picking that moment to commit suicide! he

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was overserved from what we're learning. Chris Spargo, before I get into the minutia of what happened, tell me how he ended up -- what is he holding on to? How did he get up there? SPARGO# So, he's actually, what he fell on to was one of the beams that supports the lifeboats on the ship and he was hanging there for about five minutes. They were celebrating their one-year anniversary and his husband's birthday. They had gone to a late dinner, and then after the dinner, Bernardo went to the bar, where he was drinking. Apparently someone made a homophobic comment, he went back to his room, security was called, and at some point during the exchange he fell overboard. GRACE# Chris, Chris,

Data 41:

Source information: Date 2015 (151109) Title Interview With 2016 GOP Presidential Candidate Donald Trump; Interview With 2016 GOP Presidential Candidate Senator Marco Rubio Source SPOK: Fox

Expanded context:

Republicans and a loss for the media. STEYN# Oh, no, and Ben Carson reacted in absolutely the right way. I mean, by the way, he's running on biography. The last candidate to run purely on biography was Barack Obama in 2008, and his memoir is full of complete total balderdash from beginning to end. If you recall, he has this thing about how his step-grandfather in Indonesia died a heroic death fighting for his country's independence against the horrible Dutch imperialists. And it turns out that in reality he died because he fell off a chair while he was trying to change the curtains. And that -- instead of the press hectoring Barack Obama about that and saying, well, maybe you could, you know, do an awareness -- HANNITY# Or the health care story. STEYN# -- how you should secure the ladder and be careful when you are changing the drapes, they gave him a complete pass on that. And so the message here is you stand up to these people. You don't play on their terms.

Data 42:

Source information: Date 2015 (151113) Title A Day in the Life of Peter Sarsgaard Source SPOK: NPR

Expanded context: 111

WHISTLE, LAUGHTER) OPHIRA-EISENBERG#... With the buzzer. So the stakes are high. All right, the alarm clock buzzes and Peter jumps out of bed to grab his favorite breakfast from the freezer - an entire pint of vanilla Swiss almond ice cream made by this company with the fake Danish name. (LAUGHTER) PETER- SARSGAARD# Haagen-Dazs. OPHIRA-EISENBERG# Yeah. (APPLAUSE) CECIL- BALDWIN# Peter heads to the park to relax under a tree and an apple hits his head and Peter thinks, great, it's another vampire hater who thinks I'm Alexander Skarsgard. (LAUGHTER) CECIL-BALDWIN# But wait, it actually fell from this tree above. I've discovered gravity, Peter cries. I'm just as smart as that great mathematician and physicist, Sir... PETER-SARSGAARD# Isaac Newton. CECIL- BALDWIN# Yeah. PETER-SARSGAARD# OK. (APPLAUSE) PETER- SARSGAARD# This is a lot easier than I thought it would be. OPHIRA- EISENBERG# Yeah. (APPLAUSE) OPHIRA-EISENBERG# By the way, do people ever call you Alexander Skarsgard? PETER-SARSGAARD# You know what? He and I had breakfast about 20 years ago, and we, at that time, thought we might pretend that we

Data 43:

Source information: Date 2014 Publication Summer2014, Vol. 48 Issue 2, p281-296. 16p. information Title UNDERGRADUATES, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIAL CONNECTIONS Author Palmer, Betsy; Boniek, Susan; Turner, Elena; Lovell, Elyse D'nn; Source ACAD: College Student Journal

Expanded context:

used for this phenomenological study exploring 35 in-person interviews, with horizonalization in an open coding system secured by in-depth analysis which revealed nuanced themes and connections between students' technological tools and their social communication. Results showed that the circle of undergraduate connections included family members, local and distant friends, and official university contacts. Students described using a variety of technological tools for these social connections, often but not always with particular technologies used for specific types of social relationships. # " When she told me she sent three hundred text messages a day, I just about fell out of my chair! " (Researcher Fieldnotes) # Surprises challenge our assumptions. In fact, " college students? interact with each other using technology in ways that astonish? higher education professionals " (Junco & Cole-Avent, 2008, p. 13). Today's "students? possess an entirely different set of communication and connection ideals " (Wandel,

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2007, p. 192), from those of preceding generations. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the complex experience of college students

Data 44:

Source information: Date 2014 Publication Dec2014, Vol. 37 Issue 4, p419-429. 11p. 2 Color Photographs, 1 information Black and White Photograph. Title Uniform Matters: Fashion Design in World War II Women's Recruitment Author Ryan, Kathleen M.; Source ACAD: Journal of American Culture

Expanded context:

that had designed it. It looked pretty spiffy to me, " recalled WAVE Virginia Benvenuto. But even with their pride in the designer/uniform design, the women nonetheless offer errors when discussing the uniform's creator. Jane Ashcraft called him " Mainbochers. " WAVE Helen Edgar offered a different recollection of the designer's name: # Oh my god, they were gorgeous. They were a navy blue serge made by Handmocher sic, a well known designer back then. Those uniforms, you could do anything in them and they took it. Even -- I fell in the Corpus Christi bay one night and laughs it was dry off and go home. They were nice looking and we felt -- they made us feel good. They made us feel worthy and like really distinguished women? Magnificent uniforms. They made us stand better, walk better and feel prouder. They really know how to do it laughs. # WAVE Edna Jean Clark similarly recalled that the uniforms were made by the " pretty famous designer " Handmocher, adding, " it was very smart.

Data 45:

Source information: Date 2015 (150809) Publication DTW; Pg. 1B information Title Police see changing community expectations for using force Author Noelle Phillips Source NEWS: Denver Post

Expanded context: 113

and said " I don't care " as he lunged at them. The officers fired. Afterward, officers discovered that Wheat had stabbed a woman just as police arrived at the scene. On July 27, Boulder police were called to an apartment building where they found 23 year old Sam Forgy naked and armed with a hammer in a stairwell, according to a news release. Forgy ignored warnings to drop the hammer and climbed on top of a railing. One officer misfired a Taser and a second officer fired his gun, the department said. Forgy fell onto the landing and died. He had cut one man on the head with a knife. A 911 caller told police that Forgy was tripping on LSD. Police have been called to these sorts of situations since the profession began, said Denver police Technician Susan Gann, who is the department's crisis intervention training coordinator. But the way police respond to the mentally ill, addicted, homeless and even Alzheimer's patients is evolving, she said. " In all of that, there are those communication

Data 46:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Spring2015, Issue 220, p36-44. 9p. information Title PYRENE. Author GAMIELDIEN, ZAHID Source FIC: Overland

Expanded context:

just swallowed something disgusting. Nick rolled her onto her side and stepped away from her and June knelt and put Juniper's slimy hand to her chin, and she whispered to her, promises and cajolement and gratitude. Nick turned to his sons, who were fixed in their positions, and his look was one not of rage but of horror, of incomprehension. I watched the thought flicker in his mind and recede, as if he were unwilling to contemplate it. He took Juniper's shirt from Will. What happened? he asked gently. She fell into the water, replied Pat. I tried to fish her out with my stick. I couldn't. Is that what happened? Nick eyed Will, who nodded big and boyish. Okay. It's okay. You go and play. The boys headed for the gazebo and Nick handed the shirt to June and walked back to the house. Juniper lay in the recovery position a while and then, with a bewildered look on her face, sat up slowly. June pulled her shirt over

Data 47:

Source information: Date 2015 (150712) Title Donald Trump

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Source SPOK: CNN

Expanded context:

Paul. CHRISTI-PAUL, -CNN-# Rhode Island authorities have removed sand from the area looking for clues after reports of a small explosion and injury of a 50-year-old woman, but the exact cause is a mystery. LARRY-MOURADJIAN, -# Explosion is the word that came during the initial reports. There's a -- I can tell you from personally witnessing the site that there appears to have been some ground disturbance there. PAUL# The woman was sitting in a chair at the tide line. Witnesses reported a boom. The force pushed her up against nearby rocks and then she fell into the sand. MOURADJIAN# There are fractures in this wet sand. The gaps that occur are something like when lightning hits a beach. There's definitely something that happened there. PAUL# The state bomb squad and the state fire marshal office are investigating along with the ATF. CHIEF-KURT-BLANCHA# We have no indication that this is anything beyond. It was some type of noise. It was some type of energy transfer. We have no evidence or indication that there was a device. This could be natural. IT

Data 48:

Source information: Date 2014 (140504) Publication FEATURES; Pg. 1E information Title Untamed Author Will Harlan; For the AJC Source NEWS: Atlanta Journal Constitution

Expanded context:

against the door. " Open up! " Louie shouted. Carol's heart exploded out of her chest. " Go away! " " Open the (expletive) door! " Pete looked wide-eyed at Carol. The door shook in its frame. Louie kicked in the bottom door panel. Pete jumped out of his chair and crouched behind the table. Carol shrieked. " Please, Louie! Leave me alone! " " Who's in there with you, dammit? " He broke through the rest of the door panel. Scraps of wood fell to the floor. Instinct took over. The sawed-off shotgun that Louie had given her was tucked behind the bathroom door, loaded. She ran to the bathroom and grabbed the gun. Pete cowered in the corner, hands clenched in prayer. Louie was waving the canoe paddle and shouting. " You just want to have fun? I'll show you fun! " He began to step through the empty door frame and into the cabin just as Carol returned to the kitchen. " You (messed

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Data 49:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Summer2015, Vol. 73 Issue 3, p479-494. 16p. information Title From the Museum of Found Things. Author GLEN LOUIS, LAURA Source FIC: Antioch Review

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He didn't answer, but she knew. Coming home is returning to the familiar, it's finishing. It's being able to sleep in the next day rather than jump up to absorb too much in too little time. Besides, it was fifteen hours if nothing went wrong. She returned to the kitchen, pulled a bar stool over to the stove and stirred up some tapioca, which, like the desert, required a patient ap proach. She opened her book, Thunder Out of China, her father's one gift. Sugar fell onto the page. 1937. The Japanese pushed into southern China. Chiang Kai-shek set up a provisional capital in Chungking, tucked high in the mountains above the Yangtze River gorge, and brought with him the finer buttresses of war: telegraphs, cooks, concubines. Mao Tse-Tung swept in from the north offering to all those starving for significant change, that succulent pig: an alternative. Bound-foot grandmas unable to walk were carried on the backs of devoted sons trying to outrun the advancing Japanese. Abandoned

Data 50:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication 2015, Vol. 100 Issue 2, p221-229. 9p. information Title The Slant Artist. Author BROWN, TAYLOR Source FIC: Southwest Review

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spirit rush out of the old man with a terrible groan, like a split stone might make, and he seemed to shrink all over, to dwindle. He had hardly the strength to lift the half-gallon jar from the satchel, to hold it palsied before his face. In it a severed hand submerged in clear fluid, the arm-bone cut clean in a circle of red meat, the middle digit extended from its curled companions in final insult. " Jesus, " he said, quietly, as if it were someone he

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knew. The jar fell from his hands, exploded between his feet, and Luck was already throwing a leg over his bike, stomping the kick starter and twisting the throttle. They came off the porch of a one, a pale flood of them like the rain from the roof, and Luck cut the bike in a circle, away, and they were all around him on every side, running, the fingers of a great white hand reaching down to snap him up. Someone got hold of his collar and yanked.

Data 51:

.Source information: Date 2015 Publication Summer2015, Vol. 41 Issue 2, p158-170. 13p. information Title An Arc Welder, a Molotov Cocktail, a Bowie Knife. Author WILSON, KEVIN Source FIC: Ploughshares

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blown. But when I looked in the dryer, which does work by the way, there was... this thing in it. " I picked up the garbage bag and held it out for her. She gathered her courage, took a sharp intake of breath, and then retrieved a dead squirrel from the mouth of the dryer with her thumb and index finger. Half of the squirrel was fur and half of it was bone. It was flattened. She weakly tossed it toward me, toward the garbage bag I realized too late, and it fell to the floor, right at my feet. We both danced out of the room, into the hallway, and stared at the corpse. " Do you think it died in there? " she asked. " Or what? " I asked. " Or do you think someone put it in there? " she said. One of the kittens started pawing at the squirrel. Its claws got caught in the fur and it shook its paw to disengage itself. My girls friend picked up the

Data 52:

. Source information: Date 2015 Publication Summer2015, Vol. 41 Issue 2, p60-70. 11p. information Title Dad's Just a Number. Author MAAZEL, FIONA Source FIC: Ploughshares

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charisma obliterated whatever affect I might have been trying to cultivate for myself. Ben died about ten years ago in a lake by our house, jumping off a tire swing that been there since before any of us was born. He never came up out of the water. Turned out he had a heart condition no one knew about. We were eight years apart, so I was always able to worship him openly and without shame. Janine, though -- they were twins, something that runs in the family -- she took his death hard. She fell into a hole and the doctors said she was bipolar, and my mom, who had no patience for luxury problems like mental illness when half the world was starving, delegated the problem to my dad, who delegated it right back. Mental illness made no sense to him either. My father dealt better with Ben' s death because it sustained theories hed had about the world ever since he was a child -- that it was glib and sinful, which was, to him, a terrible combination

Data 53:

Source information: Date 2015 Publication Spring2015, Vol. 45 Issue 1, p177-191. 15p. information Title Smoke and Shadows. Author TOLSTAYA, TATYANA Source FIC: Iowa Review

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that progressive bagel shop, buy myself the biggest cup of real coffee there is and a cranberry scone, and sit by the window with the local paper. Turn it inside out and then fold it over twice to read about the latest goings-on. Pretty standard stuff: two sedans collided on the highway with a van that was transporting dry ice -- four casualties. A house was robbed: the owner stepped out for a bit and didn't lock the front door, pinning his hopes on the glass one -- hopes dashed, computer stolen. Two people fell into an ice hole in the lake and couldn't get out. Once again campus police detained J. Alvarez, a homeless man who is forbidden from loitering around the campus and who violated this order for the sixth time. He was taken to the local precinct, and the situation was explained to him yet again, to no avail. Alvarez likes the campus; it's spacious and pretty, and with its tree-lined paths it's equally beautiful in the winter and summer. The female students are pretty

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Data 54:

Source information: Date 2014 Publication New York : St. Martin's Press,Edition: First edition. information Title The Christmas light Author VanLiere, Donna, 1966- Source FIC: The Christmas light

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last twenty-five years as an administrative assistant but is the wisest woman Jennifer knows. Jen hasn't always seen her mother this way but when she had Avery, her mother somehow became profoundly wise. Louise is quiet and never interfered in Jen and Michael's marriage, but she has always known when her daughter is weary or stressed or swallowed up in shadows. # " And what if we are people who can't pray? " Jennifer asked. # Louise thought for a moment. " Then it must be that darkness has stopped us. " Jen fell into the sofa as a tear slipped onto her lap. Her mother sat next to her and pulled her close. " Things will get brighter, my love. " # " When, Mom? " Jen wiped the wetness away. " When will it ever get brighter? " # Her mom shook her head. " I don't know. I don't know how many sunrises it will take but one day the sun will rise and you'll see that light still makes its way through

Data 55:

Source information: Date 2014 Publication New York : Minotaur Books,Edition: First edition. information Title The big finish Author Hall, James W. 1947- Source FIC: The big finish

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in similar surgical masks. Then a few seconds that showed the entire pill room. # The camera was badly tilted, but Flynn could still make out what was taking place. The man sitting beside Javier at the table poured a test tube of fine powder through a paper funnel and filled a small hole drilled into a block of wood. Then the worker inserted a brass tamping rod into the hole, tapped it twice with a rubber-tipped mallet, tapped it again, then turned the block of wood over and shook the block until a bright red tablet fell onto 119

the table in front of him. Then the worker scraped the pill into a jar with dozens of other similar tablets and began the process again. A primitive production line. # " Bingo, " said Billy Jack. " We got us some major felonies. " # The video flickered and ended. # Everyone was silent for a moment. Caitlin moaned to herself and stepped away from the others. # " I thought we were here for the hogs, " Flynn said. # " We

Data 56:

Source information: Date 2014 Publication New York : Minotaur Books,Edition: First Edition. information Title A nip of murder :a Moonshine mystery Author Miller, Carol, 1972- Source FIC: A nip of murder :a Moonshine mystery

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'd be happy to do something if you want an extra hand. " # Bobby shuffled after her, mumbling incoherently about red velvet cake. Beulah snapped at him in irritation, " Quit blathering, Bobby. " # " I need a red velvet cake. " # " So buy one. Nobody's saying you can't. " # " But Daisy's gonna have to " # He didn't finish the sentence. Both his tongue and his boots stopped moving the instant he passed through the swinging door behind Beulah. The box in her hand fell to the floor. Bits of broken snickerdoodles went flying around the room, but she didn't pick them up. Neither did Bobby or Daisy. The three were frozen in speechless surprise. # Brenda stood in front of the oversize refrigerator. Although it was wide open, she made no attempt to close it. She didn't move a muscle, not even to adjust the apron that was hanging off one shoulder. The tortoiseshell clip that normally kept her black hair high up on her head in

Data 57:

Source information: Date 1990 (19900321) Title Newshour 900321 Source SPOK: PBS_Newshour

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I wrote the New York Times was all of a sudden I realized was that November 9th that once upon a time that was remembered as the day of Crystal Nacht, the night of the broken glass, when thousands of synagogues and homes, Jewish homes, were

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ransacked, pillaged and burned -- MS-HUNTER-GAULT: The beginning of the holocaust. MR-WIESEL: It was the beginning of the tragedy. The holocaust began a little bit later, but now, all of a sudden, it's forgotten and we remember November 9th as the day when the Berlin Wall fell apart. And that worries me because I realize that the area of memory is shaking. MS-HUNTER-GAULT: What is it about it that bothers you, that without the memory history could repeat itself, because many of the young Germans are saying that people with attitudes like yours are visiting the sins of the fathers on the children. Do you expect a Germany like the one we knew to rise again? MR-WIESEL: No. I never believed that, by the way. I never believed that the children.

Data 58:

Source information: Date 1990 (19900404) Title Newshour 900404 Source SPOK: PBS_Newshour

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beds. The reason, a worsening shortage of nurses. One possible solution to this problem was recently proposed by the American Medical Association, creating a new kind of hospital worker called a registered care technologist or RCT. Nurses do not like the report. We begin with this report seen previously on the Newshour on the situation at San Francisco General Hospital. Again, the reporter is Elizabeth Brackett. ELIZABETH- BRACKETT: The third new patient of the day is brought to the critical care unit at San Francisco General Hospital. This man was severely injured when a steel beam fell on him as he worked on a construction site. He received immediate attention, but the nurses also had to treat the 13 other critically ill patients in the unit. It is a high stress job and the serious shortage of nurses at this hospital has added even more stress. SUE- DAMRON-Critic: We have a gunshot wound here, a stab wound here, motor vehicle accident there, and then on the other side of the unit we have another gunshot wound and another stab wound. They're on every.

Data 59:

Source information: Date 1990 (19900605) Title Newshour 900605 Source SPOK: PBS_Newshour

Expanded context: 121

People participated in the democratic movement. After June 4th, the Chinese people held a passive resistance attitude toward the government. I can tell you a story. During my skit in the middle school the students must take political lessons, the teachers tell them that without Communist Party, there will be no new China, but the students told the teacher, that teacher, you're telling a lie. This is just one example. And there the underground organizations are expanding and becoming stronger also. On June 3rd and 4th and after that, the students fell in front of the tanks. These people who faced death and went beyond death who survived, they are scattered all over China. That was why I was able to escape. They could see a good future. Now people like Deng Xiaoping are really in a very sad mood. They are having power struggle. There's not one minute thought of the peace and freedom that the students raised during the movement. All they thought of was to arrest more people, kill more people, execute more.

Data 60:

Source information: Date 1990 (19901221) Title Newshour 901221 Source SPOK: PBS_Newshour

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unprecedented step of allowing the flights on the Jewish sabbath. In Romania, thousands of people held anti- government protests to mark the first anniversary of the revolution that overthrew Nikolai Ceausescu. The protest took place in the capital Bucharest and in Timisoara, where the revolution began. There were also memorial ceremonies for the more than 1,000 people killed in the revolution. MS-WOODRUFF: The first day of winter arrived with a vengeance in the Western and Midwestern parts of this country. The temperature dipped to a minus 80 degree wind chill factor along the Idaho-Montana border. Snow fell in such unlikely places as Oceanside, California, and Phoenix, Arizona. Freezing rain in Dallas, Texas, brought traffic snarls and greatly reduced visibility. The storms have been blamed for at least 13 deaths since Tuesday. MR-MacNeil: One of the world's pioneering airlines may be flying on borrowed time. Pan Am announced today it has agreed to a buyout offer from rival TWA. If approved, the merger would combine two of the nation's most financially troubled airlines. It could also mean the.

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B. DATA FROM OBSERVATION

1. Tu’guru’mi ladaku. My chili sauce falls. 2. Tu’guru’ ki Anakku ri sapedana. My daughter falls from her bicycle. 3. Ta’tindola’ ki Mejanna amma’ku. My mother’s table falls. 4. Ammattungi taipayya batttu ri pokok na. The mango falls from the tree. 5. Ta’tindola’ki kaderana i baso ka jai dudu I giyo’-giyo’na ammempo. Baso’s chair falls because he does many actions when he is sitting. 6. Ammattungi katoanna ka tena na bajiki batenna ammoli’. Her washbasin falls because she is not careful when she put it down. 7. Uh, karaeng amma’bung anjo lamariyya. Oh, my god,,,, that cupboard falls. 8. Ammatutungi pannena dg. Caya. Dg. Caya’s plate falls. 9. Lommpona sa’ranna amma’bung anjo telepi na dg. Ngugi. The voice of dg. Ngugi’s television is noisy when it falls down. 10. Oh, karaeng Allah ta’ala! ammattungi anakku ri tuka. Oh, my god! My daughter falls from the ladder 11. Tu’guru ki care-care na i Lina. Lina’s clothes falls. 12. Angra’ba i kalli’ bulo na subanggi pakamma alitana. The fence falls down because of Alitana. 13. Sanna’ jaina rurusu’ leko’-leko’ ri aganga na pakamma anging. Many leaves fall down on the street because of the wind 14. Teako angngambiki poko’taipayya ammattung ko Sallang! Don’t climb mango tree, you will fall later! 15. Tu’ guru’mi ceregennu ka tena baji batenu ammoli’. 123

Your jerry can fall down because you are not careful to put it. 16. Na runtungi kalambua. Mosquito net falls on him or her. 17. Junangi anjo layang-layang marrak na erang anging. The big kite falls because of the wind. 18. Lelasa’ki tangkenna poko’ jambua. The stem of guava falls down. 19. Runang kabusu’ jambu na dg. Sambara’ na sambila batu anak- anak sikolayya. All of the Dg. Sambara’s guava falls down because the students throw it with stone. 20. Angra’ba i poko’-poko’ ka. That trees fall. 21. Na runtungiya’ kalambu. The mosquito net fell on me. 22. Ammattungi anjo kappala’ angri’baka ri langi’. That Plane fell down. 23. Na runtungi Balla’ suciyya. The Balla’ suci will fall down.

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APPENDICES 2

List of Questioner

No. KINDS FALL IN MAKASSARESE QUESTIONERS Tu’guru’ Ammattung/ Ta’tindola’ Angra’ba Rurusu’ Junang Lelasa’ Runang Runtung amma’bung 1. My chili sauce falls + ……. Ladaku 2. My daughter falls from her bicycle + ……. Anakku ri sapedana 3. My mother’s table falls. + …….Mejana amma’ku. 4. The mango falls from the tree + ……taipayya batttu ri pokok na 5. Baso’s chair falls because he does many actions when he is sitting. ….. kaderana i baso ka jai dudu I + giyo’-giyo’na ammempo.

6. Her washbasin falls because she is + not careful when she put it down. …….katoanna ka tena na bajiki batenna ammoli’. 7. Oh, my god,,,, that our cupboard + falls. 125

Uh, karaeng……… anjo lamariyya. 8. Dg. Caya’s plate falls. + …….. pannena dg. Caya. 9. The voice of dg. Ngugi’s television + is big when it falls down. Lommpona sa’ranna ……… anjo telepi na dg. Ngugi. 10. Oh, my god! My daughter falls + from the ladder Oh, karaeng Allah ta’ala!…...... anakku ri tuka.

No KINDS FALL IN MAKASSARESE LANGUAGE . QUESTIONERS Tu’guru’ Ammattung/ Ta’tindola’ Angra’ba Rurusu’ Junang Lelasa’ Runang Runtung amma’bung 11. Lina’s clothes falls. + …… care-care na I Lina. 12. The fence falls down because of + Alitana. …… kalli’ bulo na subanggi na pakamma alitana. 13. Many leaves fall down on the street + because of the wind. Sanna’ jaina …….leko’-leko’ ri aganga na pakamma anging. 14. Don’t climb mango tree, you will fall + later!

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Teako angngambiki poko’taipayya ……. Sallang! 15. Your jerry can fall down because + you are not careful to put it. ……..ceregennu ka tena baji batenu ammoli’. 16. Mosquito net falls on him or her. + Na …….. kalambua. 17. The big kite falls because of the + wind …….anjo layang-layang marrak na erang anging. 18. The stem of guava falls down. + ….. tangkenna poko’ jambua. 19. All of the Dg. Sambara’s guava + falls down because the students throw it with stone. ……kabusu’ jambu na dg. Sambara’ na sambila batu anak- anak sikolayya. 20. That trees fall. + ……poko’-poko’ ka. 21. The mosquito net fell on me. + Na …..ya’ kalambu. 22. That Plane fell down from the sky. + …….anjo kappala’ angri’baka ri langi’. 23. The Balla’ suci will fall down. + Na …..Balla’ suciyya

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