Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora

Kamilah Majied, Ph.D. Howard University School of Social Work [email protected]

Tamarah Moss-Knight, Ph.D. Independent Consultant [email protected]

This text may be freely shared among individuals, but it may not be republished in any medium without express written consent from the authors and advance notification ofWhite Hat Communications

Abstract of the project and this article, the terms black, Af- This article provides guidelines and considerations rican heritage, and of African descent are used in- for research with lesbian, gay, bisexual, terchangeably. The project has to date surveyed and transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) people interviewed 178 participants. The respondents were of African descent, particularly those living in queried about their unique experience of race and developing countries. Recommendations are drawn or racism as well as their experiences as LGBTQ from the International Sexuality and Mental Health persons and homophobia and heterosexism as these Research Project, which studied experiences of phenomena manifest in their country or region. black LGBTQ people in the Caribbean, Africa, and Through focus groups and self-adminis- Europe. tered surveys, LGBTQ participants articulated their experiences, their ways of coping with dis- Keywords: African diaspora, lesbian, gay, bisexual, crimination, and their communities’ needs, con- transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ); sexuality; cerns, and resources. Psychometric scales were sexual minorities; social work research used in the survey to assess depression and anxiety, and there were also several self-report measures of racism, homophobia, and their internal- 1. Introduction ized correlates as well as health service utilization This article highlights critical issues in queries. The survey included questions about the research with sexual minorities in the African di- frequency and severity of racist and homophobic aspora and is based on research conducted as part events in the professional, social, and familial of the International Sexuality and Mental Health contexts. The questions about internalized racism Research Project (ISMHRP). The ISMHRP is a and homophobia allowed the respondents to share mixed methods study that examines how racism, how they felt about being black and how they felt heterosexism, and homophobia are experienced about being non-heterosexual, as well as their by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and ques- thoughts and feelings about other black people and tioning (LGBTQ) people of African descent in the non-heterosexuals. Caribbean, Europe, and Africa. For the purposes The Center for Epidemiologic Depression

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 56 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora Scale was used to measure depression, and the Ronquillo, Bhuyan, 2006; Wheeler, 2003). People Beck Anxiety Index was used to assess anxiety. of color in the LGBTQ community experience Both scales have been shown to have validity and “minority stress” because of their sexual minority reliability across a wide range of cultural demo- status (DiPlacido, 1998). For example, ethnic mi- graphics. (Roberts, 1980; Naughton and Wilkund, nority gays and lesbians in the United States must 1993). Focus group questions included queries function in three distinct communities: “(1) the about respondents’ process of becoming aware of Euro-American heterosexual communities, (2) the their sexual orientation as well as their degree of ethnic minority heterosexual communities, and openness with family and community, their sup- (3) the Euro-American gay male, lesbian, bisex- ports and coping mechanisms, their intimate rela- ual, and transgender communities” (Parks, 2001, tionships, their experience of discrimination, and p. 46). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and their vision for their country in regard to providing questioning people of color negotiate stressors that resources to their constituency. are often exacerbated by intragroup conflict. The ISMHRP sites included Nassau, Ba- In both developing and industrialized coun- hamas, London, United Kingdom, Trinidad, West tries, LGBTQ people of African descent face some Indies, as well as Johannesburg, Pretoria, and Cape imposition, be it subtly or overtly expressed, of Town, South Africa. These locations were chosen Eurocentric culture as well as oppression based based on the availability of local organizations to on sexual orientation and gender identity. In de- assist with the research effort. It was important that veloping countries, LGBTQ persons face addi- the work be collaborative, as the goal was to em- tional barriers related to their sexuality, including power communities through both the process and educational and economic inequity due to harsh products of the research. Also, researching hid- discrimination in education and employment. den populations, particularly those targeted with Some LGBTQ persons also face a lack of access to discrimination, is challenging and it is necessary LGBTQ-friendly health care and services. to have local site coordinators to assist with key tasks throughout the research process. ISMHRP 2. Emphasis on African Diaspora local site coordinators participated in a range of There is limited research on the experi- research activities, including formulation of cultur- ences of LGBTQ persons of the African diaspora. ally appropriate queries (via adjustment of survey The African diaspora refers to “African-descended and focus group questions as needed), outreach populations across spatial, temporal, linguistic, to participants via announcements at formal and cultural, and historical boundaries that do not al- informal LGBTQ gatherings, and finding venues ways correspond to the borders of nation-states nor to host focus groups and other project activities to the borders of academic disciplines” (Hancard, that were accessible to and safe for the population 2004, p. 140). Nnameka (2007) highlights Colin under study. In this way people representing the A. Palmer’s reference to the African diaspora as various LGBTQ communities actively participated a people of African descent who share emotional in the design, development, and implementation of bonds with their dispersed kin due significantly, the study. but not exclusively, to the history of racial oppres- Research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans- sion and the struggle against it. People in the Afri- gender, and questioning (LGBTQ) people of can diaspora are consistently faced with navigating color highlights the need for cultural sensitivity their identities in a context where racism is ubiq- with regard to exploring how sexual orientation uitous. This navigation is necessary because of the and gender are experienced for people of Afri- international scope of anti-black racism. can, Asian, Latino, and Native American descent As conceptualized by Camara Phyllis (Green, 1997; Walters, Evans-Campbell, Simoni, Jones (2002), racism can exist and occur on three

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 57 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora levels: institutionalized, personally mediated, and Gillis, Cogan, & Glunt, 1997). However, in gen- internalized. Institutionalized racism limits access eral, the experiences of LGBTQ people of African to power and material resources. Personally medi- heritage throughout the diaspora are not well docu- ated racism includes prejudice and discrimination mented. While there are research articles on ethics based on stereotypic race-based assumptions and and research considerations with LGBTQ commu- judgments. Finally, internalized racism refers to an nities (Martin & Meezan, 2003; Miller, Forte, Wil- individual or communities’ acceptance of negative son, & Greene, 2006; Zea, Reisen, & Díaz, 2003), messages concerning the racial or cultural groups these do not focus on LGBTQ people of African with which they identify. In countries that are pre- descent. dominantly black in their government, administra- To conceptually grasp the international tion, and leadership, the historical remnants of rac- black sexual minority experience, it is useful to ism and colonialism must be examined with regard consider writings outside the realms of experi- to their lasting, albeit elusive, manifestations in mental research and conventional scholarship. the psychological, social, and institutional realms This includes examining personal narratives and (Jones, 2002) Homophobia and heterosexism also testimonials that reflect the perspectives of the manifest in the three dimensions of institutional- communities being studied. These writings guide ization, personal mediation, and internalization. the researcher to an authentic representation of Therefore any examination of the LGBTQ black the black LGBTQ experience as expressed by experience must consider the impact of internal- members of that population. Testimonials such as ized, social, and institutionalized homophobia and Audre Lorde’s (1984) Sister Outsider, Hein Klein- heterosexism as well as that of internalized, social, booi’s (1995) Identity Crossfire and Stacy Ann and institutionalized racism. Chin’s (2006) Me and Jesus provide a succinct The experiences of African heritage people narrative of life as a black LGBTQ person that have been overlooked in much research (Hancard, transcends the scope of most scholarship on these 2004), and the authors here bring emphasis to the populations. needs of sexual minorities in the African diaspora, especially those living in developing countries, to 4. Conceptual Framework address this disparity. The goal of the ISMHRP is One theory alone cannot adequately ad- to attend the concerns of black people who share dress the complex issues presenting in the ex- emotional and historical struggles in the context of perience of black LGBTQ people; therefore, a poverty, colonialism, and challenges posed by ho- multi-theoretical approach is taken. Communi- mophobia and heterosexism. ty-based participatory research, the ecological perspective, and the strengths perspective are 3. Literature Review discussed in reference to these populations. Com- Most of the social work research literature munity-based participatory research (CBPR) will on LGBTQ people of color in the United States serve as the overarching framework for discussion is focused on HIV/AIDS and domestic violence about research with LGBTQ communities of Af- prevention (Van Voorhis & Wagner, 2001). Much rican descent. The central point of this type of re- of the research literature on the questioning pop- search is that participants benefit from the process ulation is limited to youth (Savin-Williams, 2001; and products of the research. Elze, 2003), and the intersexed population publica- The CBPR approach goes beyond commu- tions have focused on Native American communi- nity outreach and is systematic about relating com- ties (Meyer-Cook & Labelle, 2004). There is some munity practice to research (Wallerstein & Duran, research on the impact of multiple oppressions 2006). The strengths and ecological perspectives on mental health and social functioning (Herek, create a comprehensive context for understanding

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 58 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora the experiences of LGBTQ people of the African illicit. As a result, sexual practices of same-gender diaspora. people are accessible only via the sex trade in many regions. The impact of economic issues on 4.1 Community-Based Participatory choices about and perceptions of sexual orientation Research bears thoughtful consideration. Other variables Community-based participatory research such as geographic location, religion/spirituality, is not a specific method of research design, but quality and perspective of formal education in the rather an approach to the research process. As region, gender roles and privileges (particularly defined by Lantz, Israel, Schulz, & Reyes (2006), the role of patriarchy and male privilege), closely CBPR is a collaborative approach that includes knit communities, and the degree to which the community partners who are engaged and involved government is involved in private affairs must also in all phases of the research. There are many sim- be considered for their influence on people’s expe- ilar approaches, which are referred to as “action rience of their sexuality. research,” “participatory research,” “participatory action research,” and “participatory community 4.3 Strengths Perspective research.” The overall goal of CBPR is to increase The strengths perspective invites the re- knowledge and understanding and then apply that search community to move beyond the plethora of same knowledge in the development of interven- challenges facing black LGBTQ people in devel- tions and policies focused on improving health and oping countries and seek out the wealth of resourc- well-being at the community level (Israel et al., es, resiliencies, and contributions that invariably 1998). Research indicates that this approach is par- exist. Elements of the strengths perspective that ticularly important in marginalized communities are appropriate when working with LGBTQ com- and communities of color, because empowerment munities include: empowerment, resilience, and of community participants is at its core (Chavez, membership. Duran, Baker, Avila, & Wallerstein, 2003). While Dennis Saleebey (1996) considers these holding the community-based participatory re- elements to be central to the strengths perspective. search perspective as a foundation, it is crucial In this perspective, the “person is identified as hav- that the needs and challenges of individuals not ing unique, traits, talents and resources that add up be usurped. It is essential to address conflict and to strengths,” “individuals, family, or community ethical dilemmas in ways that protect respondents are the experts,” “possibilities for choice, control, while supporting overall community development. commitment, and personal development are open,” This paradigm is ideal for research with LGBTQ “resources for work are the strengths, capacities, people of African descent. and adaptive skills of the individual, family, or community,” and “help is centered on getting on 4.2 Ecological Perspective with one’s life, affirming and developing values The ecological perspective is necessary, and commitments, and making and finding mem- because the impact of all the systems in the par- bership in or as a community” (Saleebey, 1996, p. ticipants’ experience must be considered. This 298). In working with black LGBTQ people, this perspective avoids the error of looking at commu- entails an emphasis away from pathology and vic- nities and individuals without understanding their timization, and toward assets and resources within social, cultural, political, and economic contexts. the individuals and communities under study. Economic issues affect sexuality and sexual choic- With regard to community-based resources, and conversely, sexuality and sexual choices es, there are allies to LGBTQ persons and com- have an economic impact on economics. For ex- munities in every region, although often part of ample, homophobia has made gay and lesbian sex the researcher’s contribution is to unearth them.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 59 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora Community organizations, educational institutions, The leadership team for the International and health and human service agencies should be Sexuality and Mental Health Research Project explored and assessed for cultural competence included both heterosexual and non-heterosexual with regard to LGBTQ persons and issues as well people of color as well as a white heterosexual stu- as gay friendliness, or at least the willingness dent intern who participated in the South African to become culturally competent or gay friendly. component of the research. There is no doubt that While it is important to recognize social and psy- the project benefited from having a combination of chological challenges faced by these populations, allies as well as members of the community under particularly in light of the oppression they face, it study as its leaders and administrators. As a mental is equally important to not view LGBTQ persons health clinician and researcher of African heritage and communities in developing countries as be- who also identifies as a lesbian, the principal in- ing so blighted that they do not have significant vestigator was able to discuss the challenges of strengths. racism and homophobia as an insider. This had the Examination of the unique experiences of impact of making participants feel connected and both culture and oppression provides insight into supported and perhaps less “studied” than had the the resiliencies unavailable to those with more leadership been predominantly white or heterosex- social, economic, and racial privilege. Equally ual. Furthermore, because local activists and com- important is the need to examine the contributions munity organizers who had served as site coordi- of black LGBTQ community members in their nators also completed surveys and participated in respective regions and localities. Although many focus groups themselves, participants were further are not public about their sexual orientation and/ supported by and connected to their local leader- or gender identity, LGBTQ people of African ship as they engaged with ISMHRP. heritage are often cornerstones of progress and On the other hand, the leadership and com- development in their countries and in the world at mitment of ISMHRP’s non LGBTQ and/or white large. Recognizing and utilizing that leadership is researchers who were able to guide the project essential to contributive research. without duplicating the experience of oppression was invaluable. These individuals showed genuine 5. Roles/Caveats for the Researcher compassion for the participants’ struggles as well Researchers must explore their own values as initiative and enthusiasm for the elimination of with regard to how they think about race, class, the kinds of injustice the participants had endured gender, and sexual orientation, paying particular and in so doing they created an expanded sense of attention to biases toward one conceptualization safety. The presence of allies on the leadership team versus another. They must also process their expe- highlighted the reality that many people who do not riences with both racism and homophobia to elim- identify as black or LGBTQ are available to black inate the projection of their own reality onto the LGBTQ persons as resources, even comrades, in respondents. When working with LGBTQ com- their battle against oppression. Hence allies contrib- munities in the African diaspora, it is important to ute to a sense of psychological and emotional safety include black and or LGBTQ researchers in the for people targeted by oppression. It is the safety process; but having researchers of African descent, that comes with the realization and reminders that or researchers who identify as LGBTQ does not not all who identify as “other” are unsafe. eliminate the need for cultural introspection. Each This sense of safety combined with a individual experience of being black or LGBTQ sense of connection to the researchers and to the is by its very nature unique, so it is important that project’s aim, which was to improve understand- researchers not project their conceptualizations of ing of and services for LGBTQ black people, sexuality and ethnicity onto the participants. facilitated open dialogues, which often lasted far

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 60 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora longer than typical focus group discussions. Par- the researcher’s identity such as nationality may ticipants in the ISMHRP expressed a perception symbolize oppression for study participants. These that these discussions were an opportunity to tell types of considerations inform the development of their story in a venue where it would be validated, culturally competent research. where they could openly discuss being both black and non-heterosexual in their cultural context. 6. Recommendations As ISMHRP explored the painful experiences of The academic has many roles as a research- social oppression and the mental health sequalae er, including initiator, consultant, and collaborator thereof, the emotional and physical safety and sup- (Stoecker, 1999), and it is important to match port of the participants was paramount. skills and expertise with the needs and wants of From the ISMHRP experience we can note the community being researched. In conducting that it does not suffice to simply have researchers research with LGBTQ people of color, certain of color or LGBTQ researchers in order to conduct considerations are imperative to sustaining the culturally competent research with black LGBTQ strengths perspective, which augments empower- populations. As with culturally matched dyads in ment, resilience, and membership in a community. the clinical context, researchers may counter-trans- Based on research literature and the experiences fer their own experience of being black or LGBTQ of the authors as part of the International Sexuality onto the participants or the research as a whole. and Mental Health Research Project, the following This will compromise the meaning of the work, as recommendations are made. the experience of the community under study will It is important that the developmental pro- only be understood as it relates to preconceived cess of research in the LGBTQ community address notions. Thus it is necessary for the researchers to issues related to partnerships between researchers consider themselves facilitators of empowerment and community members; human rights laws; safety and social development and work accordingly. concerns of both the participants and the research- Laying the foundation for the research may include ers; compensation for participants; intersections educating law enforcement, service providers, and of ethnic, gender, and sexual identity; use of the the community at large regarding the issues. In media; and strategies to overcome methodological the ISMHRP study, this was done by engaging the barriers. Guided by the strengths perspective, local community at large in public dialogues via media resources can be engaged in partnerships, human and community discussion groups prior to the ac- rights laws are considered, people’s multiple identi- tual focus groups and survey administration. ties addressed, and the media effectively engaged. It The researcher should also give thought- is hoped that the recommendations made here will ful consideration to the utility of being out as an also inform social work practice as well as policy to LGBTQ person. The advantages and disadvantag- address the presenting needs and issues. es of self-disclosure regarding sexual orientation should be weighed, with the provision of resources 6.1 Partnerships to the community under study as the determining In the ISMHRP, working relationships factor. The clinical rule regarding self-disclo- between community-based organizations, re- sure, that it should always be done in the service searchers, local health departments, and nonprofit of the client, applies in the research context as initiatives focused on the health and mental health well. The advantages of being out include em- needs of LGBTQ communities. Partnerships can powering the community under study by example aid in overcoming methodological barriers asso- if the researcher does identify as LGBTQ. On ciated with research in hidden populations. Such the other hand, even though the researcher may collaborative partnerships are a useful mechanism identify as an LGBTQ person, other aspects of for research in the LGBTQ community.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 61 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora In order to be effective, the collaboration strive on behalf of their LGBTQ communities. must support human and civil rights as they relate Researchers in turn gain some social acceptance to the LGBTQ people under study. The fundamen- from the community members with the active in- tal principles of community-based participatory volvement of local leadership. The identification research that are critical include the following: it and utilization of a local site coordinator is a way is participatory; it involves a joint process between of directly acknowledging the community partners community members and researchers; it involves as experts. a co-learning process; the development of systems It is important to identify partners at the and capacities of local resources is important; community level as well as at the academic and the process is empowering for participants; and professional levels. Specifically related to local there is a balance achieved between the research capacity development, engaging local colleges and the action taken on behalf of the community and universities as well as any available LGBTQ (Minkler, 2004, p. 685), such as advocacy for ex- agencies, especially those focused on the needs ample. Building and maintaining partnerships with of LGBTQ people of African descent, is pivotal. individuals and organizations alike provide for Making connections with national and internation- what some researchers term “partnership synergy,” al human rights agencies also helps to extend the which refers to addressing and challenging issues reach of the project as a whole. more effectively in partnership, rather than alone In the ISMHRP study, the assistance of (Minkler, 2004, p.694). the local LGBTQ agencies that were advocacy Each location must have a site coordinator centered in nature served as an invaluable re- to serve as the local representative for the research source in helping the research team understand project. This person works in constant communi- the challenges of being LGBTQ in the countries cation with the research team in managing logistics under study. The local agencies also helped with related to finding an appropriate venue, securing a outreach and community “buy-in” and willingness meeting time, working with local resources in terms to participate. Outreach involved activities such of refreshments for study participants, etc. The local as face-to-face invitations to participate, hardcopy site coordinator is also involved in instrument de- and online media postings, radio and television velopment, and acts as an informant on local public promotions, mailings, telephone calls, and e-mail issues affecting members of the LGBTQ commu- correspondence. nity as well as resources available to self-identified In conducting LGBTQ research, local col- LGBTQ people and their allies. This person is leges and universities should always be explored heavily involved in outreach, whether it is by word- for their community and student resources. There of-mouth at local social events and/or by getting the are often pro-diversity clubs or LGBTQ student project publicized over the Internet on appropriate organizations on college campuses. Students pro- listserves and websites so that interested persons vide a unique perspective on the LGBTQ experi- know who to contact for more information on the ence, particularly in regard to family, friends, and research project and how to participate. intellectual issues. In the ISMHRP study, the local Identifying local site coordinators empow- universities served as a neutral venue for holding ers the community and provides resources for local focus groups. There was always campus security activists. A local site coordinator also strengthens onsite, and attending a meeting at the local univer- the cultural competence of the research process by sity sidestepped concerns participants may have informing the researcher of culturally appropriate had about stigma associated with being seen in an language and etiquette. Partnering with local com- LGBTQ-identified venue. munity-based institutions and agencies and with Appropriate Ministries of Health and So- individual activists affirms the work of locals who cial Service officials should also be engaged early

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 62 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora in the research process and alliances between legalities and safety issues in an effort to assist the these and the community under study should be participants and researchers throughout the process. strengthened. Due to the stress caused by ho- In South Africa, the rights of gays and les- mophobia and heterosexism, LGBTQ persons are bians are constitutionally acknowledged. The Bill at an increased risk for negative mental health out- of Rights in the 1996 South African Constitution comes. Thus local substance abuse centers, mental prohibits discrimination based on sexuality. While health clinics and hospitals are key resources. By South Africa has been a transformative model for engaging with them, the researcher can both de- social justice globally, LGBTQ black people still termine and enhance the cultural competence of face significant challenges in the region. One par- these institutions with regard to LGBTQ issues. ticipant at a 1997 Gay Pride March in South Africa These agencies may also serve as an additional discussed how the Constitution means nothing at resource to draw respondents from or refer re- all in the face of hate crimes. (Christiansen, 2000, spondents to. p. 62). Several black South African participants in ISMHRP had experienced hate crimes, often in the 6.2 Human Rights Laws form of sexual and physical violence, with little or While almost half of the countries in Africa no legal redress. In this region, racism and the con- have laws against homosexuality in general, there tinued disenfranchisement of black people in the are some countries that discriminate and have laws townships exacerbated the participants’ experience against only male homosexuality and a few coun- of homophobia. tries remain unclear as to their laws in this area. In the case of the Caribbean and Latin America, more 6.3 Personal Safety: Respondents than half of the countries in these regions have and Researcher(s) no formal law against homosexuality but as is the It is necessary that the researcher(s) be re- case with Africa, there are a few countries that ban sponsible for their own safety and make appropriate male homosexual behavior. It should be noted that choices to protect the participants. The development the absence of formal laws banning homosexuality of Institutional Review Board applications should does not mean that law enforcement is supportive include some discussion of how to protect respon- of protecting the rights of the LGBTQ community. dents from social and familial discrimination (as The presence or absence of law is not a sufficient well as negative legal consequences in countries indication of safety, and often police and govern- where homosexuality is illegal) that could potential- ment officials are complicit in discrimination and ly come about based on their participation. When violence against LGBTQ persons regardless of the the research is conducted with the appropriate con- official policy. siderations, the researcher has the unique opportu- For some of the locales under study, homo- nity to share information about the experiences and sexuality was illegal. This was a critical context for strategies for change used successfully by LGBTQ the researchers to be cognizant of in terms of the people in other parts of the world. Thus it is imper- type of public outreach that could be conducted, ative that one make efforts to create security and venue locations, and identification of resources. develop relationships with law enforcement and While this proved challenging in the beginning, dialogue with community members about the social particularly as the researchers were trying to con- and legal risks and protective factors. nect with these hidden LGBTQ communities from across continents, once participants were contacted 6.4 Compensation for Participation with the help of the local site coordinator, signifi- Researchers must be thoughtful about the cant access to participants became available. Local implications of paying respondents for their par- partners also provided invaluable insight regarding ticipation in regions where economic deprivation

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 63 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora prevails. Lasting resources need not be limited to It is in this context that consideration must be given money but must focus on developing social capital to the gender roles transgendered persons may be and providing inroads to future economic develop- seeking to transcend and the different experience ment. As part of the ISMHRP study, the principal sexual minorities may have based on gender. investigator is working with regional LGBTQ leaders to support and chronicle black LGBTQ perspec- 6.7 Sexual Identity tives and contributions to the larger community’s The nomenclature of “LGBTQ” is not al- economic, social, and cultural development. ways embraced by individuals and communities, particularly communities of color. While it is used 6.5 Ethnic Identity throughout this article for explanation, it must be tak- Since the experience of people of African en into account that this reference term is not appro- heritage is not monolithic in any community it is priate for all communities. Also, sexual identity may important to consider what it means to be black in hold far less significance for individuals in develop- the region under study and how that relates to what ing regions than national/cultural identity, economic it means to be LGBTQ. Pride in nationhood and in issues, or some other aspect of their experience. It one’s unique representation of the black experience is important to remember that the LGBTQ commu- must be understood for the layers of meaning it con- nity is not homogenous, no matter the country. For tains. Thus it is important to distinguish what being many sexual minority youth in the United States Jamaican, Trinidadian, Senegalese, etc., symbolizes for example, the term “gay” refers to belonging to a to members of these communities and the interplay class of people who face prejudices, stereotypes, and between that and issues of sexual orientation and hate crimes based on their sexual orientation (Sav- gender identity in their experience. Researchers in-Williams, 2001). This same negative connota- must be mindful of the ways in which people of tion of these identifiers is sometimes prohibitive for African descent self-identify, especially in the case LGBTQ persons in developing countries. of people with mixed-ethnic and/or mixed-national identity and heritage. 6.8 Use of the Media It is important that researchers not become a Engagement with the local media allows part of the problem and confine people to what they the researcher to participate in a healthy exchange “appear” to be. All people are complex and multidi- of dialogue with the overall community. Through mensional. In the poem Me and Jesus (Chin, 2006), well-considered interviews in the press, the research- the author expresses the challenges that LGBTQ er can support local activists in bringing awareness people of color face in terms of identity, while em- to issues of concern to LGBTQ persons, thus edu- phasizing the unique capacities of LGBTQ black cating the community at large while promoting in- people to be “who they are” as visible, spiritual, in- volvement in and support for the research. In so do- tellectual, contributing members of society. ing there is the potential for creating lasting regional understanding of the strengths and challenges of 6.6 Gender Identity LGBTQ persons that endures beyond the life of the The cultural context of gender roles and ex- research project. pectations is important to acknowledge, as it varies Participating in dialogues via local television, across countries and presents differently throughout radio, and print media can also be a vehicle to inform the African diaspora. The preservation of patriarchy the public that there are many contributive LGBTQ is no doubt in part responsible for the more emphat- citizens in their communities. Doing so also allows ic opposition to male homosexuality in Africa and the researcher to address the issues of stigma and dis- the Caribbean. In the African diaspora the economic crimination that LGBTQ people face in that region. and social exploitation of women is still prevalent. Heterosexist and homophobic ideologies and actions

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 64 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora negatively impact the physical and mental well-be- health disparities must be strengthened. Policy and ing of heterosexuals and non-heterosexuals alike, resources for immigrant and refugee people of Af- and the social capital in communities as a whole is rican heritage who are LGBTQ must be developed diminished by their presence. and supported. The elimination of health disparities first 6.9 Overcoming Methodological requires a clear picture of what types of disparities Barriers exist; and in the African diaspora, particularly in Based on the work of Joan C. McClennen developing countries, these needs are not yet clear. (2003), there are eight innovative strategies to over- The ISMHRP study highlights key issues such as the come methodological barriers for the non-LGBTQ need for legal and social protections (i.e., anti–hate researcher, all of which are applicable to LGBTQ re- crime legislation, and antidiscrimination policies in searchers as well. These strategies are: (1) education the public sector). However there are also indica- about the culture; (2) preparation for objections; (3) tors that emotional psychological and social support incorporation of instruments defined by those being is needed due to the impact of social oppression on researched; (4) implementation of various sampling mental health and social functioning in these popu- techniques; (5) engagement of affiliated members for lations. Continued research to further quantify and assistance; (6) immersion in the culture; (7) collabo- qualify these needs is crucial. ration with scholars and other professionals; and (8) triangulation in data collection. 7.2 Social Work Practice While the above eight strategies are based The implications of the ISMHRP study and on the experience of a heterosexual researcher its recommendations are far-reaching with regard to focusing on domestic violence in the LGBTQ their impact on social work practice as well. Practi- community, the implications are far-reaching. Par- tioners continue to be informed by empirical research ticularly in the case of African diaspora LGBTQ that qualifies the experience of understudied constit- communities that face additional layers of stigma uencies. Although there is a growing body of litera- due to racism and economic oppression, these strat- ture on social work practice with people of African egies are essential. Overall, commitment to the ethi- heritage, this study is the first to offer insights with cal contract between the researcher and those being regard to the experience of black LGBTQ people researched is required. throughout the diaspora. Throughout the ISMHRP study, implications for health service provider train- 7. Implications for Social Work ings on culturally competent black LGBTQ-sensi- Policy, Practice and Research tive health care provision have emerged. Ultimately, practice guidelines can be informed and developed from such studies to implement services and train 7.1 Social Work Policy providers in the provision of services to the LGBTQ The policy arena may be the most pressing community. point for intervention on behalf of LGBTQ people of African heritage. Advocacy for basic human and 7.3 Ethics and Research civil rights, particularly in countries where homo- The ISMHRP study incorporated the values sexuality is illegal, is central to protecting LGBTQ and ethics of leading social work organizations that people of the African diaspora from violence and may be used as guides for social work consider- the debilitating effects of social, familial, and ations with sexual minorities, given their implica- internalized oppression. Efforts to reach out to and tions for practice and research. The National Associ- support refugees fleeing persecution due to sexu- ation of Social Workers Code of Ethics (2008) artic- al orientation–based discrimination and resulting ulates a social justice commitment and emphasizes

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 65 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora the development of sensitivity and knowledge di- from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. rectly related to oppression. The ethical responsibil- cfm?abstract_id=999685 ities of social workers include culturally competent DiPlacido, J. (1998). Minority stress among service provision and advocacy for disenfranchised lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A populations. In addition, social work researchers are consequence of heterosexism, homophobia, ethically responsible for taking appropriate mea- and stigmatization. In George M. Herek (Ed.), sures to ensure participants access to appropriate Stigma and sexual orientation: Volume 4. supportive services and ensuring confidentiality of Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. participants and the data obtained from them. The Elze, D. E. (2003). 8,000 miles and still counting… ISMHRP provides an example of due diligence in reaching gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents this regard. for research. Journal of Gay and Lesbian The joint International Federation of So- Social Services, 15(1/2), 127–145. cial Workers and the International Association of Green, B. (1997). Ethnic minority lesbians and Schools of Social Work (2004) code of ethics high- gay men: Mental health and treatment issues. lights the importance of human rights and respect- In Beverly Green (Ed.), Ethnic and cultural ing human dignity as essential to effective research diversity among lesbians and gay men: and practice. These values have proven to be indis- Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay pensable in work with sexual minorities of the Af- issues, 3, (pp. 216–239). Thousand Oaks, CA: rican diaspora. As stated by renowned philosopher Sage. and educator Daisaku Ikeda (2008), “By focusing Hanchard, M. G. (2004). Black-transnationalism, on the deepest and most universal dimensions of Africana studies and the 21st century. Journal life, we can extend a natural empathy toward life of Black Studies, 35(2), 139–153. in its infinite diversity” ( p367). With an emphasis Herek, G. M., Gillis, J. R., Cogan, J. C., & Glunt, on engaging individuals holistically, recognizing E. K. (1997). Hate crime victimization among the unique aspects of their human experience and lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of challenging unjust policies and practices that affect Interpersonal Violence, 12(2), 195–215. them, social work research has the capacity to ad- Ikeda, D. (2008). Peace and Human Security. In dress the needs of marginalized constituencies and My dear friends in America: Collected U.S. advance social justice for all people. addresses, 1990–1996. Santa Monica, CA: World Tribune Press. References International Federation of Social Workers, & Chavez, V., Duran, B., Baker, Q., Avila M., & International Association of Schools of Social Wallerstein, N. (2003). The dance of race & Work. (2004). Ethics in social work, statement privilege in community based participatory of principles. Retrieved on February 15, 2010, research. In M. Minkler & N. Wallerstein, from http://www.ifsw.org/cm_data/Ethics_in_ Community based participatory research. San Social_Work_Statement_of_Principles_-_to_ Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. be_publ_205.pdf Chin, S. A. (2006). Me and Jesus. Retrieved on May Israel, B. A., Schulz, A. J., Parker, E. A., & Becker, 15, 2007, from http://www.staceyannchin.com/ A. B. (1998). Review of community-based v2/index.html research: Assessing partnership approaches Christiansen, E. (2000). Ending the apartheid of to improve public health. Annual Review of the closet: Sexual orientation in the South Public Health, 19, 173–202. African constitutional process. New York Jones, C. P. (2002). Confronting institutionalized University Journal of International Law and racism. Phylon: The Clark Atlanta University Politics, 32(997). Retrieved on July 27, 2007, review of race and culture, 50(1/2), 7–22.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 66 Social Work Research Considerations with Sexual Minorities in the African Diaspora Kleinbooi, H. (1995). Identity crossfire: On being Nnaemeka, O. (2007). Re-imagining the diaspora: a black gay student activist. In M. Gevisser & history, responsibility, and commitment in an E. Cameron (Eds.), Defiant desire: Gay and age of globalization. Dialectical Anthropology, lesbian lives in South Africa. (pp. 264–268 31, 127–141. supra note 63). London: Routledge. Parks, C. W. (2001). African-American same- Lantz, P. M., Israel, B. A., Schulz, A. J., & Reyes, gender-loving youths and families in urban A. (2006). Community-based participatory schools. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social research: Rationale and relevance for social Services, 13(3), 41–56. epidemiology. In J. Michael Oakes, & Roberts, R. E. (1980). Reliability of the CES-D in Jay S. Kaufman (Eds.), Methods in social different ethnic contexts. Psychiatry Research, epidemiology, (pp. 239–266). San Francisco, 2, 125–134. CA: Jossey-Bass. Saleebey, D. (1996). The strengths perspective in Lorde, A. (1984). Sister Outsider: Essays and social work practice: Extensions and cautions. speeches. Berkeley, CA: Crossing Press Social Work, 41(3), 296–305. Feminist Series. Savin-Williams, R. C. (2001). A critique of Martin, J. I., & Meezan, W. (2003). Applying ethical research on sexual-minority youth. Journal of standards to research and evaluations involving Adolescence, 24, 5–13. lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Stoecker, R. (1999). Are academics irrelevant? populations. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social American Behavioral Scientist, 42(5), 840–854. Services, 15(1/2), 181–201. Van Voorhis, R., & Wagner, M. (2001). Coverage of McClennen, J. C. (2003). Researching gay and gay and lesbian subject matter in social work lesbian domestic violence: The journey of journals. Journal of Social Work Education, a non-LGBT researcher. Journal of Gay & 37(1), 147–160. Lesbian Social Services, 15(1/2), 31–45. Walters, K. L., Evans-Campbell, T., Simoni, J. M., Meyer-Cook, F., & Labelle, D. (2004). Namaji: Ronquillo, T., & Bhuyan, R. (2006) “My Two-spirit organizing in Montreal, Canada. spirit in my heart”: Identity experiences and Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, challenges among American Indian two-spirit 16(1), 29–51. women. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 10(1/2), Miller, R. L., Forte, D., Wilson, B.D.M., & Greene, 125–149. G. J. (2006). Protecting sexual minority youth Wheeler, D. P. (2003). Methodological issues in from research risks: Conflicting perspectives. conducting community-based health and social American Journal of Psychology, 37, 341–348. services research among urban black and Minkler, M. (2004). Ethical challenges for the African-American LGBT populations. Journal “outside” researcher in community-based of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 15(1/2), participatory research. Health Education & 65–78. Behavior, 31(6), 684–697. Wallerstein, N. B., & Duran, B. (2006). Using National Association of Social Workers (NASW). community-based participatory research to (2008). Code of Ethics. Retrieved on February address health disparities. Health Promotion 15, 2010, from http://www.socialworkers.org/ Practice, 7(3), 312–323. pubs/Code/code.asp Zea, M. C., Reisen, C. A., & Díaz, R. M. (2003). Naugton, M. J., & Wilkund, I. (1993). A critical Methodological issues in research on sexual review of dimension-specific measures of behavior with Latino gay and bisexual men. health-related quality of life in cross-cultural American Journal of Community Psychology, research. Quality of Life Research, 2(6), 397– 31(3/4), 281–291. 432.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2012, Vol. 9, No. 2 - page 67