CLOSUP Working Paper Series Number 50
February, 2021
Solar Siting Authority Across the United States
Elena Essa, University of Michigan Kristina Curtiss, University of Michigan Claire Dodinval, University of Michigan
This paper is available online at http://closup.umich.edu
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy or any sponsoring agency
Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy University of Michigan
Sola Si ing A ho i Ac o he Uni ed S a e
Uni e i of Michigan
P bPol 750.006: Rene able Ene g and he S a e and Local Le el
D . Sa ah Mill
B :
Elena E a
K i ina C i
Clai e Dodin al
Decembe 10, 2020
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E ecuti e Summar Thi e o aim o nde and he olic and eg la o land ca e o nding ola i ing in he Uni ed S a e in he a , e en and looking o a d he f e. The co e of hi anal i incl de i ing fo ho o ol aic (PV) ola ojec a ili - cale fo he U.S. local, a e, and fede al le el . Fo he o e of hi e o , ili - cale ola i defined a elec ici od ced b ola gene a ion ha i fed di ec l in o he U.S. g id a he han di ec l ed fo on- i e elec ici demand. The backg o nd ec ion com i e of a li e a e e ie , ca e die on a e na a i e ela ed o U.S. ola i ing, an anal i of a e- ecific in e ie , and a glo a of c en U.S. a e olicie fo i ing ola i h a di c ion of he glo a finding and end . Polic e ie ed fo nd ha ome a e ' i ing olicie efe o ene g ojec o gene al an mi ion and i ing, hich b e en ion a lie o ola . The efo e, ola i ing a ho i i of en con i en i h c en li e a e on ind i ing a ho i , b ome ke diffe ence e i ac o a e .
Literature Re ie Me h d An anal i on a ailable li e a e a cond c ed o e c en info ma ion on i ing fo ola . A a ed in he e ec i e mma , he co e of hi ojec and b e en li e a e e ie incl de i ing in he Uni ed S a e fo ho o ol aic ola ojec a ili - cale a he fede al, a e, and local le el . Plea e no e ha concen a ed ola o e (CSP) ola echnolog i no incl ded in he co e. Me hod incl ded ing he online da aba e Sco and ScienceDi ec o collec li e a e ing ke o d ela ed o ola i ing. Simila o ola , a ind i ing d , Pla i g f Wi d E e g (R nne e al., 2011), a ed o collec ke o d ela ed o i ing ha o ld be a lied o he ola i ing li e a e e ie . The e m ola and i ing e e coded in o Sco ha e l ed in 366 ela ed a icle . F om he e 366 e l , li e a e a na o ed do n o 28 a icle b elec ing a icle ela ed o ke h a e ha a e ho n in Table 1 in he a endi ec ion of hi e o . The i le and ab ac of he 28 a icle e e im o ed in o he of a e VOS ie e o ee ho o la ke o d in he li e a e ab ac connec ed o each o he (Fig e 1). F om he e, he ab ac of each of he 28 a icle e e ead o na o do n he li e a e o 11 a icle e l , hich fo m he fo nda ion of he li e a e e ie ba ed on ele ance o he co e of hi e o . F om he 11 a icle fo nd in he li e a e e ie , common heme eme ged hen di c ing ola i ing in he Uni ed S a e hich can be g o ed in o he o la ge ca ego ie of 1) comm ni conce n and 2) land- e conce n . Bo h comm ni conce n and land- e conce n affec he olic ha i c ea ed a all le el of go e nmen and al o he ac al e ec ion of i ing fo ola ojec .
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C mm i C ce When e al a ing ola in he Uni ed S a e , a majo con ide a ion i blic o inion and conce n fo ne ola de elo men in he local comm ni ie he e ojec a e i ed (Ca li le e al., 2014; Ca li le e al., 2015; Ca li le e al., 2016; Moo e & Hacke , 2016; Pa ale i & Sch a , 2013). In he a hen he e a blic o o i ion fo ola ojec , he he ega ding i ing o o he conce n , NIMBY (No In M Back a d) a ed o de c ibe hi beha io f om he comm ni . NIMBY efe o o o i ion f om local comm ni ie ba ed on o imi o de elo men ojec (Ca li le e al., 2014). NIMBY-i m i of en ed a a ejo a i e e m o de c ibe local a ninfo med, i a ional, and ha ing homogeneo conce n (Ca li le e al., 2014; Ca li le e al., 2015; Ca li le e al., 2016; Moo e & Hacke , 2016). F he e ea ch ha e ed local comm ni ie and ho n ha local o o i ion o i ing ojec i of en ell-info med, a ional, and j ified (Ca li le e al., 2014). In o de o nde and h ene able ene g ojec , ecificall PV ola , a e ome ime no cce f l, i i im o an o nde and he ole ha blic o inion and local conce n la . A he li e a e a e ha NIMBY doe no acc a el de ic h local comm ni ie o o e ola ojec , o he con ide a ion ch a blic e ce ion of he ojec , he akeholde in ol ed, and lace a achmen can la a ole in o o o o i ion fo i ing ola in a a ic la comm ni . P blic e ce ion of i ing ola ojec can diffe fo diffe en e of local comm ni ie , ch a al comm ni ie (Pa ale i & Sch a , 2013). Re l in he a icle anal ed had conflic ing e l fo blic e ce ion and acce ance of i ing ola . Fo e am le, i ing fo a ola ojec in Gila Bend, AZ o ed a fail e in nde anding blic al e, hich i ed o de c ibe he no ma i e con en ha he blic ho ld o ho ld no ha e on i e (Pa ale i & Sch a , 2013). While on he o he hand, e ea ch b Ca li le e al. a e ha la ge cale ola ojec a e ie ed o i i el in Califo nia beca e of he economic benefi , e he d did no foc on an one loc o ojec (2014). S akeholde engagemen in a ojec can be he de e mining fac o be een cce and fail e. Po i i e blic e ce ion of i ing a ola ojec in a local comm ni ill inc ea e i h blic engagemen . I i a ed ha fo a ene able ene g de elo men ojec o be cce f l, blic in i e en ial (Ca li le e al., 2014; Ca li le e al., 2015; Ca li le e al., 2016; Moo e & Hacke , 2016; Pa ale i & Sch a , 2013) and al o comm ni b -in i e en ial (Ca li le e al., 2015). Engagemen a a io le el of go e nmen can ho he in e ec ional na e of i ing ola in he U.S., he e m l i le akeholde ha e a oice in he ojec de elo men . Fo ola i ing in Califo nia h o gh he De e Rene able Ene g Con e a ion Plan (DRECP), akeholde ha o ld be in eg al o he ojec cce incl de: go e nance coo e a ion (Califo nia Ene g Commi ion and Califo nia De a men of Fi h and Game), m l i-le el go e nmen collabo a ion (local go e nmen , Califo nian agencie , US B ea of Land Managemen , and U.S. Fi h and Wildlife Se ice), in f om he blic ec o (agencie and co n go e nmen ), in f om he i a e ec o ( ili ie , ene able 3 de elo e ), and he b oade comm ni (ci i en , indigeno comm ni ie , and non ofi ) (K el e al., 2014). Finall , lace a achmen la a ole in he e a PV ola ojec i i ed and al o if i ill be a o ed fo e mi and de elo men . Place a achmen i defined b Ca li le e al. a a collec i e o ien a ion ha de c ibe he oce of becoming a ached o an en i onmen al e ing (2016). Place a achmen i of en a la ge o o i ional fo ce fo i ing ola fo na al a ea e de elo ed a ea (ibid). The idea of lace can be fel h o gh en e o emo ion a iall , em o all , o oli icall (Moo e & Hacke , 2016). Ca li le e al. fo nd ha lace a achmen , hich can be mea ed b leng h of e idence, doe no la a ignifican ole in he e ce ion of i ing ola in Califo nia (2014). Ho e e , he ame a ho fo nd ha i al im ac of la ge ola facili ie la an im o an ole in ga ne ing blic o fo he a o al of i ing ola ojec in ce ain comm ni ie (2016).
La d-U e C ce Land conce n ha la a ole in ola i ing in he U.S. incl de he e of land i ed, land- e con ide a ion and i k , and he e amina ion of biodi e i , ildlife, and na al a ea . In he Uni ed S a e , e mi fo ola ene g i ing ha e been a o ed in la ge on fede al land and on i a el -o ned land (S om e al., 2013). The a ho no e ha i a e land gene all a e mo e deg aded han fede all o ned land, hich make hem mo e iable fo i ing (ibid). Land- e im lica ion of i ing ola i a la ge o ion of nde anding ho cce f l PV ola de elo men ojec ill be hen di c ing ola i ing olic (He nande e al., 2015; Moo e & Hacke , 2016; S om e al., 2013; T aino e al., 2016; W e al., 2015). When i ing ola , land i co ed o ideall inc ea e land- e efficienc and minimi e land a ea co e , ch a on a ea ha al ead con ain con c ed inf a c e like a king lo o oof o (He nande e al., 2015). The ea oning behind minimi ing land a ea co e and ma imi ing land- e efficienc i o e e e biodi e i and al o e ec land ca ci conce n (ibid). Addi ionall , he c l al and hi o ical al e of land need o be aken in o con ide a ion hen i ing ola de elo men (K el e al., 2014). Ho e e , He nande e al. no e ha mo of he ola ojec i ed in Califo nia a e in na al a ea (2015). Recommenda ion fo i ing ola , a ic la l in he So h e U.S. and Califo nia, a e o be i ed on deg aded land i h co-loca ion benefi , nea e i ing inf a c e, and on land i h lo con e a ion al e (He nande e al. 2015; S om e al., 2015; T aino e al., 2016, W e al., 2015). Co-loca ion benefi incl de (b a e no limi ed o) ag ic l e o g o ing, animal g a ing, o b ilding-in eg a ed PV ola em (ibid). Si ing ola need o ake in o con ide a ion he loca ional im ac on na al land , on local biodi e i , and al o on ildlife (Ca li le e al., 2015; Ca li le e al., 2016; He nande e al., 2015; K el e al., 2014; S om e al., 2015; T aino e al., 2016). Sola i ed in he de e ha he o en ial o affec a e de e lan and animal (Ca li le e al., 2015, S om e al., 2015). 4
Mo e o, ola ojec o e ime co ld c ea e biodi e i lo and habi a f agmen a ion (T aino e al., 2016). To mi iga e he e affec , Ca li le e al. fo nd ha local comm ni ie efe hen he e i a b ffe one be een ola i ing facili ie and ildlife mig a ion o e (2016). Ada i e lanning a oache allo fo ola de elo e o i e ili cale ojec o mi iga e inf ingemen in he na al o ld h o gh e en a i e ac ion, e lo ing al e na i e , hif ing he b den of oof o o onen , and inc ea ing blic a ici a ion (K el e al., 2014). Thi li e a e e ie ho ed ha he e i li le o no doc men a ion bli hed in academic jo nal ela ed o he ac al con c ion of ola i ing olic ac o U.S. a e a m l i le le el of go e nmen . Thi e o aim o nde and he fab ic of ola i ing ac o he U.S. h o gh hi li e a e e ie on comm ni conce n and land- e conce n hen i ing ola , ecific ca e die of ola i ing in ke U.S. a e , and al o a o ided glo a of c en ola i ing olic b a e.
Anal sis of Ne spaper Articles N me o ola ojec ac o he co n ha e elici ed diffe en e on e . In m nici ali ie , ojec ge a o ed "de i e neighbo conce n " (Me , 2019) o e en in he mid of an igni ed " o n- ide deba e" (S mme b , 2020). In ome a ea , og e o a d d af ing and im lemen ing i ing olic mo e fo a d a a a e- ide le el i h he in od c ion of i ing office (Abba , 2020) and in o he a ea og e i alled b a e olicie ha de io i i e in e men in ola in fa o of "clean" coal and n clea (Foeh inge Me chan , 2019). In he a ea , n me o diffe ence eme ged be een mo emen o i e and e and ola ojec in he Uni ed S a e . In an effo o ca e he e local di inc ion in olic and og e , o a e i h n me o local ojec ha e em lif ha di ide e e cho en a a clo e look in o ola i ing ojec .
Ne Y k Ne Yo k ha m l i le ola de elo men ojec ac o he a e ha each b ing hei o n, ni e challenge . Si ing cen ali a ion occ ed d e o an da e in Go e no C omo g een ene g goal : 70 e cen ene able b 2030; 100 e cen ene able b 2040 (Abba and Wolf, 2020). Th , legi la ion a ed in he 2021 a e b dge , The Accele a ed Rene able Ene g G o h and Comm ni Benefi Ac , eamlined he oce o a o e ene able ene g ojec (Abba , 2020). Thi change in olic emo ed he e i ing A icle X of he a e P blic Se ice La ' P blic Se ice De a men o c ea e he Office of Rene able Ene g Si ing. Thi change in olic al o allo he a e o o e ide local la "if he a e n ea onabl b den ome b allo m nici ali ie o hold a blic hea ing if he e i emen bmi ed b he i ing office do no mee local la . Thi an i ion, hile a licable o all ene able i ing in he a e fo ojec od cing 25 o 200 mega a of o e , c ea e a cen ali a ion of o e nlike a m nici ali -foc ed olicie . 5
Local g ie ance o hi change a e ide- eaching and diffe ac o he n me o ac i e ola i ing ojec in Ne Yo k. Camb ia, Ne Yo k i a mall o n in a e Ne Yo k, 40 min e a a f om Niaga a Fall . C en l , Camb ia i in he oce of lea ing 900 ac e of land o he de elo e C e C eek Rene able fo a 100-mega a ho ola ojec (Hoffman, 2020). Thi ojec , kno n a Bea Ridge Sola , a ca gh in n me o A icle X legal challenge o e a e i emen o a oin e iden a an ad hoc membe of a a e- ide a oin ing boa d ho o e a change in "la ge cale ene g gene a ing facili ie ." A he e e e no membe of he To n of Camb ia on hi a e- ide boa d, he ci o ied ha he boa d' ie did no eflec he need of he comm ni . The o n e e ed a a on he ojec n il he i ing boa d a da ed -- hich a an a k ha he o n e i o , W igh Elli , aid he a "no a all o imi ic" of he boa d change. Ho e e , a i een in he e lacemen of A icle X eg la ion , a e olic i able o ci c m en he e legal challenge . On Oc obe 4 h, he S a e of Ne Yo k elea ed hei d af ed eg la ion fo i ing Bea Ridge Sola (Joe, 2020). While ome ci i en , ch a fa m o ne Je em Ve a i ho i he ho fo Ridge Vie Sola , ee he eg la ion change a a elcome change o eamline oce e and o ec lando ne and de elo e , local official , ch a Elli , o abo he h ea o home le and find he change o dimini h he ole of m nici ali ie ' oice . Bea Ridge Sola i onl one of man ac i e i ing ojec in Ne Yo k. Ho e e , o he m nici ali ie feel imila l abo hei lo of con ol. In Ha land, local a embl membe Michael No i ejec ed he bill on he g o nd of NIMBYi m and local con ol, a ing " I i c i icall im o an o he cha ac e of ha comm ni fo hem (local e iden ) o de e mine he he o no he an o ha e a ma i e, la ge ind bine fac o in hei comm ni , o a ma i e ola ene g facili in hei comm ni " (Joe, 2020). In Co ake, imila fea a o e a nce ain inc ea ed a o nd hei n me o de elo ing ola fa m and facili ie (Mi hanec, 2020). The o ie a e he ame: Co ake To n S e i o Jeanne Me le aid "The ne la o ld f he accele a e he oce of e ie and f he il he oce again he o n." E en a Ne Yo k eek o nif i ing oce e and c ea e a e- ide eg la ion, o o i ion i ill clea .
Ohi In J l , 2019 Ohio igned in o la Ho e Bill 6, (HB6) hich bailed o n clea and offe ed b idie o coal and ola (Pel e , 2020). Ho e e , HB6 al o did ome hing damaging fo Ohio ene able ene g goal : i c hem. In he name of c ing con me co , HB6 e ealed he 2008 la ha e i ed ha ili ie m gain 12.5 e cen of hei o e f om ene able b 2027 and ended he a e ene g -efficienc manda e. While he legi la e i ing o e eal HB6 d e o a b ibe candal, he bill ill eflec he gene al feeling a o nd ene able ene g in he a e (Pel e , 2020). 6
I i he e e of oadblock ha allo he a e o e e i i el block ola ojec . In No embe , Ohio eg la o defe ed con ide a ion on he lan f om Ame ican Elec ic Po e Ohio b idia o b ild he a e la ge ola ojec beca e he o e i n needed in he a e (Foeh inge Me chan , 2019). Thi dela a onl one of man ojec ha he i ing boa d dela ed in la e 2019. In Oc obe , he boa d defe ed con ide a ion of an 80-mega a ola ojec in o h e e n Ohio d e o a lack of a land ca ing o ligh ing lan and he en i onmen al i k ha he ojec had on o m a e , fa m land, and he Ki land nake -- an endange ed ecie (William , 2019). The boa d nanimo l ag eed in hi di en and en i onmen al ad oca e o e helmingl ag eed ha hi olic hif a n edic ed and ano he e am le of ne al ea men fo ene able ojec . The i ing boa d e en all a o ed ome of he ojec ha e e hal ed in 2019 in A il of 2020 once he e e comfo able ha he ojec had been mo e ho o ghl e ed (F nk, 2020). Unlike Ne Yo k, Ohio Si ing Boa d ha lo ed do n he de elo men of ce ain ola ojec , h dec ea ing de elo e confidence a o he non- ene able ojec a e a o ed b he boa d. The a age of HB6 e em lifie ho i ing boa d can be im ac ed b change in a e ene able ene g goal h al e ing he im ac of hei a ho i .
State E pert Inter ie s In e ie e e cond c ed o gain in igh in o a e ha e en ed in e e ing o nclea i ing a ho i . Th ee a e e e co e ed: Alabama, Illinoi , and Neb a ka. The e h ee e e elec ed o fill ga in e ea ch in igh , and hile hei o ie canno be con ide ed di ec l an fe able o o he a e , he i a ion de c ibed belo a e indica i e of ho i ing a ho i ma o e a e be ond he clea bo nda ie of a e e local. S a e ene g e e and an ene g jo nali e e con l ed in hone in e ie in No embe of 2020. E e in igh in o Alabama a de i ed beca e i i ing a ho i info ma ion a a ic la l diffic l o find f om online e o ce , imila o he e eme ca e of ambig i a o nd i ing a ho i in n me o o he a e . Illinoi a e al a ed a one of he a e ha ma be nde going change o i i ing olic in he nea f e. Mean hile, ola ene g in Neb a ka e i e d al a ho i a ion a he a e and local le el . Beca e d al a ho i ha he o en ial o dela de elo men , mo e info ma ion a de i ed o di ce n he ola ene g eg la o clima e in he a e.
Alabama Alabama ha no made b an ial og e ega ding ola ene g facili ie . U n il 2018, Alabama ha con i en l been anked 49 h in he co n fo ola o e , acco ding o he Sola Ene g Ind ie A ocia ion, i h onl 29,688 home o e ed b ola ene g (B gge , 2020). The clima e Alabama fo e fo ola i ing, in combina ion i h he a e olic ambig i , make i diffic l o ca ego i e hei i ing a ho i . In o de o be e nde and he a e ene able ene g deci ion , one in e ie a cond c ed i h a 7
bjec -ma e e e ho anal ed a e a ing ac o Alabama ili ie in 2015. The in e ie olidified ha a ob io in he da a: ene able i ing in Alabama i o a e and i no e lici l add e ed. Thi mi o a e ea ch finding ha Alabama P blic Se ice Commi ion, ho i in heo in cha ge of i ing, ha oce e ha do no nde go blic e ie o blic commen , c ea ing ag e o non-e i ing eg la ion ha diffe f om he e of he egion ili ie (Schli el, 2015). U on e ie of he li e a e o nding Alabama ene able i ing o en ial, he a e i ecogni ed a ha ing he 13 h be ola o en ial in he na ion, e fail o ada g idance o c ea e hi ene g ma ke (Co , 2019). Rene able i ing, b e eciall ola i ing, i lagging in Alabama, and h i e en ing ene able og e and ene g f eedom in he a e. The Na ional Confe ence of S a e Legi la e (NCSL) bli hed a e o in Se embe 2020 ha acco n ed fo a io a e a oache o ind facili i ing. Beca e of hi e o , e kno ha Alabama ha i en local oning la fo Bald in, Che okee, Dekalb, and E o ah co n ie o gi e e lici ind i ing o e . E e nal o hi , he Code of Alabama onl men ion i ing in ele en a e , none of hich add e a e- ide ene g i ing. Th , e main ain o o iginal concl ion ha Alabama ola i ing a ho i i nclea , gi en ha he e i no e lici o com ehen i e i ing oce fo an ene g facili ie . While he Alabama P blic Se ice Commi ion ha gi en co n ie ind i ing o e , i co ld be im lied ha he Commi ion i in cha ge of de e mining if a ojec can be i ed, b oo li le info ma ion ha o hi claim e i o make i a la ible h o he i .
Illi i In A g , 2020, he office of Illinoi Go e no Ja B. P i ke bli hed a memo o lining ho he a e lanned o add e ili co ion conce n and h fo mo e ingen ene able ene g a ge (O Conno , 2020). The Go e no office a i e o a clea e , mo e able ene able ene g de elo men land ca e in Illinoi . Among o he hing , he doc men , hich o line P i ke 8 P inci le fo a Clean & Rene able Illinoi Econom , di c e ho local oning blocked man ind ene g ojec in Illinoi . To mee a a ge of ne - e o-ca bon emi ion b 2050, he Go e no eam ho e o facili a e mo e ola and ind de elo men hile main aining local a ho i (Office of Go e no JB P i ke , 2020). The 8 P inci le doc men call fo legi la o o emo e ba ie o ene able ene g de elo men in he Illinoi Po e Agenc (IPA) ene g oc emen oce and o enco age mo e g idance fo local i ing fo ind and ola i h ne a e ide anda d a back o fo i ing (Office of Go e no JB P i ke , 2020). I al o di c e ealigning Illinoi la fo mo e ola de elo e ce ain a o nd ne -ene g me e ing ac ice . T o in e ie e e cond c ed i h diffe en akeholde in Illinoi ene g ind . One in e ie ee i em lo ed a he Illinoi Po e Agenc , hile he o he o k a one of he main in e o -o ned ili ie (IOU ) o e a ing in he a e, CommonWeal h Edi on (ComEd). Bo h ofe ional o k on ola and b oade Illinoi ene g olic , b nei he di ec l engage 8 in he i ing oce . Toge he , he e lained ho he a e migh a oach he Go e no aim of ge ing o ne - e o emi ion , and ho i ing migh be im ac ed. The IPA i he a e agenc e on ible fo oc ing ene g fo ComEd and o he IOU ; d e o Illinoi de eg la ed ene g ma ke , ComEd main elec ici e on ibili i deli e , no gene a ion. Illinoi ha a fe IOU a ell a man con me -o ned ili ie i h hich ene able ene g de elo e can coo dina e. The a e al o ha o inde enden em o e a o (ISO) con olling he g id in i bo de , Midcon inen Inde enden S em O e a o (MISO) and PJM In e connec ion. PJM co e he no he n a ea a o nd Chicago, hile he e of Illinoi , hich i mo e al, i on MISO g id (Fede al Ene g Reg la o Commi ion, 2020). The IPA in e ie ee no ed ha he Sola Ene g Ind ie A ocia ion da a on in alled ola in he a e (a o ima el 300 MW) a no eflec i e of ho m ch ola ene g ca aci i nde de elo men in Illinoi (clo e o 1,800 MW b hei e ima e) (Sola Ene g Ind ie A ocia ion, 2020). The c edi ed Illinoi 2016 F e Ene g Job Ac (FEJA) fo he g o h in ola . FEJA e c ed Illinoi ene able ene g c edi (REC) ma ke , e i ed he a e ene able o folio anda d (RPS), and ha been immen el facili a i e of ola (Malone , 2018). Acco ding o he IPA em lo ee, nde 90 MW of ola e e in he a e io o 2017. Bo h in e ie ee no ed ha mo ola ene g o-da e ha been in alled on g eenfield in Illinoi . Bo h al o indica ed ha , nfo na el , he og e nde FEJA ill lo i ho inc ea ed f nding acce . The IPA con ac ec la ed ha he ene able ene g ind ( a ic la l ind) ma ha e hed P i ke office fo a e ide back o d e o he a ia ion in i ing olic ac o he a e and a einfo cemen again NIMBYi m. The ComEd in e ie ee eflec ed on eeing ign again ola fa m / anel in al a ea d e o conce n o e lo of fa mland. To facili a e f he ene able ene g de elo men , he in e ie ee ho e ha f e legi la ion c ea e a mo e eliable, elf- aining ma ke fo he long- e m. The an ici a e ha legi la ion ill be d i en b ind de i e and g ided b emi ion a ge . The IPA in e ie ee no ed ha Illinoi olic need be e con ide a ion fo he com lica ion ha a i e d e o o egional an mi ion o gani a ion o e a ing in he a e i h diffe en e i emen . De elo e o king in Illinoi m c en l deal i h diffe en e i emen de ending on hich ISO e ice he land on hich he a e in e e ed in i ing a ojec . D ing he IPA in e ie he em ha i ed hei ho e fo an ene g de elo men Polic 2.0 ha hink be ond deca boni a ion i h a foc on e i and a ici a ion ac o all demog a hic .
Neb a ka An in e ie a cond c ed on No embe 18 h, 2020 i h a akeholde f om he Neb a ka o e ec o . The in e ie ee i c en l he di ec o of he Neb a ka Po e Re ie Boa d (PRB). Thi engagemen a ed o nde and he ag e lang age o nding ola i ing on official go e nmen eb i e of Neb a ka. To nde and i ing a ho i fo ola in eck Neb a ka, i i im o an o nde and he c en land ca e of he echnolog in he a e c en l . A of a e 2 (Q2) of 2020, he o al in alled ca aci fo ola in he a e i an 9 e ima ed 61.93 MW. Thi an la e o he a e anking 46 h in he na ion fo in alled ola ca aci (Neb a ka Sola , 2020). Addi ionall , he a e c en l ha no RPS o ene able ene g a ge (NCSL, 2020). The a e of Neb a ka, b he li ed cla ifica ion belo , ha d al i ing a ho i fo ola . While he a e doe no diffe en ia e be een ola and o he elec ici gene a ion facili ie , all a e in hi ca ego nde go he ame oce fo i ing a o al. Local a ho i decide i ing i h no limi on gene a ion name la e ca aci fo i ing a ho i , hile he a e Po e Re ie Boa d (PRB) m a o e a ojec befo e con c ion begin . The PRB i an elec ed boa d a he a e le el ha a o e e mi fo ne elec ic gene a ing facili ie , fo il f el o ene able ba ed on 3 e i emen : 1) he e i blic nece i fo he ne gene a ion, 2) he ojec i economicall fea ible and, 3) he ojec i addi i e. Thi boa d i a diffe en en i f om he P blic Se ice Commi ion (PSC) in Neb a ka. The PRB i an elec ed boa d a he a e le el ha manage e mi fo elec ici gene a ion, hile he PSC eg la e he afe code fo elec ici ili ie and al o eg la e o he ind ie in he a e ch a ail oad , ele hone com anie , and mo e. Local a ho i ie in Neb a ka a e o o ed ola gene a ion facili ie i h he a o al f om he a e PRB. Local a o al fo a ne gene a ion facili in he comm ni m be in he local ne a e and if he ojec i of a ignifican i e (o e 100 MW) hen a local hea ing i held o di c he o en ial ojec . I i im o an o no e ha if a gene a ion facili i elf-de elo ed, meaning ha he elec ici od ced ill be ed on- i e, hen no a o al f om he PRB fo e mi ing i needed. Thi d al i ing a ho i i a o- e oce fo he o e all a o al of ne ola gene a ion facili ie in he a e of Neb a ka. The d al a ho i of local go e nmen in ol emen and he a e PRB con e ali e he ole ha go e nmen la in a o ing ne ola ojec in he a e of Neb a ka a a balance be een local and a e con ol.
Anal sis One of he ima objec i e of hi e ea ch a o com ile a li of a e a oache o ola ene g i ing. The finding a e a embled in a glo a in he A endi . Legi la ion and ne a icle co e ing i ing a ho i in each a e e e con l ed o b ild hi e o ce. Fo each a e, i ing a ho i a cla ified a a e, local, h b id, d al, o nclea . An e lana ion of ho he e label e e defined can be fo nd in he able belo ( ee Table 2).
Table 2. Sola a ho i defini ion ed o define ola and ind a ho i ie in he U.S. Classification Definition
S a e S a e ha final a on he i ing of a ili - cale ola ene g ojec .
Local No e lici a e a ho i (b local o dinance a l ), o he a e g an ed 10
local a ho i on he i ing of a ili - cale ola ene g ojec .
Ei he a ( a e o local) ha a ho i o e ola ene g , de ending on he H b id ca aci cale of he ojec .
Clea l de igna ed d al a ho i ; bo h he a e and local go e nmen m D al a ho i e a ili - cale ola ene g ojec .
S a e i ei he in en ionall ag e abo i ing a ho i o no e o ce Unclea co ld be fo nd o confi m ho ha i ing a ho i in he a e.
Thi e o modeled i anal i and e o ing af e o die of ind ene g i ing, he S a e A oache o Wind Facili Si ing e o ce c ea ed in Se embe , 2020 fo he Na ional Confe ence of S a e Legi la e (NCSL), and he Planning fo Wind Ene g e o bli hed b he Ame ican Planning A ocia ion in 2011. The in e ac i e eb i e e ion of NCSL e o a con l ed o com a e hi d finding on ola ene g i ing o a e a oache o i ing ind. The NCSL finding on ind a e incl ded in he com ehen i e i ing a ho i able in hi e o A endi fo a ide-b - ide com a i on. Thi e o cla ifica ion diffe ligh l f om he one de c ibing i ing a ho i in he ind die , o NCSL de igna ion of ind i ing a ho i incon i en i h hi d cla ifica ion of i ing a ho i ha e been e-labeled fo con i enc and ea e of com a i on.1 In ome h b id a e , e eciall lo o high c off delinea ing be een a e and local (o d al) i ing a ho i indica e ha ojec ma commonl defa l o one i ing a ho i o ano he . Thi e o de igna ed c off and o he cale le in he Scale R le & No e col mn of he A endi glo a . No e ha con me -o ned ili ie a e no bjec o he ame o e igh a In e o O ned U ili ie (IOU ) - like ha of blic e ice commi ion - in e e a e. Thi e o foc ed on he ola i ing go e nance ha con olled he dominan ene g de elo e in each a e, hich a e gene all IOU .
Discussion
U de a di g Re e able Si i g a d E e g Timeli e Si ing fo ind and ola in he Uni ed S a e can a b he le el of go e nmen ha ha he l ima e con ol of a ho i . One ea on ha ola and ind i ing a ho i ie can diffe i hin a ingle a e i d e o he ene g imeline . The ind boom in he Uni ed S a e la nched befo e he ola boom d e o he a e of de elo men of each of he ene able echnologie . Beca e of hi , he e i ecific g idance fo ind i ing in mo e a e han fo ola i ing.
1 Fo e am le, NCSL o ld label a e ha o e a e nde d al i ing acco ding o hi e o a h b id, (Kahn & Shield , 2020). 11
Addi ionall , ind ene g ha hi o icall been in eg a ed i h ag ic l e in he Uni ed S a e o co- e he land. Thi can be een in g ain bel a e in he Uni ed S a e . Ano he ca e fo he ind boom o e ede he ola boom i a olic a he fede al le el. Fede al a incen i e ha e hel ed o gene a e g o h in he ene able ma ke . The ind P od c ion Ta C edi (PTC) a e abli hed in 1992 and a lied o facili ie b il in 1993 (AWEA, n.d.). Con a ingl , he ola In e men Ta C edi (ITC) a fi e abli hed in 2005 a a a of he fede al Ene g Polic Ac (SEIA, 2012). The ca e behind he im lemen a ion of e abli hed ind i ing a ho i ie fo a e befo e ha ing e abli hed ola i ing o join ene able i ing a ho i ie co ld be d e he na e of he in od c ion of he ola ITC o e a decade af e he ind PTC.
S a e Wi h Diffe i g Wi d/S la Si i g A h i A i con i en i h o iginal finding in he li e a e e ie , ola i ing in ome a e i con i en i h ind i ing, b in o he diffe f om o he ene g and ene able i ing eg la ion . While hi occ fo n me o ea on , ome of hich a e no acco n ed fo in he li e a e e ie , diffe ence in a ho i co ld eflec ha age a a e i in fo caling ene able ene g , oli ical con ain , o g id and ene g con ain . F he e ea ch i nece a o de e mine h i ing olic diffe i hin a a e. Fo ome a e , i i clea ha i ing diffe hen a a e ha i en ecific eg la ion fo an ene g e. Thi i e iden in Califo nia, he e ind i i ed like all o he ene g o ce , b ola ene g ha ecified i ing g ideline . In Califo nia, he con i ion ecifie ha ola i ing i een a an e en ial iece o im lemen con i en , a e ide anda d o cale ola ene g em , h e lici l a ing ha ola i ing i no a m nici al affai . Thi a e n, ho e e , i een mo e commonl i h ind ene g being ecified in eg la ion , b no ola ene g . In No h Ca olina, ola ene g i i ed a he local le el, hile ind i ing occ a he a e le el, hich e i e a e mi ing oce h o gh he De a men of En i onmen and Na al Re o ce . O he a e , like O egon and Wi con in gi e he a e ola i ing a ho i , hile o iding a h b id a ho i fo ind ojec . While hi ojec did no anal e a e ene able o folio anda d o he e i ing ene able mi e i hin each a e, he mo e a a f om a e- ide ene g o a mo e fle ible, h b id model in ome in ance co ld e e a a ca al fo de elo ing ind ojec i h a g ea e ea e, nle o he i e ecified b he co e. In o he a e , ch a Tenne ee, No h Ca olina, and W oming, ene g i ing a ho i no mall occ a local le el , b ind i ing i a a e o h b id a ho i , h al e ing he i ing oce , hile o en iall con ic ing locali ie abili o i e ind ene g i h ea e o edic abili . While e e a e ha diffe ing ene g i ing le , diffe ence be een ind and ola i ing i hin a a e can e ion a a e mo i e fo ene able i ing. S ecificall , he a ha a a e i e ecific e of ene able ene g can be a eflec ion on ho beneficial o ha mf l 12
he ee ha ene g o ce o be, h im ac ing he a e o k o a d in e ing in ene able ene g .
S a e Wi h S a e S la A h i Ala ka, Connec ic , Kan a , Lo i iana, Maine, Ma land, Ne Je e , O egon, Ve mon , and Wi con in e e iden ified a a e i h a e-le el i ing a ho i . Man o he (19 a e ) a e h b id ha engage a e o e igh fo la ge ojec . Califo nia, Ken ck , and Ne Yo k do no ha e e a e a ho i legi la ed, b he e h b id a e a e mo e likel han o he h b id a e o e i e a e-le el a ho i a ion d e o he cale le he e a e ha e; hei lo e -MW ca aci c off make i mo e likel ha ola ojec ill c o he cale h e hold in o needing a e a o al. Re i ing a e in ol emen in i ing allo fo a e leade o g ide de elo men ha mee a e ene able a ge , b co ld lead o mo e a e o k/ e fl o b ea c ac in ac ice. Mean hile, Colo ado, Dela a e, and Neb a ka a e he h ee a e ha o e a e nde d al a ho i , and in Io a, ola ojec o e 25 MW a e al o bjec o d al a ho i a ion. The d al c e allo fo mo e o e igh b i inhe en l mo e a d o han im l dealing i h one a ho i . Al o d e o ca aci e ic ion , No h Dako a and Tenne ee a e e en iall le e aging a e con ol o e ind ojec . Legi la o in he e a e co ld o en iall co hi a oach i h ola in he f e a he ola ind g o . Simila l , Vi ginia c en l ha d al i ing a ho i in lace fo ind o e h o gh he Vi ginia S a e Co o a ion Commi ion, o he local ola a ho i co ld mo e o a d d al con ol in he f e. While he e a e ad an age and di ad an age o each fo m of i ing a ho i , i i im o an o eali e ha e lici and ole local a ho i co ld lead o ojec being alled o e e iencing backla h. Thi e on e i no m all e cl i e o d al/h b id/ a e a ho i ie , hich i k he ame im ac . Ho e e , he c edibili and e e ience of olic make and eg la o a a e- ide le el a e able o di e and di e e local backla h, hile al o e en ing de elo e f om aking ad an age of local comm ni ie i h le e e ience in ene able ene g de elo men .
S a e Wi h P bli hed S la Si i g G ida ce Tho gh ola gene a ion facili ie a e fo nd in all 50 U.S. a e , he e i no nece a il bli hed ola i ing g idance fo each a e (Sola S a e b S a e, 2020). G idance i defined he e a bo h e lici doc men a ion of ho i a ho i ed o i e ola ene g in he a e, and doc men a ion o lining i ing e ec a ion / anda d . Wi ho clea i ing a ho i and d e oce fo ola in all a e , he e i a ga be een olic g idance fo ola a ho i fo ome a e and im lemen ed ola gene a ion facili ie . Addi ionall , hi lack of bli hed ola i ing g idance co ld c ea e a dela in he im lemen a ion of ne ola facili ie d e o conf ion a o nd e mi ing a ho i and oce . G idance on i ing coming f om he a e le el in a e i h local a ho i can al o facili a e nifo mi ac o locali ie . I aid 13 de elo e in e ing e ec a ion hen co ing ne ojec in hei a e, hel info m local go e nmen on ho o nego ia e i h de elo e , and can e en locali ie f om o e - e ic ing hei i ing e ec a ion . Ul ima el , g ideline a o nd i ing facili a e ene able ene g de elo men . O of he 50 U.S. a e ha e e anal ed fo ola i ing a ho i , onl 20 c en l ha e g idance o ha e ola i ing g idance nde de elo men , hich an la e o 40% of o al a e .
Conclusion Sola i ing i di inc ac o U.S. a e and face n me o challenge . While ome a e a e making an effo o make i ing ea ie , con i en a e ill e b he comm ni and he land im ac . In a ea he e m nici ali ie lead ojec , a e can h ea en hei longe i and co e. Sola i ing a ho i can diffe i hin one a e f om o he ene g i ing a ho i ie . Ca e co ld be d e o ind gene a ion facili ie being mo e e abli hed han ola gene a ion facili ie in he a in he co n . When c ea ing PV ojec , n me o akeholde o inion and olicie m be aken in o acco n , hich e em lifie one hing: li e a e a o nd ola i ing i no n anced eno gh and he e i no eno gh da a o lining he im ac i ing ha on ola ojec . In an effo o nde and ha hi look like ac o he na ion, mo e locali ed and a e- ecific e ea ch need o be done o an e he e ion abo i ing, ho i diffe f om ind i ing a ho i ie b a e, and ho iable he ojec a e in comm ni ie .
14
Appendi Table 1: Ke o d and Ph a e Rela ed o Sola Si ing ed in Sco fo he Li e a e Re ie ● Si ing a ho i /go e nance model (local go e nmen con olling i ing a e eg la o o d al) ○ E cl i e o li con ol/j i dic ion ○ Need fo clea e on ibili /con ol, a ell a le , anda d and oced e ● Land- e lanning, eg la ion (S a e land e commi ion, U.S. B ea of Land Managemen ) ● Zoning and local o dinance ● U ili i ing boa d ● P blic ili commi ion/ blic e ice commi ion ● Si ing legi la ion ● Pe mi ing ● P omo ing local in e e ● Con c ion, o e a ion, decommi ioning; de elo men ● Ce ifica e of need ● T an mi ion i ing ha ma im ac gene a ion facili i ing ● En i onmen al im ac e ie e i emen ● S a e-defined con ain on local go e nmen ac ion (eg Ne ada la e en ing o dinance ha n ea onabl e ic end e em o Califo nia no le ing local o dinance be an mo e e ic i e han condi ion ecified in la ) ● Di ib ion ca aci o i ing i e ● Co-loca ion benefi of ola i ing ● Con ain d e o a e igh ● P blic e i a e land e ● Se back o o he e i emen ba ed on ojec o e / nde a ce ain i e h e hold ● T e of ola : oof o PV, comm ni ola , g o nd-mo n ed, ola ca o , ili - cale, e c. ● Land e : ban, al, ag ic l al, con e a ion ● Fede al Ene g Reg la o Commi ion (FERC)
Figure 1: VOS ie e e l of he i le and ab ac fo he 28 a icle in he li e a e e ie
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