Global overview I

GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ASIA

1 PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF large number of these migrants try to join the Eastern MIGRANT SMUGGLING FROM Mediterranean route to Greece and the European Union. SOUTH AND SOUTH-WEST ASIA A second section describes the different routes used for the smuggling of South Asians into Europe or to the coun- Migrant smuggling is widely documented in South and tries of the Gulf Cooperation Council. A third section South-West Asia, a vast and diverse region stretching from analyses the routes from South and South-West Asia Syria and Afghanistan to Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangla- towards North America. These routes are relatively well desh. Several irregular migration and migrant smuggling documented, but the flows are smaller in magnitude than routes depart from and cross the region. The routes those towards Europe. A final section considers smuggling departing from South Asia and from South-West Asia to Australia. While these routes were sizable a few years often converge and ultimately head to Europe, to the Gulf ago, they have since diminished. As for most routes countries, Australia and North America. described in this study, the individual routes should be considered as indicative, as most migrants’ actual journeys This chapter starts by presenting the West Asian route, vary considerably according to a myriad of factors, such leading migrants and refugees from Afghanistan, the as resources, time available, travel group, visa regimes, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and Pakistan to Turkey. A border security, terrain, weather, and so on.

THE WEST ASIAN ROUTE TO EUROPE

0 1,000 2,000 km Istanbul TURKEY Van Salmas Izmir Zakho Tehran SYRIAN Urmia Peshawar ARAB ISLAMIC Kabul REPUBLIC IRAQ REPUBLIC AFGHANISTAN OF IRAN Shiraz Zahedan Quetta PAKISTAN

Land Karachi

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the partThe of designations the Secretariat employed of the United and the Nations presentation concerning of material the legal on thisstatus map of doany not country, imply territory,the expression city or of area any or opinion of its authorities, whatsoever or on con - cerningthe part the of delimitation the Secretariat of its of frontiers the United or boundaries.Nations concerning Dotted linethe legalrepresents status approximately of any country, the territory, Line of city Control or area in Jammuor of its andauthorities, Kashmir agreedor concerning upon by Indiathe delimitation and Pakistan. of itsThe frontiers final status or boundaries. of Jammu andDotted Kashmir line represents has not yet approximately been agreed the upon Line by of the Control parties. in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Smuggling from Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and terrain. Risks of exploitation and violence in origin, Iraq and Pakistan to Europe is well documented.1 In recent transit and destination countries. years, Europe appears to have become an increasingly Profile of smugglers: attractive destination for many South-West Asians. According to recent field research in Pakistan, a popular Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the route runs from Afghanistan to Pakistan via the Islamic borders that are crossed. Smugglers in organizing roles Republic of Iran and Turkey, joining the Eastern Medi- often share citizenship with the smuggled migrants. Some terranean route to Europe.2 high-level smugglers are based in origin countries. Profile of migrants: Organization: Mainly Afghan migrants and refugees smuggled both as A mix of local smugglers who facilitate short legs of the individuals and as families. Pakistani and Iranian migrants, journeys and larger transnational networks. mainly young males, are also smuggled along this route. The main smuggling hubs, departure and In recent years, Syrians, including many families. arrival points Human cost: Migrants and refugees are smuggled along land routes Some fatalities, mainly due to the harshness of the weather from South-West Asia towards Europe. For many Afghans,

109 110 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 stan almost exclusively by land, either on foot or by bus. whereas otherstravel firstviaPakistan. They enterPaki istheIslamic Republictheir firsttransitcountry ofIran, was 175,752. when the number of apprehensions ofirregular migrants pared to2016,aslightincrease wasrecorded in2017, hensions ofirregular migrants in2015and2016.Com show thatthere wasarapidandsteepincrease inappre irregular migrantsdetected inthecountry. Their data ofInterior,ment, withintheMinistry collectsdataabout The Turkish Directorate General ofMigration Manage smugglers. unclear towhatextentirregular migrationisfacilitatedby of migrantsmugglingbasedonsuchdata,sinceitisoften caution shouldbeexercised inestimatingthemagnitude irregular entriesandexitswillbeconsidered. However, of specific data on migrant smuggling, Turkish data on forsomeIranianstion country andIraqis. before reaching theEuropean Union. It isalsoadestina refugees travelling by land routes from South-West Asia Turkey formigrantsand isusuallythelasttransitcountry ofAsia. or otherparts through in Europe, major airports Africa, the Middle East oforiginortransiting either directly from theircountry and refugees are smuggled by air to European destinations by airtoEurope. Pakistani, Iranian andIraqi migrants Some citizens South-West Asian countries are smuggled key’s landborders withBulgaria andGreece. Mediterranean route, ortoIstanbul andonwards to Tur head towards the Turkish west coasttojointhe Eastern Idlib governorate, west ofthecityAleppo. They then cross theborder intosouth-central Turkey, from Syria’s of otherSouth-West Asiansinto Turkey. Most Syrians As of 2011-2012,many Syrians have also joined the flow controls. in order toavoid problems incaseofroutine police smugglers provide forgedtravel documentstothemigrants Istanbul andIzmir, aboard busesandminivans. Often, they are takentowards Turkey’s western cities,inparticular crossing themountainous border area. Once in Turkey, are smuggledinto Turkey from Iran farnorth-western by From theIslamic Republic of Iran, migrantsand refugees for Tehran.head Iran. Once inIran, mostAfghanandPakistani migrants cities forpeopleheadingtowards theIslamic Republic of In Pakistan, Karachi,Peshawar andQuetta are transit smuggling fromSouth-West AsiatoEurope The magnitudeofmigrant 5 8 Research on irregular migrationto Turkey

4 6

7 In theabsence ------3

F Source: Turkish MinistryofInterior. F the Syrian Arab Republic were among the most commonly ing tocomefrom theIslamic Republic ofIran, Iraq and and seaborders; some4,400at air borders. People claim more atEUland than 7,000personswere deniedentry European Union or Schengen area countries. In 2016, fraudulent documentsforthepurposeofentering Migrant smugglers are usuallyinvolved in supplying increased sharplyin2015(seefigure). borders. duetostrictermonitoring along partly Turkey’s western eastern border withtheIslamic Republic ofIran. This is Very irregular few border crossings are detectedat Turkey’s of migrantsmugglers. irregular migrantstravelled to Turkey withthe assistance tion in 2012 suggested that about half of the apprehended carried outfortheInternational Organization forMigra Source: Turkey MinistryofInterior. ig ig 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000 200,000 . 54: . 53: 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 10 500 0

The numberofdetected smugglersin Turkey 94,514 0 2010-2016 smugglers detectedinTurkey, Trend inthenumberofmigrant hended inTurkey peryear, 2000-2016 Number ofirregularmigrantsappre-

1,711 2000 92,365 2010 56,219 1,292 2002 82,825 61,228 57,428 9 2011 2004 51,983 1,484 64,290

2012 1,469 2006 34,345

2013 2008 65,737 44,415 32,667 1,506 2014 2010 47,510 4,471 146,485

2015 2012 39,890 58,647 3,314

2014

2016 174,466

2016 - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 55: Trends in detections of document Fig. 56: Trend in the number of South-West fraudsters claiming to originate from Asian citizens among irregular selected South-West Asian countries migrants apprehended in Turkey, at external EU borders,* 2011-2016 2014-2017*

1,600 200,000 1,447 1,400 180,000 1,281 160,000 1,200 140,000 1,000 120,000 100,000 800 80,000 745 600 60,000 40,000 400 486 20,000 24 200 8 0 2014 2015 2016 2017* 0 Others Syrian Arab Republic Afghanistan Iraq

2011 2012 201 2014 2015 2016 Pakistan Iran (Islamic Republic of)

Syrian Arab Republic * 2017 data only covers the period 1 January-15 August. Iran (Islamic Republic of) Source: Turkey Ministry of Interior. Iraq * 2011 data for Iraq is not available as Iraq was not among the top ten citizenships detected that year. ther away.12 Afghan migrants and refugees are smuggled Source: Frontex. both as individuals and as families. Those smuggled indi- vidually are mainly young men who intend to settle in the detected citizenships. The number of detected Syrian doc- destination country. Recent research has indicated that an ument fraudsters spiked in 2013 and 2014, for then to increasing number of Afghan families are on the move.13 decline rapidly. Detections of Iranian and Iraqi document fraudsters have remained broadly stable over the last few The number of unaccompanied minors smuggled from years.a Afghanistan to Europe – most of whom are boys - is sig- nificant and growing.14 According to a 2014 study on South-West Asians may be smuggled to Western Europe Afghan unaccompanied minors travelling to Europe, chil- not only by land but also by air, directly from the country dren who engage in unaccompanied travel are usually of origin or from countries along this route. Data about between 13 and 17 years old, and most of them are neither smuggled migrants could only be found for the United the only male nor the eldest child in the family.15 Inter- Kingdom for a limited period. Between 2010 and 2013, views with Afghan migrants already in Europe have also the number of South-West Asian migrants smuggled to indicated that there may be a relation between the age of the United Kingdom ranged around 1,400 per year.11 the migrant and the fact that decision to migrate is not a The profile of smuggled migrants personal choice, but rather a family decision. The younger The citizenship profiles of Middle Eastern and South-West the migrants, the more likely that the decision to migrate 16 Asian irregular arrivals in Turkey have changed consider- was taken as a household coping strategy. ably in recent years. Not only has the number and share Iranians who are smuggled to Europe - or Australia or of citizens of the Syrian Arab Republic among irregular North America - are mainly male, as are most Iraqi migrants fluctuated greatly, but so has the number of migrants. A relatively large number of unaccompanied Afghans, Iraqis and Pakistanis. minors, most of them male teenagers, have also been For Afghan nationals, their final destination largely detected among Iraqi smuggled migrants arriving in 17 depends on the wealth of the migrants and their families. Europe via Turkey. Pakistani smuggled migrants are also 18 Migrants with limited social and economic resources tend predominantly men, mostly aged between 18 and 30. to be smuggled to neighbouring countries, whereas those The smugglers’ profile and organization from wealthier families are smuggled to destinations fur- Smuggling networks operating from and in South-West a The data only shows the number of people claiming to have a particu- Asia are usually loosely connected, informal and not lar citizenship who have been detected using fraudulent documents strictly hierarchical. Different individuals and groups upon entry into the EU or Schengen area. Some may have presented counterfeit passports or identity documents, whereas other may have form flexible chains, where members can be easily replaced tried to use fraudulently obtained visas or residence permits. with little or no disruption to the network’s activities.19

111 112 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 smugglers are of transnational networks, often part lic ofIran. The available sources indicatethat thesmug organization ofsmugglersoperating intheIslamic Repub limitedinformation abouttheprofileThere and is very continue theirjourneyto intendeddestination. inthesmugglingofotherstocollect moneyto participate activities. Migrants stranded in transit countries may also transit countries, where they get involved in smuggling destination. In othercases,theyremain inorreturn to of smuggled migrantsbecomesmugglersintheircountry smuggled andare familiarwiththeregion. Bulgaria mostsmugglersare Afghanswhowere previously on the routes from western Turkey onwards to Greece and along thesameroute onwhich they operate.For instance, Sometimes, smugglers are migrants who were smuggled refugees. lent identityandtravel documentstomigrantsand also involved intheproduction andprovision offraudu Turkey intoGreece. usually rely on Turkish orGreek smugglerstomove from operate. For instance,Pakistani migrantsandrefugees gler ‘agents’ where are they oftennationals ofthecountry In transitanddestinationareas, localsmugglersandsmug in transitcountries. the clientsandorganise their journeyinAfghanistanand outside Afghanistanandlocalsmugglers(‘agents’) recruit whereby themainsmugglersmanagebusinessfrom recommended tothemby friendsorrelatives. lage, neighbourhood or district of their clients, and are countries theycross. step-by-step, relying onpersonalnetworks ineachofthe Most Afghanmigrantsappeartoorganize theirjourney More thanhalfare between 30and49years old. stani migrantsmugglers(or human traffickers) are males. Agency, forexample,90outofthe92mostwantedPaki According toa2016report by thePakistani Investigative fromroutes South-West departing Asiaare adultmales. vast majority of migrant smugglers operating along the and primarily originate from the border regions. tic, ethnic and cultural ties with the local communities Smugglers operatingalongthisroute have strong linguis ties arise. migrant smugglingorgetinvolved initwhenopportuni basis. They supplementothersources ofincomethrough Asia generallydosocasually, temporarilyoronanadhoc Individuals involved inmigrantsmugglingSouth-West or Pakistan. Localsmugglersare oftenfrom thesamevil passage from Afghanistanto the Islamic Republic ofIran who willarrangethefirstlegofjourney, namelythe 27 20

25 23 26

They firstrely onalocalsmuggler, Localindividualsandgroups are 28 Sometimes, 24 22 Local 21 The 29 ------Afghans enterPakistan alongtwomainroutes. The first arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel gling ofmigrantsinIran islargelymanagedby localand smugglers. route, instead,generallyhave theirjourneyfacilitatedby and difficulttopatrol. Those travelling alongthesecond ofborderengage smugglersasthatportion ismountainous refugees crossing theborder at Torkham donotnecessarily region, inparticular, itscapital,Quetta. border atChamanandleadsintoPakistan’s Balochistan dahar -Afghanistan’s secondlargestcity-crosses the arrives inPeshawar, Pakistan. The secondleaves from Kan the border atthe Torkham border crossing pointand from Kabul,passesthroughone departs Jalalabad, crosses ing theprofits. migrants, producing fraudulentdocumentsandlaunder 10 othersmugglersinvolved smuggled intransporting consists of 3-4 smuggler ‘organizers’ and approximately loosely connectednetworks. Atypicalsmugglingnetwork n addition, from 6 per cent reported having departed the Islamic b five. Migrants andrefugees smuggled alongtheseroutes to the Turkish border, usuallyby taxiingroups oftwoto tainous areas nearthecitiesofUrmia and Salmas, close From Tehran, migrantsandrefugees travel tothemoun Iran travel withoutany documents. ney. The majority ofAfghannationalstransitingthrough work for some time to finance the next leg of their jour migrants andrefugees smugglersandalso mayfindnew Iran. acrossfoot orby theborder car(orbusortruck) into migrants inbatchesbetween 10and80peopleeitheron pean Union. through only Iran and Turkey before reaching the Euro pean countriesfoundthat58percent around Herat. ofnearly2,000AfghansinEuro Asurvey Republic ofIran from Afghanistan;oftenfrom thearea Many Afghansare smuggleddirectly intotheIslamic and Tehran.Shiraz the border toIranian coastalcities,before continuingto the south-western coastofPakistan, from where theycross ran. totheregionnorth nearMashhad, and onwards to Teh the Iranian cityofZahedan. From there, theycontinue Republic ofIran, crossing pointsalongthelandborder withtheIslamic From Pakistan, migrants are smuggled through border

I prior todeparture forEurope. Republic ofIran, indicatingthattheyhadlived there forsometime 34 37 Analternative route takesmigrantsandrefugees to These migrantsthenheaddirectly to Tehran where 32 36 Smugglers inwestern Afghanistanmove 30

33 35 withmanycrossing theborder near 38 31 b hadtransited Migrants and ------Regional overviews - Asia II regroup there, before crossing into Turkey.39 The border $4,000 and 6,000.51 According to a 2016 survey con- crossing is usually undertaken on foot in large groups of ducted by IOM in the Balkans, the vast majority of up to 1,000 people.40 Two or more smugglers usually assist Afghans travelling along the Western Balkans route paid with the crossing, which takes 12-15 hours. More rarely, $1,000 to 5,000. Few reported having paid more than migrants and refugees are smuggled across the border in US$5,000.52 Smuggling by air from Afghanistan is more taxis, private cars or trucks. There are also reports of expensive, with the cost for a passport, visa and air tickets migrants and refugees using forged documents at the offi- reportedly ranging between $20,000 and 25,000.53 Paki- cial border crossing points.41 stani migrants and refugees reportedly pay a bit less than Afghans. Estimates suggest that smuggling fees for Paki- Most movements from Iraq to Turkey are facilitated by smugglers.42 Iraqis – particularly from Baghdad and stanis range between US$3,000 and 8,000 for smuggling north-western Iraq - are often smuggled across the border by land, whereas smuggling by air to Europe costs between 54 near the city of Zakho.43 According to an IOM survey of $12,000 and 18,000. Recent field research involving Iraqi migrants and refugees who left Iraq in 2015 and are migrants from Pakistan has shown that the average price currently residing in Europe, most of them transited for being smuggled to Germany is $11,000, while smug- legally through Turkey and continued their journey irreg- gling to Sweden costs $6,800. The same study found that 55 ularly to Europe.44 the journey to Greece would cost $4,000. Once in Turkey, Van, Ağri and Dogubeyazit are major Most of the time, these fees are not paid in one lump sum. transit points used to organize the rest of the trip through Rather, they are the sum of fees charged and paid at each that country.45 Migrants and refugees primarily use public leg of the journey, so that particular land or sea crossings transportation to reach the outskirts of Istanbul where can cost between several hundred or a few thousand dol- they stay while waiting for the smugglers to organize their lars each.56 Every border has a specific price, and the pay- onward journey to Western Europe.46 ment is only effected upon successful crossing of the border.57 South-West Asians often rely on the hawala People from the Syrian Arab Republic have undertaken money transfer system to pay the smuggling fees. Before the bulk of irregular entries into Turkey since 2013. They departure, most Afghans leave an upfront deposit with a generally cross the border away from official border cross- third-party guarantor, who will pay the smuggling fees ings, often in the area around the border village of Khirbet either entirely or in instalments upon milestones en route. al-Joz, in Idlib governorate. It is not clear to what extent Smugglers with occasional and limited tasks seem to be migrant smugglers are involved in those movements. A paid cash by the migrants and refugees.58 Sometimes, few others are smuggled by boat from the Syrian coastal smuggling services include several attempts to enter a cities of Latakia and Tartus to Turkey.47 country. Sham marriages are also reportedly used to smug- Until a few years ago, Syrians could freely cross into Jordan gle South-West Asian migrants to European countries.59 and Lebanon. But between 2012 and 2015, Lebanon and The human cost Jordan partially or totally closed their border with the Syrian Arab Republic. As a result, a growing number of The land journey from South-West Asia to Turkey and Syrians (and Palestinian refugees who have been living in Eastern Europe involves several other risks and difficulties Syria for years) have sought the assistance of migrant for smuggled migrants. The Afghans travelling through smugglers to reach the neighbouring countries.48 Lebanon Pakistan have to cross the dangerous Hindu Kush moun- and Jordan have become increasingly significant transit tains and the insecure Nangarhar province.60 The border countries for Syrian refugees. From there, some Syrians between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Turkey is also are smuggled by land or sea to Egypt and Turkey, whereas mountainous and difficult to cross in some areas. Many others fly to Cairo or Istanbul.49 migrants and refugees are ill equipped to make this jour- ney and some have died trying to cross the border in With regard to prices, there are several different sources freezing temperatures.61 Moreover, migrant surveys have and estimates, and prices also seem to vary considerably. revealed that those who cannot keep up with the walking UNODC reported in 2015 that Afghan migrants seemed pace of the smugglers may be beaten up or abandoned to pay, on average, US$10,000 to be smuggled to western along the way.62 European countries, based on information from 2008- 2014 from a range of different sources.50 Other, more Migrants and refugees are also at risk of exploitation, vio- recent sources report lower fees for the journey to an lence and abuse by smugglers. In Afghanistan, delays in unspecified destination in Europe, ranging between payment could lead to migrants and refugees being forced

113 114 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Trend inthenumbersofarrivalscitizensSyrianArabRepublicandIraq Syrians andIraqis escapingconflict smuggledtoneighbouringcountries b uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration andHome Affairs, a remains unclear. ings have beenclosed,andmigrantsmugglingisdocumentedattheSyria-Jordan border, althoughtheextent smugglers tocross intoJordan. However, ofconflictinSyria, sincetheeruption previously openborder cross Jordan border wasopenwithoutrestrictions. It can thus be assumedthatSyrian citizens didnotneedmigrant UNHCR provides dataonarrivals inJordan from theSyrian ArabRepublic andIraq. Until 2012,theSyria- Source Asylum applicationssubmittedinLebanonperyear, 2009-2016 Source: UNHCR * NotnecessarilyregisteredwithUNHCR. documented, butagainitsmagnitudeisdifficulttoassess. 2015, Jordan closedtheborder, following asuicideattackonitsforces. Migrant smugglingatthisborder is As fortheIraq-Jordan border, Iraq hascloseditseveral timessincethebeginningofcivilwarin2014.In 300,000, according toinformationfrom UNHCR. in Jordan,*2009-2016

Ibid. cooperation withthird countries,Case Study -Italy 1: Syria/Lebanon –Egypt E : UNHCR. Total Other Sudan SyrianArab Republic Iraq Iraq Rep. Arab Syrian a The numberofarrivals from theSyrian Arab Republic inJordan peakedin2013atnearly 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 50,000 0 0 0921 0121 0321 052016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 7 7 6 3 0 4 1 595 718 449 507 737 547 633 365 148 164 349 390 173 806 672 244 172 359 118 23 ,3 ,6 ,5 ,2 5,098 2,829 2,658 2,168 1,530 0921 0121 0321 052016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 ,8 ,8 ,0 3,264 2,108 1,687 2,083 6 8 962 784 860 22,508 7,3 295,631 171,835 b , 2015. Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and ,7 ,6 ,8 2,852 7,186 6,466 1,473 49318,171 14,953 ,1 1,208 9,059 1,213 6,825 17,817 0503,8 41,157 33,385 80,540 ,8 8,858 8,682 4,393 938 8

- Regional overviews - Asia II

Data about clandestine entry attempts into Lebanon could only be found for a few months in 2012 and 2013. Detections were extremely limited, ranging between 0 and 3 per month. Statistics about newly registered Syrian and Iraqi asylum-seekers as well as field research indicate that large numbers of Syrians and Iraqis migrate to Lebanon, and that many of them rely on migrant smugglers to enter the country.c The number of Syrian and Iraqi asylum applications in Lebanon grew sharply in 2014 and 2015, while the number of Syrian applications in particular decreased from more than 9,000 in 2015 to only eight in 2016.

c Ibid.; Achilli, L., Tariq al-Euroba: Displacement Trends of Syrian Asylum Seekers to the EU, MPC Research Report 2016/01, Migration Policy Centre, European University Institute, 2016. to carry drugs, or they may end up in a situation of human PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF trafficking.63 In Pakistan, migrant interviews have revealed MIGRANT SMUGGLING IN that many smugglers working as ‘agents’ run away with CENTRAL ASIA the money once a deposit has been paid.64 Smuggled migrants also risk being captured and held hostage by Central Asia, encompassing the five former Soviet repub- criminal organizations operating along this route.65 lics of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, is a transit area for irregular migration According to a survey conducted by IOM in 2016 among and migrant smuggling from South, South-West and East Afghans in Calais, France, the majority of respondents Asia to Europe. After transiting through Central Asia and reported incidents of detention and violence. A smaller the Russian Federation, South West and East Asian group reported having food, money, phones, clothes and migrants continue to Ukraine and Belarus, from where other personal belongings stolen. The perpetrators are they enter the European Union in Poland, Slovakia or often the smugglers or their affiliates, border control or Hungary. Alternatively, a few irregular migrants also pass police officers. Furthermore, several respondents recounted through the Russian Federation, the Baltic countries and having been abducted for ransom by smugglers operating then enter one of the Nordic countries.69 along this route.66 Within Central Asia, irregular migration is relatively rare, Other migrant smuggling routes since the citizens of most Central Asian countries can from South-West Asia freely move within the region, without a visa. Irregular migration status mainly results from overstaying, the fail- A minor smuggling route connects South-West Asia to ure to register as a temporary resident or unauthorized the European Union via Azerbaijan and Georgia. From employment, rather than from irregular movement across 70 the Islamic Republic of Iran, migrants are smuggled to national borders. Still, some Central Asians also migrate Azerbaijan, continue to Georgia and on to the Russian irregularly within the region and to the Russian Federa- Federation. From there, they are smuggled either to the tion, sometimes with the assistance of migrant smugglers. Baltic countries and/or Belarus and Ukraine, and smug- These are mainly people who do not possess valid travel documents, or citizens of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan gled into the European Union along the Eastern borders who need a visa to travel to most of the countries within route. Those smuggled along this route reportedly use the region. Kazakhstan and in particular the Russian Fed- fraudulent identity or travel documents to cross borders, eration are the main destinations for these migrants.71 rather than clandestine movements.67 More than 1,000 Iraqi citizens were refused entry at Georgian borders in Although Central Asia remains mainly a transit point for the first half of 2014, making Iraq the most frequently irregular migration and migrant smuggling, the continued refused citizenship in Georgia. During the same period, rise in living standards in some Central Asian countries 72 853 citizens of the Islamic Republic of Iran were also has made them increasingly desirable as destinations. refused entry.68 It is not clear how many of the entry refus- Kazakhstan, in particular, has recently become attractive als involved facilitation by smugglers. for irregular migrants from neighbouring countries due to its relatively high levels of economic development and There is also a minor route connecting South Asia to political stability.73 Because most Central Asians can travel Europe via Central Asia and the Russian Federation. This within the region without visas, irregular migration mainly route is discussed in more detail in the section on South takes place in order to avoid expensive and time-consum- Asia to Europe. ing formalities and evade other entry regulations.74

115 116 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Human cost: Mostly young malesfrom South Asia. Profile ofmigrants: between theRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. agreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.Dotted line representscerning approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmir thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat oftheUnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities,con The designationsemployedandthepresentation ofmaterialonthismap donotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveron the It appearsthatmostmigrantsmuggling toEurope is whenmigrantsaretries; particularly smuggledby air. Europe. FROM SOUTHASIATOEUROPEANDTHEGCCCOUNTRIES the countriesofGulf CooperationCouncil to India, forinstance–andmayalsobesmuggledonwards within theregion –from Sri Lanka,Nepal orBangladesh be facilitated by smugglers. Within South Asia,muchirregular migrationappearsto neys andlargertransnationalnetworks. legsofthejour A mixoflocalsmugglersfacilitatingshort Organization: are basedinorigincountries. with thesmuggledmigrants.Some high-level smugglers borders thatare crossed; somesmugglersshare citizenships Smugglers are often citizens ofthecountries along the Profile ofsmugglers: ticularly alonglandpassages. reported inorigin,transitanddestinationcountries;par Risks ofexploitationandvarious formsofvictimization Final boundary betweentheRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. Final boundary Kashmir agreeduponbyIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuhasnotyetbeentheparties. or concerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersboundaries.DottedlinerepresentsapproximatelyLineControlinJammuand the partofSecretariatUnitedNationsconcerninglegalstatusanycountry, territory, cityorareaof itsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplyexpressionanyopinionwhatsoever Destination Land Sea Air

77 The Gulf countries are also used as transit coun destinations in Western Europe Many 75 Some migrantsare smuggled Moscow 76 orto Cooperation Council - - - Gulf RUSSIAN FEDERATION Central Mediterranean routes. city andonward smugglingby seaalongthe Western or Other air routes involve flights to a West or North African toentertheUnitedfrom where manytry Kingdom. Gulf countries,mainlytoBelgium, France andGermany, Some migrants are smuggled by air via Pakistan or the Jalandhar are transitcitiesinIndia. important heading toEurope. Chennai,New Delhi, Mumbai and India, theyjoinIndian migrantsonthelandandairroutes travel regularly, othersuseforgeddocuments. Once in sea. to India alsoenterirregularly by land,althoughafew by smugglers. ularly, sometimeswiththeassistanceofmigrant tage ofbilateralfree-movement agreements -othersirreg travel regularly – withrequired documents,takingadvan Along thedifferent routes, someSouth Asianmigrants Asia. Some are alsosmuggledalonglandroutes across Central to Turkey, and enter Europe via the Eastern Mediterranean. routes. Some follow landroutes across South-West Asia smuggling. carried outby airorinacombinationofandland arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand 81 UZBEKISTAN 79 Sri LankannationalsenterIndia by airorsea.Many

Islamabad PAKISTAN 80 78 Karachi Lahore Bangladeshi migrantsare mainlysmuggled Many South Asiansalsofollow different land KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN Delhi New Mumbai Jalandhar INDIA Chennai NEPAL 84

BANGLADESH 0 1,000  Final boundary 82 2,000 km 83 -

- -

Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 57: Trend in the number of South Asian countries. The smuggling of Bangladeshi migrants also nationals refused entry at the United appears to take place across the Gulf of Oman in the 2010-2016 Kingdom’s air border, opposite direction, from Oman to Iran.87 1,200 Some South Asians are also smuggled via Central Asia to 1,130 the Russian Federation and ultimately to various countries

1,000 910 in the European Union. These routes often combine air 765

800 705

650 and overland travel. South Asians may enter Central Asia 630 600 565 in Tajikistan or Kyrgyzstan, from where they make their 470

390 way through Kazakhstan, sometimes via Uzbekistan, and 400

225 on to the Russian Federation. Migrant smuggling is docu- 155 200 145 90 mented from Tajikistan and Kazakhstan to the Russian 75 Federation, and from there onwards to Ukraine and the 0 88 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 European Union. Bangladesh India Sri Lanka Nepal The magnitude of migrant smuggling from Source: Eurostat. South Asia to Europe Data from the United Kingdom shows that some South South Asians heading to Europe may be smuggled by air Asian migrants and refugees choose the United Kingdom from New Delhi to the capital cities of Central Asian as their destination. This is a traditional migration route countries, using fraudulent documents. From there, they with a long history.89 In 2010, 170 smuggled migrants continue by land to Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, from India were detected, whereas the numbers for 2011 Ukraine and Belarus.85 Some migrants are smuggled from and 2012 were lower, 80 and 50 respectively. Additionally, New Delhi directly to Moscow via air and then enter the United Kingdom reported the detection of 10 Sri Europe through Ukraine. The journey to Moscow is usu- Lankan smuggled migrants for each of the years from ally undertaken by air with a legitimate visa, whereas the 2010 to 2012. The data does not specify whether the travel by land to the European Union is often facilitated migrants were smuggled by land, sea or air.90 by migrant smugglers.86 Considering entry refusals of South Asians at European Most South Asian migrants heading to the Gulf States via air borders, the United Kingdom has the highest totals, land and sea routes travel to Pakistan and the Islamic although the trend is declining. In 2016, the United King- Republic of Iran (together with migrants and refugees dom refused 565 Indian citizens, and less than 100 other heading to Europe). Entry into Pakistan and Iran usually South Asian citizens entry at airports.91 occurs across land borders, either on foot or by motor vehicle. From Iran migrants are smuggled to Oman by Other European countries also reported refusals of South sea. From Oman, some migrants continue to other GCC Asians at their air borders, though in far smaller numbers.

Fig. 58: Trend in the numbers of criminal cases launched in Kyrgyzstan for irregular migration and border crossing, 2010-2014

250

200

150

100

50

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2 16 18 165 18 � � 4 24 6 6 � 52 5 85 11

Source: IOM, 2016 (quoting data from the Kyrgyz Ministry of Internal Affairs).

117 118 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 While regular migration flows may bear little resemblance are seekingassistancefrom smugglers. glers is increasing. This might indicate that more migrants declining steeply, whereas the number of arrested smug is in that country detections of attempted irregular entry Data from Saudi Arabiashow thatthetotalnumberof Source: SaudiArabia, Border Guards. * Monthsandyearsareapproximated fromtheIslamiccalendar. F apprehended thatyear, withnearly2,400apprehensions. frequently detectedcitizenship amongirregular migrants to officialdata,in2016,Bangladesh wasthesixthmost Bangladeshi citizens were frequently detected.According via thelandroute through Turkey intoEurope, in2016, While ingeneralrelatively South few Asiansare smuggled of Iran andPakistan. much smallerthanthoseheadingtotheIslamic Republic flows to Tajikistan, Turkmenistan andUzbekistan are forAfghannationals,althoughthe and transitcountry from Afghanistan, Tajikistan appears to be a destination be unrelated to migrant smuggling. Regarding the flow migration legislationwere detected;manyofwhichmay With regard to Tajikistan, in 2013, 736 violations of smuggling. however, unclear how many of these cases involve migrant related criminal cases launched from 2010 to 2014. It is, increasing trend inthenumberofirregular migration- ofInternalthe Ministry AffairsofKyrgyzstan recorded As for smuggling along land routes through Central Asia, thererefused in2016. entry ders are lower, from the 115 apart Indians who were entry, andFrance about200.Refusals atGerman airbor In 2016,Italy refused about250South Asiancitizens ig . 59:

smugglers, SaudiArabia,2012-2015* Trends inthenumberofdetectedattemptsirregularentryandarrestsmigrant

Number of attempted irregular entries 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 50,000 93 Attempted irregular entry (scale on the left) the on (scale entry irregular Attempted 0 92 305,456 2012 229,511 5,916 2013

an an 94 - -

who previously their emigrated, toearn money to support They are generallysmuggled alone,oftentojoinrelatives Europe are young menfrom familiesofmodestincome. Most South Asianswhoare smuggledby landroutes to search ofwork opportunities. areas,from rural have low levels ofeducationandleave in men ofmiddleclassbackground. They generallycome Indian migrantswhoare smuggledtoEurope are young to Europe. According totwo2009UNODCstudies,most profiles ofsmuggledmigrantsfrom South Asiadirected littleinformationavailableThere regarding isvery the The profileofsmuggledmigrants and Pakistanis (nearly3millioneach). group, withnearly8.2 million,followed by Bangladeshis lion, or61percent.Indian citizens make up thelargest South andSouth-West Asianscomprisesome15.4mil stock intheGCCcountries,some25.4millionpeople, considerable migrantworkforces. Out ofthetotalmigrant South oftheGCCcountries’ Asianscompriseavast part thatto smugglingflows, itisnonethelessnoteworthy usually smuggled out of their country by fellow citizens.usually smuggledoutoftheircountry largely carriedoutby localsmugglers.Bangladeshis are Smuggling intoIndia from neighbouringcountriesis The smugglers’profileandorganization grounds typicallycomefrom southernIndian states. work. porary are oftenyoung menseekingunskilled, low-skilled ortem countries. have connectionswithrelatives livinginthedestination families who remained in in their home countries. South AsianswhoseektobesmuggledGulf countries 232,198 5,044 2014 Arrested Arrested (scale on smugglers right) the 98

99 Unskilled Indian migrantsfrom poorback 82,183 2015 7,416 96 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 95 Number of arrested smugglers 97 Many 100 - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

In transit countries, South Asians smuggle other South Document fraud is commonly used by migrant smugglers Asians on the basis of their ethnic background, together operating on routes departing from India or Pakistan.114 with locals.101 From here, they board international flights to Europe, the Gulf countries or South-East Asia.115 In 2013, the Paki- In origin countries, smugglers usually belong to the stani Federal Investigation Agency reported about an Afri- migrants’ local community. They may be friends, relatives, ca-based cartel that sold stolen or expired passports to community members or returnees. According to a 2013 smuggling networks in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and study on labour migration from South Asia, more than Egypt. Visas were lifted from the passports and pasted on 60 per cent of the surveyed stated that they had met their the migrants’ authentic passports.116 smuggler through friends.102 Migrants generally pay between US$35 and US$50 to be The recruitment of migrants is usually undertaken by local smuggled from Bangladesh to India, although lower fees 103 smugglers, or ‘agents’, especially in rural areas. They have also been reported.117 The fee for being smuggled work for a few main smugglers based either in large cities from India to Western Europe is considered to range or close to international borders. Many smugglers run between US$15,000 and 30,000.118 Smuggling fees from 104 travel agencies as a cover for their smuggling business. India to Eastern Europe may be considerably lower. A 2012 study noted that more and more migrants were According to a 2011 report, Indian migrants pay between using smugglers in major cities, rather than their local €1,500 and 4,500 to be smuggled to Eastern Europe, and 105 smuggler ‘agents’. US$1,500-2,000 to continue onwards to the European 119 The same 2012 study found that most smugglers operat- Union. Migrant smugglers in India are estimated to 120 ing in some parts of India were male, although a few earn between US$250 and $750 per migrant. In 2011, females were also involved; sometimes working with their the cost of the entire journey from Bangladesh to Europe 121 husbands. Most of the smugglers were reported to be in was estimated at €12,000-18,000. 106 their 30s. Another study of the profiles of more than According to a recent survey of Pakistani migrants, the 11,000 individuals involved or suspected of being involved smuggling journey from Pakistan to Dubai, United Arab in irregular migration in Punjab found that nearly all the Emirates, costs approximately US$1,000, but that smugglers were locals. Some 94 per cent of the interme- excludes the cost of travel documents.122 Somewhat older diaries came from Punjab, while the remaining were from research cited fees for destination countries in the Middle elsewhere in India. Very few were based abroad.107 East varying between €1,400 and 4,300. Higher fees are The available sources suggest that Indian smuggling orga- charged when the smugglers accompany the migrants to 123 nizations continue to be involved throughout the smug- their destination. gling process to Europe and engage local groups and The human cost individuals in transit countries. Smugglers of Indian origin Harassment, assault and occasional killings of smuggled or with Indian citizenship also operate in a range of Euro- migrants have been reported along the different routes 108 pean transit and destination countries. With regard to here considered.124 Women are particularly vulnerable to the smuggling of Bangladeshis, diaspora communities trafficking and sexual violence by criminal gangs or border living in destination countries may provide some officials.125 support.109 Several sources report that migrants are often deceived by The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel smugglers or charged exorbitant fees for their services.126 arrangements Moreover, there are reports of South Asian smuggled Bangladeshi and Nepalese migrants are mainly smuggled migrants ending up in situations of debt bondage or to India by land to New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Ban- forced labour to pay back money owed to the smuggler galore and other major Indian cities.110 After crossing into or to friends and relatives.127 India, Nepalese typically settle in India, while those who can afford to fly to the GCC countries contact other FROM SOUTH AND SOUTH-WEST smugglers who can provide them with the necessary doc- ASIA TO NORTH AMERICA uments and plane tickets.111 Most Bangladeshis head across the country towards Pakistan. A few are smuggled Some migrants are smuggled by air from South and South- to Europe by air.112 For many Bangladeshi smuggled West Asia to North America, but information on routes migrants, Pakistan is a transit country.113 and methods is sporadic and limited.128 Some of the routes

119 120 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 provide an indication of the potential magnitude of the collected by ofHomeland theUSDepartment Security migrant smuggling,other immigration-related data could notbefound.In theabsenceofspecificdataon Statistics aboutmigrantssmuggled totheUnited States South andSouth-West AsiatoNorthAmerica The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingfrom recorded. Since arrivals ofthiskind then haveno further been nationals by sea to North America was foiled in 2011. those migrants.AnotherattempttosmuggleSri Lankan astransitcountriesfor some of East Asiamayhave served the Canadianauthorities,different countriesin South- on vessels originatingfrom South-East Asia.According to nationals were smuggled toBritish Columbia,inCanada, recorded. In hundred 2009 and 2010, a few Sri Lankan by seatoCanadainvolving Sri Lankannationalswere also Between cases of 2009migrant andsmuggling 2010 a few heading totheUnited States by air. countries by migrantsandrefugees from South-West Asia Syrian ArabRepublic are alsoreportedly usedastransit often involves fraudulentdocuments. gling ofthesemigrantstotheUnited States andCanada detected, usually on their way to the United States. Smug- which smuggledmigrantsfrom South-West Asiawere Several LatinAmericancountrieshave reported casesin Asian countriestoNorth America. as transitpointstosmugglemigrantsfrom South-West Syrian Arab Republic and the United Kingdom are used Canada. States issometimesusedasatransitpointenroute to tries forSouth Asiansmuggledmigrants. The United Canada andtheUnited States are bothdestinationcoun Americas. America by airdirectly orviathird countriesinthe South-West Asian migrants are smuggled to North are sometimesusedastransitlocations.South Asianand also toCanada.South andCentralAmericancountries America, primarily to the United States of America, but most South andSouth-West AsiancountriestoNorth There isscattered evidenceofmigrantsmugglingfrom arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand tively small. land andby sea)themagnitudeofthissmugglingisrela limited numberofflights(compared to smuggling over on other continents. Due to the costs involved and the involved are complex;involving transitsthrough countries 130 134 129 According to the British authorities,Spain, the

131 133 132

Lebanonandthe - - - Source: USDepartmentofHomelandSecurity. 2015). * Fiscalyears(FY2015ranfrom1 F Canada. The number of immigration apprehensions in in North America,somemigrantsare alsosmuggledinto While theUnited States isthemaindestinationcountry slightly more than1percent. more than460,000apprehensions infiscalyear 2015, and South-West Asiansaccountedforsome4,700ofthe sions are unlikelytobeduemigrantsmuggling.South apprehensions were reported. Many oftheseapprehen October 2015 –30September 2016),whensome530,000 was, however, amodestincrease forfiscalyear 2016(1 Customs Enforcement hasdeclinedinrecent years. There violations by theUSBorder Patrol andImmigration and The numberofapprehensions forsuspectedimmigration deemed inadmissibletotheUnited States. Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Iranian citizens were also of India comprised thelargest share. Smaller shares of representing more than4percentofthetotal.Citizens zens ofcountriesin South andSouth-West Asia, missibility infiscalyear 2015,nearly10,800were forciti Out ofthemore than250,000determinationsofinad migrant smuggling. security-related reasons. These instancesmaynotinvolve immigration violations,aswell ascrimeandnational requirements,inability to satisfy documentary previous Inadmissibility grounds includethoserelated toan each year, withincreasing numbersduringrecent years. authorities deemalargenumberofpeopleinadmissible phenomenon. For instance,theUSimmigration ig . 60: 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 0

2009-2015* entry intotheUnitedStates, determined inadmissibleatportsof and South-West Asiancitizens Trend inthenumberofSouth 8,837

2009 9,334 2010 otal Asia outhouthest 8,329 2011 October 2014to30September 9,008 2012 14,140

2013 11,449

2014

10,796

2015 - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 61: Number of smuggled South and The smugglers’ profile and organization South-West Asian migrants appre- hended in Canada, by citizenship, According to Canadian officials, smugglers facilitating the 2008-2012 journey from South Asia - and in particular from Sri Lanka - to Canada operate in loosely organized net- 2,500 works.139 Members of the Sri Lankan community in Canada are sometimes involved in the smuggling of other 2,000 Sri Lankans. They may serve in different smuggling roles 1,500 - as organizers, agents or facilitators - but may also help

provide genuine Canadian passports for use by other Sri 1,000 Lankan migrants.140

500 The smugglers’ modus operandi and the travel arrangements 0 Various countries in South and Central America are used

as transit countries for migrant smuggling between South and South-West Asia and North America. Sometimes this is due to visa arrangements. Between 2009 and 2011, for example, Indians used a visa waiver scheme for Indian Source: UNODC. nationals in Guatemala to gain easier access to the United States via Mexico. After the termination of this scheme, Canada has steadily declined since 2012. As for the United Ecuador, which had a similar program, emerged as a tran- States, immigrants may be apprehended for a number of sit point for the smuggling of migrants from India.141 reasons; many of which may not be linked to migrant Other South Asian citizens use fraudulent Indian pass- smuggling. ports to be smuggled on the same route.142 The Canadian authorities provided UNODC with data Moreover, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela is some- about smuggled migrants from South and South-West times used as transit country by Iranians. Taking advan- Asia apprehended between 2008 and 2012. While the tage of the visa-free policy adopted by Venezuela in the data are slightly out of date, they nonetheless indicate the mid-2000s, Iranian migrants would fly there and continue size and composition of the migrant smuggling flow into to the United States and Canada with the assistance of Canada. In 2008 and 2010, Sri Lankans were the most smugglers.143 According to the Canadian authorities, commonly detected, whereas in the other years, Indians approximately 80 per cent of the Iranian nationals who outnumbered the other citizenships. arrived in Canada irregularly by air between 2008 and Migrant smugglers often facilitate irregular movements 2012 had their journey facilitated by migrant smugglers.144 by air from India.135 The scale of migrant smuggling by There have also been reports of Iraqi citizens who have air from India is corroborated by data about people appre- been smuggled into the United States by air, relying on hended while trying to irregularly leave India from the fraudulent travel or identity documents.145 major international airports in the country. Between 2008 Sri Lankan nationals are also smuggled to Canada and the and August 2012, 1,173 cases of irregular migration were United States by air. This often involves fraudulent travel recorded at Indira Gandhi International airport in New or identity documents. According to the Canadian author- Delhi. Most of those departing were Indians, but citizens ities, an estimated 55 per cent of the Sri Lankan nationals of many other countries - Afghans, Bangladeshis and Sri who were apprehended attempting irregular entry by air Lankans in large numbers - were also detected. The United between 2008 and 2012 had used the services of smug- States or Canada was the destination in nearly 20 per cent glers. The smuggled migrants who arrived in Canada by 136 of the cases. air over the same period often used fraudulent documents. The profile of smuggled migrants This included the use of genuine Canadian passports that some Canadians had ‘rented’ to smugglers or the use of The Canadian authorities have reported that around two forged foreign passports.146 thirds of the Indian and Iranian migrants who were smug- gled into Canada between 2008 and 2012 were male.137 Smuggling routes from South Asia to North America can Most Sri Lankan smuggled migrants are reported to be be complex. To illustrate, one route involved Sri Lankans males between 30 and 40 years old.138 who were smuggled first from India to Kenya and the

121 122 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 halt in2014andthesearoute isnow largelydormant. Irregular maritimearrivals inAustralia nearlycametoa Australia isalsoasignificantdestinationforSouth Asians. along thisroute, whichusuallytransitsSouth-East Asia. West Asia.Migrant smugglingiswidelydocumented tination forirregular migrants andrefugees from South- Since theearly2000s,Australia hasbeenasignificantdes ASIA TOAUSTRALIA FROM SOUTHANDSOUTH-WEST of apprehension thanthesafearrival oftheirclients. who may be more concerned about theirprofits and risks for otherroutes, migrantsare atthemercy ofsmugglers a failedexperiencemightincursevere debts.Moreover, as However, migrants travelling by air pay high prices, and physicalrisksthanseaorland-basedsmuggling.fewer routes are exposed to. Migrant smuggling by air entails human rightsrisksthatsmuggledmigrantsalongthese There isnospecificinformationregarding thevarious The humancost bound forCanada. brought to Belgium, from where they boarded a flight they obtainedfraudulentBritish passports. They were then along aroute viaIstanbul andHelsinki toParis, where United Republic of Tanzania. From there theycontinued between theRepublicofSudanand theRepublicofSouthSudanhasnotyetbeendetermined. agreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan. ThefinalstatusofJammuandKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.Dottedlinerepresentscerning approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmir thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat ofthe UnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities, con The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthe Final boundary betweentheRepublicofSudanandSouth hasnotyetbeendetermined. Final boundary Kashmir agreeduponbyIndiaand Pakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuandKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. or concerningthedelimitationofits frontiersorboundaries.DottedlinerepresentsapproximatelytheLine ofControlinJammuand the partofSecretariatUnited Nationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthe presentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression anyopinionwhatsoeveron Air Land Sea

147 REPUBLIC ISLAMIC OF IRAN AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN INDIA 148 BANGLADESH -

gled togetheralongthesameroutes. The journeyusually Profile ofmigrants: Almost allirregular migrants andrefugees from theSouth- arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand neys andlargertransnationalnetworks. legsofthejour A mixoflocalsmugglersfacilitatingshort Organization: Some high-level smugglersare basedinorigincountries. often have thesamecitizenship asthesmuggledmigrants. borders that are crossed. Smugglers in organizing roles Smugglers are oftencitizens ofthecountries along the Profile ofsmugglers: origin, transitanddestinationcountries. Risks ofexploitationandgross humanrightviolationsin Fatalities have beenrecorded; mainlyalongseapassages. Human cost: young adultmales. Migrants from South-West AsiaandSouth Asia.Most are East Asia,and smuggling by land andsea to southern involves smuggling by air from South-West Asia to South- their journeytowards Australia. West Asiancountriesrely of onsmugglersforatleastpart (Keeling) Islands Cocos THAILAND Lumpur Kuala Bangkok (Australia) Christmas MALAYSIA Island Cisarua INDONESIA Ashmore Reef (Australia) AUSTRALIA 149 They are oftensmug 0 1,000  Final boundary 2,000 km -

- - Regional overviews - Asia II

Indonesia, where migrants and refugees board vessels Fig. 62: Irregular maritime arrivals in bound for Australia or its offshore territories.150 Australia, 2009-2016*

Pakistan is a departure as well as transit point for migrants 25,000 and refugees from South-West Asia heading to Australia. 20,587 As there are few flights from Afghanistan to South-East 20,000 17,204 Asia, Afghans often head to Pakistan first. They usually 15,000 make their way to Karachi or Islamabad, and board flights to major international airports in South-East Asia.151 Some 10,000 6,555 South-West Asians also fly to South-East Asia via Gulf 5,000 152 4,565 countries. From South-East Asia, they continue towards 2,726 160 Indonesia, by land, air or sea. Other South Asians are also 0 0 0 153 smuggled along this route. 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

For maritime departures, in Indonesia, migrants and ref- * Financial years (July 1-June 30). ugees from South and South-West Asia embarked on Source: Parliament of Australia, Australia Parliamentary Library. board boats to Australia from the main island of Java. The town of Cisarua was reportedly a transit point. From Cis- ing the number of smuggled migrants detected in 2012 arua, migrants would travel by land to Java’s southern and the first half of 2013 to UNODC. About 23,000 coast, where they would board boats to Australia’s Christ- originated from countries in South and South-West Asia, mas Island.154 Pelabuhan Ratu was a known embarkation including both smuggling by air and sea, during that point for Christmas Island.155 Departures for Ashmore period. Reef – located south of the western part of Timor island Migrant smuggling by air is also documented along this – would usually take place further east in Indonesia.156 route, sometimes with the help of sophisticated fraudulent Some Sri Lankans also tried to reach the Australian Cocos documents. There are reports of small numbers of South (Keeling) islands, about half way between Sri Lanka and Asians having been smuggled by air to Australia.159 A few Australia. smuggled migrants from South-West Asia head to New The magnitude of migrant smuggling from Zealand; usually involving either fraudulent documents South and South-West Asia to Australia or the swapping of a boarding pass in the airport transit As for most maritime routes, most migrants and refugees lounge.160 reaching Australia by sea would have had their journey The profile of smuggled migrants facilitated by smugglers. A 2013 survey of irregular mar- itime arrivals in Australia found that 55 per cent of the Almost all migrants and refugees that have entered Aus- respondents admitted to having used the services of some- tralia by sea come from South and South-West Asia. Since one who helps people travel (for example, migrant smug- November 2011, the Australian government has granted gler).157 Many respondents (41 per cent) also reported a particular type of visa, ‘Bridging Visa E (BVE)’ to some having travelled on a false passport at some stage during irregular maritime arrivals (IMAs). This type of visa is the journey,158 which indicates the involvement of smug- only granted to IMAs; many of whom may have arrived glers. The Australian data about maritime irregular arrivals prior to 2011. The purpose is to release holders from can thus be considered broadly representative of the immigration detention and allow them to remain lawfully migrant smuggling flow to Australia by sea. The number in Australia while their immigration status is being of irregular maritime arrivals increased rapidly from 2009, resolved.161 As of the end of March 2017, a total of more peaking at more than 20,000 in 2012-13. Irregular mar- than 36,000 such visas have been granted. Statistics by itime arrivals to Australia started to decrease in late 2013, citizenship of the more than 24,000 current BVE holdersd following the implementation of Operation Sovereign show that Iranians, Sri Lankans, Afghani and Stateless Borders.c migrants are among the largest groups granted this visa. The Australian authorities provided some statistics regard- Although the implementation of Operation Sovereign c A military-led border security operation aimed at combating maritime d Of the more than 36,000 BVEs granted since November 2011, some migrant smuggling and protecting Australia’s borders, established in 12,000 holders had either been granted substantive visas, departed September 2013. (Operation Sovereign Borders; www.osb.border. Australia, returned to immigration detention or died, as of 31 March gov.au). 2017.

123 124 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 airports inSouth-Eastairports Asia.Iranian, Iraqi andPakistani when attemptingtoboard aflight tomajorinternational in Pakistan withfraudulent travel oridentitydocuments Afghan migrants are frequently apprehended at airports information from thePakistani authorities,smuggled involves theuseoffraudulentdocuments.According to refugees inrecent years. ity astransitforthesmugglingofAfghanmigrantsand South-East Asiancountries seemtohave gainedpopular arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel smuggling. forcaptainingorcrewing thevessels usedforthe salary hire young, local Indonesians, who may receive asmall Indonesia toAustralia, smugglersintherole of‘organizer’ smuggled migrantsthemselves. For theboatjourneyfrom same countriesasthemigrants,manyofwhomwere once tralia seems to be organized mainly by people from the The smugglingofSouth andSouth-West AsianstoAus less likelytodrawtheauthorities’ attention. (as well astoCanada)by air, probably becausetheyare smuggling ofmigrantsfrom South-West AsiatoAustralia sources note that women are sometimes involved in the Most migrant smugglersare male.Nevertheless, some The smugglers’profileandorganization with lessthanhalf(22)ofthe56attemptsin2012. ular departure by seain2013involved children, compared Criminal Investigation allattemptsofirreg Department, their village.According todatacollectedby theSri Lankan do soinsmallgroups, oftenwithrelatives orpeoplefrom Sri Lankanmigrantstravelling directly toAustralia usually route towards Australia. not have sought the assistance of migrant smugglers en 50 women and 45 children. total registered atthepeakinApril 2014. These included 1,200 asylumseekersinthetwocentres; abouthalfofthe by South Asians.In October 2016,there were more than Asian citizens comprise thelargestgroup by far, followed operationsinlate2012,showstarted thatSouth West cessing facilitiesinNauru andPapua New Guinea, which Statistics regarding theAustralian offshore asylumpro Border Protection. April 2017speechby theMinister forImmigration and countries by the Australian authorities, according to an who were intercepted atseawere returned totheirorigin Between early 2014 and April 2017,nearly800 people Australia, there are irregular stillafew seacrossings. Borders hasnearlyhaltedirregular maritimearrivals in 166 162 167 163 Smuggling by airtypically Asylum seekers may or may 165 164 - - - - to other Middle Eastern countries, from where they con enter Malaysia. migrants often use remote paths through the jungle to journey. Once theyhave reached the border region, time untilthesmugglerscanarrangefortheironward transit points, where migrants usually have to wait a long travel to Thailand. Bangkok andSongkhla are important Most Bangladeshi migrantssmuggledalongthisroute first Sri Lankancoast. bound forAustralia from along the various depart ports Islands typicallytakesbetween 10and20days. Vessels The seajourneyfrom Sri LankatotheCocos(Keeling) approximately midwaybetween Australia andSri Lanka. offshore territories,especiallytheCocos(Keeling) Islands from Sri LankatotheAustralian mainlandorone ofits West Asians,describedabove. The secondisasearoute main routes. The firstistheroute usedby mostSouth- Sri Lankannationalsare smuggledtoAustralia alongtwo nationals alsotravel alongthisroute. arranged by local smugglers. The cost of a smuggling the sea voyage from Indonesia to Australia is usually migrants andsmugglersinPakistan. only, according among toarecent small-scale survey Many smugglers inPakistan offer deals toreach Indonesia routes. ulent documentsappearstobecommonalongthose tinue to South-East Asia and Australia. nesia orMalaysia. through oneoftheGulf countriesbefore flyingtoIndo migrants and refugees from South-West Asia transit Smuggling routes toAustralia complex.Some canbevery travel through South-East Asia. Some are smuggledby airdirectly toAustralia, others limitedinformationisavailable aboutthisroute.very Indian citizens alsoseemtobesmuggled toAustralia, but per cent). stan (60percent)andtheIslamic Republic ofIran (24 main hostcountriesidentifiedby respondents were Paki to travelling to Australia, whereas Iranians few did so. The foratleast12monthsprior had lived inanothercountry the majorityofAfghans(57percent)indicatedthatthey refugees whohadarrived irregularly inAustralia by sea, Australia. lic ofIran forsometimebefore theywere smuggled to istan longagoandlived inPakistan ortheIslamic Repub Many smuggledAfghanmigrantsinAustralia leftAfghan shore coastline. islandsornorth-western nesia, where theyboard boatsheadingtoAustralia’s off 177

172 173 According of migrants and toa2013 survey

170 169 They thencontinuetosouthernIndo 175 Moreover, some Iraqis are smuggled 174 178 168 176 This impliesthat The use of fraud 171 ------Regional overviews - Asia II

Migrant smuggling in the Pacific

The scattered nature of the states and territories in the vast Pacific limits most smuggling activity to the inter- national airline industry and to a lesser extent, the shipping industry. Migrant smuggling by air usually involves people travelling individually or in small groups of 2-5, as opposed to sea vessels which can carry hundreds of migrants at a time. Main departure and arrival points The Pacific island economies are heavily dependent on tourism and in order to support the growth of this industry, a number of countries have announced new direct flights into Asia and are considering other destina- tions. The exact list is subject to change, but, for example, it was reported in 2014 that Fiji had direct flights to Hong Kong, China and the Republic of Korea. Papua New Guinea had flights to the Philippines and Singa- pore, and Palau to several Chinese destinations, the Republic of Korea, Japan and the Philippines.a The magnitude of migrant smuggling in the Pacific The Pacific is viewed mainly as a transit point for smuggled migrants of Asian origin attempting to enter Aus- tralia, New Zealand and the United States. Members of the Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference (PIDC)* reported varying levels of detected smuggled migrants between 2003 and 2011, ranging from 30-220. However, in 2012, because of a large jump in the Australian data, there were 18,000 detections. Since 2012, the number has dropped to the higher end of the range of pre-2012 numbers, around 200. The Pacific region has experienced an upward trend in border refusals since 2009. In that year, the number of border refusals was approximately 3,000, whereas by 2013, it had increased to 3,930.b Immigration-related fraud has also increased in the region, from 32 cases in 2009 to 905 cases in 2013. The types of immigration fraud reported included false or altered immigration documents, genuine immigration documents obtained fraudulently, false or altered supporting documents and imposters. False passports appears to be the most common type of immigration-related fraud.c Most of the migrants attempting to cross borders by fraudulent means are Asians (48 per cent), followed by Pacific Islanders (19 per cent) and Europeans (16 per cent).d There have been occasional large cases of migrant smuggling in the Pacific, involving large numbers of people travelling via boat. For example, in November 2014, the Federated States of Micronesia detected a vessel near the island of Yap carrying 53 individuals, primarily from India and Nepal, who had paid smugglers for transit to the United States.e The gender breakdown of the smuggled migrants reported in 2013 by PIDC members was 70 per cent adult male, 13 per cent adult female, 11 per cent boys and 6 per cent girls.f * Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zea- land, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

a Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference, People smuggling, human trafficking and illegal migration in the Pacific, 2014. b Ibid. c Ibid., p. 12. d Ibid., p. 13. e United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational organized crime in the Pacific: a threat assessment, Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, September 2016, p. 40. f Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference, People smuggling, human trafficking and illegal migration in the Pacific, 2014. package from Pakistan to Australia is estimated at The human cost US$10,000-12,000, with $7,000 for the leg from Pakistan South and South-West Asians smuggled to Australia face 179 to Indonesia, and some $4,000 from Jakarta to Australia. several risks, in particular during sea crossings. South A 2013 survey reported an average price of US$12,600 Asians risk their lives in the Bay of Bengal.181 Moreover, for smuggling to Australia, with some variations according the vessels used to smuggle migrants and refugees from to citizenship (Sri Lankans reportedly paid $9,200, while Indonesia to Australia are often in poor condition and Afghans paid $13,500).180 overcrowded, and carry insufficient water, food and life-

125 126 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ippines andBangladesh. migrants from withintheregion, from Indonesia, thePhil for destination. Malaysia isalsoadestinationcountry munities and have ofThailand as the main country lic, Myanmar and Thailand, ofteninvolve border com includes Cambodia,theLaoPeople’s Democratic Repub The smuggling flows in theMekong subregion, which transit anddestinationforsmuggledmigrants. gional flows. Countries in this area are countries of origin, are diverse andvaried, withlocal,regional andtransre In EastandSouth-East Asia,smugglingflows andpatterns ASIA AND TOEASTSOUTH-EAST MIGRANT SMUGGLINGFROM PATTERNS ANDTRENDSOF challenges facedinsomedestinationcountries. sibility ofbeingreturned toone’s are other origincountry violence. Moreover, detentionuponarrival andthepos theft by smugglers, kidnappingforransom,arrest, and risks, asdescribedforotherroutes. These risksinclude Migrants and refugees are also exposed tomany other risk ofdrowning duringaseacrossing. ticular Afghans,cannotswim,whichgreatly increases their saving equipment. cerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries. cerning thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat ofthe UnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities, con The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthe concerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries. the partofSecretariatUnited Nationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthe presentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression anyopinionwhatsoeveron Land Sea Air 182 BANGLADESH Cox’s Bazar Many smuggledmigrants,inpar 185

MYANMAR Rakhine State 183 Mae Sot

District Straits of Malacca Bangkok LAO PEOPLE'S 184 DEM. REP. Kampot

THAILAND Mekong River MALAYSIA CAMBODIA ------Prey Veng Province Asia, one significant route runs towardsAsia, onesignificantroute runs European desti In termsofsmugglingroutes outofEastandSouth-East ment services. andjobplace may offerbothfacilitatedirregular entry expensive andtime-consuming.In thisarea, smugglers migration channelsoftendoexist,makinguseofthemis ofsmugglersfordifferent reasons.services While formal subregion wishingtogoabroad oftenseemtoseekthe risk venture. Republic andMyanmar, which makes smuggling alow land borders withCambodia,theLaoPeople’s Democratic region. Thailand shares extensive andunevenly monitored for smuggledmigrantsfrom countriesintheMekong sub tries in South-East Asia. Thailand is the main destination There ismigrantsmugglingbetween manyofthecoun South-East Asia Smuggling ofmigrantswithin networks. by highlevels oforganizationthesmuggling nations andNorth America. This route ischaracterized as Bangladesh and Myanmar. These movements appear ularly for citizens of Indonesia and the Philippines, as well sees significantlabour-related irregular migration,partic sia’s relative it economicprosperity andlabourshortages, gling withinSouth-East AsiaisMalaysia. Due toMalay formigrantsmug The othermaindestinationcountry Sarawak 186 187 People from thecountries oftheMekong

INDONESIA Sabah PHILIPPINES 0 1,000 2,000 km ------Regional overviews - Asia II to be facilitated by smugglers to a significant extent.188 unclear.193 Migrant smuggling from Myanmar to Thailand The route between Malaysia and Indonesia, in particular, takes place over the heavily forested land border. The dis- is reportedly ‘busy and lucrative’ for smugglers,189 and trict of Mae Sot has been singled out as a frequent entry Indonesian and Filipino migrants are believed to comprise point into Thailand, although crossings also occur the bulk of flows into Malaysia.190 Moreover, migrant elsewhere.194 smuggling from other regions into South-East Asia is only It is also likely that, in the attempt to flee from the vio- significant with regard to the smuggling of Bangladeshi lence, the Rohingyae ethnic group is generating significant migrants to Malaysia.191 smuggling activity destined into Thailand and Malaysia, Profile of migrants: as well as into the Cox’s Bazar district on the south-eastern Migrants are smuggled from most countries within the coast of Bangladesh. Deprived of citizenship, they have subregion; mainly migrant workers but also people fleeing no access to legal migration channels. In mid-2015, persecution. UNODC reported - on the basis of information from UNHCR and IOM - that the most common route Human cost: involved travelling by sea to the province of Ranong, Thai- Many fatalities along both sea and land routes. Mass kill- land, across the border from the southernmost tip of ings of migrants have been reported. Exploitation, extor- Myanmar, followed by a one-day land journey across the tion and physical injuries are not uncommon. Malaysian border.195 After reaching Malaysia - either by Profile of smugglers: sea or land, usually transiting Thailand either way - they often search for work within established Rohingya com- Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the munities in Kuala Lumpur and Penang.196 borders that are crossed. Some smugglers (‘organizers’) have the same citizenships as the smuggled migrants. Some Indonesian nationals are smuggled into Malaysia by sea or high-level smuggler organizers are based in origin overland. The sea route departs from the island of Sumatra, countries. crosses the Strait of Malacca and lands along the coast of the Malay peninsula. The land route starts from Kaliman- Organization: tan, the Indonesian part of Borneo, and crosses the land A mix of well-organized operations on some routes, and border into the Malaysian states of Sabah or Sarawak. looser organization along others. Local smugglers often From the Philippines, migrants are smuggled to Malaysia facilitate short legs of the journeys. by sea or air. The sea routes often start from the islands The main smuggling hubs, departure and of Sulu and Balawan in south-western Philippines and arrival points head to Sabah state in the far north of Malaysian Bor- With regard to smuggling into Thailand, the routes that neo.197 Migrants from the Philippines are also smuggled smugglers use from Cambodia are well established. One to Malaysia by air; although information is scarce, this main route leads from Prey Veng Province, in the east of might be the more prevalent method.198 the country almost on the border with Viet Nam. This Most smuggled migrants from Bangladesh have transited route follows the main railway line to Battambang and Thailand on their way to Malaysia. They may have reached the border town of Poipet, and then across the border into Thailand by land, sea or air, and generally pass through Thailand. Another main route involves the coastal passage Bangkok. Another common transit point is Songkhla in from Kampot to Koh Kong and into Thailand. In addi- the south of Thailand where migrants may have to wait tion to the established routes, irregular crossings are pos- for some time for smugglers to organize the onward jour- sible at many points along the border, through forests, ney.199 Then, they cross the land border into Malaysia by rivers and unstaffed checkpoints. These crossings are gen- driving through the thick jungle and forest.200 erally attempted on foot, at night and in small groups to avoid patrols.192 The magnitude of migrant smuggling within South-East Asia The smuggling of migrants from the Lao People’s Dem- There is little migrant smuggling-specific data available ocratic Republic to Thailand occurs primarily over the for this region. In 2013, UNODC estimated that more Mekong River, which makes up a long stretch of the than 660,000 irregular migrants enter Thailand each year border between the two countries. Although irregular crossings at official border checkpoints likely occur, the e The Government of Myanmar disputes the term ‘Rohingya’ and methods used and the frequency with which it occurs are prefers the term ‘Bengalis’.

127 128 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 in late August 2017,whennearly500,000 people left in alaysia hasusedregularizations several times.In the2011wave, all f migrants from Bangladesh andMyanmar are smuggled and Myanmar were notreported). deshis (registration numbers forcitizens ofthePhilippines were Indonesians, butthere were also270,000Bangla tered about1.3millionundocumentedworkers. Most authorities carriedoutaregularization drive, been smuggled.For example,in2011,theMalaysian of course,manyundocumentedworkers maynothave give anindicationofthemagnitudeflows, even though, immigration status of undocumented workers can also over halfbeingIndonesians. more than2millionirregular migrantworkers, withwell sia, there are 2.5millionundocumentedworkers inMalay irregular movements. In 2011,OECDestimatedthat gled migrants)theygive arough indicationofthescale are inconsistent(andofcoursedonotentailonlysmug been publishedinrecent years, andalthoughtheestimates irregular orundocumentedmigrantsandworkers have mation is even scarcer. Several estimatesof the stock of With regard to migrant smugglingintoMalaysia, infor as well. likely to have increased thedemandfor migrant smuggling the spanofone month. lasted fordecades, mar’s Rakhinestate across theborder into Bangladesh have migrant smugglers. These movements are believed tobegreatly facilitatedby migrants leftfrom Myanmar andBangladesh by boat. between 2012and2015,some170,000refugees and Regarding maritimedepartures, UNHCRestimatesthat entries are facilitatedby asmuggler. why the Thai data suggests that only a fraction of irregular to nearly700forthe2010–2013period. smuggled migrants, however; ranging between some 200 covered. The authoritiesonlyidentifysmallnumbersof to more than200,000onaverage peryear duringtheyears irregular entriesthatare detectedin Thailand amounted Data from the Thai authoritiesshows thatthenumberof each year. migrants are smuggled from these countries into Thailand smugglers. This wouldindicatethatabout550,000 that more than80percentofthemusetheassistance from neighbouringcountriesand,basedonfieldresearch, Data from government-initiated toregularize efforts the

206 with theirbiometricinformation. foreign workers, includingthoseholdingalegalstatus,hadtoregister M andin2016,itwasreported thatMalaysia hosts 201

204 203 thesituationescalateddramatically While thesizable flows from Myan 205 developmentsThese arenew 207

208 It islikelythat 202 It isnotclear f andregis ------Myanmar appliedforasyluminMalaysia peryear. In the 2010 and 2016, on average, some 20,000 citizens of refugees insearch ofinternationalprotection. Between Some migrantsmugglingtoMalaysia mayalsoinvolve oftheirjourneytoMalaysia.for atleastsomepart Source: UNHCR. F 16 from Cambodia. ities recorded 261smuggledmigrantsfrom Myanmar and of smuggledmigrantswas2011. In thatyear, theauthor tion of this. The year withthehighest reported numbers number ofdetectedsmuggledmigrantswasamere frac Democratic Republic, itwasjustover 42,000. The was some60,500,whileforcitizens oftheLaoPeople’s land irregularly. The corresponding figure forCambodians than 84,500citizens ofMyanmar whowere entering Thai which dataisavailable -the Thai authorities detectedmore above would imply. In 2013 –the most recent year for the country, butnotby aslargeamargin asthefigures the most frequently detected group irregularly entering Official Thai statisticsshow thatcitizens ofMyanmar are the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic. from Myanmar, 55,000 from Cambodia, and 44,000 from into Thailand ofabout450,000migrantsandrefugees tries into Thailand eachyear wouldimplyannualinflows estimate of550,000migrantssmuggledfrom thesecoun lic. Assumingthisdistributionforthe2013UNODC and 8percentfrom theLaoPeople’s Democratic Repub cent were from Myanmar, 10percentfrom Cambodia, irregular migrantworkers in Thailand shows that82per Data from large-scalegovernmental toregister efforts The profileofsmuggledmigrants in thepeakyear of2016. sia, althoughthenumbersare low, reaching almost200 were Indonesians lodged. A few also seek asylum in Malay peak year of2013,more than50,000suchapplications ig . 63: 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 0

of Myanmar, 2010-2016 cations lodgedinMalaysiabycitizens Trend inthenumberofasylumappli- 0021 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 23,768

210 14,623

18,030

50,757

22,272 209

18,285

15,069 ------Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 64: Trend in the numbers of detected The smugglers’ profile and organization irregular entries into Thailand of citi- zens of Myanmar, Cambodia and the As for many parts of the world, most migrant smuggling Lao People’s Democratic Republic, organizations in South-East Asia seem to be loose associ- 2010-2013 ations of individuals operating on a small scale, rather than structured, hierarchical criminal syndicates. These 140,000 networks tend to act on a very local level, so that smug- 117,681 120,000 glers are known to migrants or somebody close to them.216 100,000 93,735 84,543 Much of the smuggling within the region also appears to 80,000 be opportunistic.217 60,000 60,543 40,000 42,249 However, with regard to smuggling of Indonesians to 20,000 21,122 Malaysia, it has been reported that smugglers operate 0 extensive networks in the two countries, capable of offer- ing very well organized smuggling services. Recruitment

2010 2011 2012 2013 is often handled by local smugglers living in the migrants’ Myanmar 218 Cambodia home communities. It appears that smugglers involved Lao People's Democratic Rep. in the facilitation of movements from Indonesia to Malay- Source: UNODC. sia often engage in related forms of crime, in particular document fraud.219 The networks that smuggle Bangla- The available data for Malaysia only refers to irregular deshi migrants through Thailand into Malaysia are also migrants, who may or may not have been smuggled into reported to be well organized. These networks can often the country. In 2015, UNODC reported that more than assist migrants in obtaining tourist visas - permitting them 60 per cent of irregular migrants in Malaysia are Indone- to enter or transit through Thailand - and arranging their sians, with citizens of Bangladesh, the Philippines and onward travel to Malaysia. Some of the groups appear to Myanmar constituting the second, third and fourth largest have links to construction firms in Malaysia.220 groups.211 Migrant smugglers in the Mekong subregion are com- Smuggled South-East Asian migrants tend to be econom- monly citizens of the origin country of the migrants they ically disadvantaged and have low levels of education.212 smuggle. In the case of Cambodian migrants, Cambodian With regard to smuggling into Thailand, migrants can be smugglers transport them across the border into Thailand. divided into two categories, with corresponding differ- With migrants from the Lao People’s Democratic Repub- ences in the services they commonly request from smug- lic, Thai and Lao smuggling groups work together to 221 glers. First are those from rural border areas who cross the smuggle migrants from one country to another. Many border to Thailand to take advantage of seasonal agricul- smugglers were irregular migrants themselves, and most 222 tural work and may employ the assistance of smugglers rely on word-of-mouth to promote their services. for transport and to avoid patrols by Thai border guards. In the Mekong subregion, migrant smugglers also tend to The second category are longer-term migrants, who move offer a wider range of services than what is common along all over the country and work in a broad range of sectors. most other routes. Smugglers not only make it possible These migrants either seek the services of smugglers for for migrants to evade border controls, but they also act as assistance in job placement, or are recruited by someone job brokers and often offer accommodation.223 they know.213 The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel Most of the available data and research suggest that the arrangements majority of smuggled migrants within the Mekong sub- Some migrants that cross into Thailand via the land bor- region are young men, although the smuggling of females ders are smuggled closer to Bangkok by private car or is also significant. Research from 2011 indicated that the public transportation. Other smugglers then arrange trans- majority of irregular migrants from the Lao People’s Dem- portation to a final destination. If law enforcement inter- ocratic Republic living in Thailand are women, working cepts the smuggling, migrants are generally arrested, fined, as domestic workers.214 The same is true for Indonesian and then deported. The smugglers are often not penal- smuggled migrants. Although most are men, there are also ized.224 It seems that many smugglers along this route rely significant numbers of women, and these women often heavily on other smugglers who live in border communi- seek employment as domestic workers.215 ties, especially at particular border crossings.225

129 130 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 According tothe Thai authorities, migrantsfrom South mar reportedly pay the highestfees,whilemigrantsfrom the feestructures basedonorigin.Migrants from Myan Corruption oftenseems toplayarole inthissubregion,Corruption state, permittingthemigrants towadeashore. the boatsanchornear the shoreline of Malaysia’s Sabah often usedby local traders. The smugglerswhonavigate sea are toMalaysia usuallytransported aboard smallboats, Smuggled migrantsfrom thePhilippines whotravel by record ofsuccessfulsmugglingoperations. local figures who live among their clientele and have a gling networks. These smugglers are often well-known brokers, recruiters oragentsthatare organized intosmug smugglers operateonbothsidesoftheborder andactas there are also reports that Indonesian and Malaysian Malaysian smugglershandle jobplacement. nesian smugglersendswitharrival atdestination,where Malaysia, someresearch hasfoundthattherole ofIndo Regarding smuggling operations from Indonesia into provide thisservice. selves, insteadrelying on specialized criminalgroups to criminal networks. documents themselves or outsource the work to other Migrant smugglingorganizationsmayeitherforgethe ing movements from Indonesia andthePhilippines. Malaysia isrelatively regard well documented,particularly fraudulent documentsforthepurposeofsmugglinginto andjobplacement. both irregular entry and in Malaysia. try These smugglersusuallyfacilitate unlicensed recruitment agenciesinboththeorigincoun labour connotation,andmuchofthesmugglinginvolves Much ofthemigrantsmugglingintoMalaysia hasastrong considerably less. the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic andCambodiapay 500 baht) per worker. The amountrangesfrom someUS$6 toUS$16(200and act as recruiters also collectfees from the Thai employers. employer andenroute accommodation.Smugglers who the border, food, water, to the transportation Thai imately US$325.Fees typicallycover thecostofcrossing to anemployer in Thailand willcostthemigrantapprox vices required. Asafeborder crossing andtransportation being smuggledinto accordingThailand vary totheser A UNODCreport from 2013shows thatthefeesfor province. debarking insouthern Thailand, includingRanong Songkhla Province. Most ofthemare smuggledby sea, Asia are smuggled into Thailand through Bangkok and smuggling groups usually do not forge documents them 226

228 230

231 In operationsfrom thePhilippines, 227 There may also be differences in 229 233 232

The useof 234 However, ------nearly 200migrantremains were discovered inthe on land go unrecorded. In 2015, mass graves containing on board ships.However, itislikelythatmigrantdeaths deaths causedby gunfire, torture orbeatingsthatoccurred migrant deathsinvolved maritimetravel. This includes January 2014 and June 2017, 89 per cent of recorded routes, the majority of fatalities occur at sea. Between and Bangladesh by boat. attempted toreach Thailand andMalaysia from Myanmar 2014 and2015,whenlargenumbersofstatelesspersons lost their lives intheBay ofBengal and AndamanSea in smuggling inSouth-East Asia.Anestimated800people Significant numbersoffatalitieshave beenreported during South-East Asia. (is) endemicand(has)proved difficulttomanage’ in that facilitatesmigrantsmugglingandhumantrafficking tion forMigration behaviour arguedthat‘…thecorrupt Recent research publishedby theInternational Organiza with a wide range of officials potentially benefitting. Mediterranean and European Eastern Borders routes, as East andSouth-East Asiansare smuggledalongtheEastern Europe andNorth America. East andSouth-East of Asiaisdispersedinseveral parts ippines and Viet Nam, aswell asfrom othercountriesin smuggling ofmigrantsfrom Cambodia,China,thePhil who are smuggledtoEurope andNorth America. The East andSouth-East Asia are regions oforiginformigrants AMERICA ASIA TOEUROPEANDNORTH FROM EASTANDSOUTH-EAST route. trafficked amongthemigrantssmuggledalongthis tims oftraffickingaswell asmigrantsvulnerable tobeing syndicates. Thai authorities reported having assisted vic provinces of Thailand may fall prey to human trafficking Asian migrantswhoare smuggledby seatothesouthern and becomevictimsoftraffickinginpersons. imum wage. hours, unsafeconditionsandpaymentwell below themin may have nochoicebuttoacceptexcessively longworking of theirregular migrationprocess. Smuggled migrants as well asvulnerabilitytolabourexploitationaresult gers, bothenvironmental andatthehandsofsmugglers, The smuggling of migrants along this route entails dan in South-East Asiaare alsofraughtwithdanger. region. The humancost 240 237 This indicatesthatirregular overland movements 238 Some smuggled migrants are also exploited 235

236 In South-East Asia, as for most 239 South - - - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Air 01,000 2,000 km Land Sea Transit zone Destination Western UNITED Europe STATES OF AMERICA Gulf Cooperation East and Council South-East Asia

South America

TheThe designations designations employed employed and and the the presentation presentation of of material material on on this this map map do do not not imply imply the the expression expression of of any any opinion opinion whatsoever whatsoever on on the partthe of part the ofSecretariat the Secretariat of the of United the United Nations Nations concerning concerning the legal the statuslegal status of any of country, any country, territory, territory, city or city area or orarea of orits of authorities, its authorities, or con - cerningor concerning the delimitation the delimitation of its frontiers of its frontiersor boundaries. or boundaries. Dotted lineDotted represents line represents approximately approximately the Line the of ControlLine of Controlin Jammu in Jammand Kashmiru and agreedKashmir upon agreed by India upon and by Pakistan. India and The Pakistan. final status The final of Jammu status ofand Jammu Kashmir and has Kashmir not yet has been not agreed yet been upon agreed by the upon parties. by the Final parties. boundary betweenFinal boundary the Republic between of Sudan the Republic and the ofRepublic Sudan andof South the Republic Sudan has of Southnot yet Sudan been hasdetermined. not yet been determined. well as through air routes. Similarly, East and South-East often via the European Eastern Borders route.241 Asians are smuggled to North America via air routes to UNODC research from 2015 identified three key migrant major international airports in the United States, as well smuggling routes from East Asia to the European Union. as through that country’s southern border. One involved migrants flying from major international Profile of migrants: airports in the region to major international airport in From various East and South-East Asians countries; Eastern Europe. The air passage to Europe may be regular mainly individual males, but also women. or undertaken with altered documents or genuine docu- ments belonging to someone else. Migrants then contin- Human cost: ued overland to one of the Baltic States and/or Eastern Various forms of victimization have been recorded along European countries into Western Europe.242 Frontex certain land passages. reports that most detections of irregular border crossing by East and South-East Asian citizens take place at the Profile of smugglers: Eastern EU border with Latvia.243 Poland is also a transit Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the country for the smuggling of these migrants, and there borders that are crossed, or related to the citizenship of appear to be links between some smuggling networks and the migrants smuggled. the East Asian communities there.244 Organization: The second route involved direct flights to some European Mainly large transnational smuggling networks. transit airports, mainly in South-eastern or Central Europe. From there, migrants were transported overland The main smuggling hubs, departure and to other destinations in Western Europe.245 arrival points A third smuggling route involved East and South-East Smuggling from East and South-East Asia to Europe Asians making use of the Eastern Mediterranean route. involves a range of different routes and methods. Most Typically, they would fly into Turkey with fraudulent doc- commonly, migrants fly as close as possible to their desired uments, and travel onwards from Turkey to Greece by destination, and are smuggled overland for the remaining boat. Many would continue to Italy, and then transit stretch. The choice of transit airport is guided by consid- through various other European countries to reach either erations regarding cost and visa requirements for these France or the United Kingdom.246 migrants. In recent years, many migrants have flown to Eastern European major cities with fraudulent travel doc- With regard to smuggling from East and South-East Asia uments. Smugglers then transport migrants over land, to North America, it appears that different nationalities

131 132 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ing themagnitudeoftheseflows. able, andthere isnoconsensus amongacademicsregard littlespecificmigrantsmugglingdataavailThere isvery North America East andSouth-EastAsiatoEurope The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingfrom to theUnited States orvia aneighboringcountry. those countries.Others maybesmuggledby airdirectly with aCanadianorAmericancitizen in order to enter Asian migrantspaysmugglerstoarrangeashammarriage with thehelpofasmuggler. Some EastandSouth-East possibility, forexample,thatagenuinevisaisobtained method mayornotinvolve smugglers. There isa ine documentsandthenoverstay theirvisa. This travel use different smugglingmethods.Some arrive withgenu Source: USDepartment ofHomelandSecurity. 2016). * Fiscalyears(FY2016ranfrom1October 2015to30September F 3,000 peryear in2016. The trend isincreasing, butstill number hasrangedbetween 1,800peryear in2012and citizens attheEuropean Union externalborders, the With regard refusals ofEastandSouth-East toentry Asian tinuing overland tothe border region Central America,migrantsare smuggledtoMexico, con towardsthen headnorth the United States overland. they may fly directly to a South American country Europe, thenonwards toSouth orCentralAmerica.Or migrants are orto smuggledfirstby airtoaGulf country Smugglers may use anumber ofair routes. Sometimes 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 ig . 65: 0 3,730 8,018

2007 the UnitedStates,2007-2016* immigration enforcementactionsin South-East Asiansapprehendedin Trend inthenumberofEastand

2008 8,070

2009 8,030

2010 7,129

2011 7,920 5,458 249

2012 . 248

2013 4,762 5,204 2014 3,512

2015 247 From

and 2016 - - - - legs ofthetriptolocalgroups withcontactsandknowl groups operatinginorigincountries,outsourcing certain Some EastAsiansmuggling networks seem to work with late 20s)andlesseducated. ofEuropeother parts were bothyounger (mostlyintheir 40s orolder, andfairlywell educated. Those detected in persons whoare smuggledintoGermany are oftenintheir mostly agedbetween 18and40years. Vietnamese instance, Vietnamese irregular migrantsinEurope are between originanddestinations.Forappear tovary The sex,ageandeducationalprofile ofsmuggledmigrants smuggling. communities indestinationcountriesplaysarole inthis tries East Asiacomefrom specificprovinces intheircoun The majorityofsmuggledmigrantsfrom EastandSouth- The profileofsmuggledmigrants to 2015. immigration offenceswasdecliningfrom fiscalyear 2009 apprehensions ofEastandSouth-East Asiancitizens for ment ofHomeland Security shows thatthetrend for citizens intothe United States, datafrom the USDepart als atEuropean borders in2016. a mere refus fraction of the more than 388,000totalentry dled likebusinessrelationships, withfrequent communi into thedestination country. Such arrangementsare han handle travel through transit countriesaswell asentry edge. They may also engage other criminal groups to horizontal. The networks have beendescribedasinterconnected and side theirorigincountriesinEurope andNorth America. smuggling alongtheseroutes have extensive contacts out the mainsmugglingroutes. tion ofdifferent groups andnetworks thatcooperatealong Smuggling from EastAsiaappearstoinvolve acombina many womenare alsoinvolved in thesenetworks. extended period of time. legal residence there and have been living abroad for an 50. Smugglers basedintheEuropean Union typicallyhave activities. Smugglers are usually men aged between 20 and and contacts,donotseemtoconductotherillicit a range of backgrounds, often with good family networks been reported indestinationcountries. between groups from different EastAsian background has citizenship withthemigrants, East Asianmigrantsmugglerstypicallyshare thesame The smugglers’profileandorganization With regard tosmugglingofEastandSouth-East Asian 251 . It is likely that the presence of established diaspora 257

255 252 The groups involved inthe Although men dominate,

253 250 althoughcooperation

254 They comefrom 256 ------Regional overviews - Asia II

Smuggling of migrants from the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) shares land borders with China and the Republic of Korea. It appears that the Republic of Korea is the preferred destination for most smuggled migrants from the DPRK.a The Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Unification publishes statistics on the number of ‘defectors’ from the Democratic Republic of Korea that enter the Republic of Korea (ROK) each year. While it is not clear whether or to what extent these movements involve migrant smugglers, it is likely that a large share of them do, given the border fortifications between the two Koreas and the convoluted alternative routes into the ROK for DPRK citizens. The data show a declining trend, and average yearly arrival numbers around 1,500.b According to the Ministry of Unification data, the age groups of 20-29 and 30-39 accounted for 57 per cent of the DPRK ‘defectors’ who arrived in the ROK between 1998 and 2016. Children and young people (age groups 0-9 and 10-19) accounted for some 16 per cent of the arrivals. In 2016, nearly 80 per cent of the ‘defectors’ were females. Regarding the specific place of origin of the irregular migrants, research for the United Nations Human Rights Council found that most of the migrants originated from regions bordering China. Approximately 80 per cent of the more than 26,000 former DPRK citizens who left for the Republic of Korea by late 2013 and acquired citizenship there originated from the North Hamgyong and Ryanggang border provinces in the country’s north- east.c

a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: East Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 1. Song, J., ‘North-East Asia,’ in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 243-267, 2016, pp. 245-246. b Republic of Korea, Ministry of Unification, Policy on North Korean Defectors, online statistics (available at: http://www.unikorea.go.kr/ eng_unikorea/relations/statistics/defectors/). c United Nations, Human Rights Council, Report of the detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (A/HRC/25/CRP.1), 7 February 2014, p. 111. cation and close follow-up.258 For example, European Europe is usually carried out by a combination of air and smuggling groups seem to be involved in assisting migrants overland travel. Eurostat data on entry refusals by border with information and onward travel arrangements, some- type shows that more than 50 per cent of refusals of these times also including forged or fraudulently obtained doc- citizens take place at airports in the European Union. uments. Reports indicate that some migrants are travelling About one third of the refusals were reported at land bor- (regularly or irregularly) directly to capitals in Eastern ders and much less at sea borders. Europe from East Asia, where they continue by truck into Migrants who make their way to Western Europe via East- 259 Western Europe. ern Europe are often smuggled first by air from their origin More organized smuggling networks seems to integrate countries to an international airport in one of the Eastern several smugglers who serve as ‘stage coordinators,’ con- European countries. From these transit points, migrants 261 trolling different parts of the geographical movement and/ are smuggled westward to the European Union. Smug- glers may provide migrants with forged or altered docu- or certain aspects of the smuggling process. The ‘stage ments or genuine documents under false identities, at coordinators’ have some seniority and oversight, and may origin countries or en route. Sometimes smugglers employ delegate certain tasks to lower-ranking smugglers. The sophisticated techniques. Smuggled migrants may be pre- ‘stage coordinators’ appear to report to senior smugglers, sented as students seeking to study in Europe and travel ‘organizers’ in origin countries, who maintain responsi- with academic transcripts, language proficiency certificates bility for the financial aspects of the smuggling crime. and enrolment documents that may be forged.262 Document forgery and falsification is also generally carried out in East Asia.260 Czech and Slovak authorities have reported various meth- ods of document fraud and false representations in appli- The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel cations for visas and travel documents by these migrants, arrangements for example, photo substitution in temporary Czech pass- Smuggling of East and South-East Asian migrants to ports. In other cases, visas have been fraudulently obtained

133 134 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 such informalmethodsoftransferringfees. after theywere detected. several othersfellunconsciousandhadtoberesuscitated ple, resulted inthedeathofonesmuggledmigrantwhile bin bagsfrom France totheUnited Kingdom,forexam entries have been reported by the Chinese authorities in China andMacao SAR,China.Anumberofirregular Administrative Regions ofChina;thatis,Hong Kong SAR, Smuggling ofmigrantsflows seemtoaffectthetwoSpecial Other routes in EastAsia ing conditions. workof debtbondage,sometimesentailingyears ofbrutal migrants have been reported to be vulnerable to situations repayment tacticsthatmayleadtoexploitation.East Asian associated withtheseroutes subjectmigrantstosevere human trafficking.In addition, thehighsmugglingfees countries alsomakesthemvulnerable to exploitationand The migrants’ irregular statusintransitanddestination air. migrants dyinginsideshippingcontainersfrom lackof and even lifethreatening. There have beenreports of Europe andNorth Americacanbeextremely dangerous The smugglingofEastandSouth-East Asianmigrantsto The humancost family. ofthefeeisrefundedunsuccessful, part tothemigrant’s smuggler in destination country. If the smuggling is isgiven thecashandarrangespaymenttoanother country a hawala-likesystem.Asmuggler(‘broker’) intheorigin smuggling groups handlefinancialtransactionsthrough smuggling organization or the migrant’s nationality. Some Methods ofpayment seemtochangeaccording tothe pay therest atdestination. in order toobtainfraudulenttravel documents,andthen Migrants typically pay an upfront fee of $1,000 to $2,000 Eastern Europe islessexpensive thanto Western Europe. US$7,000 and$15,000. Reported estimatesforsmugglingintoEurope are between tination, travel routes and time spent in transit countries. Asian migrantstoEurope greatly, vary dependingondes The feeschargedforthesmugglingofEastandSouth-East where theyare given tothesmuggledmigrants. tured oraltered inEastAsiaandsenttotransitpoints visas. ulent travel oridentitydocumentstoobtainSchengen authorities, someSouth-East Asiancitizens present fraud have alsobeenreported. through embassies in origin countries. Forged passports 270 264 Acaseinwhichmigrantswere concealedinplastic 268 The fraudulentdocumentsare typicallymanufac Some othersmugglinggroups seemnottouse 272

271 266 267 263

In general,smugglinginto

According toHungarian 269 265 - - - - - F Source: Official informationfrom HongKong SAR,China. F recorded inHong Kong, Chinabetween 2012andthe of organization.About 56percentoftheirregular entries which suggestsatravel methodrequiring aminimumlevel intoHonging irregular Kong, entry China travel by sea, The majority of migrants who are detected when attempt (55 per cent of the entries) are South-East Asian migrants. the firstsixmonthsof2017. The majorityofmigrants zens, 45percentoftheillegalentriesbetween 2012and larly enteringinHong Kong, Chinaare South Asianciti Many ofthemigrantswho have beendetected forirregu migrants andthesecondismethodoftransportation. tated by smugglers. The firstistheoriginofdetected gest thatmanyoftheseirregular entrieshave beenfacili reference tothesetwoareas inrecent years. Two factssug Source: Official informationfrom HongKongSAR,China. ig ig . 67: . 66: 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 500 500 0 0

By land By by methodoftravel,2012-June2017 entries intoHongKongSAR, Trend inthenumberofirregular 2017 by regionofcitizenship,2012-June entries intoHongKongSAR, Trend inthenumberofirregular 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 269 451 South Asia 383 342

By sea By 372 796 760 424

617 Asia South-East

By air By 957 760 1,180 1,247 2,009 1,480 Unknown 2,278 683 1,325 1,081 1,073 months of 2017 months of 2017 First 6 First First 6 First 210 China, China, 190 144 317

- - - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 68: Trend in the number of migrants smuggled into Macao SAR, 2012-June 2017

600 511 500

400 309 300

200 128 105 100 85 0 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 First 6 months of 2017 Source: Official information from Macao SAR, China. first six months of 2017 involved travel by sea; 33 per cent by land, while for 11 per cent of the irregular entries the method of travel was unrecorded. None of the detected irregular entries took place at airports. For Macao, China, the data refers specifically to smuggled migrants. The number of smuggled migrants recorded in Macao, China is much lower than the number of irregular entries into Hong Kong, China, and almost all refer to South-East Asian citizens. There are no indications that South Asian migrants are smuggled into Macao, China. Linguistic ties due to the colonial past of these areas could help explain the flows from parts of South Asia to Hong Kong, China, as well as the absence of such flows to Macao, China. Both Special Administrative Regions recorded increasing trends of irregular entries until the peak in 2015. A sharp reduction was recorded in 2016 and the decreasing trend is confirmed by data for the first half of 2017.

135 136 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 16 12 15 14 13 11 10 cduygu, A.andAksel,B., 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ENDNOTES -ASIA

ber 2014,p. 11. Unit andUnited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Decem ing communitiesinAfghanistan, countries from theperspective of children, familiesandresidents ofsend Motivationsjourney? fordeparture toEurope andotherindustrialised Echavez, C.etal., for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015. lar-migration_915_1024_4746_icerik). 22 August 2017(available at:http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/irregu for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 24. countries, Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey -Greece gling ofmigrants: Characteristics, responses andcooperation withthird Directorate General for Migration andHome Affairs, Office Pakistan,Country July 2013, p. 23; European Commission, Trafficking andMigrant Smuggling To andFrom Pakistan (ELIAMEP), 2013,p. 23. and Greece, p. 38;Dimitriadi, A., Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Donini, A.,Monsutti, A.and Scalettaris, G., p. 5. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, review oftheemergingevidencebase Laczko, F. (eds.), Icduygu, A. and Akcapar, S.K., ‘Turkey’, in McAuliffe, M. and Migration Statistics: Irregular Migration of Interior,Ministry Directorate General ofMigration Management, Official communicationfrom theauthoritiesof Turkey and Turkey, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, pp. 33-34,48. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 27-28; Currentin Asia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Greece cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, review oftheemergingevidencebase Laczko, F. (eds.), Majidi, N.andDanziger, R.,‘Afghanistan’, inMcAuliffe, M.and – Pakistan Raghavan, R.andJayasuriya, D., Migrant Smuggling Current in Asia: Trends and Related Challenges See, for example, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, International Organization forMigration, ment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016,p. 5. Paper No. 17, The Graduate Institute of International andDevelop Seeking Protection andRefuge inEurope Migration, pp. 137-160,2016,p. 142. Migration, pp. 161-186,2016,p. 163. 2015, pp. 11-36. UNODC Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, April Organization forMigration in Turkey, September 2012. I , 2015,p. 21. Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and , Red Elephant Research, February 2016,pp. 50-51. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobal Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobal Why dochildren theunaccompanied undertake Migration from Afghanistantothird countries Irregular migration in Turkey, Afghanistan Research andEvaluation People smugglingfieldinsightsreport , International Organization for , International Organization for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for , Global Migration Research , onlinebriefing,updated , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office Calais “Jungle”: Afghansin Recent Trends ofHuman Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Afghans ontheMove: Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin , UNODCRegional , 2015,p. 24. Migrant Smuggling Study on smug International , UNODC - - - - - , 17 18 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26

bid., p. 167. transit, I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 21. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migration, pp. 161-186,2016,p. 166. review oftheemergingevidencebase Laczko, F. (eds.), Majidi, N.andDanziger, R.,‘Afghanistan’, inMcAuliffe, M.and Greece cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 2016. redbooktriff.pdf), traffickers Pakistan Federal Investigation Agency, pp. 19-20. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 32-33. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Greece cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Office Pakistan,Country July 2013,p. 23. Trafficking andMigrant Smuggling To andFrom Pakistan United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Greece cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home p. 7. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migration, pp. 161-186,2016,p. 163. review oftheemergingevidencebase Laczko, F. (eds.), Majidi, N.andDanziger, R.,‘Afghanistan’, inMcAuliffe, M.and Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,pp. 45-46. within Migrant Smuggling from toEurope, Asia Office onDrugs andCrime, – Pakistan Raghavan, R.andJayasuriya, D., and AfricatoEurope A. andMaroukis, T., for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 33; Triandafyllidou, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migration, pp. 161-186,2016,pp. 166-167. review oftheemergingevidencebase Laczko, F. (eds.), Majidi, N.andDanziger, R.,‘Afghanistan’, inMcAuliffe, M.and for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 32. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012, p. 68. Migration andAfricatoEurope from Asia Triandafyllidou, A.andMaroukis, T., , 2015,p. 4. , 2015,p. 4. , 2015,p. 4. Displacement Tracking Matrix, November 2016,pp. 7-8. Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and (Red Book2016)(available at:http://www.fia.gov.pk/en/ , Red Elephant Research, 2016,p. 35;United Nations Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobal Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobal Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobal , Palgrave Macmillan, May 2012,pp. 198-200. Migrant Smuggling: Irregular Migration from Asia Comparative Research onFinancial Flows People smuggling fieldinsightsreport , International Organization for , International Organization for , International Organization for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for Migrant Smuggling: Irregular List of most wanted human , Palgrave Macmillan, May , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office Recent Trends ofHuman Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin UNODC Regional , UNODC Regional overviews - Asia II

Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 35. p. 7. 55 Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, D., People smuggling field insights report 35 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 23. 56 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 36 International Organization for Migration, Mixed Migration Flows in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), the Mediterranean and Beyond: Analysis – Flow Monitoring Survey, data p. 22. collected 8 October 2015 – 21 March 2016, 25 March 2016, p. 9. 57 Donini, A., Monsutti, A. and Scalettaris, G., Afghans on the Move: 37 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Seeking Protection and Refuge in Europe, Global Migration Research Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for Paper No. 17, The Graduate Institute of International and Develop- Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012, p. 75. ment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016. 38 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in 58 Majidi, N. and Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, M. and Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for p. 8. Migration, pp. 161-186, 2016, p. 169. 39 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 59 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 23. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 22, 28-29. 40 Frontex, Annual Risk Analysis 2013, April 2013, p. 26; United Nations 60 Dimitriadi, A., Migration from Afghanistan to third countries and Office on Drugs and Crime, Recent Trends of Human Trafficking and Greece, Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy Migrant Smuggling To and From Pakistan , UNODC Country Office (ELIAMEP), 2013, p. 15. Pakistan, July 2013, p. 32. 61 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 41 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 31. cooperation with third countries, Case Study 3: Pakistan – Turkey - Greece, 2015, p. 21. 62 International Organization for Migration, Calais “Jungle”: Afghans in transit, Displacement Tracking Matrix, November 2016, p. 5. 42 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 63 Majidi, N. and Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, M. and for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 15. Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global 43 Ibid., p. 24. review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 161-186, 2016, p. 168. 44 International Organization for Migration, Migration flows from Iraq to Europe, Displacement Tracking Matrix, IOM Iraq Mission, February 64 Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, D., People smuggling field insights report 2016, p. 16. – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016, p. 27. 45 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 65 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for cooperation with third countries, Case Study 3: Pakistan – Turkey - Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Greece, 2015, pp. 20-21. p. 35. 46 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 66 International Organization for Migration, Calais “Jungle”: Afghans in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office transit, Displacement Tracking Matrix, November 2016, pp. 5-6. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 25. 67 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 47 Achilli, L., Tariq al-Euroba: Displacement Trends of Syrian Asylum Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Seekers to the EU, MPC Research Report 2016/01, Migration Policy for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 27. Centre, European University Institute, 2016, p. 18. 68 International Centre for Migration Policy Development, The State 48 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home of Migration in Georgia: Report developed in the framework of the Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and EU-funded Enhancing Georgia’s Migration Management (ENIGMMA) cooperation with third countries, Case Study 1: Syria/Lebanon – Egypt - project, June 2015, p. 31. Italy, 2015, pp. 26-27. 69 International Organization for Migration, Migration between Russia 49 Ibid., pp. 28-30. and the European Union: Policy implications from a small-scale study of irregular migrants, IOM Moscow, 2010, pp. 90-92; United Nations 50 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for South- for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 34-35. east Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 24. 51 Majidi, N. and Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, M. and 70 International Organization for Migration, Mapping on irregular Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global migration in Central Asia 2014, Coordination Office for Central review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Asia, Astana, Kazakhstan, 2015, pp. 18, 83. Migration, pp. 161-186, 2016, p. 169. 71 Ibid., p. 15; International Organization for Migration, Migrant vul- 52 Quoted in Majidi, N. and Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, nerabilities and integration needs in Central Asia: root causes, social and M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a economic impact of return migration – regional field assessment in Cen- global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization tral Asia 2016 for Migration, pp. 161-186, 2016, p. 169. , Sub-Regional Coordination Office for Central Asia, Kazakhstan, 2016, pp. 16-17. 53 Ibid. 72 International Organization for Migration, Mapping on irregular 54 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in migration in Central Asia 2014, Coordination Office for Central

137 138 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 89 87 86 85 81 78 76 75 90 84 83 82 79 77 74 73 88 80 bid., p. 7. bid., pp. 7,24.

I The CooperationCouncilfortheArabS I of return migration – regional field assessment in Central 2016 Asia integration needsinCentral root causes,socialandeconomicimpact Asia: International Organization forMigration, pp. 24-25. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012,p. 117. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, pp. 7-8. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, 2016, pp. 60,234. Sub-Regional Coordination Office forCentralAsia,Kazakhstan, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 44. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 45-47. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 37. lications Migrants: AGlobal Review andAnnotated Bibliography ofRecent Pub p. 20;United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Cooperation Centre forEurope andCentralAsia,September 2006, gling ofMigrants in,from andthrough Central Asia, Bhawra, V. K.(2013), Saha, K.C., p. 6. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, p. 42. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Arab Emirates. States: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi ArabiaandtheUnited CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, International Organization forMigration, Publications of Migrants: A Global Review and Annotated Bibliography of Recent eu), p. 29;United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, profile Kazakhstan Prague Process, Building Migration Partnerships, Asia, Astana,Kazakhstan,2015,p. 52. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013/14, European University Institute, 2013. of acomplex andvaried population, See, for example, Williams, L., p. 24. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country in Asia, South Asia, 24; United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, dence from thePunjab University Institute, 2012,p. 12. ana Case Study , January 2011,p. 36. , January 2011,p. 36. Irregular migration from India totheEU:Punjab &Hary , CARIM-India Research Report 2012/28,European , 2010(available at:https://www.pragueprocess. , CARIM– India Research Report 2013/03,p. Irregular migration from India totheEU:evi Indian Diversity in the UK: an overview UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for CARIM-India Research Report UNODC Regional Office for , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office tates oftheGulf; Member Migrant vulnerabilities and Baseline Research onSmug Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Extended migration Migrant smuggling IOM Technical Smuggling of Smuggling - - - - , 92 97 96 95 94 93 105 104 101 100 98 106 102 107 99 91 103

bid., p. 52. bid., pp. 14-15. bid., p. 11. I of_immigration_legislation). eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Statistics_on_enforcement_ briefing anddatabase,updatedinMay 2017(http://ec.europa.eu/ Eurostat, Nadu migrants from India toEurope toUK:Astudyon andinparticular Tamil 35-36; United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Haryana from India toEurope toUK:AstudyonPunjab andinparticular and United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, United Nations database,POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2015. in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Destination andOrigin United Nations, ofEconomic Department andSocial Affairs, irregular-migration_915_1024_4746_icerik). updated 22August 2017(available at:http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/ agement, Turkey ofInterior, Ministry Directorate General ofMigration Man Asia, Astana,Kazakhstan,2015,pp. 34-35. migration inCentral 2014 Asia International Organization forMigration, of_immigration_legislation). eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Statistics_on_enforcement_ briefing anddatabase,updatedinMay 2017(http://ec.europa.eu/ Eurostat, Bhawra, V.K., Saha, K.C., 11-12. from thePunjab Ibid., Bhawra, V. K., p. 29. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, desh, India, andNepal, The AsiaFoundation, p. 22. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, p. 22. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country in Asia, South Asia, p. 59;United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, p. 5. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, University Institute, 2012,pp. 12-15. ana Case Study I I August 2015(restricted distribution),p. 61. Asia, Drugs and Crime, Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP),2013,p. 10;United Nations Office on System 3(Pakistan),tory Hellenic Foundation forEuropean and Pakistan toGreece andbacktoPakistan for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 232,244. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, , UNODCRegional Office forSouth Asia,2009,p. 26. , UNODCRegional Office forSouth Asia,2009,pp. 29-30, Statistics onenforcement ofimmigration legislation, Statistics onenforcement ofimmigration legislation, Migration Statistics: Irregular Migration Yousef,K., Irregular migration from India totheEU:Punjab &Hary Irregular migration from India totheEU:evidencefrom , CARIM-India Research Report 2012/28,European , CARIM–India Research Report 2013/03,pp. Migrant Profiles: Country smuggling in Asia, South Irregular migration from India totheEU:evidence November 2013,p. 12. Labour migration trends Bangla andpatterns: The viciouscircle ofirregular migration from , Coordination Office forCentral UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for , Background Report: Migra , UNODC Regional Office Mapping onirregular Smuggling of migrants Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smuggling , online briefing, Smuggling of online online Trends - - - - , Regional overviews - Asia II

the Punjab, CARIM – India Research Report 2013/03, pp. 11-12. from India to Europe and in particular to UK: A study on Punjab and Haryana, UNODC Regional Office for South Asia, 2009, pp. 27, 108 Saha, K. C., Irregular migration from India to the EU: Punjab & Hary- 51; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling ana Case Study , CARIM-India Research Report 2012/28, European in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for University Institute, 2012, pp. 12-13. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 109 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in p. 28. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 127 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for p. 11. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 110 The Asia Foundation, Labour migration trends and patterns: Bangla- p. 46. desh, India, and Nepal, November 2013, pp. 39-41. 128 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 111 Ibid., p. 43; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office smuggling in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 30. Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 42. 129 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 112 Mehdi, S., S., Illegal migration, human smuggling and trafficking: from Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Bangladesh to Pakistan and beyond, August 2010, p. 38. p. 34. 113 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of migrants 130 Ibid., p. 66. from Pakistan. Reasons, routes, and risks, UNODC Country Office Pakistan, July 2016 (restricted distribution), p. 22. 131 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 114 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 15, 30. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 132 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in p. 23. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 51. 115 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 133 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 23. Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 116 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Recent Trends of Human p. 46. Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling To and From Pakistan, UNODC Country Office Pakistan, July 2013, p. 35. 134 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 117 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for pp. 58-59. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 13. 135 Saha, K. C., Irregular migration from India to the EU: Punjab & Hary- ana Case Study, CARIM-India Research Report 2012/28, European 118 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in University Institute, 2012, p. 2. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 55. 136 Ibid., p. 11. 119 International Centre for Migration Policy Development, Yearbook on 137 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Illegal Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Central and Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Eastern Europe, 2011, pp. 192, 250; United Nations Office on Drugs Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, p. 22; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August in Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 32. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribu- 120 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in tion), p. 30. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 138 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 55. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 121 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for p. 53. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 139 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling p. 13. in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional 122 Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, D., People smuggling field insights report Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015; Jayasuriya, D. – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016, pp. 52-53. and Sunam, R., ‘South Asia,’ in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging 123 Saha, K. C., Irregular migration from India to the EU: Punjab & Hary- evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 187-210, ana Case Study, CARIM-India Research Report 2012/28, European 2016, p. 193. University Institute, 2012, p. 17. 140 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in 124 International Organization for Migration, Baseline Research on Smug- Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for gling of Migrants in, from and through Central Asia, IOM Technical Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, September 2006, p. 61. p. 42. 141 Ibid., p. 27. 125 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of migrants from Pakistan. Reasons, routes, and risks, UNODC Country Office 142 Ibid., pp. 45-46. Pakistan, July 2016 (restricted distribution), pp. 74-77. 143 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. 126 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of migrants Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for South-

139 140 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 163 162 160 158 155 153 150 149 148 146 157 156 154 151 147 144 161 159 152 145

bid., p. 30; bid., p. 26. bid., pp. 34, 50. es/1000-days-strong-secure-borders.aspx). (available at:http://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/peterdutton/Pag tion, time-arrivals). corporate/information/fact-sheets/65onshore-processing-illegal-mari 17 September 2017(available at:http://www.border.gov.au/about/ sheet – Bridging visas for illegal maritime arrivals Parliament ofAustralia, Parliamentary Library, Dutton, P., Australian Minister forImmigration andBorder Protec Australian ofImmigration Department andBorder Protection, cessing of asylum seekers in Nauru and PNG: aquickguideto statistics for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 51. Programme, 05/13,November 2013,p. 4. of Immigration andBorder Protection, Irregular Migration Research Office Pakistan,Country July 2013, p. 39. Trafficking andMigrant Smuggling To andFrom Pakistan for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 29-30. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 29. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 29. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 51. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 30. Asia: CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, drivers andmigration journeys McAuliffe, M., p. 50. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Profiles: Country Asia. SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Profiles: Country Asia. SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, pp. 50,66. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, p. 58. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution),p. 34. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015, p. 14. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015, p. 6. I Ibid. I I (restricted distribution), p. 36. Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 Profiles: Country smuggling in Asia. South-West Asia, 1000 daysofstrong andsecure borders United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Seeking theviewsofirregular migrants: decisionmaking, , Australian Government, Department UNODCRegional Office for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , speech,23April 2017 Recent Trends ofHuman Australia’s offshore pro Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin , online, accessed , UNODC UNODC Migrant Fact - - - - 167 166 165 170 169 182 181 179 178 176 175 174 173 180 177 172 171 164 168

bid., p. 23. bid., pp. 9-10. bid., p. 6. p. 68. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, pp. 45-46. UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, on Financial Flows withinMigrant Smuggling toEurope, from Asia United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, ment ofAustralia, p. 8. ofImmigration2014, Department andBorder Protection, Govern Migration Research Programme, Occasional Paper Series no. 10, to Australia Focussing on Irregular Migrants Seeking Asylum Hugo, G.andDissanayake, L., p. 59. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 30. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Barker, C., from Pakistan. Reasons, routes, and risks United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, Migration, June 2016,p. 20. Tracing ofDead andMissing Migrants Brian, T. andLaczko,F. (eds.), Programme, 05/13,November 2013,p. 25. of Immigration andBorder Protection, Irregular Migration Research drivers andmigration journeys McAuliffe, M., – Pakistan Raghavan, R.andJayasuriya, D., p. 66. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 29. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, p. 28. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, SouthAsia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Programme, 05/13,November 2013,pp. 12-13. of Immigration andBorder Protection, Irregular Migration Research drivers andmigration journeys McAuliffe, M., for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 21. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ibid. I I I pp. 5-8. and resources 2015 (restricted distribution),pp. 34,50. UNODC Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, August Crime, 28 February 2013,p. 37;United Nations Office onDrugs and tralia, Parliamentary Library, Research paperno. 2,2012-2013, Migrant Profiles: Country smugglinginAsia. South-West Asia, , Red Elephant Research, 2016,p. 54. The peoplesmugglers’ businessmodel, , Research Paper Series, 2016-2017,19December 2016, Seeking theviewsofirregular migrants: decisionmaking, Seeking theviewsofirregular migrants: decisionmaking, , Australian Government, Department , Australian Government, Department Fatal Journeys, vol. 2:Identification and The Process ofSriLankanMigration People smuggling fieldinsightsreport UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for , International Organization for UNODC Regional Office for UNODC Regional Office for , UNODC Country Office, UNODC Country , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office Smuggling of migrants Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Comparative Research Parliament ofAus , Irregular - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Pakistan, July 2016 (restricted distribution), p. 72. movement in South-East Asia in 2015, February 2016, p. 3; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, International Organiza- 183 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in tion for Migration and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea: proposals for action, May 2015, p. 1. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 17. 204 For example, the United Nations has had a Special Rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar since 1992. That year, the Office of the 184 Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, D., People smuggling field insights report High Commissioner for Human Rights in its resolution Situation – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016, pp. 26-28. of human rights in Myanmar (E-CN_4-RES-1992-58) noted ‘with 185 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in deep concern the continuing exodus (…) of almost 80,000 Myan- Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office mar Muslim refugees to Bangladesh’ in recent months (p. 2). More for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. recent reports are legion; see, for example, A/HRC/32/18, Situation of human rights of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar, 186 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of Migrants 29 June 2016. - A risk assessment of border communities: Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the 205 Inter Sector Coordination Group, Situation update: Rohingya refugee Pacific, August 2014, p. 12. crisis, 26 September 2017. 187 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized 206 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Interna- Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC tional Migration Outlook 2012, OECD Publishing, 2012, p. 184. Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, p. iii. 207 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in 188 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 216. 189 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in 208 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Interna- McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and tional Migration Outlook 2012, OECD Publishing, 2012, p. 185. Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 216. 209 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC 190 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, pp. 12-13. Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012, p. 155. 210 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 191 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 279-280. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. 211 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 192 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office pp. 31-32. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 63. 212 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of Migrants 193 Ibid. - A risk assessment of border communities: Cambodia, Lao PDR and 194 Ibid. Thailand, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2014, p. 12. 195 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 213 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC p. 32. Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, p. 9. 196 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 214 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 64. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 61-62. 197 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in 215 Ibid., p. 62. Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for 216 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012, p. 154. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 198 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 70. Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 217 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and p. 49. Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International 199 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 217. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 218 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for p. 6. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 200 Ibid., p. 64. p. 16. 201 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized 219 Ibid. Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC 220 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, pp. 12-13. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 202 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office p. 12. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 279. 221 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 203 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Mixed maritime Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office

141 142 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 245 242 249 248 247 246 244 243 241 240 239 238 237 236 235 234 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 225 224 223 222 ofSocialnformation sentby theMinistry Development andHuman

for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 65-66. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 65-66. Ibid., pp. 68-69. Ibid., pp. 67,81. Ibid., pp. 66,81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Frontex, Ibid., pp. 65-66,79-81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Security of Thailand toUNODC. Information ofSocial sentby theMinistry Development ofHuman United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012, p. 173. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid. 1:Improvingpart Data onMissing Migrants Laczko, F., Singleton, A.andBlack, J.(eds.), Organization forMigration, pp. 211-241,2016,p. 211. Research: aglobalreview oftheemergingevidencebase McAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. (eds.), Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in Ibid., pp. 157-158. Ibid., p. 16. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012, p. 15. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. 158. Ibid., p. 160. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012,p. 132. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. iv. United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Security of Thailand toUNODC. Ibid., p. 12. United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. 9. United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 69. Song, J.(2016), ‘North-East Asia,’ inMcAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 23. Profiles: Country Asia. East Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. iii. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment tion forMigration, 2017,p. 14. Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 13. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment Pacific, August 2014,p. 13. Thailand - Ariskassessmentofborder communities:Cambodia, LaoPDRand Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. iii. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment I Risk Analysis for2017 , UNODCRegional Office forSoutheast Asiaandthe , February 2017,p. 20. UNODCRegional Office forSouth UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for UNODCRegional Office for Migrant Smuggling Data and , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , International Organiza Transnational Organized Transnational Organized Transnational Organized Smuggling ofMigrants Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Fatal Journeys, vol. 3, Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin , International , UNODC , UNODC , UNODC - - 258 257 256 255 254 253 252 251 272 271 270 269 268 267 266 265 264 263 262 261 260 259 250

Ibid., p. 83. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 82. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ibid. Ibid., p. 83. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 70. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 73. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 28; Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 28. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, of_immigration_legislation). eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Statistics_on_enforcement_ briefing anddatabase,updatedinMay 2017(http://ec.europa.eu/ Eurostat, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 82. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, pp. 78-79. Southeast Asia andthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. Southeast Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. 82. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 84. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office forSoutheast Asia andthePacific, 2013,p. 32. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat Assessment United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. 84. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 71. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 20-21. east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution),pp. Profiles: Country Asia. East Asia, United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Ibid., p. 66. Ibid., p. 66. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ibid., p. 81. Ibid., p. 83. for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ibid., p. 83. 243-267, 2016,p. 253. emerging evidencebase (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobalreview ofthe Statistics onenforcement ofimmigration legislation, , International Organization forMigration, pp. UNODCRegional Office forSouth UNODC Regional Office for , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office , UNODC Regional Office Transnational Organized Transnational Organized Transnational Organized Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant Smuggling in Migrant smugglingin Migrant smugglingin , UNODC , UNODC , UNODC online -