PATHS TO PROGRESS
Space and the Southern Hemisphere
White Paper
Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program 2011 International Space University and the University of South Australia
The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous guidance, support, and direction provided The 2011 Southern Hemisphere Summer by the following individuals during the course of this work: Space Program was conducted at the Mawson Lakes campus of the University Project Faculty: of South Australia (UniSA), Adelaide, White Paper Chair, Ray Williamson, Secure World Foundation Australia, by the International Space White Paper Co-Chair, Juan de Dalmau, European Space Agency University (ISU) and UniSA. White Paper Faculty, Noel Siemon, International Space University
Original cover concept and logo The participants are also grateful for the advice and support of all the faculty, teaching design by Mark Fenotti, Australia. associates, staff, advisors, and visiting experts:
While all care has been taken in the Adigun Ade Abiodun Nigeria preparation of this White Paper, ISU and David Ball Formerly Intelsat UniSA do not take any responsibility for Beatriz Garcia Bernal Formerly ESA the accuracy of its content. Brett Biddington Space Industry Association of Australia Brian Boyle Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Michael Brett Antarctic Broadband David Bruce University of South Australia Angie Buckley International Space University Gilberto Camara Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais Carol Carnett International Space University Kimberley Clayfield Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation University of South Australia Michele Clement Department of Innovation, Industry, Science & Research Mawson Lakes Boulevard Linda Cooper Department of Further Education, Employment, Science Mawson Lakes and Technology, Government of South Australia South Australia 5095 Samantha Coras AECOM www.unisa.edu.au Hugo André Costa International Space University Bill Cowley University of South Australia The Executive Summary and the White Christopher Daniels University of South Australia Paper may be found on the ISU web site Ken Davidian U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (shs-sp.isunet.edu) in the “ISU Michael Davis University of South Australia Publications/Student Reports” section, Penelope Debelle The Advertiser or UniSA website Petronio de Souza Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (www.unisa.edu.au/itee/spaceprogram/). Kerrie Dougherty Powerhouse Museum Paper copies of the Executive Summary and George Dyke Symbios Communications the White paper may also be requested, while Jean-Jacques Favier Blue Planet supplies last, from: Adina Gillespie DMCii Alice Gorman Flinders University Michael Green Department of Innovation, Industry, Science & Research Marlene Grenon University of San Francisco Ram Jakhu McGill University Jeff Kasparian University of South Australia Scott Madry International Space University Peter Martinez South African Astronomical Observatory International Space University Naomi Mathers Victorian Space Science Education Centre Strasbourg Central Campus Michael Miller University of South Australia Attention: Publications/Library Suzanne Miller South Australian Museum Parc d’Innovation Michele Nardelli University of South Australia 1 rue Jean-Dominique Cassini Carol Oliver University of New South Wales 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden Andrew Parfitt University of South Australia France Joseph Pelton International Space University Gordon Pike Consultant Tel. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 32 Alexandra Seneta Australian Communications and Media Authority Rogan Shimmin The University of Adelaide Fax. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 47 Michael Simpson International Space University e-mail. [email protected] Antonio Yukio Ueta Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais Malcolm Walter University of New South Wales © International Space University Chris Welch International Space University & University of South Australia: Martin Westwell Flinders University All Rights Reserved Soyeon Yi Korea Aerospace Research Institute Permission is granted to quote excerpts from this report provided appropriate acknowledgement is given to ISU and UniSA. The participants also extend their thanks to all those who contributed to the program and provided insights into the space industry and this report. 2 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Acknowledgements
The International Space University and University of South Australia Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program 2011 and the work on this White Paper were made possible through the generous support of the following organizations:
Australian Space Research Program
(The financial support of The Commonwealth of Australia through the Australian Space Research Program is gratefully acknowledged)
SHS-SP11 is also supported by the following organizations: Major Sponsors:
Australia Korea Foundation
Cisco Systems Inc.
The Robert A. and Virginia Heinlein Prize Trust Program Supporters:
Adelta Legal Australian Communications and Media Authority BAE Systems Australia Defence Science and Technology Organisation (Australia) Department of Defence (Australia) Department of Environment and Natural Resources (South Australia) Department of Further Education Employment Science and Technology (South Australia) Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (Australia) Engineers Australia Informatics International, Inc. Institute of Telecommunications Research, University of South Australia National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Brazil Océ Australia Limited Podmo Mobile Pty Ltd Secure World Foundation The South Australian Museum
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 3 Preface Faculty Preface n the effort to acquire some of the benefits that space systems provide, the Southern Hemisphere IStates, with a few notable exceptions, have lagged behind much of the North. The Southern Hemisphere States, defined in this report as those States with territory below the Tropic of Cancer, confront a variety of challenges. Many of the lesser developed States face a severe need for sufficient access to food and water, educational opportunities, and affordable medical care. Even developed States face certain challenges that space systems can assist in reducing, as was evident in the January 2011 floods that struck several States in the Southern Hemisphere.
This report is an effort by the 43 participants in ISU’s Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program to identify opportunities for Southern Hemisphere States to use space capabilities to improve the lives of their citizens. Within a five week program, participants researched the needs of the Southern Hemisphere, attended three weeks of lectures and workshops on space-related subjects, and wrote this report. The faculty recommends this report to anyone interested in exploring how space systems might contribute to Southern Hemisphere development. Authors Preface
“Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success.” – Henry Ford
aths to Progress: Space and the Southern Hemisphere is a report that we hope inspires Pcommitment on behalf of individuals, professionals, and governments to further the case for space development within the Southern Hemisphere. The inaugural Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program 2011 (SHS-SP11) consisted of 43 participants from nine countries joining together for an interdisciplinary, intercultural, and international experience. Team members brought their own knowledge, ideas, and innovation to a project we believe helps to address needs in the Southern Hemisphere, and capitalizes on the unique aspects of the Southern Hemisphere that could advance research and applications of space.
Investigating this topic has taught us that many of the challenges facing the Southern Hemisphere States would be enhanced by inter-State collaboration.
The process would never have been a success without the dedication and passion of our Program Director Scott Madry and our White Paper Chair Ray Williamson and Co-Chair Juan de Dalmau, faculty and staff Michael Davis, Carol Carnett, Antonio Yukio Ueta, Noel Siemon, Beatriz Garcia Bernal, Rogan Shimmin and Hugo Costa. We would also like to thank the University of South Australia for providing host facilities and expertise for this program. Gratitude is also extended to all visiting guest lecturers and alumni.
4 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Contents
2 Acknowledgements 4 Faculty Preface 4 Author Preface 6 INTRODUCTION 9 SOUTHERN POTENTIAL 10 Recommendation 1: Exploit the natural and geographic advantages of the Southern Hemisphere 12 Recommendation 2: Establish a Regional Space Industry Association 15 EARTH OBSERVATION 16 Recommendation 3: Collaborate on Earth Observation systems 18 Recommendation 4: Cooperate on EO data and product dissemination 20 Recommendation 5: Develop expertise and infrastructure to ensure optimal use of available EO and GIS solutions 23 TELE-SOLUTIONS 24 Recommendation 6: Invest in Tele-health and Tele-education 28 CONCLUSIONS 30 References 36 Image Credits 37 Appendix 1: Acronyms 39 Appendix 2: International Cooperation 43 Appendix 3: Earth Observation 47 Appendix 4: Health & Education Introduction Introduction
he inaugural Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program (SHS-SP) 2011 consisted of 43 individuals Tfrom nine countries who were tasked with writing a White Paper on the topic of "defining the role of space for the Southern Hemisphere States: a plan for the future." Prior to the Program start, the participants researched the needs of individual States and identified those that could be addressed using space technologies. After this research was consolidated and shared with all participants, a mission statement was created.
The Southern Hemisphere States are individually and regionally faced with common needs, challenges, and opportunities, many of which are not seen in the Northern Hemisphere. In the context of this White Paper, the Southern Hemisphere was defined as those States with any territory below the Tropic of Cancer to incorporate the majority of States which are developing in the space world rather than already established. The common needs and challenges faced by these States include reducing the impact of natural disasters, increasing access to potable water, and improving health and education systems. The opportunities for the Southern Hemisphere involve certain unique geographic locations, natural resources and atmospheric environments.
States in the Southern Hemisphere already have expertise and facilities that could apply to space-related technology. These capabilities may never be recognized because the States have not focused attention on what skills they might possess. If these abilities can be identified and marketed globally there can be economic benefits to contributing States. States can also market their geographical advantage, with some areas of the Southern Hemisphere proving to be ideal locations for observatories or launch facilities.
6 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Introduction
Mission Statement To propose space-related policies and strategies to serve current and future social and economic needs of Southern Hemisphere States.
Tropic of Cancer
Southern Space For the purposes of this report, the 'Southern Hemisphere' is defined as being those countries below the Tropic of Cancer. Introduction
States can also benefit from greater access to space based Earth Observation (EO) capabilities. If applied appropriately, the benefits include alleviating the impact of earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, tropical cyclones, and other natural disasters. Greater access to these capabilities can enable governments to plan systems for food production and the identification and distribution of clean water to ensure each person has adequate supplies. For States to realize these benefits the issue of accessing, processing, and distributing data obtained by EO techniques must be addressed.
The final area addressed the issues of raising health and education standards as identified in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (United Nations, 2010). Tele-health and tele-education supplied from space systems can complement existing health and education systems, with the result of improving the quality and accessibility of health and education. Space-based telecommunication provides rural areas with access to doctors and schooling.
In writing this White Paper the participants gave consideration to the overall need for a State to have a space policy. A space policy can take on many forms but there are certain characteristics it should contain. A key consideration should be to articulate a central point of contact and coordination of space information and/or activities. Space policy should also be explicitly open to the idea of collaborating with other States on space-related matters at some level, even if that level is purely to rely on other States for Earth observation data, or the global navigation systems.
Investigations Conducted
The team:
1. Studied the current political, geographical, and social setting for Southern Hemisphere States and identified their current and future needs with particular reference to the MDGs.
2. Surveyed existing capabilities for EO in the Southern Hemisphere, established what partnerships between States exist, and identified potential areas for new collaborations.
3. Identified space capabilities, technologies and knowledge that could aid in addressing the identified needs in a national and international context.
4. Provided goals and recommendations on how to use and develop the capabilities and characteristics of the Southern Hemisphere to promote involvement in space activities.
8 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Southern Potential To realize the space-related capabilities and competitive advantages that the Southern Hemisphere can provide to the international community
outhern Hemisphere States have valuable resources in topography, technology, Sspecialized skills and information which can support activities of governments and the international space industry. Greater awareness of these resources will facilitate consistent and continuous collaboration within the international community. Increased international collaboration will provide Southern Hemisphere States access to information and technologies that will help address their social and economic needs.
Two aspects that could assist in increasing international collaboration are:
1. The unique geographical and environmental aspects of the Southern Hemisphere applicable to space activities and applications.
2. International awareness of specific technological advancements and specialty information within Southern Hemisphere States.
The following two recommendations have been developed to address these aspects. Southern Potential
Recommendation 1: Exploit the natural and 1 geographic advantages of the Southern Hemisphere
e recommend the Southern Hemisphere States use their unique natural environment Wand geographic location to improve cooperative space activities. Southern Hemisphere States have advantageous geographic locations, resources and atmospheric environments that can contribute to international space-related activities. One such advantage is the large, sparsely populated areas that are suitable for astronomy and satellite telemetry, tracking, and control; such areas often have low radio and light pollution levels. A second advantage is that many equatorial coastal regions are suitable for test and launch facilities. Finally, because the Southern Hemisphere affords access to the southern skies this can be used for observatories and Space Situational Awareness (SSA) capabilities. Figure 1-1 shows that there are very few SSA facilities below the Tropic of Cancer. Figure 1-1: Locations of U.S. observatories for space situational awareness (Secure World Foundation, 2010)
This recommendation outlines how Southern Hemisphere governments and organizations could use their distinctive geographical characteristics to gain access to space capabilities, data and information.
Implementation Aspects
The first step involves identifying the geographical assets a State can contribute to space-related activities for the mutual benefit of interested stakeholders; for example, access to knowledge and capabilities to address domestic, social, and economic needs. The second step requires marketing the assets to the target audience that can best facilitate access to the desired resource. The third step involves creating an official agreement specifying the roles of each stakeholder.
10 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Southern Potential
Technology Aspects
There is a need within the international space community for a variety of space activities that require large expanses of land, radio-quiet and sparsely populated areas. This need is met within the geographic characteristics of the Southern Hemisphere’s States. This advantage is demonstrated by the following examples.
• Australia and Southern Africa have been selected as test sites for hosting the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), because of the need for a large area that is radio-quiet. One of these two sites will be chosen to host the SKA. • The Giant Magellan Telescope is being built in Chile to take advantage of the topography and mild levels of smoke, dust and light pollution preferred by observatories. • Kourou in French Guiana benefits from having a near-equatorial launch location. • An expansion of the international SSA capability to include the Southern Hemisphere takes advantage of a suitable combination of land area, location and atmospheric conditions. • Mars land analogues using desert areas.
Legal and Policy Aspects
It is unavoidable that existing laws and policies at the international and domestic levels (see Table 1-1) must be considered by all parties undertaking collaborative space projects.
Financial Aspects
Table 1-1: Laws and policies considered in collaborative activities
Scope Policy/Law Issue International The United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space (United Nations, 2008) The Antarctic Treaty Free trade agreements Intellectual property regulations ITU regulations Domestic Customs and quarantine laws Export and technology transfer controls Domestic industry contractual requirements in a project Domestic property laws Intellectual property regulations Radio-communications regulations
There are two financial considerations in implementing this recommendation. The first is distribution of funding, as space activities often involve multiple States and contributions from stakeholders for aspects such as infrastructure, operations, deployment, and administration. The second consideration involves identifying who is liable for each aspect of the project and who will provide the insurance guarantees. Insurance considerations also include identifying which items are covered, and any limitations on overall coverage.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 11 Southern Potential
Indirect Benefits
Local employment and training opportunities in areas such as administration, management and trades, will increase as new projects are implemented. The host State will also experience a measure of economic stimulus and international recognition. Table 1-2 lists examples of collaborative activities and their associated benefits. Table 1-2: Benefits of collaborative activities Collaborative Activity Benefit Hayabusa return Strengthening of international relationships Square Kilometre Array Development of local infrastructure Kourou launch facilities Development of local economy International observatories Sharing of knowledge China-Brazil Earth Remote Sensing Satellites Shared costs and benefits
Recommendation 2: Establish a Regional 2 Space Industry Association
e recommend that a Regional Space Industry Association (RSIA) be developed to Wcoordinate awareness of and distribute information on space-related needs and advancements.
While there is regional cooperation in the Southern Hemisphere with regard to humanitarian and scientific efforts there is little cooperation within the commercial sector. Programs such as those sponsored by the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF), and the African Leadership Conference (ALC) on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development helps to bring together governments and national bodies; however there is need for an industry association which coordinates commercial companies at a regional level. The lack of coordination and awareness of capabilities has reduced potential opportunities for Southern Hemisphere involvement in, and development of, space–related technologies and programs. A coordinated commercial sector could also promote public-private partnerships in cooperation with government entities.
We recommend that a non-profit RSIA be established to promote regional capabilities to key players in the global space domain. For the purpose of this recommendation, ‘regional’ is defined as a number of States that agree to collaborate for this specific purpose. In all activities, RSIA would represent and act in the best interests of its members (see Figure 2-1). RSIA would encourage the development and application of space-related activities, capabilities and opportunities in the region; facilitate networking and collaboration between companies and agencies; and coordinate with organizations having specialized knowledge in related fields. RSIA would gather relevant industry information to present a consolidated view of the regional capabilities to external organizations, thus increasing the reach of its members. It would monitor the state of the space industry and report to interested parties the related needs, achievements and future objectives of the region. 12 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Southern Potential
The proposed RSIA model has a regional focus, but could be scaled to a national or inter-regional level.
Implementation
The concept of RSIA is based upon similar models employed, among others, by the European Space Agency (ESA), through Eurospace (2010) and the Australian Department of Defence, through RPDE (2010). A conceptual depiction of the functional interaction of the proposed RSIA is shown in Figure 2-1 below.
Figure 2-1: RSIA functional interaction
RSIA’s primary role would be to create a database of the companies and organizations in the region and act as a central coordinating body to facilitate communication among its members and the international space industry. RSIA would also assist its members with identifying potential government and non-government funding programs. It would then be the responsibility of the member organization to submit any request for funding proposals.
RSIA could operate in two possible ways. The first case would involve RSIA being contacted by a space organization or agency that has a project requirement. RSIA would search its database for companies who may provide a solution to this requirement, encouraging smaller companies to submit a joint proposal. The second case would arise if a company contacted RSIA with a technical development they foresee as being beneficial. RSIA could then assist with identifying potential partners to support the development, and act as a liaison with relevant space agencies to promote the development and its potential benefits. In either case, universities and their affiliates could be enlisted to provide specialized knowledge.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 13 Southern Potential
Association Structure
The RSIA structure would consist of a centralized coordinating board, with subordinate panels that would be responsible for a specific space sector or association goal.
Figure 2-2: Indicative RSIA organization structure
Executive Board
Facilitation Technology Technology Issue Panel 1 Issue Panel 2 Workingg Groupp Panel 1 Panel 2
Panels could be similar to those used by Eurospace: Policy Committee; Security & Defense; GMES (Earth Observation); Navigation; Standardization; Electronic, Electromechanical, and Electric parts and components; Research and Technology; Space Industry Markets (SIM); Legal Affairs and General Conditions of Contracts (Eurospace.org, 2010).
Legal and Policy Aspects
RSIA should have a constitution stating that it will always act in the best interest of its members and essentially act as a conduit between agencies and potential suppliers. It should be a not for profit entity with commercial privileges such as the capacity to contract and to acquire and dispose of property. It shall endeavor to remain neutral and unbiased at all times, presenting only consolidated industry views. It should also protect intellectual property and commercial confidentiality. All members shall agree to collaborate with RSIA to the best of their ability in building consolidated industry views.
Financial Aspects
While building a membership base, RSIA may need third party funding. Standard funding could be achieved in three ways: annual membership fees of prospective participants, charge per service, or a combination of both (Eurospace, 2010). Associate non-paying members, such as research and development organizations and academic institutions would receive industry information reviews in return for consultation on specialized needs.
Indirect Benefits
Greater awareness of niche markets and commercial opportunities in the space sector will stimulate regional economies, promote research and development opportunities, and increase education.
14 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Earth Observation To reduce the impact of natural challenges through enhanced access to space-based Earth Observation capabilities
arth Observation (EO) systems can provide valuable information to assist in resolving a variety of environmental issues facing Southern Hemisphere States. Acquiring, processing, Eand disseminating data and information from EO systems represents a challenge to Southern Hemisphere States. The returns from investment in EO systems are enhanced situational awareness and improved decision making on a variety of issues, including natural disaster monitoring and resource management.
Natural disasters are a common event in the human experience, affecting life, infrastructure, and the environment. Through pre-event analysis, the impact of natural disasters can be reduced by changing the places people choose to live and work to make themselves less vulnerable. Real time and near-real time information prior to, during, and after an event can assist in making informed decisions about preparation and recovery. Following a natural disaster, the speed of recovery and reconstruction can be enhanced through access to relevant data.
Natural resource management to provide food and water security is vital for societies. Food security exists where a population has ongoing access to sufficient safe and healthy food (AusAID, 2010). Similarly, water security depends on assured access to potable water. The UN has highlighted food and water security through the MDGs. These include the aims of halving the number of people suffering from hunger and the number of people without access to safe drinking water from 1990 levels by 2015 (UN, 2010). Accurately predicting agricultural output, advising farmers of environmental risk factors, employing precision farming techniques, and determining water distribution and availability can encourage effective use of natural resources. Geospatial information from EO can contribute to these capabilities and thus promote food and water availability (UNOOSA, 2007).
The Southern Hemisphere includes the most developing and poorest States in the world (WorldIQ, 2010). The use of EO data and the production of Geographic Information System (GIS) information to warn and mitigate against natural disasters and manage natural resources can improve the quality of life in these States. More developed countries are also affected. As an example, the flooding in Sri Lanka, Australia Earth Observation
and Brazil in early 2011 distressed both developing and developed States with loss of life, infrastructure, and disruption of economic activity.
The challenge of ensuring access to data and information through space-based capabilities faces developed and developing States alike. Sufficient telecommunications infrastructure for distribution of data and information is crucial and should be taken into account in the development of a space- based EO system.
The following three recommendations propose policies and strategies that could enhance access to disaster monitoring EO data and information products by States in the Southern Hemisphere to assist in reducing the impact of natural disasters.
Recommendation 3: Collaborate on Earth 3 Observation systems
tates should collaborate to achieve a more comprehensive EO capability that would not Sotherwise be within reach of individual States, such as acquiring more timely and diverse data sets at lower cost.
Implementation
States have varying degrees of technical, economic, and industrial development, which will dictate their level of participation. States can collaborate in production, procurement and use of satellite technologies, ground segment, and control infrastructures. Members of the collaboration would contribute capability according to their capacity and, in return, receive data or information to fulfill their requirements as contributing States.
Technology Used
The complete system consists of three segments: space, ground, and control. The proposed space segment would use low earth and geostationary sensors where possible. The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) Earth Observation Handbook (2008) states that an ideal constellation will use LEO and GEO orbits with a combination of high resolution imagers, RADAR, LIDAR, and scatterometers to provide timely and diverse data sets. Inter-satellite communication and distributed ground stations improve data bandwidth and redundancy, but increase the cost and complexity of the system. An example of an inter-satellite communication system is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) which performs this task for the Space Shuttle, Landsat, Hubble Space Telescope, and International Space Station (ISS) communications (NASA, 2011). On board memory also would be used for delayed downlinking in the event that no inter-satellite communications or ground station links are available. According to Juan de Dalmau (Email communication, 31 January 2011), the European Space Agency has also very recently approved the European Data Relay System (EDRS) constellation of GEO satellites to provide inter-satellite and relay communications for EO satellites.
The ground segment consists of a network of stations to provide a downlink capability for the satellites. Ground stations could be purpose-built or existing infrastructure leveraged. The ground
16 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Earth Observation
Figure 3-1: Collaborative EO architecture
stations should be positioned to maximize visibility to the constellation and interconnected to enable data sharing. Satellite operations and tasking should be coordinated to meet the needs of each State.
Legal and Policy Aspects
A collaborative effort requires substantial consideration, with development of policy and procedures to ensure that tasks and issues are resolved in a diplomatic, timely, and effective manner. A policy that defines the primary obligations and rights of the member states needs to be developed and implemented before detailed planning and actions are taken. A result of such a policy is the China- Brazil Earth Resources Satellite Program (CBERS, 2003).
Financial Aspects
It is important to take into account the life cycle and future augmentation of an EO system, including additional contributions from new and existing stakeholders. States may provide funding or specific technology inputs, or a combination of both. States can adjust their contributions as their needs and ability to contribute evolve.
Through sharing the cost of establishment and continuation over a number of States, EO capability becomes a realistic aspiration for States with minimal economic development.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 17 Earth Observation
Indirect Benefits
Technology transfer between States for the development of satellites and ground infrastructure can assist the development of global space expertise, although there are often political and other impediments. Collaboration on space activities between States can often help promote collaboration in other areas of foreign policy.
Recommendation 4: Cooperate on EO data 4 and product dissemination
tates should cooperate on data processing and distribution, and on generating information Sproducts where circumstances allow. Such cooperation could assist the development of local capabilities in States that do not have them.
Data and information product sharing enables the development of greater individual capability within the States. The distributed systems allow States to focus on their area of interest and promotes self reliance.
Figure 4-1: Collaborative EO Architecture An example of architecture where collection States with differing EO capabilities share data and information products. Sharing is coordinated by a central facility that acts as a directory service for information requests from end users .
18 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Earth Observation
Implementation
Data receiving stations, processing, and distribution technologies form the backbone of the system. Existing facilities in the Southern Hemisphere can be used as part of the system infrastructure. Telecommunication between data receiving stations and processing capabilities is critical to enable the timely creation of information products, and should support transmission of information to non- participatory States. As an example for natural disasters, the timely delivery of data from the satellite to the receiving station, transmission of the data to the processing facility, and dissemination of information products to the end user is critical (See Figure 4-1).
The processing facility is responsible for the timely Case Study: Disaster Monitoring Constellation delivery of information to the affected State. For countries without space capabilities, he Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC) was launched meteorological departments Tbetween 2002 and 2008 as a collaboration among Nigeria, could be used as the point of Algeria, Turkey and the United Kingdom to acquire Earth imaging contact for the coordination to mitigate the effects of natural disasters (da Silva Curiel, 2002, facility, as they are already p.197). In the second generation of the system China and Spain familiar with receiving and joined the collaboration and the UK contributed a second satellite. handling EO products. In the This represented the first space capabilities for Algeria and Nigeria. long term, developing States and a significant step forward in their space sectors. The satellites should seek to train personnel in are small, with relatively low cost capabilities, supplied by Surrey data processing and analysis to Satellite Technology and launched commercially by Russia. The make these States self reliant constellation provides daily revisit anywhere in the world from sun- and to become contributors to synchronous orbit. The system provides a more responsive revisit the system. time than Landsat.
Both the data and information Contributing States have also used the sensors and platforms to should be stored for historical conduct other national specific space experiments. The DMC use. Tools such as the Système contributing States encourage the use of their data for scientific and d’Observation Locale Selection commercial purposes and realize a modest return on the sale of data. Tool (Abd-El-Hamed, 2006, The individual States benefit from access to data collected by their p.14) provide a potential model own satellites and the capabilities of other contributing States within of how data can be collected the constellation. Although titled Disaster Monitoring Constellation from a variety of sources and these EO sensors are used for a variety of other applications that processed into information provide economic return. DMC demonstrates the value of products for dissemination collaboration between developed and developing States in EO between States. activities. DMC provides a model in which developing nations have acquired space technology in an economical manner, achieved Technology Used technology transfer on space-related capabilities and realized a sustainable return on investment from a national perspective. In the An EO data sharing system can case of a disaster, priority observation capabilities will be applied be enhanced through the use of to the area of need. broadband telecommunications systems and compatible data formats. Collaboration relies on connectivity and an effective central facility that will efficiently process requests for data and information products.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 19 Earth Observation
Legal and Policy Aspects
This type of data sharing model requires agreement and understanding between data acquirers and data processors on the use and access to State data and information. This requires policies to address issues of state security. The National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law report, University of Mississippi, titled The Land Remote Sensing Laws and Policies of National Governments: A Global Survey (2007) describes the policies, and illustrates potential impediments that may affect the implementation of such sharing relationships and provides a guide for them. Principles V to VIII and XI of the United Nations Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space urge the participating States to focus on cooperation and collaboration.
Financial Aspects
The provision of free raw data relating to disasters is stipulated under the International Charter: Space and Major Disasters (2010). An agreement with data acquirers and processors is required to enable data or information to be provided free as a form of humanitarian aid. Training in data analysis should be provided as ongoing aid to developing States to enable them to improve their own capabilities. Contributions from developed States could be fiscally balanced against the expected reduction in future disaster recovery aid costs, as with the United States Agency for International Development’s SERVIR System in Africa (USAID, 2010).
Indirect Benefits
Collaboration can promote mutually beneficial relationships among States and enable the international exchange of experience and technology transfer in disaster early warning, emergency response, communications, and data processing. Developed States have the potential to improve their international standing and reduce the costs of contributing to disaster relief in the future.
Recommendation 5: Develop expertise and 5 infrastructure to ensure optimal use of available EO and GIS solutions
aw data is of little use to end-users. Without processing, EO data becomes little more Rthan a ‘pretty picture’ - value is realized when the information contained in data can be used to make decisions. This requires investment in processing infrastructure and the institutional knowledge to produce the final information products. It also requires end-users to be aware of the potential of GIS and capable of defining their requirements.
Decision-makers and the general public are not sufficiently aware of the value of EO systems as a timely and cost-effective information source. Beyond weather, climate, and disaster management benefits, decision makers are quite uninformed about EO and its potential use for sustainable
20 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Earth Observation development, particularly in relation to health and energy (GEO, 2006). Potential users understand and evaluate satellite services with respect to the expected benefits they provide (for instance gains of time, money, efficiency, or quality), rather than evaluating the technology itself (Eurisy, 2010).
While it is possible to acquire EO products from the global market, investment in domestic capability demonstrates significant returns. For example, in 2008-9, Earth Observation contributed at least AUD$3.3b to the Australian GDP (ACIL Tasman, 2010), and in England and Wales for every £1 invested, returns of £2.50 would be realized (WhereConsulting and ACIL Tasman, 2010).
Implementation
Indigenous capacity building enables end-users from both government and the private sector to apply space related products in their activities, improving the quality of goods and services provided to society. Availability of EO data offers an opportunity for the development of new business in companies that add value to data and explore the development of specific niche markets.
For in-house capacity building, minimal infrastructure includes broadband internet access to download images, and software and computers to perform training activities. An operational center also needs timely data, dedicated infrastructure, and human resources to process data and deliver information products to end-users. An efficient solution is the use of regional ground stations covering a large area for receiving and distributing data from EO satellites (Figure 5-1). Existing ground stations can be adapted for use with additional Figure 5-1: Africa coverage with five ground satellite systems. stations for CBERS satellite (Câmara, 2009) Access to broadband internet is essential to support data retrieval, archiving, and dissemination of the processed information to end users. Costs can be minimized by using open source GIS tools such as GRASS and SPRING, which have been effectively used by government, commercial, and academic organizations (GRASS, 2010; Camara, Sonza, Freitas & Garrido, 1996).
Educational initiatives in schools, tertiary institutions, and the public are necessary to support future capacity and encourage use of the systems. Public awareness of the benefits of space activities builds support for future investment in space capabilities.
Existing programs for capacity building, provided by international organizations such as ESA or the UN, and space research institutions such as INPE in Brazil, can be accessed by countries in the Southern Hemisphere. The Group on Earth Observation (GEO) and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) maintain portals that provide Earth science data, tools, and services. Some of these organizations offer teletraining services as a low cost alternative to face-to-face training activities.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 21 Earth Observation
Legal and Policy Aspects
Policies should be transparent to promote international collaboration, especially in climate monitoring and disaster management. The definition of ‘public’ and ‘private’ should be clear, as should the laws applying to public-private partnerships (The National Center for Remote Sensing and Space Law, 2007).
Data sharing essentially refers to the transactions through which individuals, organizations or both obtain access to spatial data. An effective Spatial Data Infrastructure would involve a well- coordinated partnership among federal, state and local government and research institutions. Such a partnership should entail successful communication and interaction between inter- or intra- jurisdictional stakeholders (Hamzah, Shariff, Mahmud, Yusof & Ali, 2010).
In terms of the national data sharing policy, a government that has obtained raw data must weigh the economic, social, and scientific benefits of distributing the data against their own national security requirements (The National Center for Remote Sensing and Space Law, 2007). National data sharing policies will define both the resolution limits on the data available for external distribution and the process required. This process would involve licensing, prohibitions on further distribution without explicit prior consent, and confidentiality agreements to protect the security of the country.
The access network will involve the acquisition, storage, integration, maintenance and enhancement of spatial data. It would consist of the access and distribution networks for getting spatial distribution/datasets to users or stakeholders.
The institutional framework would include several activities such as administration, access to facilities, human resources, coordination, custodianship, sponsorship, data access, education, and training (Hamzah, et al. 2010).
Indirect Benefits
States that have acquired proficiency can export processing capabilities and expertise to other nations (NASA, 2008), boosting their voice in the global space community, and providing return on their initial investment. Greater knowledge and monitoring capability for the State also leads to improvements in disaster mitigation and response, and in resource management (Space Foundation, 2010).
Disaster Warnings: The Last Mile
n important aspect of the distribution of information is the transmission of early warning messages Ato the population to warn of impending disasters. One possibility is to use the service of mobile network operators to distribute information in the form of SMS text messages to network users within the affected region. Such a service would allow authorities to send disaster warning information quickly and efficiency. Whilst mobile penetration is still low in many developing States, this will improve over time as infrastructure develops.
Some local systems are under development. Text-based telecommunication disaster early warning systems are starting in Sri Lanka, The Netherlands, and Singapore (LIRNasia, 2005). Rapid SMS is being considered for further development of the text disaster early warning system in Ethiopia and Malawi (UniCEF, 2010).
22 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Tele-Solutions Use space telecommunication capabilities to support the UN Millennium Development Goals, with an emphasis on health and education
tates can improve the quality of health and education to their people – especially in rural areas – through the use of space- Sbased telecommunications that would complement existing national health and education systems.
Space telecommunication provides the Information Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure required for distributed tele-health and tele-education. Tele-health directly contributes towards supporting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of Child Health and Maternal Health by enhancing medical capacity in the State or region. Tele- education directly contributes to the MDG of Universal Education by broadcasting educational materials for access to a large population. Together, tele-health and tele-education contribute indirectly to the MDG of Ending Poverty and Hunger, Gender Equality, Combating HIV/AIDS, Environmental Sustainability, and global partnership through education. Tele-Solutions
They can also raise awareness of needs, provide channels of communication between communities and cultures, and expose new markets for products and services. The use of tele-health and tele- education technologies can assist States to achieve some of the MDGs and contribute to greater social well being. The establishment of global partnerships and the exposure of new products and services contributes to the economic development of a State, especially with the introduction of telecommunications, which is the most profitable aspect of the ICT sector.
Recommendation 6: Invest in Tele-health 6 and Tele-education
ele-health and tele-education have proven to be effective methods for providing remote Thealth and education services to urban and rural areas of all population densities (Christensen, Hay & Peura, 2007). Tele-health and tele-education needs an ICT infrastructure to operate; however, it can be deployed over an established terrestrial, space-based, or hybrid system.
This report proposes use of space telecommunication capabilities. Satellite systems can support temporary health and education stations, mobile libraries, and ambulances. These temporary stations are an important tool in disaster management and disease control, as they facilitate rapid response. They also provide the means for health and educational outreach. Tele-health addresses delivery aspects of mental and physical health services, and is well suited to training of nurses, doctors, and other health practitioners. Tele-education is associated with delivering educational services from primary to tertiary levels, including adult education and training.
Figure 6-1: Tele-health / tele-education infrastructure
Tele-health systems consist of medical software integrated with computer hardware along with medical diagnostic instruments. The medical records of the patient are sent to the medical practitioner, either in advance or in real-time, via the ICT infrastructure. Consequent diagnosis and health monitoring can be performed (For case studies, refer to Ramkumar, 2010, pp.19-37). Regional health monitoring can also be established to detect disease outbreaks and to inform the appropriate authorities. In a similar manner, tele-education consists of educational software and media to deliver educational materials to students and teachers.
24 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Tele-Solutions
A fully established ICT infrastructure is not required, Tele-health and Tele-medicine explained as more basic devices like mobile phones and televisions can be used during the early phases of It is common to see the terms tele-health and tele- deployment. Evolution of the ICT infrastructure medicine used interchangeably; however, there would subsequently support the evolution of the tele- are distinctions that exist based on the particular health and tele-education systems. Eventually, more focus of the service. Strictly speaking, tele- advanced tools and systems can be added, such as medicine is narrowly focused on the use of video, electrocardiogram equipment interconnectivity, and image, data, and telemetry to conduct one-on-one interactive video lectures. Because of the patient consultations. On the other hand, tele- technological overlap between tele-health and tele- health encompasses a large set of health practices education, any growth experienced in one area can and technologies such as nursing, pharmacology, also promote growth in the other. Countries that will occupational therapy, radiology, dermatology, and benefit from implementing and using a space-based dentistry (ERC, n.d.). ICT infrastructure include those with absent or limited terrestrial ICT infrastructures, broad population distributions, inaccessible terrain, or simply vast geographical areas (Kalam, 2008).
Satellite systems can be used to deliver communication services either directly to the end user as a last-mile service (that is, the link between the local community node and homes); or indirectly as a back-haul network (that is, the network link that connect community nodes to each other and the internet). Consequently, terrestrial last-mile networks communities can be interconnected via satellite technologies. Communication satellites, especially those in geostationary orbit (GEO), have a very large view area; they can provide the entire back-haul network to connect communities, so there is no need to establish or maintain any terrestrial back-haul infrastructure. This is advantageous when inaccessible terrain or vast distances pose a problem. Mobile tele- health and tele-education systems can also be established using Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) systems. In this scenario communication “99 percent of the time, is directly established with the satellite and the Telemetry Tracking and Control (TTC) station, people who are unwell do which can be installed on a bus, van or boat equipped with medical and educational not require an operation equipment. and do not need physical Technology Used contact with a doctor” It is important to select equipment that can function (Intel, 2009, p.3) within the constraints imposed by the space sector. In India, where the tele-health system relies upon satellite communications technology, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) eliminates the problem of incompatible equipment selection by assuming responsibility for managing the equipment used for training the paramedical staff. “The only problem [then] to be addressed is the non availability of qualified man power to manage the system. This will also be addressed once the country commits itself to a specialized training programme in the medical institutions in the area of telemedicine technologies” (Srinivasan, 2008, p.9).
As discovered during the tele-health projects run by the International Development Research Center (IDRC) in Canada, the required time for capacity building can exceed initial expectations. These projects demonstrated the significant role of human resource development in deploying new technologies. Barriers can exist in the adoption of new technologies, especially if social and cultural
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 25 Tele-Solutions
sensitivities arise. The IDRC’s experience suggested that a small portion of the community did not perceive the internet as a solution, but instead considered it harmful. Integration of existing communication methods and newly proposed methods should be considered to encourage social acceptance (Elder & Clarke, n.d., p.9).
Legal and Policy Aspects
Working models for the implementation of tele-health and tele-education through legislation are emerging from the developed and the developing world. These new policies are often supplementary to the MDGs and national priorities. Initiatives have also established new public-private partnerships which benefit emerging local and global markets. India, Brazil, and the United States provide some of the best observable models in this field of development (Neuberger & Scott, 1997).
Examples of international cooperation come from the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). They demonstrate a practical understanding of developing principles, strategies, and goals that influence national policies in support of “Evidence has consistently shown the national health and education programs (Suleiman, 2001). ICT-mediated instruction using Policy and legal considerations, such as conventional teaching methods is as liability factors, will need to be addressed to ensure quality of service because tele-health good as traditional face-to-face does not involve hands-on physician-patient interaction. Liability issues can involve both instruction and, in the case of physical and mental health, which include the mode of treatment, the treating physicians’ computer-based instruction, may in communication and follow up with the patient, and compliance with the acceptable standards select instances improve students imposed by the medical community. As the use of tele-health diversifies, policy makers and learning and attitudes towards lawyers must develop a regulatory scheme to assure quality control (Varghese & Scott, learning.” 2004). (Meneze, 2000, p.4) To assist the Southern Hemisphere States, compatible national and local policy guidelines need to be established. For the Southern Hemisphere to achieve sustainable economic and social development, political will at the national and international levels is essential. Leaders need to understand that building these tele-health and tele- education systems can improve the quality of life for their citizens (Scott, Chowdhury & Varghese, 2002). Standardization in the education sector of primary, vocational, higher, and distance education would ensure equal opportunities to beneficiaries. The education authority responsible for the tele- education system, together with the teachers, should ensure quality of education is maintained.
Financial Aspects
Local industries and leaders must collaborate to ensure the implementation of tele-health and tele- education. This collaboration would promote a sustained tele-health and tele-education system, the elimination of monopolies, and the commonality between both systems (Intel, 2009). Commonality arises in the ICT infrastructure required to deliver tele-health and tele-education services where the
26 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Tele-Solutions same technologies are used to support both systems. This combined use offers a reduction in the overall cost of the systems, including deployment and operations.
Indirect Benefits
Tele-health and tele-education can augment quality of life by providing additional indirect benefits to society, the economy, and the environment. These benefits include combating the spread of diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, and raising awareness of healthy lifestyle choices. For example, use of these systems can encourage awareness of preventative health measures by explaining the need for personal hygiene practices and publicizing the reasons for regulations associated with quarantine issues.
Health education can also raise the level of awareness to improve sanitation and promote community practices such as the proper disposal of human and animal waste. These practices will lead to the prevention of land and water pollution, and contribute to long term environmental sustainability. Global and regional partnerships are facilitated by tele-health and tele-education systems in the form of international training, accessibility, and connectivity. Although there are differences in educational standards and health practices, the common technology infrastructure can be developed and exchanged through collaboration to promote mutually beneficial international relationships.
International Space University ant the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 27 Conclusions
his White Paper investigated some of the social and economic needs in the Southern Hemisphere and explored how these could be addressed using space capabilities and Ttechnologies. The primary needs investigated were improved health and education, impact minimization for natural disasters and the development of space activities in the Southern Hemisphere States. Participants made six recommendations to for using space systems to satisfy these needs:
1. Southern Hemisphere States should identify their geographical assets that could be used by other States in space projects and applications to the mutual benefit of both parties. One such benefit could be access to space capabilities, data and information that will enable a State to address its development needs and indirectly promote local employment and training opportunities.
2. This report urges the formation of a Regional Space Industry Association (RSIA) to act as an intermediary between commercial companies and organizations and the international space industry. An RSIA would result in stimulation of regional economies, greater awareness of niche markets, and increased commercial opportunities in the space sector.
3. States should consider developing robust Earth Observation (EO) capabilities, which offer a wide range of opportunities including disaster monitoring, and resource management. The high costs of acquiring EO capabilities should lead States to collaborate and develop structures to enable data sharing for mutual benefit. The acquisition of satellite technologies, ground segment and control infrastructure in a collaborative manner enables a wider scope of States to participate in space activities.
4. States should cooperate on data distribution and generating information products. The distribution of data between collectors, processors and end users is critical in achieving the full potential benefit of EO data and processed information products. This is especially true for developing nations that would otherwise not be able to access this information. This cooperation will require policy support and can also be used as a mechanism to support developing States.
5. States should consider investing in future capacity building. Within States the development of education in schools, tertiary institutions, and the public is necessary to support future EO capacity. Investing in processing infrastructure and institutional knowledge to produce final information products enables a State to make full use of EO capabilities and increases self-reliance.
6. Finally, this report recommends implementing tele-health and tele-education systems to address the UN Millennium Development Goals. These will contribute to the health and education needs of urban and rural areas. These systems are particularly useful in rural areas where inaccessible terrain and vast distances are challenges to be overcome.
28 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 These recommendations form the basis for the strategies and policies that are offered to meet the Southern Hemisphere’s social and economic needs. Each requires participation at a social, industrial, and governmental level both nationally and internationally for the full benefits to be realized.
The research phase of this White Paper revealed that many Southern Hemisphere States have neither a space agency nor a space policy. The proposed goals will require States desiring to achieve a measure of space capability to examine these capabilities and integrate them into their overall policy framework for development. Without such considerations, their ability to take part in international space related collaboration is restricted. It may also be advantageous for States working on a space policy to consider coordinating or even harmonizing their policies with other States in their region.
It was not possible for participants to develop each recommendation in detail, exploring the political, social and economic issues faced in bringing space capabilities to Southern Hemisphere States. This report can form a foundation for future SHS-SP sessions. Any one of these recommendations could be expanded into a full study and report.
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36 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices Appendix 1 Acronyms
A AEB Brazillian Space Agency AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ALC African Leadership Conference on Space, Science and Technology for Sustainable Development APRSAF Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum APSCO Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organisation ASA Astronomical Society of Australia
C CBERS China Brazil Earth Resources Satelite CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites CIA Central Intelligence Agency CIA FB CIA World Factbook CLA Alcantara Launch Centre CLBI Launch Centre of Barreira de Inferno CNEE Centre for Space Studies CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales CONIDA National Commision for Aerospace Research and Development CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
D DMC Disaster Monitoring Constellation
E ECG Electrocardiogram EDRS European Data Relay System EEE Electronic, Electromechanical and Electric component Panel of the Eurospace group EO Earth Observation ESA European Space Agency ESO European Southern Observatory
F FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
G GDP Gross Domestic Product GEO Geostationary Orbit GEO Group on Earth Observation GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems GIS Geographical Information System GMES Global Monitoring for Environment and Security GRASS Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
H HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
I ICT Information Communication Technology IDRC International Development Research Centre INPE National Institute for Space Research (Brazil) INSAT Indian National Satellite System IR Infrared IRS Indian Remote Sensing ISNET Islamic Network on Space Sciences and Technology
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 37 Appendices
ISRO Indian Space Research Organization ISS International Space Station ISU International Space University ITU International Telecommunications Union
J JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
L LEO Low Earth Orbit LIDAR Light Detecting and Ranging
M MDG Millennium Development Goals MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
N NASA National Aeronautics Space Administration NCD Non-Communicable Disease NEUROARM A robotic arm used in neuro-surgery NSAT Indian National Satellite System
O OIC Organization of Islamic Conferences
R R&D Research and Development RADAR Radio Detection And Ranging RPDE Rapid Prototype Development and Evaluation RSIA Regional Space Industry Association
S SATCOM Satellite Communications SHS-SP Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program SIM Space Industry Market SKA Square Kilometre Array SMS Short Message Service SMMS Small Multi-Mission Satellites SPOT French remote sensing satellite SSA Space Situational Awareness STI Sexually Transmitted Infections
T TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System TTC Telemetry Tracking and Control
U UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCOPUOS The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space UNDP United Nations Development Programs UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund UNOOSA United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development
V VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal
W WHO World Health Organization
38 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices Appendix 2 International Cooperation
Prior to the commencement of the academic program, participants in the SHS-SP11 were tasked with researching the demography, needs and existing space capabilities of the Southern Hemisphere States. The academic program began with three weeks of lectures presented to the participants by the ISU staff and guest lecturers, with lecture topics spanning a broad range of space-related disciplines, including physical and life sciences, engineering, law, business and management of space projects, and social sciences.
The participants identified areas in which Southern Hemisphere States could benefit from space applications, and where they may have opportunities to contribute to our collective space capability. The following appendices summarize the literature review that formed the basis of the report’s goals and recommendations.
outhern Hemisphere States can contribute to space capability by capitalizing on favorable attributes such as Sgeographic location, relatively low population densities, and favorable radio noise distributions. The purpose of this document is to provide background in the space-related activities to which these advantages may be applied, and to describe how collaborative efforts can aid in capability development.
International cooperation offers benefit to Southern Hemisphere States choosing to contribute to space capability, irrespective of the form that contribution takes. The planning, development, and operational phases will benefit from international collaboration through the transfer of existing technology and knowledge, the division of responsibilities, and cost sharing. There are a number of existing forums for the purpose of assisting member states in technical, policy, and education matters that the Southern Hemisphere may be engaged in:
The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) supports the intergovernmental discussions within UNCOPUOS, provides technical assistance to member States, and assists developing countries in using space technology for social and economic development (UNOOSA, 2011). Southern Hemisphere States will benefit from engagement with UNOOSA through participation in discussions related to space policy development, and can receive both technical assistance and education. This participation will assist States in developing national space-related policy, laws, and regulations, as well as in developing space knowledge.
The Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) is an intergovernmental organization with objectives to promote the development of collaborative space programs among its member states and to assist them in such areas as space technological research and development, policy development, applications, and training. The organization aims to encourage member states in their development in the domains of technology and space studies that follow the goals pursued by ESA. APSCO conducts international workshops in areas of space applications and development. The organization is involved with the Small Multi-Mission Satellites (SMMS) Project, a constellation of satellites for remote sensing, environmental monitoring, and disaster management, with the purpose of sharing the technology among member states (APSCO, 2011).
The Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) aims to improve the activities related to space within the Asia-Pacific region through conferences that bring together different levels of governmental, private, space, and research related organizations. There are four main areas of focus at the conferences: Earth Observation, Communication Satellite Applications, Space Education and Awareness, and Space Environment Utilization. All cooperation between groups is voluntary and uses international projects to solve regional sized problems (APRSAF, 2010).
The Inter – Islamic Network on Space Sciences & Technology (ISNET) promotes cooperation between member States of the Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC) for the peaceful uses of outer space. The network’s goals include
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 39 Appendices the exchange of information and experiences in the development of space science and technology and to improve workforce quality of OIC member States through training courses and workshops. ISNET aims to create and maintain a database of expertise and scientific data in the field of space science and technology, and to initiate joint projects in these fields (ISNET, 2011). The cultural bond between network members may facilitate a more readily accessible forum for affiliated Southern Hemisphere States.
The European Southern Observatory (ESO) is an intergovernmental organization based in the Nothern Hemisphere focusing on astronomical research in the Southern Hemisphere. Research is conducted primarily using ground-based telescopes and optical interferometry. There are 15 member states, the majority of which are based in the Northern Hemisphere, conducting research throughout the Southern Hemisphere (ESO, 2011).
Knowledge Advantages
A space capability can be explicit in the form of launch equipment and infrastructure, space vehicles, tracking, and operational infrastructure. Of all the Southern Hemisphere States, only India, China, and Brazil have successfully placed satellites in orbit using indigenous launch platforms (ISRO, 2008; AEB, 2005). The enormous financial and technical risk associated with developing an indigenous launch capability, combined with the availability elsewhere of proven systems, has limited the number of Southern Hemisphere States willing to invest in such programs.
Beyond launch and space vehicle hardware, a contribution to space capability may take the form of the provision of an intellectual service. An example of such a service is Australia’s role in the World Meteorological Organization: Australia does not operate any of the satellites that generate meteorological data, but contributes to capability through data processing and analysis at one of three World Meteorological Centers and a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (Bureau of Meteorology, 2011). Southern Hemisphere States with a suitably trained workforce may contribute to the capability generated by space hardware through performing support roles such as data processing and information distribution.
Contribution to space capability may also come from companies with core businesses that are not involved in space industry or science but whose products or services have application to space-related activities. Examples of such industries include manufacturing of computer components and materials engineering. The establishment of mechanisms that link space industries with such suppliers is a contribution from a niche market to space capability, for example, the employment of Eurospace by ESA to coordinate space knowledge management and facilitation of contacts (Eurospace, 2010).
Geographical Advantages
The Southern Hemisphere has many geographic advantages to support astronomy and observations, to launch vehicles and their associated re-entries, satellite tracking, the use of land analogues, and access to radio quiet areas. The most important geographic advantage the Southern Hemisphere has to offer is a view of the southern skies.
Advantages for Launch Sites in the Southern Hemisphere
Countries that are closest to the equator offer the greatest geographical advantage for launch sites because of the rotational effects of the Earth, especially for GEO launches. The Guiana Space Centre is Europe’s spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana. It was developed because of its proximity to the coast and the equator. Currently Arianespace uses this site to launch Arianne-5 vehicles, and in the future it will be used to launch Russian Soyuz rockets (CNES, 2009; ESA, 2004).
Launch sites next to large bodies of water are also ideal, as are those that are surrounded by large open areas with low population densities. A current example is the Woomera Test Facility in Australia, with launch and test flight facilities (Royal Australian Air Force, 2009). Brazil’s two launching sites, the Alcantara Launch Centre (CLA) and the Launch Centre of Barreira do Inferno (CLBI), are both situated in coastal areas near the equator (AEB, 2011).
Advantages for Re-entry Sites
For the collection of data, re-entry sites that have large unpopulated areas are desirable, especially when there is the potential for the spacecraft to break up during re-entry. In 2010, the Japanese probe Hayabusa returned to Earth and landed across the Woomera Test Facility (Australian Department of Defence). The collaboration of JAXA, NASA, and
40 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices
Australian scientists, technicians, and tracking facilities allowed the craft to return safely to Earth and complete its sample collection mission. Monitoring of the probe as it approached Earth was conducted by JAXA’s tracking stations in Japan and NASA’s Deep Space Network. After entering the atmosphere, a team of both Japanese and US scientists observed the craft and helped to collect its components (Whatmore, 2010).
Advantages for Astronomical Sites and Oberservations
Optical astronomical observations are strongly affected by light pollution that is proportional to population density and night time activity (Cinzano, Falchi & Elvidge, 2001). Consequently, areas in Southern Hemisphere States that have lower population densities are ideal for observations. Observations are further affected by atmospheric conditions including air temperature, density, moisture content, and transparency of the atmosphere. These problems can be minimized by placing observatories as high as convenient above sea level in areas with little variation in weather conditions and a hospitable temperature range. Two examples of such sites are the Large Millimeter Telescope in Mexico and the Giant Magellan Telescope in Chile. The Large Millimeter Telescope is hosted on the top of a dormant volcano at an altitude of 4600m, minimizing the amount of atmosphere the telescope is observing through and almost completely eliminating weather effects because of the high altitude reached. This allows the telescope to consistently provide highly accurate and precise data (The Large Millimeter Telescope, 2006). The Giant Magellan Telescope is set to be completed by 2018 in Las Campanas, Chile. This telescope will use both adaptive optics and geographical advantage to produce incredibly high resolution data from a ground based observatory. Las Campanas is regularly home to clear weather and very low levels of light pollution as well as being elevated over 2500m (GMTO, 2011).
Radio Quiet Advantages
Regions with large areas that have a low population density are also ideal locations for observatories that require radio quiet (low electromagnetic radiation) conditions (CSIRO/ASA, 2011). An example of this is the large sparsely populated area required for the Square Kilometer Array (SKA). Australia’s proposed location in Murchison has a population of 110 people across approximately 50,000 square kilometers (Boyle, 2011). This allows for the array to measure very faint radio signals from outer space without damaging interference (Boyle, 2011). Implementation of the SKA in either Southern Africa or Australia will also result in both social and economic stimulus locally and internationally. It is for all these reasons that both have been shortlisted to host the SKA.
Advantages for Satellite Tracking
Satellite tracking and Space Situational Awareness (SSA) are increasing problems for all satellites currently in orbit, especially for those in polar orbits. Both NASA and ESA currently have tracking stations located in Antarctica to observe satellites in polar orbit (ESA, 2009).
The National Institute for Space Research (INPE) has the Satellite Tracking and Control Center dedicated to tracking and developing control systems for satellites (AEB, 2011).
The construction and realization of the Kourou launch facilities, known as the Guiana Space Centre, represents the potential impact of space activities on economy and infrastructure. The centre boosted local economy, promoted an influx of immigrants including engineers, scientists and technicians, and facilitated the employment of skilled workers in the development and continuing operation of the centre (Zak, 2008).
South Africa provides satellite support for tracking satellites after launch and for LEO and GEO satellites. Its location in the Southern Hemisphere makes it ideal for tracking and monitoring satellites immediately after launch from sites in the Northern Hemisphere including Baikonur, Korou, and Kennedy Space Flight Centre. After launch the Satellite Applications Centre is further able to support satellites in LEO and GEO orbits with tracking, telemetry, and control facilities (South Africa.info, 2003).
Land Analogue Advantages
There are a number of regions in the Southern Hemisphere that are dry and barren enough to be treated as analogues to as yet unexplored extraterrestrial bodies. For example, Antarctica is used both as an analogue to human space exploration of the Moon and Mars as well as an experimental ground. The similarities between Antarctica and the Martian surfaces
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 41 Appendices allowed scientists to conduct the experiments designed for the mission beforehand. This allows for better data validation as well as evaluation of equipment and instruments aboard (Nelson, 2009).
Direct Benefits
Direct benefits are those that have been specifically negotiated and included in agreements to undertake a collaborative activity. The examples discussed are focused on the direct benefits that Southern Hemisphere States could potentially gain from a collaborative space activity.
Space Access: A State can request access to specific space-related capabilities, information, and data that can be used to address domestic, social, and economic needs. The access requested may be related to the collaborative activity or to other activities managed or owned by a participant. For example, a State may agree to host a SATCOM ground station in return for the provision of data or information from a remote sensing capability.
Domestic Industry Requirements: A host participant may require that the activity employ a minimum number of local citizens in the design, development, construction, and operation of associated facilities. States should specify a broad cross section of employment areas to ensure employment of low, medium, and highly skilled workers.
Knowledge Transfer: Transfer of knowledge and skills from an activity to the host State for the development of the domestic space sector may include the provision of education and training programs to schools, universities, government agencies, or commercial sectors for a minimum period of time.
Technology Transfer: Sometimes collaborative activities require the transfer of technology to be successful. Alternatively, a participant may agree to the transfer of an unrelated technology for the benefit of the other participant. For example, one participant might provide space-related skills in return for hydro-electric power technology.
Trade Agreements: This benefit involves an agreement for a participant to purchase a specific quantity of State resources for a minimum period of time. Such an agreement would provide stability to that resource sector and could promote development and expansion. Resources that could be used in such an agreement include food, oil, gas, and timber.
Indirect Benefits
Indirect benefits are the spin-off benefits that occur when a collaborative activity between two or more parties is undertaken. The indirect benefits discussed here focus predominately on benefiting the host State, but some external benefits are included.
International Prestige: Involvement in collaborative space activities can bring a level of prestige to the participants. This prestige may then provide a State with some increased influence on the world stage. Prestige may not be immediate, but will likely develop over time as the State improves space-related knowledge and capabilities as a result of the collaborative activity.
Local Economic Stimulus: If the collaborative activity includes any sort of infrastructure or facility development, the economy of the local area will benefit. This initial short term benefit will include increased employment in various sectors such as construction, specialist trades, and retail services. Longer term benefits may include stable employment opportunities in the retail, services, and education sectors as a result of the steady increase in population as people elect to stay in the area following employment in the space-related activity.
Education : Most collaborative space activities employ highly skilled and educated personnel to conduct research, development, and operation of the various facilities. These people tend to desire a high level of education for their children and this can result in opportunities for improved education facilities being developed, as well as better quality teachers being drawn to the area.
Multiculturalism : The nature of international collaborative activities will generally result in cultural exchange occurring at the facility and within the local community. Multiculturalism can result in improved understanding of other people’s culture, customs, and history. Over the long term, this may bring the respective States closer politically due to an improved mutual understanding. 42 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices Appendix 3 Earth Observation
emote sensing is the process of gathering data about an object without being in direct contact with it. Earth RObservation (EO) is a subset of remote sensing that employs satellites to gather data about the Earth’s electromagnetic spectrum. The purpose of this appendix is to describe how EO sensors can be applied to address terrestrial issues such as weather forecasting and agriculture.
Earth Observation Issues
Natural challenges that face countries in the Southern Hemisphere take the form of food, water security, and disasters. According to the GEOSS website:
Disaster-induced losses can be reduced through observations relating to hazards such as: wildland fires, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, subsidence, landslides, avalanches, ice, floods, extreme weather, and pollution events.
Africa and the Middle East
Most African and Middle Eastern nations are strongly affected by natural disasters. Africa is particularly vulnerable due to its dependence on non-irrigated agriculture. Disasters such as drought, desertification, fire, pestilence, floods and storms all have profound impacts on Africa’s food and water security. As a result, sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion of undernourished people in the world at 30%, though these rates vary by region (FAO, 2010b). The impacts of these disasters can be reduced or mitigated through the use of EO.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, ten million people are at risk of starvation in the Sahel, a transitional zone between the Sahara desert and the dense forests in Africa’s tropics that include nations such as Mali and Burkina Faso (FAO, 2010c). The growing food insecurity arises from poverty, population growth, and environmental issues. An example of the issues faced by the region was illustrated in Niger in 2010 when 12 million residents faced famine caused by rainfall reduction, poverty, and population growth (Hirsch, 2010).
Middle African countries are also subjected to a diverse range of problems. Cameroon is home to natural hazards that include volcanic activity and related release of poisonous gases. Likewise, the Central African Republic is affected by hot, dry, dusty winds, floods and diseases. Additionally, Equatorial Guinea, the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are all subject to seasonal flooding (CIA, 2011). Regions in the Sahara are susceptible to dust storms, frequent droughts and flooding during the rainy season.
The desert climates in Middle Eastern countries leave them susceptible to frequent sandstorms and dust storms in summer, with the mountains in Yemen and Saudi Arabia suffering seasonal monsoons (CIA, 2011). Water security is a significant problem in these areas; in Yemen large deficiencies in ground water supplies must be supplemented by deep aquifers. Additionally, food security is a problem for the 45% of Yemen’s population that live below the poverty line (Al-Asbahi, 2005).
Central and South America
Central America and the Caribbean have a number of environmental and geographical issues that could be addressed using space technology. These issues include natural disasters such as hurricanes and tropical storms, as well as human induced problems like deforestation and soil erosion.
Hurricanes and tropical storms are the most common natural disasters affecting Central America and Caribbean nations between June and November each year. For example, in June 2010, tropical storm Agatha hit Central America leaving 204 people dead in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras and thousands without homes. A month later Hurricane Alex passed over Mexico, killing 12 people and leaving 17,000 people without shelter (United States Agency for International
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 43 Appendices
Development, 2010). Other natural disasters affecting the region are tsunamis, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. Deforestation is a major issue in Central America and the Caribbean. Over the past decade the forest area in Central America has been reduced by 248,000 hectares per year. The Caribbean as a whole has seen a net increase in forest area; however, this is attributed to reforestation in Cuba and uninhabited islands. Many Caribbean countries recorded a decline in forest area coverage and several ‘reported no change in forest area simply because of a lack of data’ (FAO, 2010a, p53). Forest conservation in the Caribbean is essential because it relies on 53% of its forests to protect soil and water, which represents more dependence on forests than any other region (FAO, 2010a, p.146).
Despite having high annual rainfall, the Central American nations have a lack of fresh water available to citizens. This is due to a lack of infrastructure, out-dated and non-cooperative policies, and contamination of the existing water supplies caused by deforestation and flooding. The Global Water Initiative is helping communities to better protect their existing water supplies and also promote water sanitation practices (Howard G. Buffett Foundation, 2009-2010). The major water supplies are spread over several countries in the region and this will open opportunities for regional cooperation in water management (Global Water Partnership, 2010b). The Global Water Partnership has identified climate change as the biggest threat to fresh water supplies, noting that if flooding and hurricanes would become more severe the supplies may become contaminated by salt water (Global Water Partnership, 2010a).
South America is subjected to a variety of natural disasters including volcanoes, earthquakes, windstorms, flooding, deforestation and land degradation, droughts, and pollution (CIA, 2011). In Brazil, deforestation affects native plants and animals, putting species at risk of extinction. Volcanos are a major issue in Chile, with the most recent large eruptions taking place in 2008 and 2009. Argentina faces problems in balancing its agriculture-based economy with its efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (World Resources Institute, 2006).
The Asia-Pacific
All parts of the Asia-Pacific region are affected by natural disasters, the effects of which will be reduced by the application of EO. According to Heyzer and Wahlström (2010, p.7), the region is four times more likely to be affected by natural disasters than Africa and 25 times more likely than Europe or North America. Floods and storms are the most common disasters in the region, however it is earthquakes that produce the greatest loss of human life (Heyzer & Wahlstrom, 2010).
The populations of Bangladesh and India are at the most risk from flood damage in the world (Heyzer & Wahlstrom, 2010). As the population of Bangladesh is predominantly rural and agriculture is the largest sector of employment, it faces difficulties in feeding its expanding population (CIA, 2011; U.S. Department of State, 2010). In India crop yields are low relative to neighboring nations, so increased efficiency is vital to alleviating poverty and feeding India’s growing population (The World Bank, 2011b). Regions of India are susceptible to monsoonal flooding or cyclones, making disaster management important for the country.
The Pacific Islands all experience natural hazards including typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes. The Cook Islands, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands and Samoa have limited fresh water supplies, and agricultural land is rapidly becoming unusable. This has been made worse by the contribution of erosion caused by mining exploitation and forest fires, loss of soil fertility and the contamination of ground water.
Earth Observation and Remote Sensing Applications and Techniques
Satellite remote sensing is one of the most commonly used methods to collect data and information about Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Observation satellites can scan or image wide areas in one pass, and have the capability to observe the same area repetitively, allowing changes to be observed over time (Donoghue, 2002, pp.144–151).
With regard to agriculture, remote sensing can be used to assess the health of crops. Nutrient deficiencies, diseases, weed infestations, and crop damage due to herbicides, insects, and weather can be identified (Nowatzki, Andres & Kyllo, 2004). According to ACIL Tasman (2010), Landsat and SPOT satellites are used to monitor livestock by several hundred farms in Western Australia. The data from these satellites can be applied to estimating flock growth rates and wool production forecasts, as well as insect plagues, and pests such as locusts and ticks.
One major civilian application of remote sensing is mapping. Satellites gather data about natural and urban landscapes 44 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices which can be analyzed using GIS. This processed data can be used to create accurate, up-to-date maps and digital models that can assist in short and long term urban planning and development; such projects have been undertaken in the Rohini and Dwarka project in New Delhi (Uttarwar, n.d.).
Some technologies used to collect data by satellites are imaging microwave RADAR, imaging multi-spectral radiometers, LIDAR, and scatterometers. This is not an exhaustive list.
Imaging microwave RADAR are active sensors which can operate day and night and can penetrate clouds (Ward, 2008). Processed RADAR data can be used to investigate surface waves, ocean fronts, oil slicks, vegetation, clouds, floods, ice sheets, tectonic plate movements and volcanic activity (Ward, 2008).
Imaging multi-spectral radiometers capture data at high spatial resolutions. This technology gathers data about sea and land surface temperatures, snow and ice cover, drought affected regions, Earth’s surface albedo, cloud motion, and atmospheric dynamics. It is also useful for monitoring natural, anthropogenic, and climate induced effects on land ecosystems (Ward, 2008, p.77).
LIDAR measures the reflection of light pulses fired at a target in a sweeping pattern. Doppler LIDAR is used to measure wind speed by reflecting light from moving particles in the air and measuring the associated doppler shifts. Differential absorption LIDAR uses multiple light pulses at different wavelengths and then measures the relative absorptivity and reflectivity of each to determine densities of specific atmospheric constituents, water vapor and temperature profiles (NASA, 2000).
Scatterometers are active microwave sensors. These measurements are particularly useful for measuring oceanic surface winds through the measurement of surface water ripple size and orientation (Ward, 2008). As the instruments utilize microwave radiation, the instrument is not hindered by cloud cover. Scatterometers allow for improved description of general wind patterns and cyclonic/hurricane occurrences.
Remote sensing can generate a large amount of data; the challenge is to turn it into valuable and timely information and to distribute this information to those who need it. This leads to a problem in distributing data between States and amongst the people in a single State. There is significant benefit to be gained by sharing knowledge and experience. The organizations involved in the development of systems to share earth observation data are described below.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) promotes the development of agriculture and food security by providing advice on technical and policy matters, and acts as an international forum for debate. FAO engages with space-related projects that deal with access to satellite data and GIS information, agency interoperability and the monitoring of global food supply and demand (UNOOSA, 2007).
The Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) was established by the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) in 2005. The System’s purpose is to collect, analyze and share earth observation data to assist national decision makers. Data are disseminated via a web portal or a satellite-based system where internet access is limited.
The Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) includes member States from the Asia-Pacific Region, in addition to international organizations such as ESA, UNCOPUOS, UNESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). APRSAF’s goals include the contribution to the socio-economic development in the Asia-Pacific region through space technologies and applications, and the discussion of future cooperation in space technology to facilitate mutual benefits to regional countries. Southern Hemisphere States may benefit from involvement by ensuring that their individual social and economic needs are accurately represented, so that the space solutions implemented to address them are effective.
The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) coordinates civil space-borne observations of Earth. The Committee’s objective is to optimize the benefits of EO through cooperation of its members in mission planning and in development of compatible data products, formats, services, applications and policies.
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 45 Appendices
Flooding in Queensland Heavy rains in Queensland, Australia, pushed the Fitzroy River over its banks at the beginning of 2011. Appendices Appendix 4 Health & Education
he MDGs provide targets for universal education, infant and maternal health, and HIV/AIDS. The Tpurpose of this appendix is to detail the current state of health and education in the Southern Hemisphere, and to outline how tele-health and tele-education services can be applied to accelerate progress towards the UN targets.
Health Issues
Africa
The Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook (2011) states that food and waterborne diseases such as bacterial and protozoa diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever are prevalent in Africa. Poverty and lack of economic growth has increased the risks of diseases with the prevalence of HIV/AIDS also posing a significant threat. Sub- Saharan Africa is the most HIV/AIDS afflicted region of the world. Despite this, countries in West Africa have relatively low rates of HIV/AIDS in comparison to other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Of the West African countries, Cote d’Ivoire has the highest adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS at 3.9% but most countries have rates of less than two percent. This is in stark contrast to regions of Southern Africa like Swaziland and Botswana, which have 26.10% and 23.90% prevalence rates, respectively. Approximately four million people currently live in West Africa with the HIV virus.
The Americas
According to the CIA World Factbook (2011), food and waterborne diseases like bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever are problems in the Americas, along with dengue fever and malaria. Brazil has a population of over 200 million people with 84% living in urban areas. An estimated 26% of the population lives below the poverty line, and 6% are undernourished (CIA, 2011).
In the Basic Indicators 2010 report, by the Pan American Health Association, the Health Situation section for the Americas shows that states in Central America need to reduce infant mortality rates to meet the MDG for the reduction in under- five infant mortality rate. Panama and Haiti need to reduce their infant mortality rates by 10.5% to 18.6%, respectively. Additional observations state that an improvement in the data collected is required to monitor progress in the region (Pan American Health Association, 2010).
The Asia-Pacific
According to the World Health Organization, India faces health challenges from disease, including emerging Non- Communicable Diseases (NCDs), maternal and child health, and the need to strengthen health systems. Sri Lanka’s health status is acceptable, with an extensive network of public hospitals and clinics (WHO, 2006).
Education Issues
Africa, Europe and the Middle East
Lack of trained teachers, materials, and infrastructure all impact on the quality of education and school attendance rates in West Africa. Low enrollment rates at primary and secondary level, combined with high drop out and grade repetition rates is a major problem in the education system. Less than one in four students graduate from primary school in Benin, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Niger (Pearce, 2009, p10). Algeria’s literacy rate exceeds 70%, with universities offering the level of technical education required to support space capabilities.
International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 47 Appendices
Niger has one of the Lowest Human Development Index on the planet with relation to education, life expectancy, and per capita income, according to the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) Human Development Report (2010). According to UNICEF (2010) the literacy rate in Niger estimated at 30%.
The Americas
The CIA World Factbook (2011) states that Cuba and the Bahamas have a 95% literacy rate, whereas Belize has a low literacy rate of 76.9%. The UNESCO Education Youth and Development Report (2010) states that in Latin America and the Caribbean, many students leaving school lack the necessary skills in mathematics, reading, and science to participate effectively in society. The report recommends that flexible education systems be developed to allow for lifelong learning. Flexible education systems allow people to undergo further training at any stage to update their skills as required (UNESCO, 2010). Peru’s national space agency, the National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (CONIDA), places a strong focus on education. The Centre for Space Studies (CNEE) was specifically founded to train and educate people in science and technology for the further development of space capabilities (Romero, 2004).
The Asia-Pacific
Despite recent improvements in Bangladesh, education outcomes remain poor (CIA, 2011). Although access to education in India has significantly improved, the quality and availability remains a concern, particularly for marginalized groups (The World Bank, 2011a). Sri Lanka’s education system is better than most developing countries, producing high literacy rates; however, access to higher education is very limited (Hathiramani, 2009).
Communications
Africa, Europe and the Middle East
Madagascar, Comoros, and Mauritius have projects that focus on improving telecommunications and resource management. Space applications have been recommended to address needs in health care, education, and disaster management (Giannopapa, 2010).
According to the CIA World Factbook (2011) Zambia has a population of over 13 million with only 800,000 people connected to the internet. Only 35% of Zambia’s population lives in an urban environment. Approximately 4 million people have mobile phones and live in urban areas. Consequently, the majority of the population does not have effective means of communication, especially in rural areas. Communication in rural areas is further hampered by high levels of illiteracy, failing telecommunications infrastructure, and a lack of investments (CIA, 2011). The private sector sees little chance of profits from largely poor communities (Kachingwe, 2010). Steps are being taken by the Government of Zambia to install solar-powered payphones using satellite antennas.
The Americas
Most Central American states have effective general telephone systems and access to mobile services in urban areas. Prices for broadband access in Central America are high, and services are mainly focused on highly populated urban areas (Gagliano, Betancourt & Accuosto, 2008). The Global Information Society Watch 2008 Access to Infrastructure report (2008) states that there are challenges in the region regarding regulation with either deregulation or improved regulation required in network services. The report also stated that “Latin America and the Caribbean have the least degree of fairness in terms of access to technological infrastructure, education and income” (Gagliano et al, 2008).
Local community needs in Chile include reliable rural connectivity, reduction of the digital divide between communities, and the integration of society and communication management support (Ramirez Ayala, 2010).
The Asia-Pacific
India’s communications systems have been rapidly expanding with widespread uptake of mobile phone subscriptions (CIA, 2011). They operate a series of Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) satellites for telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue. The Indian space program maintains a strong emphasis on national self-reliance in developing both technology and skills (Christensen, Hay & Peura, 2007). Communications in Sri Lanka 48 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Appendices have improved with high uptake of mobile phone subscriptions; however, providing adequate services to remote areas remains a challenge. Bangladesh has poor communications with very few fixed-line connections and low, but rapidly increasing mobile subscriptions (CIA, 2011).
International Collaboration
The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) develops standards for communications and data systems in spaceflight. This reduces the costs of performing data functions and promotes cooperation between agencies regarding data use. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) facilitates the coordination and planning of satellite frequency allocations and orbital locations. Southern Hemisphere States need to be engaged with the ITU to ensure future access to orbital locations and frequency spectra for both direct and indirect access by States, particularly developing nations.
Tele-education
Tele-education is a system for distance learning used to deliver educational services to rural communities with a lack of resources and facilities. It provides interactive communication facilities directly to schools or learning centers (Holla- Maini, 2011). Tele-education technology helps students to learn by themselves at their own pace and can also be used to train professionals on the job within industry or in rural areas. The increased data capacity and reduced operational costs make satellite communications a more effective solution for providing worldwide access to a large numbers of digital libraries (Mbarika, 2002).
Infrastructure Considerations
A space telecommunication system that includes voice and data communication, television broadcasting, and specialized transmissions of tele-health or tele-education, is composed of four main segments: Space Segment; Telemetry, Tracking, and Control Segment; Launcher Segment; and User Segment (Maral & Bousquet, 2009; Fortescue, Stark and Swinerd, 2004). The Space Segment includes one or more satellites in orbit; the Tracking Telemetry and Control Segment includes a control center and all ground equipment to track, control, and monitor a satellite or a constellation. The Launcher Segment is composed of the launcher and associated launch site facilities, and the User Segment includes all ground equipment needed for applications, including the antenna system.
Indirect Benefits of Tele-education
Universal education using space technologies has many indirect benefits. Education creates the basis for society, and with these systems it can be delivered to anyone without discrimination towards a social class or gender. Combating education issues on a global scale assists with gender equality, and with this method the highest priority is given to those in the greatest need. Additionally, many health care issues are related to lack of education, such as maternity health and HIV/AIDS. By spreading awareness around the global community, both the people of developing nations and the leaders of world powers will better realize how to prevent the problems that the MDGs address, bridge the gap between remote areas and nations, creating strong global partnerships. These partnerships can only endure if education can be brought to all parts of the world; otherwise inequality due to insufficient understanding will only separate different nations and cultures further. Overall, the key to achieving these international goals is to first achieve international understanding and communication. Tele-education offers a way by which physical and cultural barriers can be crossed in the pursuit of knowledge.
Tele-health
The infrastructure requirements for tele-health are the same as those for tele-education. “Conventional tele-health activities aim (to) provide variants of existing health services at a distance, by adopting various telecommunications technology solutions for linking clinicians with patients or patient related information held elsewhere” (Maeder, 2008, p.1). Benefits of tele-health can be categorized in three main areas (Saskatchewan, 2007): patient benefits, practitioners’ benefits, and health care system benefits, seen in both the rural and urban areas. The expanding network of tele-health providers is helping to reduce child mortality rates, improving maternal health, and combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases in line with the MDGs (United Nations, 2010). A case study is training and education needs in India using these methods (Roy, n.d.). International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 49 Appendices
Patients’ Benefits
Tele-health provides specialist services to rural patients; hence, it does not require the patient to travel long distances. Consequently, the patient can be within their own community, close to family and friends to support them throughout their stressful time, while receiving treatment. Good support has significant benefits during the early stages of major events like disease outbreaks or immediately after severe injuries.
Practicioners’ Benefits
Tele-health services can reach people over vast distances and difficult terrains and it can be used as a method to greatly boost the capabilities of even the most remote health care facilities. The ability of practitioners to request second opinions and exchange ideas is enhanced, reducing the risk of professional isolation. Tele-health can be used as a tool for educational purposes to help train medical practitioners and also practitioners in other health care professions.
Some medical techniques and equipment designed for the space environment have been adapted to use on Earth. An example is NEUROARM, which was created using technologies stimulated from space activity (Semmens, 2007). The NEUROARM uses robotics to perform precision surgery inside an MRI so that imaging of the patient can be done for a higher level of accuracy and safety for neurosurgeries (Semmens, 2007).
Indirect Benefits of Tele-health
Systems that augment the quality-of-life have innumerable indirect benefits to the society, the economy, and the environment. Tele-health is such a system, as it provides additional benefits towards combating the spread of contagious diseases, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI), viruses, and bacteria, by encouraging awareness and providing the basis for regulations involving cleanliness and quarantine. Using prevention, global systems that prevent the unnecessary spread of illnesses that affect millions of people (such as HIV/AIDS) are the best way to augment the health care capabilities of any State.
Sanitation and hygiene, as well as the prevention of water and land pollution, are factors of tele-health that compliment environmental sustainability. Global partnership is encouraged by tele-health systems in the form of international training, accessibility, and connectivity. Such systems remove professional isolation and provide dual benefits by encouraging medical research and development while simultaneously discouraging abuse of medical dumping and pollution. Experiences can be shared and the process of documenting and collaborating medical research can be executed efficiently by using tele-health as a gateway to the internet and the multitude of organizations that communicate using these systems. Information on indigenous medical practices can be shared globally so that when medical professionals are sent to remote areas, they are not entirely alienated from the local practices, as they can use their knowledge to best help the people despite various cultural barriers. Overall, tele-health provides a highly efficient way of tackling health care issues and overcoming communication problems anywhere in the world.
50 International Space University and the University of South Australia, SHS-SP 2011 Authors
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