o ENHANCING AWARENESS, SUPPLEMENTINGphilosophy, AND DEVELOPING N 4(28), D...ece mber - 2013

BERNARD BOLZANO’S ANALYTIC OF RELIGION

Winfried Löffler (*)

1. Bernard Bolzano (1781-1848) before Carnap he defined a logical In this short paper, I want to give of probability. It was Edmund you an overview to the of the Husserl who first re-discovered the perhaps most original, yet still widely immense of Bolzano’s writings, unknown Austrian : Bernard but the Bolzano renaissance is still Bolzano (1781-1848). Bolzano was a not completed. An edition of all his and professor of Religion at the works and manuscripts is in process, university of from 1805 until of about 120 planned volumes about he was fired under still somewhat 70 have already appeared. unclear circumstances in 1819/20. Bolzano Was he also a pioneer in modern was also a magnificent , of religion? There every scholar today knows the theorem is surely no direct influence to current of Bolzano and Weierstrass. According analytic , and to in his book Bolzano founded no “school” in that Origins of Analytic Philosophy, Bernard field, but we find in his works some Bolzano is the great-grandfather of really excellent pieces of analytic analytic philosophy. His principal work philosophy of religion, and all that is surely the huge Wissenschaftslehre around 1810. I will just mention four (Theory of Science) of 1837, the first of them:(*) modern and comprehensive treatise of Firstly, Bolzano was a pioneer of , and philosophy of the “logic of religion”, i.e. the clarification science. It has the same title as of the structure, and justification Johann Gottlieb Fichte’s book, but the of religious belief-systems. 130 years characters of the two works are later, Joseph Bochenski in The Logic of incomparable. In this book, Bolzano Religion of 1965 published a similar antedates modern development in approach. semantics, , probability theory Secondly, Bolzano formulated a and other fields for decades or even

100 years; for example, 120 years (*) Prof., Dr., Innsbruck, Austrian.

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BERNARD BOLZANO’S ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION logically sophisticated proof for God’s Religion] of 1834. It is based on his . It follows the of lecture notes and was published proof from the contingency of things anonymously in Bavaria by his pupils to God as their cause, but it is in due to the political censorship in detail highly original and has no Habsburg Austria. Despite its German parallel in the literature, as far as I title, it has nothing to do with can see. religious studies, but it is a complete Thirdly, Bolzano brings a probabilistic treatise of philosophy of religion and analysis of our reasoning about the systematic . Secondly, a book credibility of historical testimony. This on the immortality of the , and was important for Christian theology, thirdly, his more than 500 sermons since the Christian religion is a which are just published in a revealed religion: It claims to go back first complete edition (as far as we to certain extraordinary historical events, have the texts, fortunately we have and hence its rationality hangs on the most of them). Fourthly, one should historical credibility of the testimonial mention some books at the edge of accounts of these events. Testimony is theology, but I must skip them here a huge topic also in current epistemology, for brevity. All in all, philosophy of but Bolzano presents an early and religion is one of the central interests sophisticated probabilistic treatise on of Bolzano, and with respect to that – just a few years after Laplace. quantity, it is one of the biggest or Fourthly, in some of his sermons even the biggest part of his work. (“exhortations”) which he had to give Nevertheless, it is still underrated each Sunday and holiday for his and scarcely known. The most parts students, he presents detailed analyses of his philosophy are his anti- of various speech-acts, e.g. of the Kantianism, his postulate of a domain exact difference between “lying” and of “sentences in themselves” (something “deceiving”. In these sermons, Bolzano like Fregean or Meinongian anticipates Austin’s and Searle’s work “Objektive”), and in the on speech-act theory by more than Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, and a 100 years. book on the paradoxes of infinity. As a The most important sources for fine introduction that includes also Bolzano’s philosophy of religion are the philosophy of religion, I can three: Firstly, the comprehensive, 6 recommend the free online article on volume Lehrbuch der Religionswis- Bolzano in the Stanford Encyclopedia senschaft [Textbook on the Doctrine of of Philosophy by Edgar Morscher, one

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Winfried LÖffler of the leading Bolzano scholars of our like a cooperative in a 3-floor building. day. Parts of Bolzano’s works are also On the ground floor we find philosophical translated in English, however the theology, which tries to demonstrate translations do not include many that God exists and to clarify a few of texts about religion. Bolzano is so far his properties, e.g. his bodilessness mostly seen as mathematician, logician and his eternity (but not, for example, and philosopher of science. God’s triune – this is a topic After explaining Bolzano’s overall for theology). On the first floor, there project in his textbook in section 2, I is apologetics or fundamental theology: will pick out three interesting points It tries to show that God indeed in sections 3 to 5: His definition of revealed himself in the remarkable religion, the question whether he was happenings of the Old and New a total non-cognitivist in religion, and Testament (miracles and prophecies whether he argued for a sort of self- were a key argument). On the 2nd deception or self-persuasion in floor, dogmatic and moral theology try religious matters. to systematize the content of God’s 2. Bolzano’s overall project in revelation to us. Here now come in the Textbook topics such as the trinity, God as In order to understand Bolzano, one creator, the two natures of Jesus should recall the traditional stratified Christ, Christian moral commands model which was in the background of and much more. The size of the floors (especially Catholic) theology for centuries symbolizes the richness in content of till the 20th century. Theology works the disciplines:

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BERNARD BOLZANO’S ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

In order to understand Bolzano’s be defended, at least if we separate working situation, one should recall the actual core of the doctrines from that the philosophy and theology of their metaphorical wrappings. All this enlightenment brought all floors of looks much like traditional theology, this building into critique: Notably, but it is not exactly in the standard criticized the possibility way, as we shall see below. of proofs for God’s existence, and 3. Bolzano’s definition of religion historico-critical Bible scholarship Religions are complex phenomena, put in question not only the consisting of a social group with historicity of miracles and prophecies, structures, functionaries etc., rituals, but also the content of God’s revelation: holy places and , moral commands, For example, it is historically general attitudes towards life, etc. somewhat unclear what Jesus and But they also contain a theory-like, the apostles exactly taught and what cognitive core of factual beliefs which is a mere literary add-on. In light of can be formulated in propositions. these criticisms, some enlightenment Polytheists differ from theists, for theologians even went so far as to say example, in their beliefs about whether that Christian belief should better be there is one or many transcendent, interpreted in a non-cognitive, mere God-like objects. moral sense: The trinity, to take an Bolzano would not doubt the other example, is not a cognitive doctrine features of religion, but in his definition about facts concerning God, but of religion he takes the of a rather a moral command in disguise: religious as fundamental. Lead your life like the three persons A religion in Bolzano’s model is in God – love others, but maintain a something like a sum of propositions. distance and leave them their own This was very uncommon in the , let the other one be the other theology of his times, and by that he one. anticipated the linguistic turn of In his Textbook, Bolzano reacts on analytic philosophy by almost 100 years. all three floors of the building: He Let us first look at his distinction tries to show that God exists, that the between objective and subjective religion. historical revelation as reported in Whereas subjective religion is the the Bible deserves (on the whole) sum of religious propositions accepted trust, and that a systematic core of by some particular person, we can religious propositions can rationally also look at such a sum in itself, apart

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Winfried LÖffler from the question whether someone necessary conditions, an epistemic believes that. This is then an objective one and an ethical one: religion. a) The epistemic condition is that The (subjective) religion of a person with respect to an R-proposition we P = def the sum of the religious have a natural inclination to accept or propositions accepted by P. reject it without sufficient reason or An (objective) religion = def a sum of evidence. In a somewhat counter- religious propositions (Textbook, I, §.20). intuitive terminology, Bolzano calls Based on those definitions, Bolzano such propositions “moral propositions”. proposes some derivative definitions b) The ethical condition is that the in the subsequent paragraphs. A “living acceptance or rejection of an R-proposition religion” is an objective religion which modifies our degree of virtue and is actually accepted by some people, a happiness. Bolzano calls such propositions “dead religion” (like the religions of “important propositions”. the old Greeks and Romans) is one for We may define that an R- which this is not true any more; a proposition = def a proposition that “possible or imaginary religion” is an fulfils conditions (a) and (b). objective religion that someone puts In Bolzano’s own words: together without anybody being there Textbook I, §.20: [...] hence, by who actually accepts all these religious religion, if I should take this word in propositions. (We may add that attempts its subjective sense, I understand the to reform religions sometimes started sum of all those beliefs of a man with such imaginary religions.) The which are religious, or in other words, “religion of a society” according to the religion of a man I call the sum of Bolzano is the sum of propositions all those beliefs of a man which either which all (or almost all) members of a have a beneficent or unfavorable group or society accept. (We see that influence on his virtue or on his Bolzano had a clear eye for the happiness, and which are at the same sociological fact of religious deviance such that there is a particular even within groups). temptation/inclination to commit oneself All these definitions so far rely on either for or against them without the definition of a religious proposition, sufficient reason/evidence. an “R-proposition” for short. But what [...] From this subjective meaning is an R-proposition according to of the word easily results its objective Bolzano? In §.20, he states two one. Because, if we conceive of a sum

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BERNARD BOLZANO’S ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION of religious propositions with the religious features itself) . In general, purpose that these propositions could R-propositions are not restricted to be the religion of a man, yet without religious matters at all. presupposing that they really are Secondly, it is nowhere excluded believed and accepted by someone: that R-propositions can be backed by then we think of the notion of religion reasons. Religion according to Bolzano in the objective meaning. [...] In both is not something you must adopt as a cases, however, we take the word in a blind option. Looking at his own project, meaning which is wider than the we see that he himself provides reasons common one. Because, if I am not for R-propositions, for example by mistaken, in that latter meaning one establishing a new argument for God’s understands by religion nothing else existence. than the belief in God and the sum of 4. Bolzano – a religious fictionalist all those moral beliefs of a man which or non-cognitivist? refer to his and duties This latter point brings me to towards God. (Translation: W.L.) another question: Is it true – as the R-propositions are hence propositions older Bolzano literature used to see it that: a) we have a natural tendency to – that Bolzano is a religious accept or reject without reason or fictionalist or non-cognitivist? Did he evidence; and that b) influence the argue for a moral re-interpretation of degree of our virtue – or for short, and the R-propositions in the style of in Bolzano’s strange terminology, enlightenment theology? “important moral propositions”. As We saw that indeed all religious Bolzano obviously takes it, true propositions have to be morally religious propositions raise the degree relevant according to Bolzano (this of our virtue and happiness, whereas was his moral condition and the false ones lower it. notion of an “important proposition”), Let me add two observations. and the epistemic condition said that Firstly, as an interesting consequence we have a tendency to accept R- of this definition, Bolzano himself propositions without evidence or notes that also the atheist believes sufficient reasons. All that seems to some religious propositions (this is point to a non-cognitivist, moral re- perhaps an interesting observation interpretation of religion, and so it for the current discussions whether was taken by some earlier Bolzano- “New Atheism” (Dawkins etc.) has interpreters like Eduard Winter (the

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Winfried LÖffler great pioneer of Bolzano research in sum, Bolzano held a pretty balanced the mid 20th century). position and should not simply be But as I noted before, the epistemic classified as a enlightenment condition does not at all imply that theologian. there could not be sufficient evidence, 5. Self-deception/-persuasion to reasons or arguments for R-propositions. religion? The epistemic condition just says that There are some passages in §.17 we have a tendency to accept R- and 18 of Bolzano’s which are especially propositions even without them. controversial and seem to point towards Bolzano himself invests a lot of work a religious fictionalism. In his own words: to establish such arguments. His §.17. We sometimes wish to have proof for God’s existence is an example certain beliefs. [...] of such an argument, and we can see §.18. ... I also hold that the influence his whole project in the Textbook as a man can exert by his will on the an attempt to provide reasons for R- emergence of his beliefs is so far- propositions. His interest in the reaching that (if we want) we can of God and of immortal often even deceive, or (as one also in his book on immortality is another says) persuade ourselves; i.e. that we clear hint in that direction. deliberately behave in such a way that I think that Bolzano in fact believed a belief which we initially considered in a theoretico-practical “double face” wrong or at least uncertain will finally nature of R-propositions which is de be held by us. This is because we facto very much in traditional lines. humans can: In medieval theology, one of the a) [...] Form the wish that we could standard topics at the beginning of really hold a certain belief; and since theology textbooks was Utrum theologia we have a predictable influence on sit scientia speculativa aut practica?, our beliefs, we can also that means “is theology more a b) Try to really produce this belief theoretical or more a practical science?”, in ourselves; we can deliberately and most medieval authors also tended direct our attention to all true or only to a double-face position: Theological apparent reasons for it, we can doctrines have a factual, theoretical deliberately withdraw our attention side, but believing in them has from all objections to it, we can keep consequences for our life and should company with men who adhere to his in the end lead us to salvation. In belief, we can read books in which it

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BERNARD BOLZANO’S ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION is defended, etc. By all these means it deal with. It would for example be can finally wise, according to Bolzano, to deal not c) Happen indeed that we adhere to too much with literature in the style this belief with a bigger or smaller of Nietzsche, Marx, Freud, Sartre, degree of confidence. Dawkins, and other critics of religion Is this really a sort of fictionalism if one is interested n becoming or or pragmatism? I don’t think so: If we remaining a religious person. look at the text, Bolzano does nowhere This of course raises a question: suggest: a) A flat epistemic volun- under which condition is it rational to tarism (that is, the simple decision to enter such a self-education process in believe something, like turning a the fashion of Pascal and Bolzano, i.e. switch in your , which is indeed to train yourself towards a certain impossible) nor does he; b) recommend religion? Of course only under the a belief against the evidence. condition that this religion is at the What Bolzano recommends here is outset also attractive from a theoretical something similar to what Blaise Pascal standpoint, i.e. there are good theoretical suggested as a rational strategy in his arguments that it is true. And here famous Pascal’s Wager argument we are back to Bolzano’s theoretical (Pensées. 233): For practical reasons arguments – he is much more a you should act as if God existed and rationalist than Pascal. And in that you were a religious person (“have interpretation his self-persuasion to masses said, take holy water,...”), and belief loses a lot of its dangerous this will in the long run generate appearance. genuine faith in yourself. In terms of I am sorry that I have to skip some , Pascal recommends other “diamonds” in Bolzano’s philosophy a sort of “Abrichtung” (training) to a of religion, e.g. his probabilistic analysis certain “form of life” (“Lebensform”), of historical testimony or his wonderful which includes also a slow change in ethical analysis of the slogan “if I your thought. don’t involve myself in corruption, Back to Bolzano: He seems to then someone else will, hence I can do propose an epistemological variant of it” which he develops in a sermon on this strategy: We are invited to pre- the Gospel of Luke. But I hope that I select the “epistemic inputs” of succeeded in making you at least various sorts, e.g. by selecting the curious about an excellent philosopher, literature and arguments we want to in whose works there are still a lot of

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Winfried LÖffler exciting things to discover. 

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