COASTAL AND MARINE NATURAL VALUES OF THE KIMBERLEY PRODUCED FOR WWF-AUSTRALIA
Simon Mustoe BSc (Hons) Ecology MEIANZ, MIEEM, MECANSW Dr Matt Edmunds BSc (Hons) Marine Biology © WWF-Australia. All Rights Reserved. Produced for WWF-Australia by: AES Applied Ecology Solutions Pty Ltd. 39 The Crescent, Belgrave Heights Melbourne, Victoria 3160 AUSTRALIA T: + 61 (0)3 9752 6398 F: +61 (0) 3 9754 6083 M: 0405 220830 E: [email protected] ABN: 92 099 192 417
WWF-Australia Head Offi ce GPO Box 528 Sydney, NSW, Australia 2001 Tel: +612 9281 5515 Fax: +612 9281 1060 wwf.org.au
Published January 2008 by WWF-Australia. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit the above- mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily refl ect the views of WWF. ISBN: 1 921031 24 7 Cover image: Flatback Turtle Natator Depressus, © Lochman Transparencies Design: Three Blocks Left World Wide Fund for Nature ABN: 57 001 594 074 Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 1.
The Kimberley coast and offshore marine We also anticipate that this work will FOREWORD communities and environments are complement important descriptions recognised as some of the world’s most of broader Kimberley socio-economic ecologically diverse. Not only is the values that this report does not attempt Kimberley of global importance for its to present. largely intact terrestrial and freshwater The aim is to bring together in a single ecosystems, it is also undoubtedly one document, an overview of relevant of the world’s most intact large tropical published biological research, together marine ecosystems. WWF has recognised with some anecdotal reports. It is not the region as having outstanding global exhaustive, but is intended to provide biodiversity value by including the a snapshot and context for further Kimberley marine region in its Global 200 discussions and research efforts. The inventory of priority places of the Planet. Kimberley is a vast area, much of which In the past twelve months, the spotlight is inaccessible and where much of the has turned towards the Kimberley coast scientifi c information is not publically and marine environment, not for its available, therefore WWF-Australia and biodiversity values but because of the not the authors, should be held responsible hydrocarbon resources buried offshore. for any omissions in this report. WWF- Australia is keen to ensure that WWF-Australia would like to a full and accurate picture of marine acknowledge and thank all those and coastal natural values is included involved in the creation of this in any planning and assessment efforts, report, in particular Simon Mustoe and and commissioned this report to review Dr Matt Edmunds for their professionalism existing ‘Western’ scientifi c knowledge and diligence in producing the fi nal report. of the region’s ecological values. Special mention also goes to Samantha Bridgwood for compiling much of the WWF-Australia recognizes that information early in the project and to according to their traditional laws and Dr Kelly Waples for her assistance. We customs, Kimberley Traditional Owners also acknowledge Kimberley Birdwatching are the traditional owners of land within Tours for organising trips to Ashmore the Kimberley region and as such have a Reef, the dedication and wisdom of the responsibility to speak for and protect that expeditions’ birders and ornithologists, land. Moreover, we recognize that the without whom much of the information environment plays a very signifi cant role used in preparation of this report would in Indigenous culture and that Traditional not be available. Finally, our thanks to Owners are the custodians of traditional Dr Andrew Burbidge and Dr Trevor Ward, knowledge about country. The hope for their support and guidance throughout is that the scientifi c work described in the project. this report can usefully complement the picture of environmental (and cultural) Dr Gilly Llewellyn1 values held by the Traditional Owners Paul Gamblin2 of the region. January 2008
1 Program Leader, Oceans, Sydney 2 Senior Policy Advisor, Oceans and Coasts, Perth 2. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
INDIGENOUS WWF-AUSTRALIA PRINCIPLES “The natural sciences of Aboriginal In all our policies, programs and projects, people draw on a wealth of ecological PEOPLES AND WWF-Australia recognises that Australia’s knowledge from thousands of generations CONSERVATION Indigenous peoples have enduring cultural of direct experience. Knowledge of connections, rights and responsibilities species and their relationships is immense to biodiversity and associated cultural and detailed. Aboriginal histories of values throughout Australia, irrespective environmental change record uniquely of the current tenure of Indigenous long memories of country. Aboriginal peoples’ traditional lands and waters. ‘baselines’ describe environmental The philosophy guiding our work and features over timescales ranging from our approach with Indigenous people decades to millennia; from the last sea is encapsulated in the WWF document level rise or volcanic eruption, to the Indigenous People and Conservation: recent invasion of new human societies WWF Statement of Principles. with their suite of alien life forms.” (Horstman and Wightman 2001, p. 991) These principles, developed in 1996 as a fi rst attempt to enunciate a broad Recognising that there may be more policy to guide our work in over 50 than one knowledge system and set of countries, were prepared after extensive cultural values about a resource is critical consultation throughout the WWF to managing that resource cooperatively. network. They set a high standard for Species and environments are integral WWF’s engagement with Indigenous to Aboriginal cultures of the Kimberley, peoples, based on just recognition of and may include spiritual, social and their long-standing relationship with, economic values that may differ to non- stewardship of and customary use of the Aboriginal values. world’s environmental resources. Therefore, environmental management In line with these principles is the proposals need to accommodate these recognition that Indigenous knowledge sometimes diverse cultural values, and and biodiversity are complementary also acknowledge the different role phenomena, essential to both human that biodiversity and environmental development and the protection of processes play in maintaining both environmental values. WWF recognises cultural and ecological life. Consistent that the view from the Western scientifi c with our principles, WWF supports paradigm, whilst essential, does a complementary approach to not necessarily include the equally understanding the coastal and marine relevant perspective from an Aboriginal environments. This approach provides a understanding of Country. balanced view of management priorities through a range of consultative forums between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. This scientifi c report may be seen as an early step in this approach.
1. Horstman, M. & Wightman, G. (2001) Karparti ecology: recognition of Aboriginal ecological knowledge and its application to management in north-western Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration, 2 (2) 99 – 109. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 3.
1. The Kimberley environment, history stages, such as breeding grounds, EXECUTIVE particularly coastal and near-coastal areas can be surprisingly small, in the order SUMMARY are amongst the least disturbed habitats of tens of kilometres (Jaquemet et al., in Australia with relatively intact coastal 2005). Constraints on the availability processes and habitats (McKenzie et of food, nest sites or roosts greatly al., 2003; Miller & Sweatman, 2004b). determine the location where species The Kimberley also possesses one of occur, each being a critical component the most diverse coastlines and range of to overall distribution and abundance geomorphologies which together creates (e.g. Rogers et al., 2006b; Matthiopoulos, a fi ne mosaic of habitats and processes. 2003; Grémillet et al., 2004; Spear, 1988; These factors contribute to exceptional Phillips et al., 2005). Species interactions marine species richness, refl ecting the and inter-dependences also exist that can region’s high biodiversity value in an infl uence distributions, such as predator Australian and international context. prey relationships or facultative foraging relationships (e.g. Sooty Tern, Au & 2. Many marine species remain Pitman, 1986; Brooke et al., 2006). abundant but distribution is typically limited to relatively small areas at critical 4. Areas of high species richness are life history stages or due to particular often areas of high faunal biomass and habitat or food preferences determined refl ect the value of the ecosystem ‘its for example by migration, foraging, biodiversity’1 (Ballance et al., 2001). dispersal or recruitment requirements Such areas are usually at important (e.g. Banana Prawn Staples, 1980), sources of productivity (e.g. coral Flatback Turtle (Walker & Parmenter, reefs, seagrass beds, benthic sediment 1990) and Red-footed Booby (Jaquemet and mangroves), or are areas where et al., 2005). Ecological requirements are topographic features or oceanographic in turn coupled to predictable seasonal currents concentrate nutrients or other variation in physical processes, such potentially important resource, e.g. at as oceanography, cyclones and wet the boundary of different water masses, season rainfall. upwelling zones etc. In the marine realm, the majority of organisms demonstrate 3. The marine environment is inherently a larval life history stage and drift into patchy and species rely on areas where these locations, where they remain and they can effectively compete for prey and mature into more mobile juveniles, in where plentiful resources are available turn providing plankton food to support (Bernstein et al., 1991; Dunlop et al., the wider pelagic food chain. 1988; Worm et al., 2005). For species like Boobies and Frigatebirds, the size of habitat patches tied to particular life
1Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity provides a short description of the term `biodiversity’, which refers to the diversity of living organisms, the genes they contain, and the communities to which they contribute. Chapter 1 of the Convention’s Global Biodiversity Outlook 1 says “in addressing the boundless complexity of biological diversity, it has become conventional to think in hierarchical terms, from the genetic material within individual cells, building up through individual organisms, populations, species and communities of species, to the biosphere overall...At the same time, in seeking to make management intervention as effi cient as possible, it is essential to take an holistic view of biodiversity and address the interactions that species have with each other and their non-living environment, i.e. to work from an ecological perspective. By several of its decisions, the Conference of the Parties has explicitly recognised the need for this approach. In particular, decision V/6 and its annex provide a description and discussion of the ecosystem approach, which in effect becomes the paradigm within which the Convention’s activities are undertaken.”. 4. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
5. The largest aggregations and the 7. For marine species even relatively EXECUTIVE most important areas for population localised impacts e.g. direct impacts of SUMMARY CONT. viability generally occur where there is disturbance can have wider consequences high energy to be gained in return for than on a particular colony or site alone. search effort (Krebs & Davies, 1993). Most marine vertebrates are considered To maintain species richness and viable to be at or near carrying capacity populations, the location and size of these within their environment. Hence, where features overall needs to be seasonally individuals are forced to make ‘choices’ predictable (Bernstein et al., 1991). about where to feed or nest or become displaced, this is expected to result in 6. Population viability is a function of mortality and a reduction in population the ability of animals to disperse and carrying capacity (Dolman & Sutherland, recolonise between habitats of greater 1995). Not all areas of habitat will be and lesser quality over time. All animals important but in general, conservation of to some degree exhibit the characteristic, areas that support the largest number of which is known as metapopulation individuals and breeding adults from key dynamics. In marine species it is colonies, will be critical to ensuring there particularly relevant as entire populations is no signifi cant impact on a species’ of even the most abundant species move population viability. between just a few nesting and feeding locations, and the abundance of food for 8. The challenges for ecologically any given colony will tend to fl uctuate sustainable development of the substantially year to year. Understanding Kimberley Region are considerable. this process and the theory of source-sink The prospect of industrial development models, is one of the basic fundamentals in the heart of the Kimberley coastline of ecology and ecological impact raises concerns at a number of levels. assessment (Hill et al., 2005; Treweek, It is highly unlikely that the impact of 1999; Tucker et al., 2005). development can be fully mitigated or compensated, if it occurs in a relatively pristine environment. The effects of marine developments are much larger than their terrestrial equivalents and will ultimately be connected by infrastructure over a wide geographic area. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 5.
CONTENTS 1 Introduction and Context 12 1.1 Scope of Report 12 1.2 Report Structure 12 1.3 Biodiversity Values 12 2 The Kimberley 14 2.1 Overview 14 2.2 Coastal Marine Habitats 15 2.3 Continental Shelf Marine Habitats 16 2.4 Continental Slope and Shoals Marine Habitats 17 2.5 Wildlife 18 2.6 Expanding Industry Needs 19 3 Protected Areas 20 3.1 Coastal Wetlands 20 3.2 Parks and Reserves 20 3.3 Indigenous Tenure 23 4 Marine and Coastal Fauna and Flora 24 4.1 Introduction 24 4.2 Marine Fauna and Flora 24 4.3 Coastal Fauna and Flora 28
5 Key Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Drivers 30 5.1 Ecosystem Processes and Biodiversity 30 5.2 Primary Production 30 5.3 Oceanography and Geomorphology 32 6 Marine and Coastal Communities 36 6.1 General North-west Shelf Communities 36 6.2 Sediment Bed Communities 36 6.3 Shelf ‘Structure’ Communities 37 6.4 Shelf Slope Communities 37 6.5 Coral Communities 38 6.6 Mangroves (locally, Mangal) 39 6.7 Seagrass and Macroalgae 40 6.8 Pelagic Fauna Aggregations 40 6.9 Estuaries and Migratory Birds 44 6.10 Breeding Islands 45 6.11 River Mouths and Creeks 45
7 Conclusion 45
8 References 46
9 Appendices 52 6. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Figure 1: Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisations (IBRA) for Australia (Blue) FIGURES and Interim Biogeographic Regionalisations for Australia (IBRA) (Orange). Only marine regions and those that are within the coastal / hinterland areas are shown. Note, there is some overlap between IMCRAs and IBRAs. IMCRAs include some islands that are within coastal IBRAs. p10 Figure 2: Concept diagram of marine biodiversity: the relationship between species and ecosystem processes. p10 Figure 3: Existing petroleum fi elds, pipelines and built or proposed Liquefi ed Natural Gas (LNG) plants in north west Australia (data from Geoscience Australia 2007) p19 Figure 4: Ramsar Sites in the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. p20 Figure 5: Coastal or near-coastal wetlands from the Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia (Australia, 2001). p21 Figure 6: Parks and reserves including Commonwealth Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). p22 Figure 7: Distribution of land described as Aboriginal Leasehold or Aboriginal Reserve and the boundary of the Northern Kimberley, Central Kimberley and Dampierland bioregions. Data is from Australian Land Tenure 1993 (Geoscience Australia). p23 Figure 8: Dwarf Sperm Whale Kogia simus, recorded over a depth of about 700m between Scott Reef and Ashmore Reef in October 2007 (photo, Rohan Clarke). This species is diffi cult to observe and often boat shy. Unlike dolphins, including Short- fi nned Pilot Whales Globicephala macrorhynchus (Family: Delphinidae), Dwarf Sperm Whale and to great extent, beaked whales, are likely to shy away from loud noise. It is highly likely that these species are seriously underestimated by visual observers on oil and gas exploration (seismic) operations. This is a particularly useful example of a species for which correlation with areas of higher than normal biodiversity, as indicated by seabird abundance, may be important for risk assessment. p28 Figure 9: Simplifi ed seasonal oceanography of northwest Australia showing major current systems (top) and productivity (bottom). During the southeasterly monsoon (winter dry season), productivity is very high, fuelled by upwelling in the Indonesian archipelago and strong currents. During the northwest monsoon (wet season), productivity falls and currents abate though productivity remains relatively high at offshore islands due to upwelling, and near the coast as a consequence of river plumes. p32 Figure 10: Sea Surface Chlorophyll (SSC) Maximum and mean habitat zone, all months. p33 Figure 11: Sea Surface Temperature (SST) (top) and Sea Surface Chlorophyll (bottom) medians for each MPA by day of year, together with the climatology (solid line) and ±2 SD (dashed line). p34 Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 7.
Figure 12: Scott Reef atolls and islands showing the steep continental slope to their west and numerous deep ocean canyons. p35 Figure 13: Coastal Reefs and Islands off North West Australia. Yellow and orange areas indicate ocean between depths of -5 to -20m. Selected reef and island complexes are labelled. p35 Figure 14: Distribution of trapping effort for the Northern Demersal Scalefi sh Fishery (Department of Fisheries, 2004). p37 Figure 15: Seabird biomass in 10-minute intervals recorded in October 2004 on a cruise from Broome to Ashmore Reef via Scott Reef. The left hand map shows all intervals with a recorded biomass exceeding 350g / 10min. The right hand map shows only intervals with a recorded biomass <350g. The right hand map is a better illustration of variation in pelagic seabird biomass, which is substantially lower than in near shore areas. The dark line is the 1000m depth contour. Gaps in the data are due to cruising overnight, when no observations were made. p41 Figure 16: Habitat separation amongst three migrant (non-breeding) pelagic seabirds off Scott Reef in 2004. This pattern of distribution has been observed in all eight expeditions to the area (Mike Carter, pers comm). Tahiti Petrels are seen most often north of Scott Reef, whilst Matsudaira’s Storm Petrel and Swinhoe’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma monorhis (not pictured) are found to the south. Bulwer’s Petrel is more likely in the steep shelf areas around the reef itself. p42 Figure 17: Location of Cuvier’s beaked whale sighting in October 2004. This species is a characteristic resident of deep ocean canyons. p43 8. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Table 1: Location and characteristics of bioregions in the Kimberley region TABLES (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006; DEW, 2007a). p13 Table 2: Predominant habitat types in the coastal bioregions (Table 1 & 5) p16 Table 3: Presence of general geomorphic features in the North West Shelf and Offshore Shoals bioregions (Harris et al., 2005; Commonwealth of Australia, 2006). p18 Table 4: Key features of the region’s three Ramsar sites. p21 Table 5: Annotated list of key marine fauna of the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. Status is given as WA (Department of Conservation and Environment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007) or Cth (Commonwealth EPBC Act listing). p25 Table 6: Selected threatened terrestrial fauna of the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. p29 Table 7: Mangrove communities characteristic of the northern Kimberley (Saenger, 1996). p39 Table 8: Average counts of waterbirds at Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach (northern end only) Ramsar sites in 2004 / 2005 (Rogers et al., 2006c). Only the 20 most numerically abundant species for each site are shown. The total counts for the two sites are given, plus an estimate of the percentage of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway Population, based on offi cial Wetlands International data (Wetlands International, 2006). p44 Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 9.
APPENDICES Appendix A: Threatened ecological communities. Appendix B: Threatened Kimberley Fauna (adapted Department of Conservation and Environment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007).
Appendix C: Priority Kimberley Fauna (adapted Department of Conservation and Environment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007).
Appendix D: Threatened species on the EPBC Act (from the Protected Matters Search Tool, Department of Sustainability and Water Resources website). Note, this database provides only an approximation of what species are likely to occur. Some of the species on this list may not be found within the coastal Kimberley. Other species may be missing. 10. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Figure 1: Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisations (IBRA) for Australia (Blue) and Interim Biogeographic Regionalisations for Australia (IBRA) (Orange). Only marine regions and those that are within the coastal / hinterland areas are shown. Note, there is some overlap between IMCRAs and IBRAs. IMCRAs include some islands that are within coastal IBRAs.
15 4 1 7 9 19
13 11 5 6 8 2 12 17 17 14 10 18
3
Figure 2: Concept diagram of marine biodiversity: the relationship between species and ecosystem processes. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 11.
Figure 2:
1. The boundaries between rotating eddies of 2. Dolphins and tuna seek out areas of higher 3. Deep water at or below the thermocline is warm and cooler water provide foraging habitat for productivity and drive small fi sh to the surface, foraging habitat for specialists like Sperm Whales oceanic species, such as Tahiti Petrels and migrants where they are available to Sooty Terns and other that predate squid. The foraging range of such from Japan such as Matsudaira’s Storm Petrel. wide-ranging foragers. These conditions are more species is very large. They also provide habitat for hatchlings of several favourable during El Niño, when the thermocline turtle species, and adult turtles of species such as (layer of warm surface water) is thinner. Leatherback Turtle. 4. Seabirds such as Brown Booby are relatively 5. Upwelling at steep features of the continental 6. Atolls and islands are biogenic structures, energy-constrained and seek out species such as slope provides a concentration of food for seabirds created by the action of coral-forming animals Sooty Tern, to capitalise on the Tern’s ability to fi nd and turtles. Flying fi sh are an indication of plankton over thousands of years. These islands provide food more effi ciently. activity. Marine megafauna like Dwarf Sperm Whales essential breeding habitat for species like Red- and Spinner Dolphins concentrate here. The footed Booby and Lesser Frigatebird. These are presence of these pelagic communities determines short-range foragers that specialise in predating the value of adjacent island breeding habitat. fl ying fi sh on the wing and depend on locally rich habitat, often at spatial scales of just 10s of kms.
7. Tern species like Sooty Tern and Common Noddy 8. Tidal mixing and upwelling behind reef banks on 9. Coastal islands are important refuges for may forage widely and travel between the coast and the continental shelf is a major source of surface terrestrial species that are in decline on the offshore but they are only likely to feed in abundance productivity. It is the most important physical process mainland due to human pressures and predation. at key locations. Despite their apparent abundance, on the continental shelf. This provides some of the They are also critical breeding sites for turtles the true extent of their range is restricted. richest seabird and turtle habitat. Flatback turtle such as Flatback Turtle and Green Turtle, as well hatchlings swept here on currents, depend on these as colonial seabirds such as Roseate Tern and areas. It is also where prawns such as banana prawn Little Tern. spawn, which are in turn food for sharks, turtles, seabirds and sea snakes like Stoke’s sea snake.
10. Seagrass is a direct food source for Dugong 11. Estuary mouths provide a locally important 12. Intertidal mudfl ats are critical for internationally but also refuge for juvenile fi sh and feeding habitat for source of productivity supporting megafauna such signifi cant numbers of migrant shorebirds. The terns. It provides a physical structure for breeding and as Australian Snubfi n Dolphin and Freshwater availability of roost sites and rich feeding areas is refuge from predators. It is also one of the important Sawfi sh. Little Terns feed here, which are uniquely at a premium in the region. Roebuck Bay is vastly sources of primary productivity. Loss of seagrass can summer breeders, likely to depend on wet season important at an international scale but so too are affect nutrient cycling processes at other locations, rains for a fl ush of nutrients, promoting seagrass the many inlets and estuaries of King Sound. well away from the source effect. The thin layer of growth and fi sh breeding. benthic algae (microphytobenthos) in intertidal and subtidal areas is likely to be the most important primary producer, essential as food for sediment infauna and to stabilise sediment for colonisation.
13. The grey arrows indicate the pattern of dispersal 14. Many species of fi sh that have juvenile stages 15. The forested catchments and banks of rivers and recruitment of prawns, such as Banana Prawn in shallow water, migrate into deeper waters in their and creeks that enter the coast, particularly in the and Tiger Prawn. These species are essential to the adult stage. Red emperor juveniles are common in Northern Kimberley, are essential in controlling food chain and depend at different stages of their life nearshore turbid waters but subadults and adults sediment levels, and maintaining water quality in cycle on mangroves and offshore areas. are distributed across the continental shelf to 180 m the coastal environment. depth. Scarlet perch juveniles are solitary in nearshore waters, often in seagrass. Adults are dispersed across the continental shelf to 140 m depth.
16. Beaked whales like Cuvier’s beaked whale 17. Coral reefs are associated with submerged 18. Sponge gardens are most abundant in deep feed on benthos at depths of up to 2,000m, banks and islands, both nearshore and well offshore. continental shelf water and grade into muddy usually around steep and varied bathymetric features Coral reefs harbour exceptionally high biomass substrata near and on the slope. These areas such as seamounts and deep ocean canyons. and species richness through substantial primary are particularly rich in infauna, which may be a Species are likely to occur in localised areas, where production and structural diversity. primary source of production for upwelling (8). there is an abundance of food. Such areas also This habitat is patchily distributed throughout the support a high fi sh biomass, often of important region but much is likely to have been lost due to commercial value. bottom trawling in the recent past.
19. Mangroves are structurally important as breeding habitat for a wide range of species from almost all taxonomic groups. Their principle role in the ecosystem however, is to stabilise and capture sediment, thus controlling its release into the coastal ecosystem; and providing a buffer against coastal erosion, particularly during cyclones. 12. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
1. 1.1 SCOPE OF REPORT seasonal and spatial patterns create a This report aims to review the coastal very patchy and predictable ecology, INTRODUCTION and marine biodiversity of the west with areas of relatively high and low and north-west Kimberley, including biodiversity value. In order to ensure AND CONTEXT offshore marine areas, from south of effective planning and management it Broome to Cape Londonderry. The is considered critically important that study area comprises two terrestrial patterns of marine ecosystem processes bioregions (DEW, 2007a) and seven are understood at a regional scale and marine bioregions (Commonwealth of that the drivers of marine ecosystem Australia, 2006) (Table 1). Five of these processes are understood at a community marine bioregions are coastal and two are level. Section 6 describes how particular offshore (Figure 1). The whole region is species react to physical pressures and broadly referred to in this report as how species have evolved specifi c roles “the Kimberley”. in the environment at different spatial scales, including emphasising the The goal of this report is to provide an critical associations and interactions introduction to natural ecological values that exists between many species and of the Kimberley and is intended to their environment. inform discussions about strategies for the sustainable development of northern 1.3 BIODIVERSITY VALUES Australia. In particular this report is Biodiversity means the diversity of life targeted at discussions around current on earth. Over the years, the Convention and future infrastructure applications to on Biological Diversity has reshaped its service the developement of the Browse approach and defi nition of biodiversity. It Basin gas reserves (Figure 3). has this to say about the way biodiversity should be addressed: 1.2 REPORT STRUCTURE Sections 2 and 3 provide an overview of “in addressing the boundless complexity the Kimberley marine and coastal natural of biological diversity, it has become environments, including their importance conventional to think in hierarchical in a regional, national and international terms, from the genetic material within context, and highlights areas that are individual cells, building up through designated under international or national individual organisms, populations, protected area mechanisms. In section 4 species and communities of species, to species that best characterise the marine the biosphere overall... . At the same and coastal environment are introduced, time, in seeking to make management including those that are considered intervention as effi cient as possible, it threatened. The purpose of this report is essential to take an holistic view of however, is not to provide an exhaustive biodiversity and address the interactions and comprehensive overview of every that species have with each other and 2 Conference of Parties 5, Decision V/6, Nairobi, species or repeat the detail covered their non-living environment, i.e. to 15 - 26 May 2000, sA3: Ecosystem means a in other key policy documents and work from an ecological perspective. By dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro- biodiversity inventories. For more detail, several of its decisions the Conference organism communities and their non-living readers are referred to Graham, 2002a of the Parties has explicitly recognised environment interacting as a functional unit. This and Mawson, 2007 and to the Department the need for this approach. In particular, defi nition does not specify any particular spatial unit of Conservation and Land Management’s decision V/6 and its annex provide or scale, in contrast to the Convention defi nition Threatened Ecological Community a description and discussion of the of “habitat”. Thus, the term “ecosystem” does not, 2 (TEC) Database and the Commonwealth ecosystem approach, which in effect necessarily, correspond to the terms “biome” or becomes the paradigm within which the “ecological zone”, but can refer to any functioning government’s Protected Matters Convention’s activities are undertaken”.3 unit at any scale. Indeed, the scale of analysis and Search Tool. action should be determined by the problem being A brief overview of key ecosystem When one refers to biodiversity, an addressed. It could, for example, be a grain of soil, drivers in section 5 introduces the operational defi nition is needed; a pond, a forest, a biome or the entire biosphere. structure of the environment in which something relatively simple but ecologically sound, that that can be 3 these species (including some common Convention on Biological Diversity. Global understood and used in a practical sense. OutLook 1. November 2001. species) occur and describes how Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 13.
Bioregion Location Major Features TERRESTRIAL Dampierland (DL) Coastally from just east of Port (1) Quaternary sandplain overlying Jurassic and Mesozoic sandstones with Pindan. Hedland in the west, to the Stewart Hummock grasslands on hills. River just northeast of Derby, including (2) Quaternary marine deposits on coastal plains, with Mangal, samphire - Sporobolus the whole Dampier Peninsula. Inland grasslands, Melaleuca acacioides low forests, and Spinifex - Crotalaria strand communities. to just east of Fitzroy crossing and (3) Quaternary alluvial plains associated with the Permian and Mesozoic sediments of Fitzroy Trough support tree savannas of Crysopogon - Dichanthium grasses with scattered north of the Great Sandy Desert. Eucalyptus microtheca - Lysiphyllum cunninghamii. Riparian forests of River Gum and Cadjeput fringe drainages. (4) Devonian reef limestones in the north and east support sparse tree steppe over Triodia intermedia and T. wiseana hummock grasses and vine thicket elements. Dry hot tropical, semi-arid summer rainfall. Northern Kimberley Coastally from the Stewart River just Dissected plateau of Kimberley Basin. Savanna woodland of Woolybutt and Darwin Stringy (NK) northeast of Derby, to Wyndham up bark over high Sorghum grasses and Plectrachne schinzii hummock grasses on shallow to about 200km inland. sandy soils on outcropping Proterozoic siliceous sandstone strata. Savanna woodlands on Eucalyptus tectifi ca - E. grandifl ora alliance over high Sorghum grasses on red and yellow earths mantling basic Proterozoic volcanics. Riparian closed forests of paperbark trees and Pandanus occur along drainage lines. Extensive Mangal occurs in estuaries and sheltered embayments. Numerous small patches of monsoon rainforest are scattered through the district. Dry hot tropical, sub-humid, summer rainfall. COASTAL Eighty Mile Beach (EMB) Cape Keraurdren to Cape Missiessy. Almost continuous curving beach of siliceous sand, on average 100 m wide. Important NW Province migratory shorebird habitat and Ramsar wetland.
Canning (CAN) Cape Missiessy to west of Cape Nothern part of Canning Basin shore. Southern part comprises Eighty Mile Beach. NW Province Leveque including Lacapede Islands Alternating embayments and headlands with very large tidal range. Little or no fl uvial run-off. and Roebuck Bay.
King Sound (KSD) King Sound, south of Point Osbourne Wide, open gulf encompasses the seasonal Fitzroy Estuary and Stokes Bay. NW Biotone and Shenton Bluff.
Kimberley (KIM) Cape Londonderry to west of Cape Remote and little-studies section of coast. Characterised by rocky shore, mud fl at, NW Biotone Leveque, including Buccaneer mangrove and land-locked marine and estuarine habitats. A broad area of inner shelf is Archipelago. included seaward of the many nearshore islands. Rainfall is high in the north but decreases south of Walcott Inlet.
OFFSHORE North West Shelf (NWS) North West Shelf off Pilbara coast and Diverse benthic invertebrate communities and fi sh fauna. NW Province outer shelf off Kimberley coast. Oceanic Shoals (OSS) Area of submerged and emergent Oceanic reefs and cays, as well as banks and reef systems closer inshore, including Sahul NW Biotone reefs and cays along the outer edge Shelf (complex of channels, terraces and fl at-toped banks). Active shelf-edge platform reef of the continental shelf, from Lyndoch systems, submerged and drowned coral reefs. Seringapatam, Scott Reef and Rowley and Troubadour Shoals in the Arafura Shoals. Browse, Adele and Lynher reefs and islands. Sea to the Rowley Shoals. Limits are 10.5-18º S and 119-131º E
Table 1: Location and characteristics of bioregions in the Kimberley region (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006; DEW, 2007a).
Hence, this report is about ‘values’, the defi nition of which includes “ the composition, structure and function of ecosystems” (Redford & Richter, 1999). It is also necessary to refer to more than just biomass or species richness, though these can be a principle surrogates. Although components of the ecosystem may well be important (e.g. threatened species and communities), an understanding of how these components fi t together in the environment is essential to understanding and therefore managing biodiversity outcomes. For example, although one may compare the relative importance of habitats such as seagrass beds and coral reefs, some species are dependent on both habitats at different periods of their life history. The function of the two habitats (thereby their importance) will vary, depending on location and spatial scale. Any local or site assessment of biodiversity value would depend heavily on fi rst identifying the role of habitats, then deciding whether they are particularly important for a notable component of the ecosystem. This report avoids this type of comparison, taking a necessarily broad and regional-scale view of biodiversity composition, structure and function. 14. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
2. 2.1 OVERVIEW The continental shelf is linked biologically The Kimberley is characterised by to coastal areas through animal migrations. THE KIMBERLEY extremely low human population For example, many species of prawns density and lack of infrastructure. and demersal fi sh have a juvenile phase Dampierland and the Northern Kimberley in coastal and estuarine habitats with are particularly remote with an almost subsequent migration to inner and outer complete absence of roads reaching the shelf habitats. The components are also coast. Islands are the predominant coastal linked physically, with key large scale formation with thousands distributed processes including strong tidal currents, between Broome and Cape Londonderry. particularly in the coastal and inner shelf There are over 200 islands in the region and cyclones which aid in mixing Bonaparte and Buccaneer Archipelagos nutrients and transporting sediments alone. Islands are particularly important across the shelf. as a microcosm of the Mitchell Plateau The continental slope and deep water environment and a refuge for intact habitats are also important, though ecosystems and species otherwise their role in ecosystem dynamics is less threatened on the mainland (Burbidge et well understood. Nevertheless, there is al., 1991; How et al., 2006). They are also likely to be a link between upwelling of important breeding grounds for marine nutrients onto the continental shelf and turtles and seabirds. rich soft sediment seabed communities The coastal component consists of many there. The continental slope habitats also estuaries, inlets and embayments with provide for a range of relatively unique mangrove, tidal sediment fl ats, channels, deep water specialists, including fi sh and seagrass beds, islands, shoals, rocky reef, marine mammals such as beaked whales. coral reef and muddy seabed habitats. The shelf extends approximately 370 km offshore (depths of 20-200 m) and has a high diversity of habitats and geomorphic features. These include gravel and sandy plains, some with sponge and coral gardens, which grade into muddy substrata near and on the slope. Interspersed through the area are limestone pavements and outcrops, coral reefs and shoals. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 15.
2.2 COASTAL MARINE Reefs and coral communities are scattered HABITATS throughout the region, generally on the The Kimberly coast is dissected into a seaward, exposed coasts of the mainland mosaic of different habitat types, largely and fringing the islands. There are coral driven by local environmental conditions. reefs present in between the islands. The Mangroves generally fringe the head of distribution of coral habitat is not well bays and inlets that are sheltered from known, but there may also be bands of waves. Mangroves also extend inland subtidal coral communities along the along the edges of estuary tidal channels. coast, as mapped for the Pilbara coast Salt fl ats and marshes are present in (although that region has a much reduced some areas on the landward side of fl uvial sediment input; Magvelashvili the mangrove fringe, particularly areas et al., 2006). Macroalgae communities that fl ood during the monsoon season. occur on hard substrata such as limestone Seaward of the mangroves, there are reefs and platforms and, like seagrass, often mud fl ats, sand fl ats or sandy tends to occur in areas with a higher light banks, depending on the current, wave regime and reduced sedimentation. exposure and sediment regime. The The coastal waters and associated shores exposed to wave action generally habitats, typifi ed by the high sediment have sandy beaches, rocky reef or loadings, transport and mixing from tidal limestone platforms. currents, generally extend onto the shelf The high tidal range in the Kimberly to depths of 15-20 m. The high turbidity causes very strong currents, which of the coastal waters is persistent, but transport sediments in the coastal the suspended sediment concentration region, forming subtidal habitats such varies by an order of magnitude between as channels, harder sand banks and spring and neap tides (Magvelashvili soft muddy deposits further offshore et al., 2006). (to approximately 20 m depth). The currents also scour sediments from reef structures and supply food to associated fi lter-feeding invertebrates. Seagrass generally occurs on sandy banks with its distribution greatly infl uenced by substratum stability and light climate (a function of sedimentation, turbidity and depth). 16. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Eighty Mile Canning King Sound Kimberley Habitat Beach (EMB) (CAN) (KSD) (KIM) NW Province NW Province NW Biotone NW Biotone Beach-Dune 99 Saltmarsh 99 9 Mangroves 99 9 Mudfl ats 99 9 Embayment 99 9 Channels 99 9 Subtidal sands 9999 Seagrass beds ? 9 ? 9 Subtidal mud ? 9 ? 9 Nearshore reef ? 9 Islands 99 9 Offshore reef 99 Coral reef ? communities 99 Macroalgal ? communities 99
Table 2: Predominant habitat types in the coastal bioregions (Table 1 & Figure 1) © WWF-Canon , Cat HOLLOWAY of the Kimberley. Humpback whale Megaptera Novaeangliaie 2.3 CONTINENTAL SHELF • Holothuria Banks, Penguin Shoal and MARINE HABITATS West Londonderry Rise (banks) – The continental shelf in the Kimberley offshore from Cape Londonderry; and region is a complex of many different • Sahul Banks and Sahul Rise (banks) – geomorphic features. Large scale outer margin of Sahul Shelf and north shelf features of the North West Shelf of Cape Londonderry. bioregion include (from south to north): Rowley Shelf is a relatively smooth • Rowley Shelf, offshore from Eighty and gentle sediment covered slope. Mile Beach; It has reefs, depressions and sand • Rowley Depression (valley) – offshore waves ranging in height from 5-10 m from Roebuck Bay; in various locales. • Leveque Rise (bank) – separating the The Sahul Shelf has complex bathymetry, Rowley and Sahul Shelfs; largely through faulting and folding and reef growth during the Miocene period. • Sahul Shelf (shelf and valleys)- from The shelf consists of a large bowl with King Sound north into the Timor Sea; extensive banks on the outer shelf (Sahul • Browse Depression (valley) – offshore from the Kimberly bioregion; Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 17.
Banks) and a broad central depression on the inner to middle shelf regions (Browse Depression). On the inner and middle shelf is the Bonapart Depression which forms an epicontinental sea. Smaller scale structures on the Sahul Shelf include valley sides, stepped level terraces, steep scarps, pinnacles and banks (Harris et al., 2005). Localised patches of the shelves have biogenic accretion with sheets and mounds of corals and calcareous algae. Erosion and dispersion of these accretions has produced deposits of bioclastic sand and gravel beds. These beds include sediment aprons around outcrops, winnowed sediment veneers on limestone Brown Boobies Sula lecuogaster, Common Noddies Anous stolidus, Crested Terns pavements and sediment blankets. Sterna bergii and Lesser Frigatebirds Fregata ariel at Ashmore Reef National The coastal high turbidity zone and Nature Reserve. input of fl uvial sediments occurs to approximately 20 m deep. The sediments across the shelf have a marked zonation 2.4 CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND Biohermal limestone outcrops are with gravel and sand dominating the SHOALS MARINE HABITATS mounds created by the highly productive inner shelf and fi ner sands, silts and clays Large scale features of the Offshore calcareous algae Halimeda spp. These dominating the less energetic outer shelf Shoals bioregion (from south to north) mounds or banks are typically formed (Magvelashvili et al., 2006). Sediments in include: over long periods of time in depths of the mid-shelf areas are winnowed of very 20-50 m and are present at the edge • Rowley Shoals (reef); fi ne sand, silts and clays and exported to of the Sahul Shelf. The formation and • Rowley Terrace (terrace); the continental slope. productivity of these banks is reliant • Scott Reef and Seringapatam Reef on considerable nutrient input and are The sediment bed habitats are (reefs); generally only present where there is modifi ed by gardens of sessile • Ashmore Reef, Hibernia Reef and upwellings of nutrient rich deeper invertebrates (sponges, soft corals and Fantome Shoal (reefs); and oceanic waters. gorgonians). These generally occur in patches across the shelf on rippled sand • Cartier Trough (canyon). The continental slope, including Scott Terrace and much of Rowley Terrace beds, between 50-100 m depth, but The Rowley Terrace is a dissected is only partially encompassed by the extend to 150 m depth. series of terraces on the upper to middle Offshore Shoals Bioregion. This region continental slope, offshore from the has smooth, sediment covered slopes and Rowley Shelf and Sahul Shelf. The terraces, but also includes escarpments terrace is in 2000 to 4000 m depth, rising and steep sided canyons (Harris et al., to approximately 400 m depth. Large 2005). The sediments are generally reefal accumulations have grown on the muds with high carbonate content. The terrace, including Ashore, Seringapatan sediment type has a strong relationship to and Scott Reefs. The fl anks of these the benthic activity, bedform morphology atolls are steep and almost vertical within and sediment rippling, correlating 200-300 m of the surface. Further to the with different species abundances south, the Rowley Shoals, which include (McLoughlin et al. 1988). Memaid, Clerke and Imperieuse Reefs, rise from approximately 350 m depth (Harris et al., 2005). 18. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
North West Shelf Oceanic Shoals) productivity throughout the year. Cuvier’s Habitat (NWS) (OSS) beaked whales Ziphius cavirostris, NW Province NW Biotone Dwarf Sperm Whales Kogia simus and Rough-toothed Dolphins Steno Shelf bredanensis observed here are indicators of this richness, along with a high Slope tropical diversity of marine mammals Pinnacle including Blue Whales Balaenoptera musculus, Melon-headed Whales Reef Peponocephala electra and Spinner Terrace Dolphins Stenella longirostris.
Plateau Between the continental abyss and the Northern Kimberley coast a series of Valley raised banks support islands and reefs. Canyon Their physical structure helps concentrate upwelling and nutrients gathered from Bank, sandbank sediment washed into the region over Deep, escarpment years of monsoon rain. These hotspots of summer upwelling are crucial for Coral Reef biodiversity, when tropical warm currents Sponge garden from the Pacifi c sterilises winter algal blooms. The variable nature of the Table 3: Presence of general geomorphic features in the North West Shelf and coastline creates a mosaic of habitats Offshore Shoals bioregions (Harris et al., 2005; Commonwealth of Australia, 2006). at various scales, to suit a diversity of species with different needs. Seagrass 2.5 WILDLIFE from the Red Sea regularly forage at beds are amongst the most important The Canning region of the Kimberley, the continental slope. The deep ocean drivers for primary production. They are which includes Broome, is renowned for canyons that fringe Scott Reef are likely food for iconic mammals such as Dugong Roebuck Bay and the Roebuck Plains. to be an important driver for pelagic Dugong dugon and breeding / recruitment Together, these represent one of the ecosystem processes, supporting primary areas for a wide variety of fi sh species. most signifi cant waterbird sites in the world. Similarly, migratory shorebirds congregate at other estuaries and islands, including remote offshore territories such as Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Ashmore Reef is recognised as internationally signifi cant for its diversity of sea snakes, which includes one endemic species, Aipysurus fuscus (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). Islands closer inshore are home for the rare Australian endemic Flatback Turtle Natator depressus. Seabirds are also a signifi cant component of the marine ecosystem, which is shared between Western Australia and Cuvier’s beaked whales Ziphius cavirostris are a rarely seen species but amongst the Commonwealth. Migratory seabirds the more widespread of the family. They appear to be bottom feeders, predating such as Matsudaira’s Storm Petrel fi sh, squid and crustaceans in the soft sediment of deep ocean canyons to depths Oceanodroma matsudairae from Japan of 2,000m. They are likely to be an important visible indicator of areas of high and Jouanin’s Petrel Bulweria fallax biodiversity value on the deep sea bed. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 19.
2.6 EXPANDING INDUSTRY NEEDS In the last decade, minerals and petroleum contributions to the Western Australia have risen by 10% per year to contribute $48.4 billion in 2006 and 30% of Gross State Product. (Department of Industry and Resources, 2007). Petroleum is the largest of these resource sectors and supports 50% of Australia’s market (Department of Industry and Resources, 2007). World demand has renewed incentive for upstream seismic exploration off the north west coast of Australia where natural gas resources are abundant (I.M. Longley et al., 2003). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, offshore petroleum exploration increased in the June quarter of 2007 by a massive $246.5 million (70.4%), of which Western Australia contributed $205.9 million (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
Figure 3: Existing petroleum fi elds, pipelines and built or proposed Liquefi ed Natural Gas (LNG) plants in north west Australia (data from Geoscience Australia 2007). 20. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
3. 3.1 COASTAL WETLANDS 3.1.1 Ramsar Wetlands PROTECTED There are three Ramsar wetlands in the Kimberley coastal region: Ashmore Reef, AREAS Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Ramsar Sites in the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland
Eighty Mile Beach and Roebuck Bay are distinct in that they provide habitat quite different from the estuaries further north. With the exception of King Sound, Roebuck Bay is the only extensive area of tidal mudfl at in the region. The Ramsar Information Sheets provide a limited description of the ecological character of these sites (Table 4). With the possible exception of Ashmore Reef, the sites are of particular note for their migratory waterbirds and support internationally signifi cant numbers (section 6.9). Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 21.
Site Key Features (from Ramsar Information Sheet) Ashmore Reef Ramsar • Habitat for >40 species listed on JAMBA/CAMBA/ROKAMBA designation: 2002 • ~10,000 nesting Green Turtles + 11,000 feeding, including some Area: 58,300 ha Loggerhead and Hawksbill Turtles. • Small population of Dugong. • Three species of endemic sea snake. • >50,000 pairs of breeding seabird (notable for Sooty Tern, Crested Tern, Common Noddy). • Regularly supports >1% East Asian-Australasian fl yway population of Ruddy Turnstone, Grey-tailed Tattler). Eighty-mile Beach • Most important area for waders in northwest Australia. Ramsar designation : 1990 • Critical landfall for southward-migrating birds. Area: 125,000 ha • Numerous species regularly exceed 1% of the East Asian- Australasian fl yway population. Roebuck Bay • RIS says it regularly supports >100,000 birds – this may be an Ramsar designation: 1990 underestimate. Recent coordinated counts in excess of 350,000 Area: 55,000 ha shorebirds. • Fourth most important shorebird site in Australia • Numerous species regularly exceed 1% of the East Asian- Australasian fl yway population. • Under consideration for marine reserve status (CALM, WA)
Table 4: Key features of the region’s three Ramsar sites.
3.1.2 Nationally Important Wetlands In addition to Ramsar sites, the Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia (Australia, 2001) lists 13 sites in the Dampierland and Northern Kimberley bioregions. Nine of these are at coastal or near-coastal locations.
Figure 5: Coastal or near-coastal wetlands from the Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia (Australia, 2001). 22. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
3.2 PARKS AND RESERVES There are several coastal national parks or nature reserves including the Prince Regent Nature Reserve and the Drysdale River National Park (Figure 6). There are no marine reserves in the region, although Roebuck Bay has been considered. There are three marine protected areas; Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island and Mermaid Reef. All are situated at or near the continental slope.
Figure 6: Parks and reserves including Commonwealth Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 23.
3.3 INDIGENOUS TENURE A signifi cant proportion of the coastal environment is under aboriginal land tenure. Although this is not a specifi c focus of this report, the distribution of land identifi ed as Aboriginal Reserve, Leasehold or Freehold is shown in Figure 7, from Australian Land Tenure data (Geoscience Australia, 1993).
Figure 7: Distribution of land described as Aboriginal Leasehold or Aboriginal Reserve and the boundary of the Northern Kimberley, Central Kimberley and Dampierland bioregions. Data is from Australian Land Tenure 1993 (Geoscience Australia). © Lochman Transparencies
Magnifi cent Tree Frog Litoria Splendida 24. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
4. 4.1 INTRODUCTION report to describe every threatened The environment of the Northern species and community, though these MARINE AND Kimberley and Dampierland is very would need to be investigated, for COASTAL FAUNA species diverse but management example, as part of any environmental requires more than just knowledge of impact assessment in the region. For AND FLORA individual species. Understanding the information, a list of declared Threatened processes and interrelationship between Ecological Communities under the species at the community level is more Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 (WA) appropriate to identifying areas of are given in Appendix A and threatened high and low biodiversity value. Since fauna (61 species) and priority fauna biodiversity conservation is one of the (41 species) in Appendix B and Appendix principles of ecologically sustainable C respectively. Appendix D is a list development recognised by Australia, of fauna and fl ora listed as threatened this is vitally important (Commonwealth under the Commonwealth Environment of Australia, 1992). Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act). An ecosystem-oriented approach to management recognises that there is 4.2 MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA movement of many animals at different The following annotated list provides stages of their life history across information about marine species that boundaries, such as the State waters. are referred to in subsequent sections of Much of this movement is seasonally this report. This is a select list of species predictable, which is essential to the that are most likely to help characterise viability of populations (Bernstein et marine processes and communities and al., 1991). Further, not only rare and are also members of groups referred to as threatened species are relevant. This report ‘listed marine species’ under s248 of the selects key threatened species plus others EPBC Act. This includes all sea-snakes, that characterise the coastal and marine seals, crocodiles, dugong, marine turtles, ecosystem. Data or research on the ecology, seahorses, sea-dragons and pipefi sh. distribution and abundance of common Listed marine species are protected from species is more likely to be available and being taken, killed or injured. more readily interpreted. Common species also make up much of the biomass, are Such species are also considered key more directly associated with ecosystem components of the Commonwealth processes and easier to observe. There will marine area and as components of always be some gaps / uncertainty in the this matter of national environmental data for any specifi c animal (particularly signifi cance, can be used to monitor rare species), so such a holistic approach is change in the ecosystem. All marine desirable (Treweek, 1999). species may be potentially important to consider in environmental impact Details about the variety and status of assessment or used as biodiversity terrestrial biodiversity, including the indicators. The species shown here are coastal ecosystem, in Dampierland and chosen to illustrate the Kimberley region the Northern Kimberley can be found in as a whole. At smaller scales, a subset of the region’s biodiversity audit (Graham, these species or even additional species, 2002a; McKenzie et al., 2003). The may be important or notable. content of these reports are not repeated here. Neither is it the purpose of this Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 25.
Group Location Status Species Description Marine Mammals Nearshore Dugong Dugong Dugon Potentially resident populations at Beagle Bay, Roebuck Bay, Montgomery Islands and One Arm Point (Marsh et al., 2001). Likely to be found in any areas with reasonably large areas of seagrass. Small population on Ashmore Reef. Suggestions that these may be genetically distinct (Whiting, 1999) have since been discredited (Hobbs et al., 2007). Vulnerable (Cth) Humpback Whale Kimberley region, especially Camden Sound, used as a calving Megaptera novaeangliae area. Twice-annual migration corridor around Cape Leveque and to west of Lacapede Islands, then ~20Nm offshore further south (Jenner et al., 2001). Priority 4 (WA) Australian Snubfi n Dolphin Potential distribution along length of coastline. Known from Orcaella heinsohni Roebuck Bay, Brunswick Bay, the Troughton Passage and Cape Londonderry. Estuarine species, heavily dependent on specifi c nearshore ecology. Continental Shelf Priority 4 (WA) Indo-pacifi c Humpback Found between estuarine and continental shelf waters, usually Dolphin Sousa chinensis where there is a high degree of turbidity. Likely to be localised in tidal mixing zones offshore and along strong fronts at the boundary of rivers and sea (Kimberley Orcaella Conservation Project, Deakin University, In litt). Bryde’s Whale Least migratory of the baleen whales and a tropical water Balaenoptera brydei specialist. Mostly feeds on shoaling fi sh e.g. anchovy (Bannister et al., 1996). Likely to occur at areas of relatively high productivity over the continental shelf. Minke Whale sp. Winter migrant from the southern ocean. Both Antarctic and Balaenoptera acutorostrata Dwarf species are possible, but the latter is more likely. Generally / bonaerensis an oceanic species (Bannister et al., 1996) and sightings at the continental slope in October 2004 support this (Simon Mustoe, personal observations). Oceanic Priority 4 (WA) Spinner Dolphin Primarily occurs over the continental slope and deep oceanic Stenella longirostris water near islands (Bannister et al., 1996). Occasionally closer inshore. The ‘dwarf’ form that occurs off Australia. One of the more commonly observed dolphins in NW Australian waters. Rough-toothed Dolphin Primarily oceanic species regularly recorded in the vicinity of Scott Steno bredanensis Reef. Often associates with other tropical cetaceans, particularly Fraser’s Dolphins and Melon-headed Whales. Strandings recorded on Barrow Island, WA (Bannister et al., 1996). Dwarf Sperm Whale Locally dependent on strong ocean currents and upwelling and Kogia simus occurring on or near the continental shelf (Caldwell & Caldwell, 1989) – see Figure 8. An unusual and rarely seen species, owing to its small size and enigmatic behaviour. Very boat shy and overlooked in anything but ideal sea state conditions. May be locally common. Beaked Whales Family Deep ocean specialists, probably resident over deep ocean Ziphiidae (e.g. Cuvier’s canyons and other steep features. Most likely species are beaked whale Ziphius Longman’s Beaked Whale, Cuvier’s Beaked Whale and Blainville’s cavirostris) Beaked Whale, the latter two being locally common. Cuvier’s Most likely a benthic feeder (Waring et al., 2001) to depths of up to 2,000m (more usually about 1,000m).
Table 5: Annotated list of key marine fauna of the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. Status is given as WA (Department of Conservation and Environment List January 2007; Mawson, 2007) or Cth (Commonwealth EPBC Act listing). 26. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Group Location Status Species Description Seabirds Nearshore Little Tern Most suitable near shore islands, with undisturbed sheltered Sterna albifrons beaches, are likely to have this species breeding. Begins to breed in the autumn (Sept/Oct) so possibly dependent on estuarine processes in the wet-season. Usually forage close to colony in shallow water of estuaries, coastal lagoons and lakes (Higgins & Davies, 1996). Very sensitive to disturbance during breeding (signifi cant declines throughout Europe). Roseate Tern North-east and North-west Twin Islets are the major breeding Sterna dougallii grounds, near the entrance of King Sound. Also Low Rocks and Sterna island in Admiralty Gulf. Winter breeder. Majority feed around the mouth of King Sound (George Swann, Kimberley Birdwatching pers. comm.). Lesser-crested Tern Summer and winter coastal breeder. Breeding islands include Low Sterna bengalensis Rocks and Adele Island. Crested Tern Widespread and abundant breeding on most suitable islands in Sterna bergii the region (Higgins & Davies, 1996). Forages widely. Continental Shelf Brown Booby Breeds on a number of select islands in coastal areas of the Sula leucogaster Northern Kimberley including Lacapedes (one of the largest colonies in the world ~17,000 nests), Adele, Bedout and White Islands. Also on offshore islands such as Ashmore Reef. Ground nesting. More often seen feeding close to shore than other boobies but widespread throughout the region (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). May depend to some extent on other catalyst species (Sooty Tern, Common Noddy) to fi nd food. Bridled Tern Inshore breeding species widespread on coastal islands Sterna anaethetus throughout region. Migratory. Breeds in summer and departs coast of NW Australia ~mid-April and returns to breed in late September / early October. Apparently leave coastal Australian waters in winter, though some may occasionally be seen offshore, with passage through the Timor Sea (Higgins & Davies, 1996). Likely to move into the Indonesian Archipelago to forage in winter. Forage offshore over the continental shelf. Oceanic Islands Sooty Tern Offshore breeding species, locally abundant on remote islands. Sterna fuscata Migratory. Breeds in summer (varies, but mostly Oct / Nov to Jan / Feb) on remote islands, including the Ashmore Reef MPA (Higgins & Davies, 1996). Breeds when oceanographic productivity is low, indicating reliance on areas of relatively high productivity. May forage over relatively long distances. Thought to depend on tuna and dolphins to drive prey to surface (Au & Pitman, 1986; Brooke et al., 2006). Red-footed Booby Exclusively breeds on offshore islands (e.g. Ashmore and Cartier Sula sula Islands). Tree-nesting. Short-range forager, specialising on fl ying fi sh (often caught on wing) and other relatively large prey. Dependent on areas of high productivity for feeding: usually over steep bathymetric features adjacent to breeding island (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). bedouti subsp. Masked Booby Breeds on offshore islands, including oceanic islands such as (Eastern Sula dactylatra Ashmore Reef but also Bedout and Adele Island. Very few colonies Indian Ocean) off east coast. Like other boobies, most likely a relatively short- to Vulnerable (WA) medium-range forager (160-320km) (Marchant & Higgins, 1990). Lesser Frigatebird Used to be colony on Swan Island but no longer. Known to breed Fregata ariel on Adele, Bedout and West Lacapede (Marchant & Higgins, 1990), also Ashmore Reef and Cartier. Tree nesting. Apparently relatively short-range forager from breeding colonies (Jaquemet et al., 2005). Probably rely to some extent on other species (boobies and terns), as kleptoparasitism is common. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 27.
Group Location Status Species Description Oceanic Bulwer’s Petrel Locally common summer migrant. Breeds May-June off Southern Bulweria bulwerii China and Japan (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007). Found mostly over warm saline water (Dunlop et al., 1988) and therefore sensitive to relatively small variations in surface productivity. Matsudaira’s Storm Locally common summer migrant from Japan, found mostly in Petrel Oceanodroma warmer saline water, usually close to the continental slope, where matsudairae surface productivity is relatively high. Breeds Iwo Island and Bonin group, south of Japan (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007). Present at breeding colonies Jan to early Jun (Harrison, 1985). Tahiti Petrel Only known breeding areas, central Pacifi c from New Caledonia Pterodroma rostrata eastward, where breeds Mar-Oct (Onley & Schofi eld, 2007). Discovered relatively recently to be locally common off NW Australia, leading some authorities to question whether there is a separate, unknown breeding area west of Australia. Observations off west Australia are mostly in Sep-Nov, but there have been no surveys outside this time. Shorebirds Nearshore Various Shorebirds feed on benthic invertebrates. As in the ocean environment, the availability and accessibility of prey dictates distribution and abundance. The presence of communities comprising migratory species of conservation signifi cance (see for example, Table 8) at a local or regional scale would indicate notable and important habitat. Marine Reptiles Oceanic Vulnerable (WA); Green Turtle Nests both close to the Dampier coastline and on offshore Vulnerable (Cth) Chelonia mydas islands. Browse, Cassini, Lacepede and Cartier Islands are known to be important rookeries (Burbidge et al., 1991; Pendoley, 2005). Also Sandy Islet at Scott Reef. Migrates to feed off the Kimberley coast and north to Bonparte Gulf. Continental Shelf Stoke’s Sea Snake A widespread, robust and conspicuous sea snake that feeds on Astrotia stokesii fi sh over the continental shelf in areas of high turbidity (Wilson & Swann, 2004). Considered likely to have declined due to bycatch from trawl fi sheries (David Brewer et al., 2006). Vulnerable (WA); Flatback Turtle Australian endemic turtle and the only species confi ned to the Vulnerable (Cth) Natator depressus continental shelf. Juveniles have no oceanic stage (Walker & Parmenter, 1990). Nesting recorded in the Buccaneer Archipelago (Marine Turtle Interactive Mapping System, (www. ioseaturtles.org). Satellite tracking of animals tagged at Barrow Island show some move into north west coastal Kimberley to feed (www.seaturtle.org). Nearshore Saltwater Crocodile Saltwater crocodile populations suffered from uncontrolled Crocodylus porosus hunting until 1970. They appear to be recovering more slowly than in the Northern Territory as there is limited breeding habitat in the Kimberley. Highest numbers are in river systems with mangrove near their mouths, such as the Glenelg, Prince Regent and Roe (Messel et al., 1987) but can be found as far offshore as Adele Island. Fish Nearshore Priority 1 (WA); Northern River Shark One of the few species of shark known to inhabit the upper Endangered (Cth) Glyphis sp. reaches of rivers. Known from rivers in King Sound. Little other data. 20 years since specimens have been found in Queensland. Surprisingly not protected in WA, despite listing as endangered Federally (Thornburn et al., 2004). Priority 3 (WA); Freshwater Sawfi sh Distribution poorly known. Inhabitant of rivers and estuaries Vulnerable (Cth) Pristis microdon in the Northern Kimberley, including those of King Sound. Considered to be largest known population. Elsewhere in the world, populations decimated through gill net fi shing (Thornburn & Morgan, 2003). 28. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
4.3 COASTAL FAUNA AND FLORA Within the broader coastal environment of the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland there is an important terrestrial fauna and fl ora component and a connection between their habitat needs and processes in the coastal and marine environment. There is a lack of feral animal pests. An absence of rabbits and foxes benefi ts species such as Bilby Macrotis lagotis, which are in heavy decline in other parts of Australia. Nonetheless, there remain some major threats, such as altered grazing and burning regimes, which also have the potential to affect water quality in the catchments, and so impact on coastal processes. The undisturbed offshore islands with relatively intact terrestrial ecosystems are hence viewed as important biodiversity refuges (Burbidge et al., 1991; How et Figure 8: Dwarf Sperm Whale Kogia simus, recorded over a depth of about 700m al., 2006). Table 6 gives examples of between Scott Reef and Ashmore Reef in October 2007 (photo, Rohan Clarke). This threatened species from the region. A species is diffi cult to observe and often boat shy. Unlike dolphins, including Short- number of these are declining but occur fi nned Pilot Whales Globicephala macrorhynchus (Family: Delphinidae), Dwarf Sperm on offshore islands (e.g. Northern Quoll Whale and to great extent, beaked whales, are likely to shy away from loud noise. It Dasyurus hallucatus). Additionally, there is highly likely that these species are seriously underestimated by visual observers are a range of other threatened and / or on oil and gas exploration (seismic) operations. This is a particularly useful example endemic vertebrates and fl ora. of a species for which correlation with areas of higher than normal biodiversity, as indicated by seabird abundance, may be important for risk assessment. The geology of much of Dampierland originates from marine deposits on coastal plains and supports mangrove, samphire, grasslands, coastal dune communities and open-woodlands (Graham, 2002b, c; McKenzie et al., 2003). The predominant vegetation type is Pindana, which covers most of the Dampier Peninsula and the areas inland of eighty mile beach. The black soil plains behind Roebuck Bay and the Camballin Floodplain are of particular note, as they are coupled to coastal processes during seasonal indundation. The area is of international signifi cance for breeding waterbirds, as well as
© Lochman Transparencies migratory shorebirds. Monjon Petrogale burbidgei is confi ned to King Leopold Sandstone country of Northern Kimberley, including coastal areas and some offshore islands. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 29.
Group Species Status Description Further north and the geology is a mix of King Leopold sandstone and volcanic Mammal Northern Quoll Endangered Formerly widespread across N. Australia. Range Dasyurus hallucatus (WA) has contracted considerably. The Kimberley is one rock. Folding and erosion of these rocks of six main strongholds. Absence of Cane Toad results in differing vegetation from island from the Kimberley region is one reason for this. to island, and along the coast. Vegetation Also found on Augustus group of islands. along catchments and watercourses of the Golden Bandicoot Vulnerable (WA) Formerly widespread. Now restricted to mainland Northern Kimberley controls the rate of Isoodon auratus Northern Kimberley, including Augustus and sedimentation and the quality of water auratus Middle Islands. entering estuaries and coastal wetlands, Bilby Vulnerable (WA) Formerly widespread throughout central and particularly during the wet season. This Macrotis lagotis southern Australia. Now mostly confi ned to NW coastal connection is best exemplifi ed in Australia, including the Dampier Peninsula. rainforest and vine thicket formations, Little North- Priority 1 (WA) Rare in west Kimberley. Known from islands of where these form a succession with western Mastiff Bat Buccaneer Arch. Mormopterus loriae mangroves. Vine thickets support a cobourgiana number of endemic species and specifi c Butler’s Dunnart Vulnerable (WA) Known only from a few specimens, including rainforest communities including birds Sminthopsis butleri mainland northern Kimberley. such as Rose-crowned Fruit Dove Little Rock Wallaby Priority 4 (WA) Restricted range. Locally common in King Leopold Ptilinopus regina, Little Shrike Thrush Petrogale burbidgei Sandstone country of Northern Kimberley, Colluricincla megarhyncha and Rainbow including coastal areas. Also on offshore islands Pitta Pitta iris. of Bonaparte Archipelago and Augustus group. Scaly-tailed Patchily distributed and restricted range in In addition to threatened species, the Possum Wyulda Northern Kimberley. Also known from Boongaree Kimberley is important for a variety of squamicaudata Island. endemic species. Although presently not Golden-backed Tree Priority 4 (WA) Formerly found through NT. Now thought threatened, the restricted global range Rat Mesembriomys restricted to Northern Kimberley, including islands of species such as Black Grasswren macrurus of Buccaneer Archipelago. Amytornis housei makes them more Bird Gouldian Finch Endangered A heavily declining endemic species with a vulnerable to local impacts or to macro- Erythrura gouldiae (WA); fragmented range across northern Australia. The environmental impacts such as climate Endangered Dampier peninsula represents the southern limit of change (Olsen, 2007). In the Mitchell (Cth) its range. Inhabit live tropical open woodlands with a grassy understorey, often in hilly areas (Garnett subregion of the Northern Kimberley, there & Crowley, 2000). are thought to be 29 endemic vertebrates Crested Shrike Endangered Scarce endemic of far Northern Kimberley, mostly (McKenzie et al., 2003; Storr, 1983). Tit (Northern) (WA); occurring in woodland types dominated by Darwin Remaining consistent with the theme Falcunculus Endangered Woollybutt Eucalyptus miniata, Darwin Stringybark frontatus whitei (Cth) E. tetrodonta or Smooth-stemmed Bloodwood of this report, protection of terrestrial E. bleeseri. Population thought to be highly species should be at the ecosystem fragmented and under threat from changing fi re level, as a necessary step in managing and grazing regimes (Garnett & Crowley, 2000). biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. A Chestnut-backed Priority 4 (WA) A restricted range species of monsoonal forests healthy ecosystem will ultimately sustain Buttonquail Turnix and woodlands, endemic to northern and a wider variety of species. castanota northwest Australia. Population in the Kimberely is isolated. Vulnerable to mismanagement of fi re and grazing; loss from McArthur Ranges thought to be for similar reasons (Garnett & Crowley, 2000).
Table 6: Selected threatened terrestrial fauna of the Northern Kimberley and Dampierland. 30. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
5. 5.1 ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES marine fi sh. This mosaic is created by the AND BIODIVERSITY infl uence of numerous physical processes KEY COASTAL The terrestrial environment of the at different spatial scales. Ultimately, to AND MARINE Kimberley is linked to the coastal and regulate a population at a given level, marine environment downstream. The a minimum proportion of any species’ ECOSYSTEM relatively pristine natural environment population needs to fi nd access to enough extending along most of the Dampierland food at critical times of year to produce DRIVERS and Northern Kimberley coastline enough surviving offspring and balance (McKenzie et al., 2003) tempers out annual mortality. catchment infl ow, particularly during wet Key drivers for the marine ecosystem are season cyclones. Wetlands, forested rivers both primary production and the physical and mangroves are critical to the steady processes that concentrate resources control of nutrients entering the marine to become ‘available’ for exploitation system (see section 6.6) and responsible by marine biota. The spatial quality, for sustaining primary productivity of availability and location of resource seagrass and benthic algae. patches is what regulates populations at As with virtually all ecological systems, ‘carrying capacity’. limited availability of nutrients underpins It is important to note that the location diversity and species richness. where food becomes available is more Marine species nevertheless depend often than not, located away from on local concentration of resources in sources of primary productivity. Two- the environment, to persist. If available dimensional mapping of bioregions based resources were diluted evenly in seawater, on seabed ecology will overlook this. It most complex organisms would be unable is also important to consider seasonal to meet their energy budget to fi nd food variation, as the pressure on species and and reproduce. It is the concentration of communities alters substantially. resources and gradients of availability 5.2 PRIMARY PRODUCTION (Ballance et al., 1997) that create mosaics of high and low value for different Along the shores of the Kimberley, species and communities. the predominant primary producers are mangroves, seagrass, macroalgae, Primary producers such as seagrass, sediment microalgae and phytoplankton macroalgae and phytoplankton are the and corals. Each of these components basis of the food chain for herbivores contribute matter and energy to the and detritivores that in turn feed more ecosystem in different ways. The complex organisms higher up the productivity and total production of food chain. Both primary producers these components in the Kimberley is and consumers are dependent on a unknown. Mangroves contribute organic concentration of resources, whether it be matter to the system through leaf matter, nutrients from catchment run-off (in the but this input is likely to be very minor case of seagrass) or plankton prey for compared to other primary producers, fl ying fi sh, which in turn feed Boobies. such as seagrass. This is despite the fact The patchiness of marine ecosystems that mangroves are very important for is essential for areas of high prey carbon storage. availability and population regulation even amongst roaming ocean species such as seabirds, turtles, cetaceans and Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 31.
Seagrass input matter and energy into the Primary production at coral reefs system through detritus (such as leaves) (symbiotic algae living in corals) is a vital and exudates of carbohydrates. Both the component of ecosystem function. Coral mangrove and seagrass matter is widely reefs are among the most productive dispersed through tidal currents and may and species rich ecosystems on earth be concentrated in certain areas, but (Moberg & Folke, 1999). Coral reefs are generally enters the food webs after it responsible for some export of organic has been digested by bacteria in the water carbon into the local environment but column and in sediments. An obvious like mangroves, this is likely to be exception is for direct herbivory on relatively small compared to major seagrass by dugongs. exporters of carbon such as seagrass beds. Nevertheless, primary production at A very important primary producer is coral reefs supports a very large biomass sediment microalgae (microphytobenthos, and exceptionally high species richness MPB). This largely consists of microsopic and biodiversity over relatively small diatoms that live in the surface layers of spatial scales. Coral reefs, mangroves and sediments, particularly in mangrove, sand seagrass beds are connected to each other, and muddy intertidal fl ats and banks and in varying degree depending on their shallow subtidal sediment banks. The proximity and particular characteristics of MPB are highly mobile and migrate to the local environment. Many species rely the surface where there is sunlight for on the sustenance and refuge provided by photosynthesis and deeper into sediments coral reefs at particular stages of their life to sequester nutrients. The acquired history, migrating between reefs andother carbohydrates from photosynthesis and habitats (Moberg & Folke, 1999). nutrients from the sediments are then used for cell replication and growth. For deeper shelf waters, particularly below 50 m depth, production is largely Over the Kimberley as a whole, intertidal driven by settlement of all types of organic and shallow subtidal sediments for MPB material into the sediments. The original are likely to be much more productive primary production for this system is than other primary-producer habitats derived from phytoplankton along frontal (this does not mean that other primary systems at the surface, where there is an producers are not important on a more adequate mixture of light, warmth and local scale). This is because MPB are nutrients to facilitate plant growth. Much less light limited by the turbid waters of the seabed production, particularly during low tide, are situated close to fi sh, crabs, prawns, octopuses, cuttlefi sh the sediment nutrient source and have and squid but also megafauna like beaked very fast growth rates. MPB are highly whales, are driven by trophic linkages to productive and are rapidly consumed smaller sediment invertebrates, sediment by sediment infauna such as small bacteria and the input of organics from the nematodes, crustaceans, mollusc fi lter- waters above. feeders and worm deposit feeders. Suspension of surface microalgae occurs during tidal excursions and this can contribute substantially to the production © Lochman Transparencies of plankton and benthic fi lter feeders in other areas. Magnifi cent Dragon Diporiphora Superba 32. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
5.3 OCEANOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY 5.3.3 Meta-scale oceanography The Indonesian Throughfl ow (ITF) heavily infl uences oceanography and climate in the Kimberley region, as it has distinct seasonal variation in strength. When active, it transports a 200-300m thick layer of warm low-density surface water from the Timor Sea into the Indian Ocean and feeds the South Equatorial Current (Figure 9). The ITF is strongest during the southeast monsoon (Austral winter, approx. June to September), and weakest during the northwest monsoon (Austral summer, approx. November to March). During the winter dry season when southeast trade winds blow from the Australian mainland, the ITF empties water from the eastern Indonesian archipelago. Surface waters in oceanic areas of northwest Australia actually cool by several degrees (Hobday, 2001) and overall chlorophyll a levels throughout the region (including the Indonesian Archipelago) increase substantially4. Important mixing and algal bloom events occur at locations such as the Strait of Ombai (Moore & Marra, 2002) and there is evidence of large scale upwelling in the Eastern Banda Sea south of Java (Moore & Marra, 2000). The ITF also channels Figure 9: Simplifi ed seasonal oceanography of northwest Australia showing water south along the entire Northern major current systems (top) and productivity (bottom). During the southeasterly monsoon (winter dry season), productivity is very high, fuelled by upwelling in the Kimberley and Dampierland coast, and Indonesian archipelago and strong currents. During the northwest monsoon (wet feeds the Leeuwin Current which mostly season), productivity falls and currents abate though productivity remains relatively runs south of the northwest Cape. high at offshore islands due to upwelling, and near the coast as a consequence of During the summer wet season when the river plumes. northwest monsoon occurs, this pattern changes abruptly. Strong northerly winds force surface waters into the eastern Indonesian archipelago (Moore & Marra, 2000) and the ITF weakens and in some cases, may even cease altogether, especially under the infl uences of the easterly fl owing Indian Ocean Countercurrent that occurs in winter just south of the equator.
4 DRAFT: SeaWiFS movie of surface Chlorophyll, 1997-2001 in the Australian Region
These conditions cause the ocean off northwest Australia to stop fl owing so sea surface temperatures increase by several degrees through solar heating. The lack of tidal mixing and input of surface water from the Indonesian archipelago massively reduces surface productivity and the southern coastal current stops or reverses weakly (Gingele et al., 2001). In summary, monsoonal activity and productivity in the Indonesian Archipelago are key drivers for ecosystem processes in the northeast Indian Ocean and the continental shelf of northwest Australia. 5.3.4 Offshore Upwelling Even over abyssal depths, material in the water column rains down and settles on the sea fl oor where it supports benthic ecology. Upwelling of nutrients from sea fl oor processes are caused by ocean currents and seasonally strong winds. This is especially prominent around islands, deep ocean canyons and steep features such as the continental slope. Hobday, (2001) shows the role that the Marine Protected Areas of Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island and Mermaid Reef play in these processes. Using remotely sensed sea surface chlorophyll (SSC) data, which is an indicator of primary productivity, a habitat area index has been developed (Figure 10). What this shows is a rapid decline in SSC away from the islands, because primary production in tropical open ocean is very low. The habitat area is a function of local upwelling of nutrients – the smaller the area, the more important the MPA is for supporting local biota.
Figure 10: Sea Surface Chlorophyll (SSC) Maximum and mean habitat zone, all months. 34. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Figure 11 shows that there is a strong prey availability around islands and the of biodiversity at the seabed. Although negative correlation between sea surface coast during El Niño actually increases, terrestrial and reef areas of Scott Reef temperature and sea surface chlorophyll along with predator activity (Worm et al., are considered relatively degraded, with maximum productivity occurring in 2005). Thermocline depth is an important the wider deep ocean and continental winter when the Indonesian Throughfl ow variable in seabird and marine mammal shelf environment appears to be a is strong and sea surface temperatures are foraging distribution as subsurface prey is major infl uence on the ecosystem of the relatively low. Sea-viewing Wide Field- more potentially available for exploitation Commonwealth Marine Area. of-view Senor (SeaWIFS) data compiled (Jaquemet et al., 2005). 5.3.5 Catchment Infl ow and Tidal Mixing by the Australian Government5 shows this Although it is not an MPA, Scott Reef Coastal processes are driven by rainfall rise in marine chlorophyll concentration appears to be a particularly unique and tides, with spring tidal ranges in the occurs between about March and August. component of the Commonwealth marine Kimberley of about 10m amongst the Nevertheless, the MPAs and Scott Reef area. It harbours a very steep continental largest in the world. The characteristically maintain these processes throughout the slope that drops to a depth of 1,000m just turbid coastal waters result from infl ux year and this is critical for the species that 4km offshore and is excised by a number and stirring of sediment-laden catchment depend on the pelagic ecosystem. of deep ocean canyons (Figure 12). run-off, which is highest during summer The strength of oceanographic cycles are Species such as Cuvier’s Beaked Whale monsoon rains. also infl uenced by the southern oscillation. and Dwarf Sperm Whale have been At the complex of reefs and islands that During El Niño the water temperature observed only here. The latter species make up Adele Island and Churchill, is higher so overall surface productivity is very rarely recorded in Australian Albert, Beagle and Mavis reefs (Figure is even lower. Nevertheless, this can waters and is likely to be an important 13), it has been shown that these nutrients have a positive effect on near-shore or local resident and a key indicator of are swept up with cooler bottom water in 6 continental shelf water. Thermocline continental slope upwelling. The former a tidal mixing phenomenon that abates depths are deepest during La Niña, so species is more likely to be an indicator only in July-August and at neap tides (Cresswell & Badcock, 2000). Tidal mixing at this location is particularly strong but weaker systems are likely to occur at the western edge of other reefs along the coast. As shown in Figure 15, relatively high seabird biomass has been observed west of Baleine Bank.
5.3.6 Coastal Geomorphology Coastal geomorphology has a substantial effect on the pattern of physical processes along the coast. Comprising hundreds of islands, bays and inlets, the Kimberley coastline is highly variable. The mouths of rivers and estuaries are typical locations where hydrodynamics will create predictable Figure 11: Sea Surface Temperature (SST) (top) and Sea Surface Chlorophyll fronts, due to variation in salinity and (bottom) medians for each MPA by day of year, together with the climatology (solid velocity of different water masses. line) and ±2 SD (dashed line).
5 Ibid 6 A thermocline is the boundary between warm and cold water masses. Less dense, warm water currents from the tropical Pacifi c fl ow over the top of the cooler Indian Ocean water. Where these water masses meet, there is a concentration of resources, as there is where water masses meet in the horizontal plane at the surface. This is where many marine mammals and predatory fi sh such as tuna feed. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 35.
Figure 12: Scott Reef atolls and islands showing the steep continental slope to their west and numerous deep ocean canyons.
Figure 13: Coastal Reefs and Islands off North West Australia. Yellow and orange areas indicate ocean between depths of -5 to -20m. Selected reef and island complexes are labelled. 36. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
6. 6.1 GENERAL NORTH-WEST depth, associated with reefs, shoals, SHELF COMMUNITIES fl atbottom with epibenthos and habitats MARINE AND Much of what is known about the shelf with vertical relief. COASTAL biota is from fi sheries investigations. Several prawn species have coastal Large areas of the shelf have also been juvenile phases with wider adult dispersal COMMUNITIES investigated by the petroleum industry, onto the shelf, including brown tiger however very little of this information is prawn Penaeus esculentus (sand and in the public domain. sandy mud seabed) and various coral Taiwanese pair-trawl fi shing in the early prawns (soft and hard bottoms). 1980s indicated differences in fi sh fauna 6.2 SEDIMENT BED across the shelf between the Broome, COMMUNITIES Cape Londonderry and shelf break (offshore) sectors. The Broome region Areas of sandy habitat support ‘sponge had higher catch rates of small snappers gardens’ of large erect sponges, (Lutjanidae), emporers (Lethrinidae), gorgonian corals and sea whip corals. goatfi sh (Mullidae), threadfi n breams These communities are prevalent in the (Nemipteridae), bigeyes (Priacanthidae) sandier mid-shelf 50-100 m habitats. The and cods (Serranidae). The eastern diversity of sponges in these communities Kimberley region had higher catch rates is considered to be high (> 600 species; of large red snappers (Lutjanidae) and Wassenberg & Cook, 2002). sweetlips (Haemulidae). The deep slope Considerable portions of this community bottom near the shelf break had higher were initially affected by the Taiwanese abundances of jobfi sh (Pristipomoides). pair-trail fi shing, which involved Inshore of 30 m depth, traps and drop-lines demersal (bottom) trawling with heavy indicate a carnivore dominance of catfi sh gear. The catches and catch composition Arius spp., black jewfi sh Protonibea changed considerably between 1980 diacanthus and golden snapper Lutjanus and 1990, partially refl ecting changes johnii (Department of Fisheries, 2004). in the sponge habitat and the associated fi sh species (Sainsbury et al., 1993). Although many shelf fi shes occur Subsequent Australian otter trawling was throughout the shelf range, they are also considered to impact this habitat. The usually predominant in particular habitat recovery rate is thought to be in excess types, which may vary between life stages. of 20 years, so habitat distribution and The red emperor Lutjanus sebae juveniles species composition is only considered to are common in the nearshore turbid refl ect historical disturbances, rather than waters on coastal and offshore reefs. The actual distribution (Fulton et al., 2006). subadults and adults are distributed across the continental shelf to 180 m depth, The sediment sponge communities associated with coral reefs, epibenthic (large epibenthos) support particular communities, limestone sand fl ats and communities of fi shes, particularly gravel patches. Juvenile goldband snapper snappers and emporers (Moran & Pristipomoides multidens are found on Stephenson, 2000). Bare sediment sedimentary habitats with no relief with communities have a greater dominance adults forming schools in 60-245 m of lizardfi sh (Synodontidae) and depth near reefs, shoals and epibenthos. threadfi n bream (Nemipteridae; Moran The scarlet perch Lutjanus malagaricus & Stephenson, 2000). The demersal juveniles are solitary in nearshore waters, crustacean fauna of the Northwest Shelf often in seagrass. Adults are dispersed is particularly species rich, with 308 across the continental shelf to 140 m species in 40-80 m depth, including crabs, penaeid prawns and carid shrimps. The Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 37.
infauna is also extremely diverse, being dominated by polychaetes (Poore, 1995). Infaunal species richness is an indication of important soft sediment processes that drive the food chain, even in the pelagic system. Banana prawns feed on soft sediment invertebrates and where they form dense aggregations, often visible at the surface, is indicative of areas of high biodiversity value at the seabed. Such areas are of particular importance for the ecology of the Kimberley and dependent commercial fi sheries.
6.3 SHELF ‘STRUCTURE’ COMMUNITIES The Northern Demersal Scalefi sh Figure 14: Distribution of trapping effort for the Northern Demersal Scalefi sh Fishery targets species that are widely Fishery (Department of Fisheries, 2004). distributed across the continental shelf but concentrated in abundance in rubrum (Department of Fisheries, 2004). Bioregionalisation of the demersal shelf specifi c habitats. These habitats include As discussed above, fi sheries data is the fi shes indicated a province from Broome areas with hard bottom, vertical relief main source of knowledge but because to Melville Island, with indicator species and large epibenthos (Department of the fi shery uses traps and baited drop- being Bembrops nelsoni, Bythaelurus Fisheries, 2004). The distribution of lines, only generalist carnivores are sp., Halicmetus sp., Malthopsis spp, such communities, as evidenced by documented. The number of fi sh families Neobythites australiensis, Neobythites the distribution of fi shing effort, is characterising these habitats will be bimaculatus, Neobythites macrops, predominantly along the old continental greater than indicated here. Neobythites soelae, Parapterygotrigla shelf coastline in approximately 100m sp., Physiculus roseus (Last et al., 2005). of water, but also occurs in other areas 6.4 SHELF SLOPE This province has 418 known fi sh species of the shelf from 60 to 150m depth COMMUNITIES with 64 of these being endemic. (Figure 14). Fishes of these ‘structure’ The deeper continental slope habitats communities include families of the reef The value of these ecosystems may be from 150 to 400m differ in fi sh fauna fi sh snappers (Lutjanidae), cods and underestimated. As discussed in section from the shelf and offshore shoal groupers (Serranidae) and the emperors 6.8.5, the presence of megafauna such as habitats. The fauna is diverse but also (Lethrinidae). The predominant fi shed beaked whales is an indication of high of commercial interest and therefore species are: the goldband snappers biodiversity value. Evidence that these in considerable abundance. It includes Pristipomoides multidens, P. typus and animals are benthic feeders (Woodside et deepwater snappers Etelis carbunculus, P. fi lamentosus; the red emperor snapper al., 2006) is even greater indication that E. coruscans, E. radiosus, Lipocheilus Lutjanus sebae; cods such as Epinephelus the ecosystem processes at the seafl oor are carnolabrum, Paracaesio kusakarii, multinotatus and E. bleekeri; and the signifi cant. This is not a reason to suspect Paracaesio stonei, Pristipomoides emperors, such as the spangled emperor however, that these areas are equally rich argyrogrammicus, P. zonatus, P. auricilla Lethrinus nebulosus. throughout. As discussed in section 5.1, and Aphareus rutilans; the deepwater marine ecosystems exhibit a high degree Other, non-commercial, carnivorous sparid Dentex tumifrons, the deepwater of variability in terms of the quality of fi shes in these areas include trigger fi sh emperor Wattsia mossambica; and the resources available to marine fauna. species (Abalistes stellaris, Suffl amen deepwater cods Epinephelus morrhua, fraenatus, Abalistes sp), longfi n Epinephelus radiatus and Epinephelus bannerfi sh Heniochus acuminatus, octofasciatus. The crustacean Australian Myripristis murdjan, red lionfi sh Pterois scampi Metanephrops sp is also present volitans, red squirrelfi sh Sargocentron on the slope. 38. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
6.5 CORAL COMMUNITIES (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). A Coral reefs are living carbonate structures total of 255 species of reef-building corals with a sketal framework of coral colonies, in 56 genera, have been recorded from able to grow towards and sometimes Ashmore and Cartier Reefs, the highest reach the sea surface. Coral reefs can diversity in Western Australia (Berry, infl uence ocean hydrodynamics and 1993; Veron, 1993) as well as 136 species reduce coastal erosion by dissipating of sponges (Hanley & Russell, 1993). wave energy. They provide habitat for A similar diversity is present at Rowley many important commercial fi sh species, Shoals, where 233 species of coral, often at particular stages of their lifecycle. including at least 28 species of staghorn Migration of fi sh from coral reefs into coral have been recorded (Commonwealth Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata breed in adjacent habitats such as seagrass beds of Australia, 2003). summer on the remote coral islands represents a net transfer of energy The assemblages present on the offshore such as Ashmore Reef, when surface back into the surrounding environment reefs are unique in their species’ productivity is relatively low. (Moberg & Folke, 1999). composition and relative abundance. The most species rich communities on the There are several endemics and many North-West Shelf are those of the coral more are not found on more near shore reefs (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). reefs. The Indonesian Throughfl ow Occurring predominantly in nutrient- current carries larvae from reefs in the defi cient and clear offshore waters, they Indo-pacifi c that recruit onto the offshore provide both structure and habitat for reefs of the northwest shelf. Consequently thousands of species (Environmental the assemblages present of these offshore Protection Authority, 2004). Primary reefs have a greater affi nity with those production at coral reefs is very high, of Indonesia and the Coastal and Marine and although net transport of organic Natural Values of the Kimberley 35 carbon beyond these sites is relatively western pacifi c than with coastal Western small, supports an exceptionally high Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, biomass and species richness, also due to 2002). These reefs are vital in maintaining the structural complexity of the reef itself the biodiversity of reefs further to the (Moberg & Folke, 1999). Six hundred south and are important stepping-stones and eighty eight species of fi sh alone have for the recruitment of species from the been recorded from the Rowley Shoals Indo-pacifi c to Western Australia. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2003), The majority of our knowledge of coral from small colourful reef fi shes through reefs in the northern Kimberley is of the to enormous potato cod, maori wrasse coral islands, such as the Rowley Shoals. and pelagic predators such as trevally, There is comparatively little knowledge mackerel, tuna and sharks. of the overall extent, distribution and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, function of the more unusual nearshore Seringapatam Reef, Scott Reef and the fringing reefs of the remote Kimberley Rowley Shoals are coral islets with coastline, deep reef systems and shelf- lagoons surrounded by barrier and fringing edge atolls such as Scott Reef. reef. Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island and Rowley Shoals are marine protected areas (Figure 6). These archipelagos, in particular Ashmore reef, are recognised as having the highest richness and diversity of coral species in Western Australia Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 39.
6.6 MANGROVES Community Species that may Substratum and Height (LOCALLY, MANGAL) Dominant occur Habitat Mangroves are an important highly Sonnertia Sonnertia alba; Avicennia Sandy or muddy tidal fl ats 4-6 m adapted community that stabilises marina; Rhizophora stylosa riparian zones along estuaries and Rhizophora Rhizophora stylosa; Sonneratia Sandy or muddy tidal fl ats, occurs 4-6 m tidal mud fl ats along the coastline of alba; Avicennia marina immediately inland from Sonnertia the Kimberley mainland and islands. community Mangroves are a group of trees and Rhizophora- Rhizophora stylosa; Ceriops Towards the high tide margins <2.5 m shrubs adapted to grow in marine and Ceriops- tagal; Avicennia marina of tidal sand and mud fl ats, can Avicennia form the margins around high tidal estuarine intertidal habitats. They provide salt fl ats nursery grounds for commercial fi sh and Avicennia Avicennia marina Rocky-bouldery-shores, occurs <1.5 m prawns, coastal protection from cyclonic widely but in patches on rocky weather and protection of nearby seagrass shores and reef habitats by trapping sediments Aegialitis Aegialitis annulata; Rhizophora Rocky-bouldery-shores, appears <1 m from run off. stylosa sporadically on rocky shores and seems to be best developed on The many inlets, lagoons and gulfs along shallow sand amongst the rocks the Kimberley coast support extensive mangrove communities (over 140,000 Table 7: Mangrove communities characteristic of the northern Kimberley ha) Pedretti & Paling, 2001. The northern (Saenger, 1996). Kimberley region has the most diverse Principal commercial species that inhabit mangroves in the Kimberley area include: mangrove fl ora of Western Australia, with 14 out of 17 species occurring in this • Banana Prawns (juvenile phase) Penaeus merguiensis area. There are fi ve distinct mangrove • Barramundi (spawning grounds and juvenile phase) Lates calcarifer communities (Saenger, 1996), based on • Blue Threadfi n Salmon Eleutheronema tetradactylum substratum type and the dominant species Important recreational species include: present (Table 7). • Mangrove Jack (juvenile) Lutjanus argentimaculatus • Cod spp. • Mud crab spp. Mangrove forests of the Kimberley are likely to support a large number of permanent and transient fauna. Their extensive root systems stabilises the substrate and provides shelter for many invertebrates and fi sh. Crustaceans (mostly crabs) are usually the most abundant group within the mangrove macrobenthos (Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000). Mangroves typically provide habitat for most major groups, including threatened megafauna such as saltwater crocodile. A vital role mangroves play in ecosystem function is providing protection, of both terrestrial habitats and aquatic. By reducing water velocities mangroves dampen the erosive effects of cyclones and storm surges which frequent the tropical Kimberley coastline. Mangroves also form a barrier to trap sediments being washed from the land thereby reducing levels of sedimentation input to the coastal environment. This is particularly important for maintaining water quality in bays and estuaries and the integrity of the ecosystem for seagrass, a major primary producer in coastal waters. 40. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
6.7 SEAGRASS AND MACROALGAE 6.8 PELAGIC FAUNA The left hand map shows biomass values Seagrasses, fulfi ll an important trophic AGGREGATIONS from 350-21,000g / 10min. This shows and structural role (EPA, 1988). They As discussed in section 5, physical that feeding productivity to the west of contribute to total primary production processes in the marine environment Baleine Bank was highest, which is likely through their own photosynthesis and confound to concentrate resources to result from tidal mixing and upwelling that of epiphytic algae (which themselves at different spatial scales. Different (section 5.3.3). Species such as Banana contribute a large proportion of plant organisms have differing ability to exploit Prawn that breed in coastal mangroves, biomass). They create and shed leaves these resources, depending on their spawn over deeper oceanic waters that are taken up into the food chain by population dynamics e.g. their capability (Staples, 1980) and typically aggregate, benthic detritivores, stabilise bottom for dispersal or locomotion and juvenile / even forming surface boils over some sediment, regulate water fl ow and provide adult survival rates. areas of high sediment productivity, where they feed on polychaete worms and habitat for many organisms, including Spatial scale is a critical parameter to bivalves. The same processes that drive fi sh for breeding and refuge. They also consider when defi ning the importance aggregation of seabirds also concentrate provide food directly for megafauna such of habitat and its relevance to different this and other invertebrates and fi sh into as Dugong and indirectly for fi sh-eating species or communities of species in the particular areas. The same trade off in species such as Little Tern. marine ecosystem. The following sections effort versus catch that determines the introduce the role of oceanography Limited studies into seagrass meadows value of these prawns to predatory sharks, in infl uencing patterns of primary of the Kimberley have been undertaken. fi nfi sh and seabirds, also determines the productivity at relatively large scales, The four main studies were done viability of a major prawn fi shery. This then provides some examples at smaller by the Western Australian Museum is further evidence for the over-riding spatial scales with an explanation of what between 1991 and 1997 and surveyed importance of habitat patches in the distinguishes these communities. the southern, central and north-eastern marine environment. regions. Eight species of seagrasses were 6.8.7 Major Oceanographic Infl uences The area of high biomass over the found, though others are likely (Walker, At relatively large spatial scales, pelagic continental shelf (Figure 15) comprised 1992, 1995, 1996, 1997). aggregations occur in areas of higher than fl ocks of migrant Streaked Shearwater, normal productivity. In the Kimberley Overall distribution of seagrass in and was likely to result from resources region, this would include: the region is poorly documented but provided by deep water upwelling. extensive seagrass meadows, the largest • Upwelling zones over steep Further offshore, high seabird biomass known for the Kimberley, are known bathymetric features such as islands, would also be expected to be associated from around Sunday and Tallon islands canyons and the continental slope; with fronts between water masses (Wells et al., 1995). The Western • The boundary between differing water (Dunlop et al., 1988). This results from Australian Museum studies noted that masses, such as currents of different differences in temperature and relative algal diversity and abundance was temperature / salinity e.g. at the sea surface level, which can vary by generally low, attributing this to extreme estuarine boundary between freshwater about a metre and a half over distances tidal exposure and high turbidity, from a river and seawater. of several hundred kilometres (Jaquemet reducing light penetration and increasing et al., 2005). the possibility of smothering. • Areas of high sediment productivity; • The boundary between oppositely- Primary production in coastal areas of the The intensity of turbidity effects is a rotating offshore current eddies; and Northern Kimberley and Dampierland reason to suspect that the distribution of • The boundary of tidal mixing behind is particularly high and in these fi gures, seagrass and macroalgae are somewhat would mask more subtle variation in limited and that increased pressure on reef banks, such as in the vicinity of Adele Island. offshore areas where productivity is habitat patches could place them outside lower. Therefore, in left hand map limits of natural variation. Seagrass is To illustrate the degree of variation, maps biomass >350g / 10min has been known to be particularly susceptible in Figure 15 show biomass of seabirds excluded. It shows that the areas of to changes in light availability, which recorded in 10-minute intervals on a relatively high seabird biomass offshore arise as a consequence of increases in seabird survey between Broome and are found to the north and south of Scott background turbidity (Burd & Dunton, Ashmore Reef in October 2004 (AES, Reef along the shelf-edge. Notably, 2001; Zimmerman, 2006). Unpublished). three pods of Spinner Dolphin were also observed in the southern shelf-edge area.
Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 41.
Spinner Dolphins Stenella longirostris in the Indian Ocean. One of the more regularly observed dolphins on the northwest shelf. All cetaceans are protected from being killed, injured or interfered with in Commonwealth waters, without a permit.
In the deep ocean, productivity fronts do not always occur at the surface. The boundary between warm surface and cooler subsurface layers (the thermocline) may be a couple of hundred metres deep. Sooty Tern (see page 38), a relatively wide-ranging seabird, is considered by some authors to be dependent on oceanic dolphins and tuna to fi nd and drive prey to the surface (Au & Pitman, 1986; Brooke et al., 2006). Feeding in this way, it has been estimated that Juan Fernandez Petrel, Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Sooty Tern and Red-footed Booby in the eastern tropical Pacifi c consume as much fi sh biomass as the annual catch of the tuna fi shery (420,000 tonnes) (Au & Pitman, 1986). Sooty Terns are also visual triggers for Figure 15: Seabird biomass in 10-minute intervals recorded in October 2004 on other seabirds, who home in on their a cruise from Broome to Ashmore Reef via Scott Reef. The top map shows all fl ocks. Without Sooty Terns, other species intervals with a recorded biomass exceeding 350g / 10min. The bottom map shows only intervals with a recorded biomass <350g. The bottom map is a better such as Brown Booby would be less illustration of variation in pelagic seabird biomass, which is substantially lower capable of optimising daily energy intake. than in near shore areas. The dark line is the 1000m depth contour. Gaps in the Hence, marine predator communities, data are due to cruising overnight, when no observations were made. as opposed to individual seabirds, are a driver for marine processes. Further, the sheer quantity of resources consumed annually by these communities makes them an integral and major part of the ecosystem. 42. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
6.8.8 Habitat Separation in Three Oceanic Seabirds These distributions are the result of At smaller spatial scales, the patchiness of the ecosystem is further defi ned by subtle differences in the feeding ability of separation into distinct foraging areas for different species. Figure 16 shows the different species. Given the low overall variation in the distribution of three migrant (non-breeding) pelagic seabirds over level of productivity, if all species fed in a distance of about 120 nautical miles. Anecdotal evidence from several other the same place, available resources would trips to the area support the view that this is a consistent pattern. diminish. The area immediately northwest of Scott Reef appears depauperate with few bird sightings. Nevertheless, Cuvier’s Beaked Whale and Rough-toothed Dolphin have been observed here, though they are likely to feed well below the surface. Of the oceanic Procellariforme seabirds, Bulwer’s Petrel was relatively abundant, which suggests this species is better adapted to feed in areas of relatively low surface productivity. All three species occurred at the shelf edge to the south, where there were also several sightings of Spinner Dolphins. 6.8.9 Link between choice of nest site and feeding areas A key factor that determines distribution in breeding seabirds is choice of nest site. Whilst on eggs or with chicks, birds are bound to return regularly to the central colony. If the availability of food within a certain distance drops below a critical threshold, breeding may not occur or is likely to be abandoned / unsuccessful. Red-footed Booby is of particular note as it is confi ned to foraging within about Figure 16: Habitat separation amongst three migrant (non-breeding) pelagic 100km of breeding sites (Jaquemet et seabirds off Scott Reef in 2004. This pattern of distribution has been observed in all al., 2005; Marchant & Higgins, 1990). eight expeditions to the area (Mike Carter, pers comm). Tahiti Petrels Pterodroma Frigatebirds are similarly constrained. rostrata are seen most often north of Scott Reef, whilst Matsudaira’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma matsudairae and Swinhoe’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma monorhis At Ashmore Reef, a high density of birds (not pictured) are found to the south. Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii is more were feeding in immediately adjacent likely in the steep shelf areas around the reef itself. shelf-edge waters (Figure 15) where productivity is notably higher than the surrounding ocean, particularly by October, when the Leeuwin current is expected to have subsided (Dunlop et al., 1988). It is no coincidence that Red- footed Booby breeds at these locations. Boobies feed on relatively large prey and Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 43.
in zones of higher productivity where 6.8.11 Benthic foraging in beaked whales competition may be greater (Ballance et At yet smaller spatial scales, the al., 1997). The species has a number of activity of pelagic megafauna like strategies to overcome this problem: Cuvier’s beaked whales is associated with undersea features such as deep 1. It feeds on fl ying fi sh, which are canyons (Waring et al., 2001), with patchily distributed only in areas of recent evidence that it feeds on benthos highest zooplankton concentration (Woodside et al., 2006). This means that (Piontkovski & Williams, 1995). Flying there may be a direct link to the species fi sh are planktonivorous and a high from seabed communities, even in ocean energy food source, found at a high over 1,000m deep (the species has been trophic level in the food chain; and recorded foraging at almost 1,900m 2. It specialises by catching fl ying fi sh on depth) (Peter L. Tyack et al., 2006). the wing (Marchant & Higgins, 1990), Locations with top predators are generally where they would be unavailable for considered to be of high biodiversity other species. value (Sergio et al., 2006) and there 6.8.10 Turtle hatchling development is evidence that these habitats support in ocean currents particularly abundant aggregations of During juvenile stages, many marine fi sh (section 6.4) animals are at the mercy of currents and Figure 17 shows a sighting of Cuvier’s do not actively swim or fl y to where they beaked whale at Scott Reef (Simon feed. Despite their relatively large size, Mustoe, personal observations) situated this is also true for turtle hatchlings. The above an area of complex bathymetry, Australian endemic Flatback Turtle is including deep ocean canyons over a confi ned to the shallow continental shelf depth of about 850m. and the Kimberley region is identifi ed as one of six major aggregation areas (Limpus et al., 1983). The species lays fewer eggs than other marine turtles but gives rise to more fully developed young less prone to predation (Limpus et al., 1984). Like all marine turtles young are swept in currents to accumulate in productivity-rich areas (Luschi et al., 2003) but Flatback Turtles do not disperse into the ocean (Walker & Parmenter, 1990). It is therefore inherent in the evolution of a stable breeding population that young leaving Flatback Turtle nest sites end up in the right locations and do not get swept into currents offshore. As with all marine species that exist at the population threshold of their environment, relatively few areas of high productivity are likely to support a substantial proportion of the regional population.
Figure 17: Location of Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris sighting in October 2004. This species is a characteristic resident of deep ocean canyons. 44. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
6.9 ESTUARIES AND MIGRATORY BIRDS North west Australia is internationally important for a diversity of migrant shorebirds. To place this into perspective, a February 2004 Australian Waders Study Group expedition to Eighty Mile Beach recorded a staggering 2.88 million Oriental Pratincoles Glareola maldivarum. Up until this time, the offi cial East Asian- Australasian fl yway population estimate was 67,000 (Straw, 2004). A gathering of 2.88 million Oriental Pratincoles Glareola maldivarum in the Ramsar The region’s Ramsar sites alone support site at Eighty Mile Beach in February 2004. Photo by Chris Hassall. very signifi cant proportions of the international fl yway populations of Eighty Mile several species, but particularly Species Roebuck Beach (northern Total % Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica, Bay end only) fl yway Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus, Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa 1344 1344 0.9 Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes, Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 24245 47179 71424 44.6 Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris, Little Curlew Numenius minutus 2552 2552 1.4 Red-necked Stint Calidris rufi collis, Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus 572 572 1.0 Greater Sand Plover Charadrius Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis 550 550 1.4 leschenaultii and Oriental Plover Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia 2916 2916 2.9 Charadrius veredus (Table 8). Other Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus 1637 9834 11471 22.9 species also occur in internationally important numbers but may not appear Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes 1947 8396 10343 25.9 in this table, as they are numerically Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres 893 893 0.9 less abundant but may nonetheless be Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris 25325 69210 94535 24.9 important. Red Knot Calidris canutus 2113 9952 12065 5.5 There are also signifi cant numbers Sanderling Calidris alba 1488 632 2120 9.6 of shorebirds distributed throughout Red-necked Stint Calidris rufi collis 14051 19685 33736 10.5 the estuaries, bays and islands of the Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea 1804 4692 6496 3.6 Kimberley. King Sound is of particular Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola 542 681 1223 0.9 note as it is the most extensive area Red-capped Plover Charadrius rufi capillus 2930 6052 8982 9.5 of mudfl at in the region. Although the Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii 15131 28467 43597 43.6 density of birds is not as high as in Oriental Plover Charadrius veredus 1032 49301 50333 71.9 Roebuck Bay (Danny Rogers, Australian Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica 815 1877 2692 2.7 Wader study Group pers comm.), it Crested Tern Sterna bergii 617 617 - nevertheless supports a very large number Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii 3226 3226 - of shorebirds. Common Tern Sterna hirundo 2621 2621 - Little Tern Sterna albifrons 1306 1306 1.3 Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus 881 881 0.1 White-winged Black Tern 727 1247 1974 - Chlidonias leucopterus
Table 8: Average counts of waterbirds at Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach (northern end only) Ramsar sites in 2004 / 2005 (Rogers et al., 2006c). Only the 20 most numerically abundant species for each site are shown. The total counts for the two sites are given, plus an estimate of the percentage of the East Asian- Australasian Flyway Population, based on offi cial Wetlands International data (Wetlands International, 2006). Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 45.
Most of these species are migrants that 6.10 BREEDING ISLANDS 6.11 RIVER MOUTHS move twice a year to and from breeding Breeding seabirds and turtle rookeries are AND CREEKS locations throughout Asia and as far an exceptional component of the region’s The mouths of rivers and creeks provide north as Siberia. The dual availability coastal ecosystem, which is relatively important habitat for a range of species of high quality estuarine feeding habitat undisturbed. Islands, such as Adele, the not found elsewhere in the region. The and adjacent undisturbed roosts is Lacapedes, Booby Island, Low Rocks, infl uence of the wet season is unknown essential to the viability of populations Northeast and Northwest Twin Islands are but at least one species, Little Tern, (Rogers et al., 2006a; Rogers et al., of national or international signifi cance. appears to depend on this as it is one 2006b). Relatively small changes to the Seabirds are unable to breed unless there of the few seabirds that breeds in mid viability of either habitat can translate is adequate access to feeding resources summer. Geomorphological features into shifts in the distribution of birds and many species have surprisingly associated with sediment, such as and an alteration of carrying capacity limited foraging ranges during critical sand banks, create the environment for (Dolman & Sutherland, 1995). times of the year. Areas such as King seagrass to grow and provide habitat Arctic breeding waders such as Great Sound are likely to be critical foraging for summer breeding birds such as Knot, which are a key feature of the habitat for Roseate Tern (George Swann, Little Tern. This species is widespread Roebuck Bay Ramsar site, stage their Kimberley Birdwatching pers. comm.), throughout the Kimberley but less migration to replenish fat reserves in whilst tidal mixing zones with rich common in other parts of Australia and is the Yellow Sea before continuing their ecological productivity west of Adele expected to associate with seagrass beds 10,000 km fl ight to breed. In 2006, Island (section 5.3.3) are responsible for and shallow sandy areas. the completion of a sea wall across the viability of those seabird colonies. Both Northern River Shark and Saemangeum, at the mouth of the Freshwater Sawfi sh are found in these Mangyeung and Dongjin Estuaries in environments. The former species South Korea meant the immediate and has not been seen in Queensland for catastrophic loss of the most important 20 years and the importance of the staging site in the Yellow Sea (Rogers & Northern Kimberley, which has the van de Kam, 2007). This loss has placed largest remaining populations of both, greater demand on Australia to conserve is put down to the relatively pristine north west Australia’s shorebird habitat, environment (Thornburn & Morgan, since substantial decline in the ability of 2003; Thornburn et al., 2004). birds to reach migration fi tness would have a far greater cumulative impact on their ability to maintain this fi tness to breed in the Arctic. 7. CONCLUSION This emphasises the need and purpose for Biodiversity conservation is one of the pivotal principles of ecologically international agreements, to avoid a greater sustainable development and is refl ected through our laws and policies to protect than necessary burden on any particular species and their environment. nation. Nevertheless, the ongoing loss of staging areas in central Asia represents International authorities under the Convention on Biological Diversity agree that an existing condition and one that, due to biodiversity can only be managed from an ecological perspective. Provisions Australia’s commitments under a range for management of the Commonwealth Marine Area and Ramsar sites, National of migratory bird agreements, cannot be Oceans Policy, the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment and ignored in managing the ecosystem of numerous Western Australia state policies, refl ect Australia’s progressive north west Australia. commitment to ecologically sustainable development. This report provides an overview of some of the key elements of the Kimberley coastal and marine ecosystem. Ultimately, it is hoped this will help responsible authorities, policy makers and the community identify potentially threatening processes and the detail and type of scientifi c knowledge marine ecologists can use to make a reasoned assessment of biodiversity value and impact signifi cance. 46. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
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9 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: THREATENED ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
List of Threatened Ecological Communities on the Department of Conservation and Land Management’s Threatened Ecological Community (TEC) Database.
WA Threatened Species & Communities Unit, Department of Conservation & Land Management (Correct to January 2004) http://fl orabase.calm.wa.gov.au/ accessed 30th March 2007 Community identifi er Community Name General location Category of Threat (IBRA Regions) and criteria met under WA criteria 44. Roebuck Bay mudfl ats Species-rich faunal community of the intertidal Kimberley VU B) mudfl ats of Roebuck bay 67. Monsoon thickets Monsoons (vine) thickets on coastal sand dunes West Kimberley, VU C) of Dampier Peninsula Dampierland Bioregion 80. Theda Soak Assemblages of Theda Soak rainforest swamp North Kimberley VU A), VU B) 81. Walcott inlet Assemblages of Walcott Inlet rainforest swamps North Kimberley VU B) 82. Roe River Assemblages of Roe River rainforest swamp North Kimberley VU B) 84. Dragon Tree Soak Assemblages of Dragon Tree Soak organic Kimberley Region, EN B) i) mound spring Great Sandy Desert Bioregion 85. Bunda Bunda Assemblages of Bunda Bunda organic mound West Kimberley, VU A), VU B) springs Dampierland Bioregion 86. Big Springs Assemblages of Big Springs organic mound West Kimberley, VU A), VU B) springs Dampierland Bioregion 89. North Kimberley Organic mound spring sedgeland community of North Kimberley VU A), VU B) mounds the North Kimberley Bioregion 92. Black Spring Black Spring organic mound spring community North Kimberley EN B) i), EN B) ii) 95. Mandora Mounds Assemblages of the organic springs and mound West Kimberley, Dampierland and EN B) iii) springs of the Madora Marsh area Great Sandy Desert Bioregions Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 53.
APPENDIX B: THREATENED KIMBERLEY FAUNA (ADAPTED DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT LIST JANUARY 2007; MAWSON, 2007)
Species Ranking MAMMALIA Balaenoptera borealis, Sei Whale VU Balaenoptera musculus, Blue Whale EN Balaenoptera physalus, Fin Whale VU Dasycercus cristicauda, Mulgara, Minyiminyi VU Dasyurus hallucatus, Northern Quoll EN Isoodon auratus auratus, Wintarru, Golden Bandicoot VU Macrotis lagotis, Bilby, Dalgyte, Ninu VU Megaptera novaeangliae, Humpback Whale VU Notoryctes caurinus, Kakarratul, Northern Marsupial-mole EN Petrogale lateralis ssp. (WAM #M15135), West Kimberly ssp. VU Rhinonicteris aurantius, Orange Leaf-nosed Bat VU Sminthopsis butleri, Butler’s Dunnart VU AVES Erythrotriorchis radiatus, Red Goshawk VU Erythrura gouldiae, Gouldian Finch EN Falcunculus frontatus whitei, Crested Shrike-tit (northern) EN Geophaps smithii blaauwi, Partridge Pigeon (western) VU Pezoporus occidentalis, Night Parrot CR Rostratula benghalensis australis, Australian Painted Snipe VU Sula dactylatra bedouti, Masked Booby (eastern Indian Ocean) VU REPTILIA Caretta caretta, Loggerhead Turtle EN Chelonia mydas, Green Turtle VU Ctenotus angusticeps, Airlie Island Ctenotus VU Dermochelys coriacea, Leatherback Turtle VU Eretmochelys imbricata, Hawksbill Turtle VU Lepidochelys olivacea, Olive Ridley Turtle EN Lerista praefrontalis, Buccaneer Burrowing Skink VU Natator depressus, Flatback Turtle VU ACTONOPTERYGII (Bony fi sh) Pristis zijsron, Green Sawfi sh VU CHONDRICHTHYES (Sharks, rays) Carcharias taurus, Grey Nurse Shark VU GASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails) Amplirhagada astuta VU Carinotrachia carsoniana VU Cristilabrum bubulum EN Cristilabrum buryillum CR Cristilabrum grossum CR Cristilabrum isolatum EN Cristilabrum monodon CR Cristilabrum primum CR 54. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Species Ranking GASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails) CONT. Cristilabrum rectum CR Cristilabrum simplex CR Cristilabrum spectaculum EN Cristilabrum solitudum CR Mouldingia occidentalis CR Mouldingia orientalis VU Ningbingia australis australis CR Ningbingia australis elongata CR Ningbingia bulla CR Ningbinga dentiens CR Ningbingia laurina CR Ningbingia octava CR Ningbingia res CR Ordtrachia elegans CR Turgenitubulus christenseni EN Turgenitubulus costus CR Turgenitubulus depressus CR Turgenitubulus foramenus CR Turgenitubulus opiranus CR Turgenitubulus pagodula VU Turgenitubulus tanmurrana CR Westraltrachia alterna VU Westraltrachia inopinata VU
Ranking. EX: Extinct, CR: Critically Endangered, EN: Endangered, VU: Vulnerable. Ranking by TSSC, February 2005. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley 55.
APPENDIX C: PRIORITY KIMBERLEY FAUNA (ADAPTED DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT LIST JANUARY 2007; MAWSON, 2007)
Species Priority Level PRIORITY CODES: Priority One: Taxa with few, poorly MAMMALIA known populations on threatened Hipposideros stenotis, Northern Leaf-nosed Bat 2 lands. Taxa which are known from few Hydromys chrysogaster, Rakali or Water Rat 4 specimens or sight records from one or a Lagorchestes conspicillatus leichardti, (mainland) Spectacled Hare-wallaby 3 few localities on lands not managed for Leggadina lakedownensis, Kerakenga or Lakeland Downs Mouse 4 conservation, e.g. agricultural or pastoral Macroderma gigas, Ghost Bat 4 lands, urban areas, active mineral leases. Mesembriomys gouldii gouldii, Djintamoonga, Black-footed Tree-rat 4 The taxon needs urgent survey and Mesembriomys macrurus, Golden-backed Tree-rat 4 evaluation of conservation status before Mormopterus loriae cobourgiana, Little North-western Mastiff Bat 1 consideration can be given to declaration as threatened fauna. Orcaella heinsohni, Australian Snubfi n Dolphin 4 Petrogale burbidgei, Monjon 4 Priority Two: Taxa with few, poorly Pseudocheirus dahli, Rock Ringtail 3 known populations on conservation Sousa chinensis, Indo-Pacifi c Humpback Dolphin 4 lands. Taxa which are known from few Stenella longirostris, Spinner Dolphin 4 specimens or sight records from one or a few localities on lands not under Vespadelus douglasorum, Yellow-lipped Cave Bat 2 immediate threat of habitat destruction Wyulda squamicaudata, Ilungnalya, Scaly-tailed Possum 3 or degradation, e.g. national parks, AVES conservation parks, nature reserves, State Ardeotis australis, Australian Bustard 4 forest, vacant Crown land, water reserves, Burhinus grallarius, Bush Stonecurlew 4 etc. The taxon needs urgent survey and Falco hypoleucos, Grey Falcon 4 evaluation of conservation status before Heteromunia pectoralis, Pictorella Mannikin 4 consideration can be given to declaration Malurus coronatus coronatus Purple-crowned Fairy-wren 4 as threatened fauna. Neochmia rufi cauda subclarescens, Star Finch (western) 4 Priority Three: Taxa with several, poorly Numenius madagascariensis, Eastern Curlew 4 known populations, some on conservation Phaps histrionica, Flock Bronzewing 4 lands. “Taxa which are known from few Polytelis alexandrae, Princess Parrot 4 specimens or sight records from several Turnix castanota, Chestnut-backed Button-quail 4 localities, some of which are on lands Tyto novaehollandiae kimberli, Masked Owl (northern subspecies) 1 not under immediate threat of habitat destruction or degradation. The taxon Tyto novaehollandiae novaehollandiae, Masked Owl (southern subspecies) 3 needs urgent survey and evaluation of REPTILIA conservation status before consideration Cryptagama aurita 1 can be given to declaration as threatened Ctenotus uber johnstonei 2 fauna.” Ctenotus yampiensis 2 Priority Four: Taxa in need of Diporiphora convergens 2 monitoring. “Taxa which are considered Lerista bunglebungle 2 to have been adequately surveyed, or for Lerista kalumburu 2 which suffi cient knowledge is available, Lerista robusta 1 and which are considered not currently Lerista separanda 2 threatened or in need of special protection, Morelia carinata, Rough-scaled Python 1 but could be if present circumstances Ramphotyphlops howi 2 change. These taxa are usually Ramphotyphlops micromma 1 represented on conservation lands.” Ramphotyphlops troglodytes 1 Ramphotyphlops yampiensis, Koolan Blind Snake 2 Simoselaps minimus 2 56. Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
Species Priority Level AMPHIBIA Uperoleia marmorata, Marbled Toadlet 1 Uperoleia minima, Small Toadlet 1 CHONDRICHTHYES (Sharks, rays) Glyphis sp. C (WAMP.32597.001), Northern River Shark 1 ACTINOPERYGII (Bony fi shes) Craterocephalus helenae, Drysdale Hardyhead 2 Craterocephalus lentiginosus, Prince Regent Hardyhead 4 Hannia greenwayi, Greenway’s Grunter 2 Hephaestus epirrhinos, Long-nose Sooty Grunter 2 Kimberleyeleotris hutchinsi, Mitchell Gudgeon 4 Kimberleyeleotris notata, Drysdale Gudgeon 2 Leiopotherapon macrolepis, Large-scale Grunter 2 Melanotaenia pygmaea, Pygmy Rainbowfi sh 4 Pristis clavata, Dwarf Sawfi sh 1 Pristis microdon, Freshwater Sawfi sh 3 Syncomistes rastellus, Drysdale Grunter 1 GASTROPODA (Marine, freshwater and terrestrial snails) Amplirhagada herbertena 1 Amplirhagada montalivetensis 1 Amplirhagada novelta 1 Amplirhagada questroana 1 Baudinella baudinensis 3 Damochlora millepunctata 1 Damochlora spina 3 Hadra wilsoni 2 Kimboraga exanimus 3 Kimboraga micromphala 2 Kimboraga yammerana 1 Pilsbrycharopa tumida 1 Prymnbriareus nimberlinus 3 Rhagada gibbensis 1 Rhagada harti 2 Torresitrachia thedana 1 Westraltrachia lievreana 1 Westraltrachia recta 1 Westraltrachia subtila 1 Coastal and Marine Natural Values of the Kimberley
APPENDIX D: Threatened species on the EPBC Act (from the Protected Matters Search Tool, Department of Sustainability and Water Resources website). Note, this database provides only an approximation of what species are likely to occur. Some of the species on this list may not be found within the coastal Kimberley. Other species may be missing.
Species Status BIRDS Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus Vulnerable Gouldian Finch Erythrura gouldiae Endangered Crested Shrike-tit (northern), Northern Shrike-tit Falcunculus frontatus white Vulnerable Partridge Pigeon (western) Geophaps smithii blaauwi Vulnerable Purple-crowned Fairy-wren (western) Malurus coronatus coronatus Vulnerable Australian Painted Snipe Rostratula australis Vulnerable Masked Owl (northern) Tyto novaehollandiae kimberli Vulnerable MAMMALS Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus Endangered Mulgara Dasycercus cristicauda Vulnerable Northern Quoll Dasyurus hallucatus Endangered Golden Bandicoot (mainland) Isoodon auratus auratus Vulnerable Greater Bilby Macrotis lagotis Vulnerable Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae Vulnerable Golden-backed Tree-rat Mesembriomys macrurus Vulnerable Black-footed Rock-wallaby (West Kimberley race) Petrogale lateralis Vulnerable West Kimberley race REPTILES Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta Endangered Green Turtle Chelonia mydas Vulnerable Airlie Island Ctenotus Ctenotus angusticeps Vulnerable Leathery Turtle, Leatherback Turtle, Luth Dermochelys coriacea Vulnerable Great Desert Skink, Tjakura, Warrarna, Mulyamiji Egernia kintorei Vulnerable Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Vulnerable Flatback Turtle Natator depressus Vulnerable SHARKS Freshwater Sawfi sh Pristis microdon Vulnerable Whale Shark Rhincodon typus Vulnerable PLANTS Edgar Range Pandanus Pandanus spiralis var. fl ammeus Endangered