2006 Annual Bibliography College of Forestry and the Oregon Forest Research Laboratory From the Director Contents

regon has a strong reputation as a global leader in forestry and forest products, and it Ocontinues to be the nation’s leader in softwood lumber production. In addition to providing sustainable, economic benefi ts to Oregonians, the forestlands promote environmental and water quality, provide fi sh and wildlife habitats, meet social and recreational needs for the people, and are vital to climate moderation.

Providing the research and management expertise to optimize the multiple, and sometimes competing, values of our forests and enhance the effectiveness of forest sector industries is the task of the Oregon Forest Research Laboratory. Our scientists collaborate with peers in other organizations and other disciplines to discover ‘new’ knowledge, as well as to challenge or expand on current knowledge related to the processes, interactions, and impacts of forestry, natural resources, and ecosystem activities. The knowledge generated from these efforts is routinely made available via a broad range of publications. This annotated bibliography is intended to recap the scientifi c fi ndings published between January 1 and December 30, 2006.

The information is arranged in fi ve program areas, but I believe you’ll fi nd the richness and depth of the research being conducted by our scientists goes well beyond these thematic terms. This booklet is a strong testament to their productivity, and to the state, federal and private organizations that help fund our continuing quest for the knowledge that will help the natural resources, ecosystems, and citizens of Oregon, the nation, and the world. From the Director Contents

Research results fi nd application in many areas 1 Forest Regeneration as Oregon Forest Research Laboratory scientists and their cooperators publish their fi ndings. Papers published between January 1, 2006, and December 7 Forest Ecology, Culture, 31, 2006, are grouped here according to the Oregon and Productivity Forest Research Laboratory’s fi ve program areas: 46 Integrated Protection of • Forest Regeneration • Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forests and Watersheds • Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds • Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies 60 Evaluation of Forest • Wood Processing and Product Performance Uses, Practices, and Policies

To Order Publications 86 Wood Processing and Product Performance Copies of many Oregon Forest Research Laboratory publications are available from Forestry Communications Group Oregon State University 208 Peavy Hall Corvallis, OR 97331-7401 Phone: (541) 737-4271 FAX: (541) 737-2668 Email: [email protected] Web site: http://fcg.cof.orst.edu Please indicate author(s), title, and publication number if known.

Compilation, design, and layout by: Forestry Communications Group Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration

Arias, R, S Filichkin, and SH Strauss. managed plantations of red alder than in naturally 2006. Divide and conquer: Plant cell regenerated stands. In this study, initial planting cycle and development genes for plant density influenced early diameter and height transformation. Trends in Biotechnology growth of 12-year-old variable-density red alder 24: 267–273. plantations. Diameter growth increased with For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. Even increasing density until a crossover between though the first regeneration of genetically ages 7 through 11. Height growth also usually transformed plants was accomplished twenty increased with stand density. Height and diameter years ago, this technique remains unfeasible for growth were maximized at ~1400–1500 trees/ha most plant species and is not useful in routine until about age 10, at which time optimal diameter plant breeding. This article discusses new ways growth shifted to lower densities. Thinning to make genetically engineered plants. The increased diameter growth response but did not authors propose that inducible expression and/ affect tree height. By age 12, thinning at age 5 or suppression of the genes that control the had resulted in greater diameters than thinning cell cycle and development might substantially at age 8. Thinning increased individual tree improve competence for transformation and/or volume 14% and 4% over the control plots for the regeneration. They discuss the basic concepts early thin and the late thin, respectively. Volume/ of de- and redifferentiation and the genes ha was greatest in the early thin plots and least that control it. They then explore genes that in the late thinned plots. The results show that either suppress or promote G1 transition and careful control of planting density and thinning that facilitate gene uptake or directly influence regimes can yield more and better quality logs in regeneration and discuss strategies to combine a relatively short time. these genes with inducible expression systems Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, to improve transformation and regeneration Culture, and Productivity efficiency. Large EST databanks, complete plant-genome sequences, and inducible gene Böhlenius, H, T Huang, L Charbonnel-Campaa, expression systems create opportunities AM Brunner, S Jansson, SH Strauss, and for testing homologous genes to increase O Nilsson. 2006. CO/FT regulatory module competence of transformation and regeneration. controls timing of flowering and seasonal Bluhm, AA, and DE Hibbs. 2006. Red alder: growth cessation in trees. Science 312: Its management and potential, pp. 73–86 1040–1043. in Red Alder–A State of Knowledge, R For geneticists and botanists. Trees often do Deal and C Harrington, eds. General not flower for decades after they begin to grow. Technical Report PNW-GTR-669, USDA They also can cycle between growth periods Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research and dormancy. Entrance into dormancy is Station, Portland OR. under strong genetic control, but the molecular For silviculturists and land managers. Red mechanisms underlying this control and the alder has many advantages over conifers: rapid control of delayed flowering are unknown. This juvenile growth, disease resistance, nitrogen- paper describes a new method for inducing early fixing ability with consequent site improvement, flowering in poplars. The study demonstrates that and enhancement of biological diversity. Good PtFT1, the Populus ortholog of the Arabidopsis growth, however, is limited to a narrower range gene FT, is involved in control of both the of site conditions. Diameter and height growth multiple-year delay in flowering time and growth of trees are greater and tree form is better in cessation and bud set in the fall. It also shows a 1 Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration

mechanism for how the CO/FT regulon controls causes dwarfing and alters gibberellins, the variation in the critical day length that induces root growth, and metabolite profiles in growth cessation and bud set in tree populations Populus. Planta 24: 288–299. originating from different latitudes. Knowledge For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. Many about this mechanism will be important for developmental processes in plants are regulated future tree breeding programs. The technique to by gibberellins (GA). Studies directed toward induce early flowering also could speed up tree understanding the molecular mechanisms of breeding programs, helping to answer the world’s GA-mediated processes have implicated several increasing need for wood products. proteins that contain a functional DELLA domain. Most of these studies have been done in annual Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, plants; this study explores the role of DELLA Culture, and Productivity proteins in a tree species, Populus (poplar). Using Burczyk, J, WT Adams, DS Birkes, and IJ transgenic modification, the authors found that Chybicki. 2006. Using genetic markers DELLA-less versions of GAI profoundly affected to directly estimate gene flow and the physical and metabolic phenotype of Populus reproductive success parameters in plants in a dominant fashion. Shoots were dwarfed, on the basis of naturally regenerated whereas root growth in vitro was promoted two- to seedlings. Genetics 173: 363–372. threefold. Applied GA3 inhibited adventitious root production in wild-type poplar, but did not affect For tree geneticists. Describing the relationship gai/rgl1 poplars. Bioactive GA1 and GA4 in leaves between population genetic structure and of gai- and rgl1-expressing plants increased 12- reproductive patterns presents one of the major to 64-fold, whereas the C19 precursors of GA1 challenges in plant population biology. Traditional (GA53, GA44 and GA19) decreased three- to parentage methods cannot precisely describe ninefold. In roots, metabolic profiling suggested seed and pollen aspects of gene flow realized that increased respiration might have increased in seedlings. Here the authors describe a novel root growth. Metabolite changes in leaves probability model, the seedling neighborhood suggested reduced carbon flux through the lignin model, that allows description of the reproductive biosynthetic pathway and a shift towards allocation factors influencing genetic composition and of secondary storage and defense metabolites. genealogy of naturally regenerating seedling cohorts. The method models female and male Filichkin, SA, R Meilan, VB Busov, C Ma, AM parentage in a local plant population on the basis Brunner, and SH Strauss. 2006. Alcohol- of genotypic data from naturally established inducible gene expression in transgenic seedlings when the location and genotypes of Populus. Plant Cell Reports 25: 660–667. all potential parents within the population are For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. known. They apply the model to preliminary data Studies of functional plant genomics often sets from Scots pine and oak populations and use modification of endogene expression, but discuss potential applications for investigating pleiotropic effects can make it difficult to directly reproductive patterns in plant populations. relate gene function with phenotype. In the case of developmental regulatory genes, it may also Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, be difficult to recover viable transgenic plants. Culture, and Productivity Several inducible gene-switch systems may help Busov, V, R Meilan, DW Pearce, SB Rood, to overcome these limitations. One such system C Ma, TJ Tschaplinski, and SH Strauss. is an alcohol-responsive system incorporating 2006. Transgenic modification ofgai or rgl1 parts of the alc-inducible regulon of Aspergillus 2 Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration

nidulans. This study examines whether it is was highly active in actively growing lateral roots, effective in poplar (Populus) and, if so, how their primordia, and, to a lesser extent, secondary it responds to chemical inducers. Using gus meristems of aerial organs rich in free endogenous as a reporter gene and two poplar clones, the auxin. These results were consistent with the authors optimized the conditions for controlled expression profiling of ET304 mRNA in various alcohol-inducible transgene expression in poplar. tissues of mature poplar trees. Analysis of the Induction of β−glucuronidase (GUS) was efficient Populus genomic sequence suggested that ET304 in vitro in both leaves and roots of regenerated represents a large family of putative transcription plantlets. Ethanol was the most effective activator factors containing a conserved AT-hook motif and and showed no apparent phytotoxicity at <2%. DNA binding domain. Acetaldehyde and 2-butanone were weaker Haase, DL, R Rose, and J Trobaugh. 2006. inducers. Prolonged induction by ethanol vapors Field performance of three stock sizes significantly increased the GUS activity in of Douglas-fir container seedlings grown leaves from both the tissue culture plants and with slow-release fertilizer in the nursery greenhouse-grown plants. The alcohol-inducible growing medium. New Forests 31: 1–24. system appears to be functional and robust in transgenic poplar. For forest nursery and plantation managers. Incorporating slow-release fertilizers (SRF) into Filichkin, SA, Q Wu, V Busov, R Meilan, C the growing medium for containerized seedlings Lanz-Garcia, A Groover, B Goldfarb, C has become increasingly common. This study Ma, P Dharmawardhana, A Brunner, and evaluated seedling growth, morphology, and SH Strauss. 2006. Enhancer trapping foliar nutrition of three sizes of container-grown in woody plants: Isolation of the ET304 Douglas-fir seedlings at the time of and after gene encoding a putative AT-hook motif outplanting at two sites. Seedling performance transcription factor and characterization with one of four SRF incorporated in the growing of the expression patterns conferred by medium to supplement conventional water-soluble its promoter in transgenic Populus and fertilizer was compared to that of seedlings grown Arabidopsis. Plant Science 171: 206–216. with water-soluble fertilizer only (controls). At the For geneticists and biotechnologists. This article time of planting, SRF-amended seedlings had discusses a root-specific gene and the behavior higher foliar nutrient content than the controls; of its expression-controlling element. The authors this advantage was lost by the end of the second isolated a novel gene, ET304, from Populus. Both growing season. After four growing seasons, the ET304 enhancer trap line and putative ET304 SRF-amended seedlings had greater height, promoter fused to a GUS reporter gene conferred basal stem diameter, and stem volume. Larger strongly root-predominant expression patterns and stock also had greater growth during the first two directed expression to specific root tissue and cell seasons and maintained their size advantage. types. GUS activity was detected in lateral root Howe, GT, KJ Jayawickrama, ML Cherry, GR primordia, root apical meristem, elongation zone, Johnson, and NC Wheeler. 2006. Breeding and cortex. ET304 promoter sequence contained Douglas-fir.Plant Breeding Reviews 27: a canonic auxin response element (AuxRE) 245–253. upstream of the enhancer trap insertion site. In a synchronized lateral root induction system, For tree geneticists. Douglas-fir, one of the ET304 promoter conferred an auxin-responsive most important timber species in the United expression in newly emerging lateral roots of both States, exhibits high genetic variation for all poplar and Arabidopsis. The ET304 promoter traits studied. Applied tree breeding efforts for this species are therefore extensive, and 3 Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration

genetically improved trees have been widely strong negative correlations between DBH and planted. The authors review the key elements the wood properties. Taper [DBH/(height - 1.4)] distinguishing tree breeding from other types of was negatively associated with MOE. Selection crop breeding, differences in breeding Douglas- for MOE may produce greater gains than fir breeding versus other trees, the factors that selection for density because the coefficient of make Douglas-fir breeding unique, the current additive variation was greater than that for density. state of Douglas-fir breeding, and the future of Conversely, selection for growth may impact MOE research need for Douglas-fir breeding. Focus is more negatively than density because MOE had on breeding in western North America, especially more genetic variation than density. the Pacific Northwest, where most Douglas-fir breeding is done. The discussion covers distinctive Additional Program Area: Wood Processing and characteristics of forest trees; the taxonomy, range Product Performance and silvic characteristics of Douglas-fir; genetic Johnson, GR, and J Okula. 2006. Antelope and nongenetic factors that influence breeding; bitterbrush reestablishment: A case study breeding goals and objectives; an overview of tree of plant size and browse protection effects. breeding methods; breeding programs in North Native Plant Journal 7(2): 125–133. America, Europe, and New Zealand; breeding and testing methods and strategies; production of For regeneration biologists and silviculturists. After improved materials for reforestation; biotechnology; an intense stand-replacement fire in south-central and gene conservation. Oregon, 1-year-old (1+0) bareroot seedlings of antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata (Pursh) Johnson, GR, and BL Gartner. 2006. Genetic DC. [Rosaceae]) were outplanted over 4 years. variation in basic density and MOE of Paired plots were established to examine the coastal Douglas-fir.Tree Genetics & benefits of protecting the plants from damage due Genomes 3: 25–33. to animal browsing with Vexar mesh tubing. In the For tree breeders and wood scientists. Very little first growing season, height growth was 18.4 cm information is available on genetic variation of (7.4 in) in the protected plots and 15.6 cm (6.3 in) modulus of elasticity (MOE) in Douglas-fir, even in the unprotected plots. Survival was also higher though MOE is associated with structural quality. in the protected plots (70% as compared with Wood density, often used as a surrogate for MOE, 62%); survival of larger plants was better than that is negatively correlated with growth, the primary of smaller plants. Survival after the first growing trait used for selection in this species. This study season was well correlated with survival up to 3 examined the genetic patterns of variation of MOE years later (r = 0.59, P = 0.01). Use of browse and its correlations with other traits in 20-year-old protection will increase survival and growth, but Douglas-fir trees from 39 open-pollinated families one must weigh the added costs against the on four sites. Heritability estimates of MOE were alternative of planting more shrubs initially. larger than those for total height and diameter at breast height (DBH) and similar to those Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, for density. Height and DBH were negatively Culture, and Productivity correlated with MOE. Holding DBH constant Meilan, R, and C Ma. 2006. Poplar (Populus gave positive partial correlations of height with spp.), pp. 143–151 in Methods in Molecular MOE and density. The negative correlations Biology 344: Agrobacterium Protocols, K between height and the wood properties thus Wang, ed. Humana Press, Totowa NJ. were apparently a function of the high positive correlation between height and DBH and the For biotechnologists. This chapter provides a detailed review of how the OSU biotechnology 4 Forest Regeneration Forest Regeneration

laboratory genetically engineers poplars. This step instructions for planting and taking care of methodology has proven effective for a wide seedlings. variety of poplar phenotypes. Rose, R, LS Rosner, and JS Ketchum. 2006. Newton, M, and EC Cole. 2006. Harvesting Twelfth-year response of Douglas-fir to area impacts on understory regeneration in two- of weed control and herbaceous versus storied Douglas-fir stands.Western Journal woody weed control treatments. Canadian of Applied Forestry 21: 14–18. Journal of Forest Research 36: 2464–2473. For silviculturists and forestland managers. Two- For silviculturists and forestland managers. storied management is being adopted to speed Herbaceous vegetation can influence growth and up development of mature forest characteristics yield of a regenerating stand through competition. in young thinned stands. Underplanting has been The competitive effect is influenced by its distance used to promote understory structure, but little from a planted seedling. This study, carried out is known about the influence of partial cutting or on two sites in Oregon (Summit and Marcola), rethinning on planted understory regeneration. evaluated growth over 12 years on six areas In an earlier experiment, 50-year-old Douglas- of tree-centered weed control, as well as total fir stands on somewhat above-average sites herbaceous control for 2 years and total woody had been thinned to four densities in uniform or control for 3 years. Controlling herbaceous weeds gappy patterns and underplanted with four conifer for 2 years after planting significantly increased species (western redcedar, Douglas-fir, grand fir, growth at both sites. Height, DBH, and volume and western hemlock). After 4 years, growth was increased with increasing intensity of weed control inversely related to understory cover and basal at both sites, but treatment differences were less area of overstory stands. Eight growing seasons at Marcola. Woody-only control was very effective after the initial thinning and plantation, survival at Summit but had no effect at Marcola. By year of planted seedlings averaged 50%. Understory 12 at Marcola, treatments did not differ in height/ conifers were suppressed in the two intermediate diameter ratio, but differences remained at Summit. densities, so those densities were rethinned with If weed control treatments are very effective, 2 ground and cable equipment. After thinning was years of herbaceous vegetation control combined completed, between 18 and 30% of seedlings with 3 years of woody control can increase alive at harvest were removed or under debris. volume growth substantially through year 12. Another 13 to 16% had damaged tops or were The vegetation present before harvest apparently severely bent. Overall, 40% of planted seedlings influences the occurrence of competitive woody were damaged. Two years after thinning, damaged species after harvest, influencing the response to seedlings grew 10 cm less on average than control of woody vegetation. undamaged. Thinning to minimize suppression of understory trees will cause losses in the understory Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, unless logging is done carefully and long log Culture, and Productivity lengths are minimized. Rosner, LS, and R Rose. 2006. Synergistic Rose, R, and D Haase. 2006. Guide to stem volume response to combinations Reforestation in Oregon. College of Forestry, of vegetation control and seedling size in Oregon State University, Corvallis. conifer plantations in Oregon. Canadian For forestland managers. This manual describes Journal of Forest Research 36: 930–944. the rules for reforesting after harvest of small For silviculturists and forest managers. Planting woodlands, gives guidance for the decisions larger seedlings and weed control improve the landowner must make, and gives step-by- survival and growth of outplanted seedlings in 5 Forest Ecology,ForestForest Culture, Regeneration Regeneration and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

numerous species. The effects of both factors NOS and two minimal 35S promoters in have most often been studied separately, with vegetative tissues. Tree Physiology 26: little known about the effects of their interactions 401–410. on performance. The authors analyzed data For tree geneticists and biotechnologists. The from two vegetation management studies authors are developing a floral sterility system encompassing five planting sites, four conifer that does not show background expression but species (Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western prevents floral development. They compared redcedar, and grand fir), and two stock types in the vegetative expression properties of the order to determine the relative effects of seedling promoter of the poplar (Populus trichocarpa) size at planting and intensity of vegetation control homologue of the floral homeotic gene LEAFY on subsequent seedling growth. Growth of all four (PTLF) to those of three candidate attenuator- conifer species increased with increased seedling gene promoters: the cauliflower mosaic virus size and weed control, although responses were (CaMV) 35S basal promoter, the CaMV 35S not the same among species and sites. Diameter basal promoter fused to the tobacco mosaic virus and height responses to weed control and (TMV) omega element, and the nopaline synthase seedling size were additive. Volume differences (NOS) promoter. The promoters were evaluated between treatments increased with seedling via promoter::GUS gene fusions in a transgenic size. Planting the largest possible seedlings poplar hybrid (P. tremula x P. alba). In leaves, should maximize volume return from increased the NOS promoter conveyed the highest activity, weed control; maximum volume from increased with a mean expression level 5-fold higher than seedling size is obtainable with the most intense PTLF. Differential expression in shoots, leaves, weed control. stems, and roots was observed only for the NOS and PTLF promoters. Strongest expression Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, was observed in roots for the NOS promoter; Culture, and Productivity the PTLF promoter directed highest expression Wei, H, R Meilan, AM Brunner, JS Skinner, in shoots. The NOS promoter appears best CP Ma, and SH Strauss. 2006. Transgenic suited to counteract vegetative expression of a sterility in Populus: expression properties cytotoxin driven by the PTLF promoter where 1:1 of the poplar PTLF, Agrobacterium toxin:attenuator expression is required.

6 Forest Ecology,Forest Culture, Regeneration and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Ahmed, AA, M-EF Hegazy, NM Hassan, For harvest planners, forestland managers, and M Wojcinska, J Karchesy, PW Pare, forest economists. Timber salvage after wildfire and TJ Mabry. 2006. Constituents can reduce fuel loads before regeneration of Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus. and recover some economic value from the Phytochemistry 67: 1547–1553. burned area. Economic value of the burned For phytochemists and pharmacologists. The timber depends on logging costs and time since authors examined the phytochemistry of the tree death. Helicopter logging is sometimes aerial parts of green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus considered in salvage operations because, viscidiflorus var. viscidiflorus), a common and although it is more expensive than other methods, ecologically important shrub in dry habitats of it lessens soil disturbance and road building and western North America. They found three new and can hasten restoration. Using data and growth- seven known compounds: five sesquiterpenes, and-yield relationships pertinent to southern two cinnamic acid derivatives, two ketoalcohol Oregon, the authors develop a model to calculate derivatives and one coumarin glucoside. the value of fire-killed timber as a function of Structures were determined by extensive NMR logging costs with helicopter logging and time studies; the structures of two previously reported since death of the trees. They conclude that compounds were revised on the basis of chemical any salvage should be done promptly because reaction, and unpublished X-ray data of two recoverable volume and value of salvaged timber known compounds are reported. Four compounds drops rapidly with time. They also discuss other showed anticancer activity against human breast factors to be considered in determining strategy. cancer cells. Additional Program Areas: Forest Ecology, Ahmed, AA, AE-HH Mohamed, J Karchesy, Culture, and Productivity; Evaluation of Forest and Y Asakawa. 2006. Salvidorol, a Uses, Practices, and Policies nor-abietane diterpene with a rare carbon skeleton and two abietane Alig, RJ, O Krankina, A Yost, and J Kuzminykh. diterpene derivatives from Salvia dorrii. 2006. Forest carbon dynamics in the Pacific Phytochemistry 67: 424–428. Northwest (USA) and the St. Petersburg For phytochemists and pharmacognosists. Many region of Russia: comparisons and policy species of the genus Salvia are rich in flavonoids, implications. Climatic Change 79: 335–360. monoterpenes, and diterpenes and have long For those interested in global warming and been known for their medicinal properties. carbon cycles. Forests of the United States and Many of the diterpenes have antioxidant and Russia can contribute to reducing global warming antibacterial activities. This paper describes the caused by greenhouse gases. Many issues isolation and characterization of salvidorol, a need to be considered in determining the extent novel carbon skeletal nor-abietane diterpene, and of carbon (C) sequestration, including different two epimeric abietane diterpenes. Salvidorol is forest management objectives across major the first reported nor-diterpene with an irregular ownership groups. Private timberlands in the US skeleton. Pacific Northwest (USPNW) are relatively young and well stocked and sequester C at relatively Akay, AE, J Sessions, P Bettinger, R Toupin, high rates. Forests in northwestern Russia are and A Eklund. 2006. Evaluating the salvage generally less productive, but cover extensive value of fire-killed timber by helicopter– areas. A large increase in C storage/ha in live tree Effects of yarding distance and time since biomass for the next several decades is projected fire.Western Journal of Applied Forestry on national forest timberlands in the USPNW for 21: 102–107. 7 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

all selected scenarios. On private timberlands discrimination, together with simple ecosystem in the PNW, average C in live tree biomass/ha isotope measurement, can be useful in began to level off a historical decline in 2000; constraining land surface and C balance models. projected levels by 2050 approximate those in Arroyo, LA, SP Healey, WB Cohen, D 1970. In the St. Petersburg region, average C Cocero, and JA Manzanera. 2006. Using stores were similar to those on private lands in object-oriented classification and high- the Pacific Northwest. Although the projected resolution imagery to map fuel types futures reflect a broad range of policy options, in a Mediterranean region. Journal of larger differences in projected C stores result from Geophysical Research 111(G04S04): n.a. the starting conditions determined by ownership, regional environmental conditions, and past forest For forestland managers and others interested management. An important change of forest in wildfire prevention. Prevention of and fighting management objective, however, can substantially wildfires require knowledge of fuel load and change C stores over the next 50 years. composition. The method described in this paper uses object-oriented classification to generate Aranibar, JN, JA Berry, WJ Riley, DE fuel type maps from high spatial resolution Pataki, BE Law, and JR Ehleringer. 2006. satellite data. The fuel maps were derived from Combining meteorology, eddy fluxes, QuickBird imagery; the image used is from the isotope measurements, and modeling northwest region of Madrid, Spain. Fuel type to understand environmental controls was classified according to the Prometheus of carbon isotope discrimination at the system, which is adapted to the ecological canopy scale. Global Change Biology 12: characteristics of the European Mediterranean 710–730. basin. This object-oriented approach allows For forest ecologists, micrometeorologists, and context consideration during the classification others interested in carbon and energy fluxes process and complements traditional pixel-based Although carbon (C) isotopes could facilitate methods. The map created with this approach integration of ecology and geology with C cycle predicted six fuel classes with greater than 80% processes, quantitative tools to integrate isotopic accuracy. Object-oriented classification of high- processing across temporal and spatial scales resolution imagery has the potential to create are needed. Carbon isotope discrimination by accurate and spatially precise fuel maps. terrestrial ecosystems is affected by processes Aruga, K, T Tasaka, J Sessions, and E Miyata. that respond to variable environmental condition 2006. Tabu search optimization of forest road and so may vary seasonally and annually. This alignments combined with shortest paths paper reports on simulated temporal variability in and cubic splines. Croatian Journal of Forest C isotope fractionation in photosynthesis on the Engineering 27(1): 37–47. canopy scale in a land surface model, ISOLSM, designed for inclusion in global models. The For forest road engineers and harvest planners. data used to parameterize the model were In previous work, the authors and others obtained from measurements in a pine forest developed a program to simultaneously optimize in Metolius, Oregon. The model was tested horizontal and vertical alignments of forest roads, with 13C measurements of ecosystem and foliar using manually selected initial alignments and respiration. ISOLSM reasonably simulated the Tabu search. Tabu search found a good solution short-term variability of assimilated C controlled faster than the Genetic Algorithm, but the by atmospheric conditions at the canopy scale. solutions found by the latter were slightly better. Including the capacity to simulate C isotope The model they describe in this paper combines the Dijkstra method and a spline function with 8 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

their optimization program; this combination Bateman, DS, and RE Gresswell. 2006. avoids manually initializing intersections and Survival and growth of age-0 steelhead grade change points. The model was applied after surgical implantation of 23-mm to the high resolution DEM (digital elevation passive integrated transponders. North model) from Lidar data from the Capitol State American Journal of Fisheries Management Forest in Washington and found to produce 26: 545–550. better alignments than manual selection. Using For fish and stream biologists. Passive integrated the spline function reduced computing time transponder (PIT) tags, which can be implanted in from 73 to 19 hours. After additional testing and individual fish and detected remotely, have proven verification, and with inclusion of additional site very useful in tracking fish movement, growth, and types and slopes, this program could be used to survival. In this study, 23-mm PIT tags were implanted optimize forest road alignment automatically. in juvenile steelhead <90 mm fork length and their Bailey, JD, and CA Harrington. 2006. survival and growth were compared with those of Temperature regulation of bud-burst fish that had undergone sham surgery or had not phenology within and among years in a been operated on. Survival was lower in tagged fish young Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii) (86%) than in either untagged group 9~100% in each plantation in western Washington, USA. group). Most (~90%) mortality occurred during the Tree Physiology 26: 421–430. first 3 days. Growth of the tagged group lagged the other groups during the first 20 days but caught up For tree physiologists and silviculturists. Early to or exceeded that of the other groups by day 30. bud burst has certain advantages but increases Although the tags decreased survival, 23-mm tags the chance of damage by spring frosts. Chilling may still be useful for following smaller salmonids Douglas-fir seedlings for approximately 1,200 h when survival is not the parameter of interest or at 0–5 °C followed by exposure to temperatures where fish could be tagged and held before release. >5 °C forces budburst. The authors tested this sequential budburst model in the field to Beever, EA, M Huso, and DA Pyke. 2006. determine whether terminal buds develop more Multiscale responses of soil stability and slowly in cooler microsites. The site was in the invasive plants to removal of non-native Coast Range, 60 km southwest of Olympia, grazers from an arid conservation reserve. Washington. Terminal bud development in young Diversity & Distributions 12: 258–268. saplings and soil and air temperatures were For conservation and restoration biologists. Little is monitored on large replicated plots differing in known about how gradients of disturbance intensity microclimate. In 2 of 3 years, trees on cooler and ecosystem responses are distributed across microsites broke bud 2 to 4 days earlier than multiple spatial resolutions or how this relationship those on warmer microsites. A simple sequential changes over time. The authors investigated spatial model did not predict this, nor did it correctly variation in cover of nonnative species and soil- predict the order of budburst across the 3 years. aggregate stability during grazing and whether A modified model that reset the accumulation patterns in these variables changed after grazer of heat units to 0 whenever significant freezes removal from Mojave National Preserve, California. occurred correctly predicted the sequence of bud Distance from water and number of ungulate burst across years. Soil temperature alone or defecations (metrics of longer-term and recent grazing with air temperature did not improve predictions. intensity, respectively) were used as predictors of the More complex models may be needed to predict response variables. Hierarchical linear models were effects of silvicultural treatments and to interpret compared by information-theoretic analyses. Soil the implications of climate change. stability was greater under perennial vegetation than 9 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

in bare interspaces. Surface soil stability decreased typical air photo-derived forest inventory allows as ungulate defecations increased. Stability of accurate prediction of site occupancy by forest surface samples was more affected by time birds, (2) to test whether incorporating spatial since grazer removal than was that of subsurface autocorrelation into habitat models increases samples. Subsurface soil stability in bare spaces prediction success, and (3) to determine whether was not related to any predictors used. In the high landscape structure is an important predictor of rainfall year, after cattle had been removed for 1–2 bird distribution in forest-dominated landscapes. years, cover of all nonnative plants averaged 9X Models for 21 species were tested locally higher than in the low-rainfall year. Hierarchical with cross-validation and regionally using an analyses provided more complete understanding independent data set from an area about 250 km to of the complexities of disturbance and recovery the northwest. Logistic models that ignored spatial processes in arid ecosystems. autocorrelation tended to overestimate habitat effects. Overall prediction success was higher for Berryman, S, and B McCune. 2006. Estimating autologistic models than logistic models in the local epiphytic macrolichen biomass from area, but the difference was significant for only one topography, stand structure and lichen species. Air photo data appear to be as effective community data. Journal of Vegetation as fine-resolution vegetation data for predicting Science 17: 157−170. site occupancy for the majority of species studied. For ecologists and lichenologists. Lichens provide These models will be useful to forest managers many benefits in forest ecosystems, contributing interested in mapping species distributions under to biodiversity and providing forage and nesting various timber harvest scenarios and to planners material for vertebrates and habitat for many attempting to optimize function of protected areas. invertebrates. The authors developed models to estimate stand-level biomass for three functional Betts, MG, GJ Forbes, AW Diamond, and PD lichen groups: cyanolichens or ‘nitrogen-fixers’, Taylor. 2006. Independent effects of habitat forage lichens, and matrix lichens or other ‘green- amount and fragmentation on songbirds algal’ lichens. The models related biomass to in a forest mosaic: an organism-based topography, stand structure, and lichen community approach. Ecological Applications 16: structure in the central Cascades of western 1076–1089. Oregon. Biomass changed with elevation and For forest ecologists, wildlife biologists, and stand structure and age. The models are useful for ornithologists. The relative influence of habitat understanding and predicting distribution of lichen loss and the spatial pattern of remaining habitat biomass at a landscape scale. Such information is in the dynamics and distribution of populations important because contributions of lichens, such as remains unclear. If landscape pattern affects nitrogen fixation and provision of forage, are likely population size, managers may be able to proportional to their biomass, and direct sampling design landscapes that mitigate habitat loss. of biomass is time-consuming and tedious. The authors designed an experiment to test four habitat loss vs. fragmentation hypotheses. Betts, MG, AW Diamond, GJ Forbes, M-A Landscape structure was measured with Villard, and J Gunn. 2006. The importance of quantitative, spatially explicit habitat distribution spatial autocorrelation, extent and resolution models previously developed for two species: in predicting forest bird occurrence. blackburnian warbler (Dendroica fusca) and Ecological Modelling 191: 197–224. ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla). Most variance in For ecologists, wildlife biologists, and the occurrence of both species was explained by conservationists. This study had three major local scale or landscape composition variables, objectives: (1) to determine whether resolution of 10 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

rather than variables reflecting landscape Forestry Review 8: 297–306. pattern. Theoretical models have predicted an For harvest planners, silviculturists, and interaction between landscape fragmentation conservation biologists. Plantation forests are and composition, but this appears to be the first a key component of forest policies in many study to report empirical evidence of nonlinear countries and now provide 35% of the global fragmentation effects. The results indicate that supply of industrial roundwood. Many efforts to manipulating landscape pattern may reduce enhance biodiversity in plantation forests are negative impacts of habitat loss for ovenbird, but being made, but such practices can significantly not blackburnian warbler. reduce revenues. This paper describes a Betts, MG, BP Zitske, AS Hadley, and AW combinatorial harvest scheduling model with Diamond. 2006. Migrant forest songbirds three biodiversity and two economic goals. The undertake breeding dispersal following biodiversity goals are (1) to create a shifting timber harvest. Northeastern Naturalist 13: mosaic of closed-canopy stands connecting the 531–536. remnant native forest patches, (2) to maximize the interior forest habitat created in the shifting For ecologists, wildlife biologists, and mosaic in each period, and (3) to limit the ornithologists. Although timber harvest reduces maximum clear fell area that can be created for the relative abundance of some bird species any 3-year period. The economic goals are to associated with mature or interior forest, little maximize net present value from timber products is known about what happens with migratory while meeting a delivery schedule for the forest passerines, usually site-faithful, whose territories products. The model can be used by policy lie in harvested stands. This paper reports two makers trying to analyze costs and benefits observations of breeding dispersal by migratory resulting from various levels of biodiversity songbirds, Dendroica caerulescens (black- protection. throated blue warbler) and D. fusca (blackburnian warbler), from their initial territories after timber Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest harvest. Forty-eight birds of each species were Uses, Practices, and Policies captured in uncut areas of mature forest and banded as part of a long-term study on warbler Bottomley, PJ, RR Yarwood, SA Kageyama, survival in the Greater Fundy Ecosystem, New KE Waterstripe, MA Williams, K Cromack, Brunswick. Two patches were subsequently cut and DD Myrold. 2006. Responses of during the winter. No birds banded in unharvested soil bacterial and fungal communities patches were encountered in other patches. to reciprocal transfers of soil between Maximum movement distances for the displaced adjacent coniferous forest and meadow blackburnian warbler and black-throated blue vegetation in the Cascade Mountains of warbler were 1.3 km and 2.9 km, respectively, Oregon. Plant and Soil 289: 35–45. the longest breeding-dispersal distances reported For soil ecologists and microbiologists. Little is for these species. This report provides the known about what controls relative abundance of first direct evidence that birds may move once bacteria and fungi in soil. This paper describes timber harvesting has altered their breeding site. the response of overall soil and fungal bacterial Potential conservation implications are discussed. communities to reciprocal transfers of meadow Boston, K, and J Sessions. 2006. Development and forest soil cores at two sites in the Cascade of a spatial harvest scheduling system Mountains of Oregon. Half the cores were to promote the conservation between enclosed in PVC pipe; the others were placed in indigenous and exotic forests. International mesh bags to allow recolonization by fine roots. 11 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Control cores were incubated in place at their Denitrifier communities of undisturbed forest and original site. After 2 years, fungal and bacterial meadow soils shifted over 4 years but remained biomass were higher in forest than in meadow distinct, and denitrifier communities clustered soil at both sites. Bacterial community structure by vegetation type of origin. The denitrifier differed between forest and meadow at both sites communities appear well buffered against and between the two meadow sites. At one site, environmental changes. both fungal and bacterial community structure of Brant, JB, DD Myrold, and EW Sulzman. 2006. forest soil changed in response to transfer. At the Root controls on soil microbial community other, they changed in response to open versus structure in forest soils. Oecologia 148: closed core treatments. At both sites, fungal 650–659. community structure of meadow soils changed differently between open and closed cores after For soil scientists and microbial ecologists. transfer to forest. Bacterial biomass was higher in Microbes mediate carbon (C) storage in soil, closed cores than in open, regardless of transfer. the largest terrestrial sink for organic C. In this study, soil microbial biomass and community Boyle, SA, JJ Rich, PJ Bottomley, K Cromack, composition were examined at three of the and DD Myrold. 2006. Reciprocal transfer Detritus Input and Removal Treatment (DIRT) effects on denitrifying community sites: the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest composition and activity at forest and (Oregon), the Bousson Experimental Forest meadow sites in the Cascade Mountains of (Pennsylvania), and the Síkfökút Forest Oregon. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 38: (Hungary). The sites differ in dominant tree 870–878. species, soil type and C content, and N deposition For soil ecologists and microbiologists and those rate. Treatments at these sites include root interested in nitrogen cycling. Denitrification leads trenching, aboveground litter exclusion, and to loss of nitrogen (N) from soil and can contribute doubling of aboveground litter inputs. Total

to formation of ozone and nitrous oxide (N2O), a extractable phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs)

greenhouse gas. Although release of N20 from were used as an indicator of living biomass. The forest soils has been thought to be low, recent PLFA profiles from plots without roots differed work has shown that rates of denitrification in significantly from all other treatments, generally the litter layer of coniferous forests can be high containing more actinomycete biomarkers and and may vary spatially. Few studies have linked lower amounts of fungal biomarkers. Microbial denitrification rates to microbial communities. biomass was relatively unaffected by treatment The authors reciprocally planted soil cores at all sites. Seasonal changes in PLFA profiles between meadow and forest in the Cascade were greater than treatment differences when Mountains of Oregon. Meadow soils were an examined in an old-growth conifer forest at order of magnitude higher in denitrifying enzyme the Oregon site. Root inputs appear to be an activity (DEA) than forest soils, with the highest important control of microbial community structure DEA levels in cores transferred from meadow in the mineral soil of all three ecosystems. to forest. Nitrate concentrations of forest and Brant, JB, EW Sulzman, and DD Myrold. 2006. meadow soils differed but were not correlated Microbial community utilization of added with DEA. Denitrifier community composition carbon substrates in response to long-term depended strongly on original vegetation type carbon input manipulation. Soil Biology & and was resistant to changes brought about by Biochemistry 38: 2219–2232. disturbance and transfer of soils. Root in-growth affected denitrification activity in meadow soils. For microbial ecologists and those interested in carbon cycling. Above- and belowground 12 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

plant litter inputs to soil affect the structure during this transition. The stands did not differ and function of the belowground microbial in the proportion of DIN below the rooting zone. communities. This study examined metabolism Nitrate made up 85%−98% of DIN at both depths of 13C-labeled glucose, glutamate, oxalate, and and was significantly higher in the deeper mineral phenol by the soil microbial community in an soil than at the soil surface. From 79% to 92% old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest of the total dissolved N consisted of DON. They after 7 years of addition of coarse woody debris originally assumed that nutrients primarily leached (CD) and exclusion of roots and litter. None of downward, out of the rooting zone, but they the substrates affected microbial biomass carbon found much evidence that the nearby glacially fed (C) in any treatment. The fungal:bacterial ratio river was contributing to the influx of water and was higher in soil from a treatment in which wood nutrients into the soil active layer of both stands. input had been doubled and lower in a treatment Climatic warming is likely to extend the glacial where roots and litter had been excluded than melt season and increase riverine nutrient inputs they were in the control. Glucose and glutamate to forests along glacially fed rivers. metabolism were similar in soils of all treatments. Brooks, JR, FC Meinzer, JM Warren, J-C The microbial community in the double-wood soil Domec, and R Coulombe. 2006. Hydraulic respired more added phenol and oxalate than redistribution in a Douglas-fir forest: those in the control, and those in the no-input lessons from system manipulations. Plant, soil, less. Addition of all four substrates enhanced Cell and Environment 29: 138–150. degradation of soil organic matter (priming) in soils of all treatments. Priming was greater after For plant physiologists. Key questions remain addition of phenol or oxalate and was greatest in about the consequences of hydraulic redistribution the no-inputs soil. Many of the changes observed (HR) at the ecosystem level. The authors in microbial use of C compounds appear to result quantified seasonal variation in HR and its driving from changes in the size and composition of the force in the upper soil layer of a young Douglas-fir soil microbial community. forest. They also manipulated the soil-root system by irrigation with labeled water, trenching, and Brenner, RE, RD Boone, JB Jones, Jr., K tree removal in order to elucidate physiological Lajtha, and RW Ruess. 2006. Successional components controlling HR and utilization of and physical controls on the retention of redistributed water. HR was negligible in early nitrogen in an undisturbed boreal forest summer, but increased by late August, when ecosystem. Oecologia 148: 602–611. soil water potential was approximately -1 MPa. For ecologists and those interested in nutrient Redistributed water replenished approximately cycling. Floristic succession can influence 50% of the water depleted from the upper soil nutrient cycling in the boreal forest dramatically. daily when HR was at a maximum. Separating The authors tested the hypothesis that plant roots from the transpiring tree increased HR. and microbial demand for nitrogen (N) would Sap flow measurements on connected and decrease during the transition from mid- to late- disconnected roots showed reversal of water flow, succession forests, thereby increasing leaching a prerequisite for HR. Small understory plants of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), relative to as far as 5 m from the watering source took up dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). They examined redistributed water, but the utilization pattern the chemistry of the soil solution collected from was patchy. HR in the upper soil layers near the within and below the main rooting zones of mid- watering plot was twice that of the control, and the and late-succession forests in interior Alaska upper soil water utilized by plants also increased and determined patterns of soil water movement in this area. Development of water potential 13 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

differences in the soil and the competing demand suggest that the presence of scotch broom for water by the aboveground portion of the tree changes the coupling of nutrient cycles. were strong governing influences of HR. Caldwell, BA. 2006. Enzyme activities as a Buckman, RE, B Bishaw, TJ Hanson, and FA component of soil biodiversity: a review. Benford. 2006. Growth and Yield of Red Pedobiologia 49: 637–644. Pine in the Lake States. General Technical For soil biologists and microbial ecologists. Report GTR-NC-271, USDA Forest Service, Extracellular enzymes are essential for processing North Central Research Station, St Paul MN. detritus and recycling mineral elements. This For land managers and practicing foresters. paper reviews soil enzyme literature from the This report, a cooperative effort among the perspective of using soil enzyme activities as a North Central and Pacific Northwest stations component of biodiversity, with recommendations of the USDA Forest Service and Oregon for new applications. State University, examines 31 sets of active Chan, SS, DJ Larson, KG Maas-Hebner, and inactive red pine growth studies in the WH Emmingham, SR Johnston, and DA Lake States, some dating back to the 1920s. Mikowski. 2006. Overstory and understory Appendices elaborate on mathematical and development in thinned and underplanted computer applications. Stand-related variables Oregon Coast Range Douglas-fir stands. such as age, site index, stand density, stand Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36: structure, mortality, and wood quality are 2696–2711. examined. Growth-and-yield prediction equations permit the user to explore a variety of silvicultural For silviculturists and forest managers. The and economic assumptions affecting red pine young stands of Douglas-fir resulting from stand and tree responses. The prediction intensive forest management in recent decades equations compare reasonably well with in the Oregon Coast Range do not support the independent data sets. diversity and abundance of wildlife found in older, unmanaged stands. This may be because of the Caldwell, BA. 2006. Effects of invasive scotch greater density, lower tree diversity, and lesser broom on soil properties in a Pacific understructure in managed stands. Thinning coastal prairie soil. Applied Soil Ecology has become an important management tool in 32(1): 149–152. attempting to guide forest development toward a For soil biologists and chemists. Scotch broom more diverse system, but there is little quantitative (Cytisus scoparius), a leguminous nonnative information about how thinning intensity affects invasive shrub, rigorously competes with native light availability and canopy development or vegetation in significant areas of the Pacific how temporal changes in light availability affect Northwest. In this study, the effects of scotch development of underplanted conifers. The broom on soil properties and microbial processes authors investigated the effects of thinning on of mineral soils under scotch broom colonies overstory and understory development 8 years and adjacent coastal prairie on the Mendocino after thinning in three 33-year-old Douglas-fir Coast of Northern California were examined. Soils plantations. Overstory treatments were unthinned under scotch broom were significantly more acidic (~550 trees/ha) and light (~250 tph), moderate and had greater organic matter content than (~150 tph), and heavy (~75 tph); each overstory prairie soils. Two soil enzymes responsible for was either underplanted with Douglas-fir and processing major detrital carbon and phosphorus western hemlock, or not underplanted. Treated pools had significantly higher activities under stands responded positively to all three thinning scotch broom. Several types of measurements treatments, with the largest changes appearing 14 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

5−8 years after thinning. All seedlings planted Cohen, WB, TK Maiersperger, DP Turner, in unthinned stands died, but survival was high WD Ritts, D Pflugmacher, RE Kennedy, A (64−96%) in thinned stands. The results indicate Kirschbaum, SW Running, M Costa, and that thinning to low densities and underplanting ST Gower. 2006. MODIS land cover and could accelerate development of multilayered LAI Collection 4 product quality across stands. nine sites in the western hemisphere. IEEE Transactions in Geosciences and Remote Chapin III, FS, GM Woodwell, JT Randerson, Sensing 44: 1843–1857. EB Rastetter, GM Lovett, DD Baldocchi, DA Clark, ME Harmon, DS Schimel, R Valentini, For ecologists and others interested in global C Wirth, JD Aber, JJ Cole, ML Goulden, change and remote sensing. Global maps of JW Harden, M Heimann, RW Howarth, land cover and leaf area index (LAI) derived from PA Matson, AD McGuire, and JM Melillo. the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 2006. Reconciling carbon-cycle concepts, (MODIS) reflectance data are important in studies terminology, and methods. Ecosystems 9: of global change, but errors in these must be 1041–1050. characterized and well understood. The authors present an updated BigFoot project protocol For those interested in carbon cycling. Carbon for developing 25-m validation data layers over (C) is central in biogeochemical processes. 49-km2 study areas. Results from comparisons Controls over C cycling strongly affect global of MODIS and BigFoot land cover and LAI climate dynamics, and knowledge about these products at nine contrasting sites are reported. controls is critical to reducing C emissions. The In terms of proportional coverage, MODIS and authors briefly review some roots of differences BigFoot land cover agreed closely at six sites. in C-cycling questions and approaches and The largest differences were at low tree cover suggest a common framework and terminology evergreen needleleaf sites and at an Arctic tundra for studying C cycling in ecosystems. They site, where the MODIS product overestimated propose restricting net ecosystem production woody cover proportions. At low-leaf-biomass (NEP), a central concept, to one of its two original sites, MODIS and BigFoot LAI products agreed definitions: the imbalance between gross primary reasonably well, but no one MODIS LAI algorithm production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER). pathway consistently compared most favorably. At They propose a new term, net ecosystem carbon high-leaf-biomass sites, MODIS LAI was generally balance (NECB), to be applied to the net rate overpredicted by a significant amount. For of C accumulation in (or loss from) ecosystems. evergreen needleleaf sites, MODIS exaggerated Carbon fluxes in addition to NEP are particularly LAI seasonality. The results suggest incremental important long-term determinants of NECB, improvement from Collection 3 to Collection 4 but they are important in certain ecosystems MODIS products; some problems remain to be even short term. The diverse approaches to addressed. the measurement of C fluxes that are currently used frequently capture different parts of NEP Crow, SE, EW Sulzman, WD Rugh, RD or NECB and can be compared across scales Bowden, and K Lajtha. 2006. Isotopic

only by carefully specifying the fluxes measured. analysis of respired CO2 during Explicitly identifying the fluxes that comprise decomposition of separated soil organic NECB and other components of the C cycle will matter pools. Soil Biology & Biochemistry allow construction of a less ambiguous framework 38: 3279–3291. for understanding and communicating recent For soil biologists and those interested in carbon changes in the global C cycle. cycling. This study, conducted in a coniferous forest 15 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

in Oregon and a hardwood forest in Pennsylvania, the growing season when leaf abscission was had two purposes: to follow the dynamics of beginning, resulted in shorter times and distances 13 respired δ CO2 during SOM decomposition and to formation of clear wood than pruning at other 13 to determine whether respired δ CO2 reflects times. Cutting the branch collar on dead branches 13 substrate δ CO2 in a soil incubation system where led to shorter times and distances to clear wood root contributions are removed. The soils were than avoiding such wounding. Epicormic branching divided into a light and a heavy SOM pool for each was minimal in both studies. Assessments for site. Cumulative respiration from the light fraction in comparable unpruned trees indicated that times the laboratory was greater than that from the heavy to form clear wood after branch death would be for the deciduous site; the opposite was true for markedly greater and that epicormic branching the coniferous site. The heavy fractions from both was equal to or greater than that for pruned sites were isotopically enriched relative to the light trees. Although pruning dates and branch collar

fraction. The isotopic signature of respired CO2 was wounding affected outcomes, the decision to more complicated. During incubation, the respired prune or not prune is of much greater practical

CO2 was initially depleted isotopically compared importance. Such decisions can be made by using with the substrate for both soil fractions from both this information on time and distance to clear wood forests. Over time, the respired δ13C from both in economic analyses developed with available fractions of both soils reflected the initial substrate data on tree growth, log volume, lumber recovery, value more closely. The transition from depleted to pruning costs, and price differentials for clear vs. enriched respiration relative to substrate occurred knotty wood. at a different decomposition stage, depending Domec, J-C, B Lachenbruch, and FC Meinzer. on site and substrate recalcitrance. Cumulative 2006. Bordered pit structure and function respiration during incubation was related to the determine spatial patterns of air-seeding length of the transition from isotopically depleted to thresholds in xylem of Douglas-fir enriched respiration in the coniferous, but not the (Pseudotsuga menziesii: Pinaceae) trees. deciduous, site. Interpreting relationships between American Journal of Botany 93: 1588–1600. the isotopic values of a substrate and respired CO2 requires detailed knowledge of soil characteristics. For wood anatomists and tree physiologists. The air-seeding hypothesis predicts that xylem DeBell, DS, CA Harrington, BL Gartner, and embolism resistance is linked directly to bordered R Singleton. 2006. Time and distance to pit functioning. The authors tested this prediction clear wood in pruned red alder saplings, in trunks, roots, and branches at different pp. 103–113 in Red Alder–A State of vertical and radial locations in young and old Knowledge, RL Deal and CA Harrington, trees of Pseudotsuga menziesii. Consistent with eds. General Technical Report PNW- observations, calculations showed that earlywood GTR-669, USDA Pacific Northwest Research tracheids were more resistant to embolism than Station, Portland OR. latewood tracheids. Air seeding in earlywood For silviculturists, tree farm managers, and wood appears to happen through gaps between the torus scientists. Response to pruning was evaluated edge and pit border. Bordered pit functioning was in young alder stands. Effects of pruning (1) correlated with tracheid hydraulic diameter, but pit live branches on different dates, and (2) dead pore size and, above all, pit aperture constrained branches, with or without damaging the branch conductivity the most. Hydraulic resistance of the collar, were assessed 6 years after pruning on earlywood pit membrane increased significantly trees in 3- and 6-year-old plantations, respectively. from roots to branches and from the trunk base Pruning during and, to a lesser extent, late in to higher on the trunk because of decreased 16 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

size of the pit aperture and size and number of woody species: impact on stomatal control margo pores. Overall wood conductivity also of plant water status. Plant, Cell and decreased, due in part to lower pit conductivity and Environment 29: 26–35. decreased size and frequency of pits. Structural For tree physiologists and wood scientists. and functional constraints leading to the trade-off Vulnerability to water-stress-induced embolism of efficiency against safety of water transport were and variation in the degree of native embolism also demonstrated at the individual pit level; pit were measured in lateral roots of four co-occurring membrane resistance (area basis) was positively neotropical savanna tree species. Root embolism correlated with the pressure differential required to varied diurnally and seasonally. Daily variation cause membrane stretching, a characteristic that is in ψroot decreased, and root xylem vulnerability essential for pit aspiration. and capacitance increased with rooting depth. All

Domec, J-C, FC Meinzer, BL Gartner, and D species experienced seasonal minimum ψroot close Woodruff. 2006. Transpiration-induced to complete hydraulic failure independent of their axial and radial tension gradients in trunks rooting depth or resistance to embolism. Predawn

of Douglas-fir trees.Tree Physiology 26: ψroot was lower than ψsoil when ψsoil was relatively 275–284. high (>-0.7 MPa) but became less negative than ψ later in the dry season. Shallow longitudinal For tree physiologists and ecosystem modelers. soil root incisions external to the xylem prevented The authors determined the axial and radial xylem reversal of embolism overnight, suggesting that tension gradients in trunks of young Douglas-fir. root mechanical integrity was necessary for Axial specific conductivity (k ) and sap flux density s-a recovery. In all species, maximum daily stomatal (J ) were measured at four consecutive depths in s conductance declined linearly with increasing the sapwood at a stem height of 1 m. The J :k s s-a afternoon loss of root conductivity over the dry ratio was used to estimate axial tension gradients; season. Daily embolism and refilling in roots occurs the radial gradients were calculated from the commonly and thus may be an inherent part of a differences in axial tension gradients at each depth. hydraulic signaling mechanism enabling stomata Tracheid lumen diameter and tracheid length were to maintain the integrity of the hydraulic pipeline in used to predict differences in k and its divergence s-a long-lived structures such as stems. from the theoretical ks-a determined by the Hagen

Poisseuille equation. The ratio of ks-a (determined in Dunham, SM, TE O’Dell, and R Molina. 2006.

the laboratory) to Js (measured in the field) varied Forest stand age and the occurrence with depth in the sapwood, resulting in nonuniform of chanterelle (Cantharellus) species in axial and radial tension gradients from inner to Oregon’s central Cascade Mountains. outer sapwood. Axial tension gradients were Mycological Research 110: 1433–1440. 44−50% higher in the outer sapwood than in the For mycologists and fungal geneticists.

inner. Radial Js was about two orders of magnitude Watershed-scale habitat associations of three

smaller than axial Js. The findings indicate that Cantharellus species are described with respect large radial tension gradients occur in the sapwood to stand age. During the 1998 autumn fruiting

and clarify the role played by xylem ks-a and ks-a in season, chanterelle sporocarps were collected

determining in situ partitioning of Js in the axial and from 18 forest stands in and adjacent to the radial directions. H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the central Domec, J-C, FG Scholz, SJ Bucci, FC Meinzer, Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Sampled stands G Goldstein, and R Villalobos-Vega. 2006. represented two age categories: old growth Diurnal and seasonal variation in root (~350+ years old) and 40- to 60-year-old second xylem embolism in neotropical savanna growth naturally regenerated from clearcut 17 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

harvest. Old-growth and second-growth stands varied minimum distance classes (50−500 m) were spatially paired to reduce the chance detected positive spatial genetic structure up of spurious habitat relationships caused by to 400 m. Therefore, nonrandom evolutionary unmeasured correlated variables. Stand age processes (e.g., isolation by distance) can cause was a good predictor of the distribution of C. fine-scale genetic structure in C. formosus. On subalbidus and C. formosus, but only marginally the basis of these findings, population samples useful for predicting the occurrence of C. in future broad-scale population studies of this cascadensis. The odds that a randomly located species should be separated by at least 400 m to chanterelle sporocarp is C. subalbidus, rather be considered statistically independent. Sampling than another chanterelle, are 3−23.5 times higher designs that account for fine-scale genetic in old growth than in second growth: there is structure will better characterize heterogeneity only a 4−38% chance that a randomly located distributed across the landscape by avoiding the sporocarp in old growth will be C. formosus. effects of pseudoreplication. Cantharellus cascadensis was uncommon Endress, BA, DL Gorchov, and EJ Berry. throughout the study area and showed no 2006. Sustainability of a non-timber significant habitat associations. The abundance forest product: Effects of alternative leaf of C. cascadensis increased substantially with harvest practices over 6 years on yield and decreasing elevation, indicating that landscape demography of the palm Chamaedorea features other than stand age may be more useful radicalis. Forest Ecology and Management in predicting its occurrence. 234: 181–191. Dunham, SM, TE O’Dell, and R Molina. 2006. For those interested in nontimber forest products Spatial analysis of within-population and sustainability. Nontimber forest products microsatellite variability reveals restricted (NTFP) are used commercially, culturally, and gene flow in the Pacific golden chanterelle for subsistence by millions of people. Ecological (Cantharellus formosus). Mycologia 98: impacts of harvest, especially long term, on target 250–259. species are largely unknown. The leaves of the For mycologists, mycological geneticists, understory palm Chamaedorea radicalis are and forest planners. Including conservation used in the international cut-greens industry. The of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Pacific Northwest authors examined the effects of five leaf harvest forest management plans requires a basic treatments on demography of this species over understanding of their population dynamics 6 years in Mexico: no harvest, harvesting once and genetics. The authors examined the within- (1X), twice (2X), or four times (4X) a year, and population genetic structure of the Pacific harvesting four times but removing only one leaf/ golden chanterelle (Cantharellus formosus) in a harvest (4Xm). Survival was highest in the control 50-year-old forest stand dominated by Douglas-fir treatment, but only the 2X and 4X treatments were (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock significantly lower than the control. Leaf harvest (Tsuga heterophylla). Fruit bodies from 203 also reduced growth, flowering, and fruiting. Three genets of C. formosus were collected from a treatments (1X, 2X, and 4X) reduced the finite rate 50-ha plot. After these collections had been of population growth. The treatments did not differ scored at five microsatellite loci, 106 unique in leaf yield, and yield did not decline over the 6 multilocus genotypes were identified. Significant years. Yields of the 1X and 4X treatments were positive spatial autocorrelation was detected, comparable to more intense treatments but had indicating fine-scale genetic structure within the fewer ecological impacts. Harvesting only once area. Repeated autocorrelation analyses with a year is most efficient. Harvest of C. radicalis 18 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

likely can be sustainable with few modifications Nature Reserve are described and illustrated, and a of current practices. Other Chamaedorea species third species is redescribed and updated. would require separate study. Friend, AL, SD Roberts, SH Schoenholtz, JA Fassnacht, KS, WB Cohen, and TA Spies. Mobley, and PD Gerard. 2006. Poultry litter 2006. Key issues in making and using application to loblolly pine forests: growth satellite-based maps in ecology: A primer. and nutrient containment. Journal of Forest Ecology and Management 222: Environmental Quality 35: 837–848. 167–181. For forestland managers and poultry farmers. For ecologists and others interested in remote Intensive, concentrated production of animals, sensing. The widespread availability of satellite with the attendant waste production,can seriously imagery and image processing software has made threaten water quality, particularly as ground it relatively easy for ecologists to use satellite water contamination by nitrogen (N) and surface imagery at the landscape and regional scales. As water eutrophication by N and phosphorus (P). often happens with complex tools that computer Pastures in poultry-raising regions are becoming software makes easy to use, however, technology saturated by the application of poultry manure, may be misused or used without an understanding but forestlands could provide an alternative site if of the limitations or caveats associated with an they can absorb the nutrients therein. This study application. The results can be disappointment evaluated the potential for using stands of loblolly when maps are less accurate than expected or pine, an abundant and economically important incorrect decisions when they are treated as truth. species, for application of poultry litter. Effects of The authors discuss several key issues that are litter application on tree growth and ability of the critical to ensuring the effectiveness and value of forests to retain the waste nutrients were assessed. remote sensing products, but are also sources of Broiler litter was applied to newly thinned, 8-yr-old confusion: (1) direct versus indirect models of land stands at 0, 4.6, and 18.6 dry Mg/ha. Tree growth surface properties and processes, (2) differences and nutrient content of soil water, soil, and foliage between class-based and continuous mapping and litter were measured over 5 years. Soil and models, (3) scale, and (4) accuracy assessment. soil water showed relatively high nitrate levels at They illustrate their points with examples from the higher litter application rate, but only in the first the application of satellite imagery to forest year. The higher treatment resulted in a peak of management issues in the Pacific Northwest, extractable phosphate during the third year, but USA. The examples focus largely on Landsat the lower rate had no effect. Phosphate was large image data, but the issues discussed have broad absent from soil water in all treatments. Tree growth relevance across sensor data types, land cover was greater in the presence of poultry litter but not properties, and geographic locations. affected by dose. The lower rate of application was contained by the forest and enhanced tree growth, Frank, JL, D Southworth, and JM Trappe. but the higher rate could compromise water quality. 2006. NATS truffle and truffle-like fungi 13: Tuber quercicola and T. whetstonense, new Gartner, BL, and GR Johnson. 2006. Is long species from Oregon, and T. candidum primary growth associated with stem redescribed. Mycotaxon 95: 229–240. sinuosity in Douglas-fir?Canadian Journal For forest mycologists, mycorrhizologists, and of Forest Research 36: 2351–2356. ecologists. The mycorrhizal fungi associated with For silviculturists and tree farm managers. Oregon white oak in savannahs of southwestern Sinuosity (crookedness that occurs entirely Oregon have not heretofore been studied. Two new within an internode or interwhorl) is common in species found under oak at the Whetstone Prairie Douglas-fir and appears to be increasing with the 19 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

rapid growth common under intensive plantation Hann, DW, DD Marshall, and ML Hanus. management. Its cause, however, is unknown. 2006. Reanalysis of the SMC-ORGANON This study compared primary and secondary stem Equations for Diameter-growth Rate, growth in the leaders of 4-year-old Douglas-fir Height-growth Rate, and Mortality Rate saplings. As hypothesized, expanses of primary of Douglas-fir. Research Contribution 49, growth were longer in sinuous stems than in Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State nonsinuous. Leader angle did not differ among the University, Corvallis. three sinuousity classes, however, and sinousity For forest mensurationists and forestland class explained only 15−21% of the variation in managers. Using existing data from untreated growth rate. The authors conclude that sinuousity research plots, the authors developed equations was only weakly linked to leader growth. for predicting 5-yr diameter-growth rate (ΔD5), 5-yr height-growth rate (ΔH ), and 5-yr mortality Additional Program Area: Wood Processing and 5 rate (PM ) for Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii Product Performance 5 (Mirb.) Franco] in the coastal region of the Pacific Gascho Landis, AM, and JD Bailey. 2006. Northwest. These equations are revisions of Predicting age of pinyon and juniper using those constructed in 1995–1997 for the Stand allometric relationships. Western Journal of Management Cooperative’s (SMC) version of Applied Forestry 21: 203–206. the ORGANON growth-and-yield model; they were developed with substantially larger, more For ecologists and forestland managers. Juniper comprehensive data sets than were available and pinyon pine have been encroaching into in 1995–1997. The new ΔD and ΔH equations grasslands and sagebrush steppe throughout 5 5 were validated with an independent data set. their range, with undesirable effects on those The PM equation was evaluated by comparing ecosystems. The tree age-structure data needed 5 100-yr predictions of Reineke’s (1933) stand to manage pinyon-juniper ecosystems have density index to behavior previously reported from been difficult to obtain and entail difficult, tedious measurements taken on long-term research plots. measurements. The authors determined the The new ΔD , ΔH , and PM equations appear to relationship between tree age and three common, 5 5 5 be considerably superior in predictive ability and easily measured size attributes: height, diameter behavior to the original equations. The effects at root collar, and crown radius. The relationships of the new equations on stand-level predictions were determined on three soil types, derived were evaluated by comparing the maximum mean primarily from sandstone, limestone, or basalt. annual increments (MAI) in total stem volume (ft3) Age of both juniper and pinyon was significantly and associated rotation ages (RA) predicted from correlated with all size variables. The best overall the original model to predictions from the revised relationships were for pinyon growing on limestone- model. This resulted in further revisions of the derived soil. Correlations between age and size model. On average, the revised model reduced were higher for pinyon overall. On all soil types, the RA by 2.1 years (4.3%) and maximum MAI by combination of diameter and root collar and height 55.7 ft3/ac/year (18.9%). was the best predictor of juniper age. In the case of pinyon, tree age was best predicted by crown radius Heinsch, FA, M Zhao, SW Running, JS Kimball, on basalt-derived soil and diameter at root collar on RR Nemani, KJ Davis, PV Bolstad, BD limestone-derived soil. Models derived in this study Cook, AR Desai, DM Ricciuto, BE Law, can be used to aid in management of the pinyon- WC Oechel, H Kwon, H Luo, SC Wofsy, AL juniper ecosystem and provide a tool for identifying Dunn, JW Munger, DD Baldocchi, L Xu, probable presettlement trees in the region. DY Hollinger, AD Richardson, PC Stoy, 20 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

MBS Siqueira, RK Monson, SP Burns, and product for Australian ecosystems. Remote LB Flanagan. 2006. Evaluation of remote Sensing of Environment 101(4): 495–518. sensing based terrestrial productivity from For ecologists, modelers, and those interested MODIS using regional tower eddy flux in remote sensing. Leaf area index (LAI) has network observations. IEEE Transactions become a key descriptor of vegetation condition on Geoscience & Remote Sensing 44: and an integral component of most ecosystem 1908–1925. models. The leaf area index (LAI) product from the For those interested in remote sensing of carbon Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

flux. Atmospheric CO2, considered a major (MODIS) is used in monitoring and modeling global contributor to global climate change, has not change and terrestrial dynamics at many scales. reached expected levels. Carbon sequestration The authors assessed behavior and performance by terrestrial vegetation might account for much of Collection 4 of the MODIS LAI product for

of the “missing” CO2. Near real-time estimates Australia, assessing it against (1) a continental- of gross primary production (GPP), a measure scale Structural Classification of Australian of photosynthesis, have been available from the Vegetation (SCAV), (2) a continental scale land Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer (MODIS) use classification (LUC), and (3) a historical field- sensor since March 2000. In this study, 4 years based measurement of LAI collected before the of satellite-based GPP estimates were compared Terra Mission, and directly comparing MODIS

with tower eddy CO2 flux-based estimates across LAI with field measurements. The MODIS LAI diverse land cover types and climate regimes. reasonably estimated LAI for most cover types and Potential error contributions from meteorology, land use types, but LAI was greatly overestimated leaf area index (LAI)/fPAR, and land cover were in some eastern Australian open forests and examined. The error between annual GPPs woodlands. Utility of the MODIS LAI product was computed from NASA’s Data Assimilation Office’s severely limited in some coastal and highland (DAO) and tower-based meteorology was 28%; forest locations in eastern and western Australia thus, NASA’s DAO global meteorology greatly The six-biome structural land cover classification influences the accuracy of the GPP algorithm. deviated significantly in class allocation from the Approximately 62% of MOD15-based estimates SCAV in some cases. The land cover and LAI of LAI were within the estimates based on field products could benefit from additional examination optical measurements; the rest overestimated of Australian data. site values. Land cover presented the fewest Högberg, MN, DD Myrold, R Giesler, and P errors. Tower-based and MODIS estimates of Högberg. 2006. Contrasting patterns of annual GPP compared well for most biomes, soil N cycling in model ecosystems of although there were some differences. MODIS Fennoscandian boreal forests. Oecologia overestimated tower-based calculations GPP 147: 96–107. by 20−30%. Summer estimates of MODIS GPP matched tower data the best; spring estimates For soil ecologists, biogeochemists, and others gave the worst match. The current MODIS GPP interested in nitrogen cycling. This study provides algorithm showed reasonable spatial patterns and the first description of the relations between temporal variability across diverse biomes and soil N transformations and soil properties climate regimes. in Fennoscandian coniferous boreal forests of contrasting productivity. Gross rates of N Hill, MJ, U Senarath, A Lee, M Zeppel, JM mineralization and nitrification were determined Nightingale, RJ Williams, and TR McVicar. three times during one growing season in each of 2006. Assessment of the MODIS LAI three contiguous forest types: dwarf shrub (DS), 21 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

short herb (SH), and tall herb (TH). Gross and net transformed and emitted back to the atmosphere, 4+ 3- turnover of NH and NO pools differed greatly in mostly as N2O, a greenhouse gas. in-situ N-cycling across this productivity gradient. Hosaka, K, ST Bates, RE Beever, MA Gross N mineralization was 7x higher in TH, Castellano, W Colgan III, LS Dominguez, where soil, microbial, and plant C-to-N ratios were ER Nouhra, J Geml, AJ Giachini, SR lowest, than in DS, where they were highest. The Kenney, NB Simpson, JW Spatafora, and N cycle was less tight in the DS than in the SH JM Trappe. 2006. Molecular phylogenetics type. The tall herb type was not N-limited. The soil of the gomphoid-phalloid fungi with and microbial C-to-N ratio was constant across an establishment of the new subclass wide ratios of soil C-to-N and fungi-to-bacteria. Phallomycetidae and two new orders. The authors discuss the possibility that the high Mycologia 98: 949–959. fungal biomass at high soil C-to-N ratios reflects a high supply of high-quality plant photosynthates For mycologists and molecular phylogenists and to mycorrhizal fungi and suggest that methods to geneticists. The fungi included in the gomphoid- study soil N turnover and retention should take phalloid clade are morphologically and ecologically into account the impact of mycorrhizal fungi. diverse and include both ectomycorrhizal and saprobic taxa. Because of this diversity, the fungi Horváth, L, E Führer, and K Lajtha. 2006. of the clade have been classified by traditional Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide emission morphology-based taxonomy into several distantly from Hungarian forest soils; linked with related orders, including Lycoperdales, Phallales, atmospheric N-deposition. Atmospheric Nidulariales, and Gomphales. In this study, Environment 40: 7786–7795. molecular phylogenetic analyses for the gomphoid- For soil biologists and others interested in phalloid fungi were conducted. The results strongly nitrogen fluxes and emissions. Predictive supported the monophyly of the gomphoid-phalloid models of ecosystem and stream response to clade and recognition of four major subclades. elevated N deposition require that all paths of Three of the four subclades were represented N input and loss be known. Forest soil may be entirely by gastroid taxa; only Gomphales an important source for nitric oxide (NO) and contained both gastroid and nongastroid taxa.

nitrous oxide (N2O), intermediate products of The topology of Phallales indicated that the nitrification and denitrification processes in soils. truffle-like form is an ancestral morphology of The objectives of this work were (1) to extend the stinkhorn fruiting bodies. Previous and new

the forest soil N2O emission network to Eastern classification schemes, based on the results of Europe (Hungary) and (2) to place emission of phylogenetic analyses, are compared. A new nitrogen oxides from soils into the context of the subclass, Phallomycetidae, and two new orders,

ecosystem N budget. Emissions of NO and N2O Hysterangiales and Geastrales, are proposed. were measured from sessile oak and Norway Kennedy, RE, DP Turner, WB Cohen, and M spruce forest soils in northeast Hungary over 1 Guzy. 2006. A method to efficiently apply year (October−October). Average soil N O flux 2 a biogeochemical model to a landscape. was 15 g N/m2/h for spruce and 20 g N/m2/h for µ µ Landscape Ecology 21: 213–224. oak. NO flux was about one-tenth of N2O flux and was significant only in summer. The previously For biogeochemical modelers and landscape determined N balance between the atmosphere ecologists. Biogeochemical models are important and the forest ecosystem was recalculated in understanding carbon dynamics, but many models are so complex that modeling all grid with these soil emission figures. About 10−13% of N compounds deposited to the soil were cells on a large landscape is difficult. Most biogeochemical models ignore adjacency effects 22 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

between cells, however, allowing a more efficient Location was important for explaining native approach. The authors developed a method to perennial patterns, but richness and cover were sample model outputs in input variable, rather also positively associated with lower fire severity, than geographic, space, and to then use simple greater tree cover, and coarse woody debris. interpolation in input variable space to estimate Expectations for increased native perennial plant values for the rest of the landscape. They tested diversity and abundance after prescribed fires may the method in a 100 km × 260 km area of western not be met, and spread of exotics may compromise Oregon, comparing interpolated maps of net other ecosystem attributes. Restoration in these primary production (NPP) and net ecosystem forests presents a challenge, as prescribed fires production (NEP) with maps from an exhaustive interact with present environmental conditions that run of the model. The interpolation method can are very different from the historic. match spatial patterns of model behavior well Kühne, C, and KJ Puettmann. 2006. Large- using samples of only 5 15% of the landscape. − scale management experiments in North Compression of temporal variation in input drivers America—new approaches to silvicultural is key. Choice of input variables for compression research. Forstarchiv 77(3): 102–108. largely determines the upper bounds on the degree of match between interpolated and For silviculturists and forestland managers. original maps. The method is applicable to any The emphasis in forest management has model that does not consider adjacency effects shifted to ecosystem management, presenting and could free up computational costs for other new challenges to silvicultural researchers computational needs. and practitioners. In North America, large management experiments have been established Kerns, BK, WG Thies, and CG Niwa. 2006. in several ecosystems. Because of their scale, Season and severity of prescribed burn these experiments are linked more closely to in ponderosa pine forests: implications applications and allow for multiple research for understory native and exotic plants. objectives. European foresters faced with similar Ecoscience 13(1): 44–55. management challenges could benefit from For fire ecologists, land managers, and examining this new experimental approach. restorationists. The authors investigated herbaceous richness and cover in relation to fire Additional Program Area: Forest Regeneration season and severity and other variables, five Lafrankie, JV, PS Ashton, GB Chuyong, L Co, growing seasons after prescribed fires. Data were R Condit, SJ Davies, R Foster, SP Hubbell, collected from six stands with three randomly D Kenfack, D Lagunzad, EC Losos, NSM applied treatments: no burn, spring burn, and fall Nor, S Tan, DW Thomas, R Valencia, and burn. Fall burns had significantly more exotic/native G Villa. 2006. Contrasting structure and annual/biennial (an/bi) species and greater cover of composition of the understory in species- these species than did spring-burn and unburned rich tropical rain forests. Ecology 87: areas. These patterns are likely related to indirect 2298–2305. effects associated with fire severity and resource availability, rather than direct effects of burn timing. For ecologists interested in tropical forests. The CART models indicated that high native and exotic comparative ecology of small woody plants of an/bi richness and cover were associated with the tropical forest understory is less well known overstory gaps and higher fire severity areas, that that of mature canopy trees. Differences in conditions common to fall burns. No treatment the proportion of stature classes influence the differences were found for native perennials. availability of flowers, fruits, sugars, and lipids and may also indicate different forest dynamics. The 23 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

authors asked: (1) Does the relative importance it to address two questions: (1) Do δ18O values of stature types differ among forests? (2) Do of canopy water vapor reflect the biospheric the differences relate to taxonomy? (3) Do impact, or does atmospheric mixing swamp such the forests differ in the density of juveniles of signals? and (2) What mechanisms drive temporal 18 species that are large at maturity? They sampled variations of δ Οvp? They used steady-state and trees >1 cm dbh in six lowland tropical forests nonsteady-state models to describe the δ18Ο οf (one in Africa, one each in Central and South leaf water and compared their impacts on the 18 America, three in Asia), assigning species with δ Οvp budget calculation. Both atmospheric mixing >30 individuals to one of six classes of stature at and local evapotranspiration were important to maturity (SAM), and compared the proportional the δ18O temporal variation of water vapor in the representation of small understory trees. In the canopy. Assuming isotopic steady state increased Asian sites, the understory was predominantly isoflux of transpiration, which clearly impacted the saplings of large canopy trees. The African and modeled δ18O. American sites were more richly stocked with Landis, AG, and JD Bailey. 2006. Predicting trees with smaller SAM. Differences in class the age of pinyon and juniper trees in representation were related to taxonomic families northern Arizona: Guides for forest present exclusively in the different continents. restoration treatments. Western Journal of The results show that lowland tropical forests Applied Forestry 21: 203–206. can have nearly identical numbers of trees of different diameter classes and share many For land managers considering juniper families among their canopy trees, yet differ restoration. Pinyon-juniper ecosystems in fundamentally in ecological structure. the southwestern United States have been increasing dramatically in stem density, and Lai, C-T, JR Ehleringer, BJ Bond, and U pinyon and juniper trees have been encroaching Kyaw Tha Paw. 2006. Contributions of into grasslands and sagebrush steppe. Climate, evaporation, isotopic non-steady state losses of understory plant cover, and increases transpiration and atmospheric mixing in either soil erosion or stand-replacing fires have on the 18O of water vapour in Pacific been linked to a rise in tree density and invasive Northwest coniferous forests. Plant, Cell & capability in these ecosystems. Management Environment 29: 77–94. to stop or reverse invasion and stem density For micrometeorologists and plant physiologists. increases has become popular but is often Because stomatal conductances are sensitive to hampered by insufficient tree age structure data. vapor pressure deficit, limited moisture availability The authors developed allometric relationships during characteristic summer droughts may based on easily measured characteristics (tree significantly reduce productivity in conifer forests height, diameter at root collar, and crown radius) in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). The authors as tools for predicting tree age. Height and measured diurnal δ18Ο in atmospheric water diameter at root collar were the best variables vapor for 3 days in summer in an old-growth for predicting age of juniper. Crown radius on conifer forest in the PNW. The oxygen isotope basalt-derived soil and diameter at root collar on 18 ratio of water vapor (δ Ovp) above and within the limestone-derived soil were the variables of best forest fluctuated as much as 4% during the day, fit for pinyon; however, the authors suggest using decreasing to a minimum at midday and returning diameter at root collar across all sites. Models to early morning values by late afternoon. The to aid in the management of the pinyon-juniper authors derived a mass balance budget for the ecosystem were developed from these allometric 18O of canopy water vapor over 2 days and used relationships. 24 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Langford, WT, SE Gergel, TG Dietterich, and the processes that control carbon (C) fluxes W Cohen. 2006. Map misclassification and the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the can cause large errors in landscape global carbon cycle. The sites participate in pattern indices: Examples from habitat intercalibration activities, submit data to a fragmentation. Ecosystems 9: 474–488. central archive, and join in synthesis activities. For landscape ecologists and those interested The author describes several highlights of in remote sensing. Habitat fragmentation is Ameriflux research and presents a case study considered a major threat to diversity. Such on combining measurements and modeling in fragmentation is often quantified by use of order to obtain regional estimates of C stocks landscape pattern indices (LPIs), such as mean and fluxes. Future directions in research patch size and number of patches. These include process studies, data assimilation, and indices are often calculated by using remote cooperation among networks studying carbon sensing imagery that has been classified into flux on the several continents. different land-cover classes. Because no such Law, BE, D Turner, M Lefsky, J Campbell, map is ever completely correct, the authors M Guzy, O Sun, SV Tuyl, and WB Cohen. used simulation to determine whether different 2006. Carbon fluxes across regions: maps with similar misclassification rates could observational constraints at multiple produce widely different errors in pattern indices. scales, pp. 167–190 in Scaling and Maps with low misclassification rates often Uncertainty Analysis in Ecology: Methods yielded errors in LPIs of much larger magnitude and Applications, J Wu, KB Jones, H Li, and substantial variability. Smoothing usually and OL Loucks, eds. Columbia University improved classification error but sometimes Press, New York. increased LPI error and reversed the direction For biogeochemists, ecologists, and of error in LPIs introduced by misclassification. those interested in global change. Scaling The results show that classification error is not biogeochemical processes to regions, always a good predictor of errors in LPIs, and continents, and the globe is critical for some types of image postprocessing (e.g., understanding feedbacks between the smoothing) might result in the underestimation biosphere and atmosphere in the analysis of habitat fragmentation. Nearly every landscape of global change. This includes the effects pattern analysis ever published has potential for of changing atmospheric carbon dioxide, large errors because virtually none quantifies the climate, disturbances, and increasing nitrogen errors in LPIs themselves. deposition from air pollution. Quantification and Law, BE. 2006. Carbon dynamics in response uncertainty analysis of carbon (C) pools and to climate and disturbance: recent fluxes by terrestrial biota is needed to guide progress from multiscale measurements policy and management decisions. Unanswered and modeling in AmeriFlux, pp. 205–214 questions include (1) How and where is the in Plant Responses to Air Pollution and terrestrial biosphere currently sequestering C?; Global Change, S Yamamoto, ed. Springer, (2) How might forests be managed to maximize Tokyo. C sequestration? Managed C sequestration For ecologists and others interested in climate would have to be optimized within and among change. The Ameriflux network has more than geographic regions with attention to how this 100 sites where continuous meteorological and might affect biodiversity and how to manage for micrometeorological measures are obtained the effects of “natural” disturbances on C storage in order to enhance understanding about and fluxes. 25 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Lawler, JJ, D White, RP Neilson, and AR Blaustein. carbon flux estimates using the eddy 2006. Predicting climate-induced range shifts: covariance technique. Journal of model differences and model reliability. Global Geophysical Research-Atmospheres Change Biology 12: 1568–1584. 111(D21S90): n.a. For forest climatologists. Global warming has For atmospheric scientists and those interested been implicated in shifts in the geographic ranges in carbon flux. Eddy covariance (EC), a direct, of both plants and animals, and it is considered nondestructive micrometeorological approach, likely that many species will undergo dramatic has been used extensively in studies of net range shifts in the future. Models that link species ecosystem exchange rates (NEE) of carbon distribution to scenarios of climate change are dioxide between ecosystems and the atmosphere. essential to anticipating the effects of climate Application of the technique over structurally change and identifying conservation strategies. complex ecosystems in nonideal terrain presents Bioclimatic models developed to date have been challenges in interpreting results and minimizing reported to have large uncertainties and error uncertainties and errors in NEE estimates. The ranges, and there is little information on which authors review these uncertainties and errors, to judge reliability. Using a common data set which include systematic and random errors from and common metrics for estimating error rates, many sources. They also discuss benefits and the authors systematically compared all major caveats of using independent measurements approaches to predicting range shifts: generalized to evaluate EC-derived NEE, review the current linear models, classification trees, generalized progress in using EC to estimate ecosystem-level additive models, random forest predictors, artificial carbon exchange, and suggest future research in neural networks, and genetic algorithms of rule- which the EC technique may be useful. set prediction. The common data set included the Loescher, HW, G Starr, TA Martin, M Binford, current ranges of 100 randomly selected mammal and HL Gholz. 2006. The effect of local species in the western hemisphere. Predicted atmospheric circulations on daytime future distributions differed markedly, resulting carbon dioxide flux measurements over a in estimates of extinction rates ranging between Pinus elliottii canopy. Journal of Applied 0% and 7%. Random forest predictors, a model- Meteorology & Climatology 45: 1127–1140. averaging approach, consistently outperformed the other techniques. For micrometeorologists and those interested in carbon flux. Net ecosystem exchange (NEE) Loescher, HW, and JW Mungerdoi. 2006. is often estimated by measuring surface- Preface; New approaches to quantifying atmosphere exchange with the eddy covariance exchanges of carbon and energy across (EC) technique and independently measuring a range of scale. Journal of Geophysical the below-canopy change in CO2 storage. Efforts Research 111(D14S91): n.a. are increasingly focused on increasing precision For micrometeorologists and those interested in and accuracy of EC in more complex systems carbon and energy fluxes. This article introduces and terrains. Eddy covariance was used to

the papers making up a special section of the measure NEE of CO2 from 1999−2001 in an even- journal focusing on new approaches to quantifying aged slash pine plantation in northern Florida, carbon and energy exchanges across a range of including the period after August 2000, when two scales. clearcuts were done approximately 1 km west of the measurement site. Before the clearcuts, Loescher, H, BE Law, L Mahrt, DY Hollinger, even in this relatively homogenous, flat forest, J Campbell, and SC Wofsy. 2006. CO source strength differed with wind direction. Uncertainties in and interpretation of 2 26 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

There were also significant interactive effects of Luoma, DL, JL Eberhart, R Abbott, A

CO2 concentration and some wind statistics on Moore, MP Amaranthus, and D Pilz. NEE at the measurement tower when wind was 2006. Effects of mushroom harvest flowing from the direction of the future clearcuts. technique on subsequent American After the clearcuts, additional interactive effects matsutake production. Forest Ecology and became significant during flows from the direction Management 236: 65–75. of the clearcuts. The integrated measure of For forest ecologists, mycologists, and land daytime NEE was also 16.6% lower over 487 managers. Commercial harvest of American days after the clearcuts. The results suggest that matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare) is a multi- the development of local circulations over the million dollar industry in the Pacific Northwest. clearcuts contributed to low-frequency effects on There are concerns about the cumulative effects the NEE. of picking in the same areas year after year and Lugo, AD, FJ Swanson, OR González, MB whether raking surface litter and mineral soil Adams, B Palik, RE Thill, DG Brockway, layers during harvest reduces fruiting later. This C Kern, R Woodsmith, and R Musselman. study evaluated the effects of harvest techniques 2006. Long-term research at the USDA on American matsutake production in the Oregon Forest Service’s experimental forests and Cascades. Six treatments were used: (1) control, ranges. BioScience 56: 39–48. (2) best management practice (BMP), (3) shallow rake, litter replaced, (4) shallow rake, no For forest ecologists. The network of experimental replacement, (5) deep rake, litter replaced, (6) forests and ranges administered by the US deep rake, no replacement. Careful picking (BMP) Department of Agriculture Forest Service was not detrimental to mushroom production comprises 77 properties that represent most during the initial 10 years. One-time removal of forest cover types and many ecological regions the forest floor litter without replacement was in the nation. Established as early as 1908, strongly detrimental to matsutake production; these sites maintain exceptional long-term the effects persisted for 9 years. Raking with databases on environmental dynamics and litter replacement reduced matsutake production biotic responses. Early research at these sites to an intermediate degree. Negative treatment focused on silviculture, ecosystem restoration, and effects were particularly noticeable in years watershed management. Over time, many of the with abundant fruiting. Extending these results properties have evolved into a functional network to substantially different habitats must be done of ecological observatories through common cautiously. The underlying biology of matsutake large-scale, long-term experiments and other fruiting is similar across a wide range of habitats, approaches. Collaboration with other institutions however, so careful picking likely will not hinder and research programs fosters intersite research subsequent fruiting when other substantial and common procedures for managing and sharing disturbance is absent. data. Much current research focuses on global change and interdisciplinary ecosystem studies Luoma, DL, CA Stockdale, R Molina, and JL at local to global scales. With this experience in Eberhart. 2006. The spatial influence of developing networks and compiling records of Pseudotsuga menziesii retention trees on environmental history, the experimental forests and ectomycorrhiza diversity. Canadian Journal ranges network can contribute greatly to formation of Forest Research 36: 2561–2573. of new networks of environmental observatories. For forest ecologists, mycologists, and land managers. Living retention trees are being Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest used in managed forests to promote a variety Uses, Practices, and Policies 27 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

of values, including maintenance of biological ecological responses to different levels or spatial diversity. Guidelines of federal forest plans in the patterns of overstory retention. Even if habitat northwestern US specify retaining at least 15% needs of key species are known, an approach basal area in harvest units. The goal is facilitating that yields diverse vegetation structures over time development of late seral stand structure, an and space remains the most promising way to important habitat for species depending on old- avoid erosion of forest biodiversity. Achieving this growth forests. Effective levels and patterns of goal requires understanding how forest stands will green-tree retention, however, are unknown. The respond to a wide range of silvicultural treatments authors present results from a 15% basal area, applied at spatial scales that accommodate evenly dispersed retention (15%D) treatment. the organisms of interest, are operationally Changes in the ectomycorrhizal (EM) community feasible, and yield information relevant to forest after treatment were quantified both near and away management and policy. from retention trees. Pretreatment samples were Malcolm, JR, C Liu, RP Neilson, L Hansen, obtained between 1 and 24 months before tree and LEE Hannah. 2006. Global warming harvest. Post-treatment samples were collected and extinctions of endemic species from within 14–25 months of harvest. In areas 8–25 m biodiversity hotspots. Conservation from retention trees, the number of EM types per Biology 20: 538–548. soil core declined 50% from pre- to post-treatment. Soil cores >5 m from retention trees exhibited a For ecologists and conservationists. Global shift in EM community structure. EM type richness warming threatens biodiversity worldwide, yet its was positively correlated with fine-root tip density. potential effects have rarely been addressed. The The results demonstrate the potential for retention authors concentrate in this study on 25 “hotspots” trees to act as refugia for recolonization of EM of global diversity. These areas provide habitat for fungi onto newly established seedlings. a disproportionate number of species, but most of the natural habitat has been lost. They projected Maguire, DA, DB Mainwaring, and CB Halpern. habitat changes and associated extinctions 2006. Stand dynamics after variable- from vegetation distributions derived from 14 retention harvesting in mature Douglas- combinations of general circulation models and fir forests of western North America. global vegetation models. They also carried out Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung sensitivity analyses, varying key factors and testing 177(6/7): 120–131. whether the hotspots were especially vulnerable For silviculturists. Variable retention has been to global warming relative to random collections proposed to mitigate the effects of timber harvest of terrestrial surface grid cells with the same total on biological diversity. The primary objective of area and biome composition. Projected percent variable-retention harvests is to regenerate the extinctions ranged from <1 to 43% of the endemic stand without clearcutting. In implementation, biota. Biome specificity affected the estimates variable retention strongly resembles the classical most, followed by the global vegetation model and system of shelterwood with reserves. Past by migration and biome classification assumptions. experience with traditional systems, therefore, Effects on hotspots as a group did not differ can help with design of new treatments that target significantly from effects on random same-biome specific structural objectives or control growth rates collections of grid cells with respect to biome of understory trees. The objectives that motivate change or migration rates. In some scenarios, variable retention, however, are generally more hotspots exhibited relatively high biome change complex than those implicit in classical systems or and low migration rates. The authors conclude that their variants, and little experience has accrued on global warming presents one of the most serious 28 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

threats to the biodiversity on the planet, in some by decadal thinning. Treatments increased soil instances even greater than deforestation. water potential but did not affect photosynthetic capacity. Basal area increment (BAI) increased McCulloh, K, and J Sperry. 2006. Murray’s law within 2 years of thinning; the 40-year mean BAI and the mechanical architecture of plants, was negatively correlated with stand basal area. pp. 85–100 in Ecology and Biomechanics, Diameter was negatively correlated with stand A Herrel, T Speck, and NP Roew, eds. CRC basal area for years 5–12 after thinning but was Press, Boca Raton. relatively invariant with basal area 13–40 years For plant physiologists, ecologists and evolutionary after initial thinning. The ratio of photosynthesis biologists. Plants require a water-conducting to stomatal conductance was invariant with basal network to replace water loss from photosynthesis. area, but absolute values of both were elevated Murray’s law for determining maximal hydraulic at lower basal areas. The ratio of transpiring conductance of a fixed volume network was leaf area to sapwood area (A A ) was negatively originally derived for animal vascular networks. In l: s correlated with basal area. Elevated Al:As of trees several recent papers, it has been used to evaluate at low basal areas was associated with greater the tradeoff between conductance and investment resilience to climate (greater absolute BAI during in the plant vascular system. This chapter provides drought), but also with the greatest sensitivity to a summary of these studies with reference to the drought (greater relative decline in BAI). major xylem types, first explaining Murray’s law, then discussing the application of Murray’s law to McFarlane, KJ, and RD Yanai. 2006. Measuring xylem and the circumstances under which it may nitrogen and phosphorus uptake by intact or may not hold in plants. The authors conclude roots of mature Acer saccharum Marsh., that, in the situations examined, the xylem conduit Pinus resinosa Ait., and Picea abies (L.) network was at or near the Murray law optimum Karst. Plant and Soil 279: 163–172. in each case where conditions approached the For tree physiologists. Nutrient uptake by intact Murray’s law assumptions. roots is often measured by the depletion method: roots are separated from soil and placed in McDowell, NG, HD Adams, JD Bailey, M nutrient solution, and the difference between Hess, and TE Kolb. 2006. Homeostatic initial and final amounts of nutrient in solution is maintenance of ponderosa pine gas used as a measure of root uptake. The authors exchange in response to stand density tested whether variations in the depletion method changes. Ecological Applications 16: affected uptake rates of NH +, NO -, and PO 3-. 1164–1182. 4 3 4 Intact roots of 60-year-old sugar maple (Acer For international ecophysiologists and saccharum Marsh.), red pine (Pinus resinosa ecologists interested in climate change and Ait.), and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) land management. Survival and productivity Karst.) were given one of four pretreatments. of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) are “Trained” roots were grown in a sand-soil being drastically constrained by fire exclusion, mixture. “Recovered” roots were excavated and which has increased density and competition. allowed to recover in nutrient solution for 2 or 4 Reducing density may be useful in ecological days. “No recovery” roots were excavated and restoration, but little is known about the used immediately. Roots were exposed to three physiological mechanisms underlying the long- concentrations of nutrient solutions to observe the term relationship between reduced competition effects of initial nutrient solution concentration. and productivity response. In this study, basal Initial nutrient solution concentration was an area was manipulated to seven replicated important source of variation in uptake rates; low levels, which were maintained for 4 decades 29 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

antecedent concentrations stimulated N uptake. United States. Molecular Ecology 15: 145–159. Pretreatments did not differ in net uptake rates for For population geneticists, ecologists, and any species. Pretreatments may be unnecessary mammologists. Phylogeographical analyses in the for measuring net uptake and may not hinder Pacific Northwest have often revealed concordant comparison of rates measured by variations of the patterns of genetic diversity among taxa. The depletion method. genetic structure of the red tree vole is of interest Meinzer, FC, JR Brooks, J-C Domec, BL to forest managers and conservationists because Gartner, JM Warren, DR Woodruff, K Bible, it is a major food source for the endangered and and DC Shaw. 2006. Dynamics of water protected northern spotted owl. The authors transport and storage in conifers studied used sequence data from the mitochondrial with deuterium and heat tracing techniques. DNA (mtDNA) control region and cytochrome b Plant, Cell & Environment 29: 105–114. gene to obtain information on phylogeographical patterns in P. longicaudus across its range For plant physiologists. The volume and and related their data to patterns of historical complexity of the vascular systems of large trees climate change and physiogeographic features make the dynamics of their long-distance water in western Oregon. The results suggested the transport difficult to study. Heat and deuterated presence of two haplotype groups, corresponding water (D O) were used as tracers to characterize 2 to northern and southern regions of the range. A whole-tree water transport and storage properties primary genetic discontinuity separated northern in individual trees of Pseudotsuga menziesii and southern sampling areas. A secondary (Mirb.) Franco and Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) discontinuity separated northern sampling areas Sarg. The trees spanned a broad range of height into eastern and western groups divided by the (13.5–58 m) and diameter (0.14–1.43 m). Transit Willamette Valley. Historical fragmentation of times for arrival of D O in the upper crown ranged 2 the forest landscape was reflected by positive from 2.5 to 21 days; residence times ranged from associations between latitude and variables 36 to 79 days. Estimates of maximum sap velocity such as Tajima’s D and patterns associated ranged from 2.4 to 5.4 m/day. Tracer residence with location-specific alleles. Genetic distances time and half-life increased with tree diameter, between southern sampling areas were smaller, independent of species. Species-independent suggesting that forest fragmentation was less in scaling of tracer velocity with sapwood-specific southern than in northern regions. conductivity was also observed. Combining data from this study with similar data from an earlier Miller, MP, SM Haig, and RS Wagner. 2006. study of four tropical angiosperm trees showed Phylogeography and spatial genetic species-independent scaling of tracer velocity structure of the southern torrent and residence time with sapwood hydraulic salamander: Implications for conservation capacitance. Sapwood capacitance is an intrinsic and management. Journal of Heredity 97(6): tissue-level property that appears to govern 561–570. whole-tree water transport similarly in both For wildlife biologists, forestland managers, tracheid- and vessel-bearing species. and conservationists. The southern torrent Miller, MP, MR Bellinger, ED Forsman, and salamander, which is associated with small-order SM Haig. 2006. Effects of historical climate streams in late successional coniferous forests change, habitat connectivity, and vicariance of the Pacific Northwest, was recently denied on genetic structure and diversity across listing under the US Endangered Species Act the range of the red tree vole (Phenacomys because too little information about population longicaudus) in the Pacific Northwestern fragmentation and gene flow was available. The 30 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

authors studied genetic diversity of cytochrome validation guidelines and protocols and to foster b sequence throughout the range of the species data and information exchange relevant to the to identify major phylogenetic lineages and validation of land products. Since then, several phylogeographic barriers and to elucidate leaf area index (LAI) products have become regional patterns of population genetic and available. Multiple global LAI products and spatial phylogeographic structure. Three major related multiple, disparate validation activities lineages were identified: a northern California, present the opportunity to realize efficiency a central Oregon, and a northern Oregon clade. through international collaboration. The LPV The Yaquina River may divide the northern subgroup therefore established an international Oregon and central Oregon clades; the Smith LAI intercomparison validation activity. This River may divide the central Oregon from the paper describes the main components of this northern California clades. The extent of genetic effort, documenting the current participants, structure was comparable among regions. There their ground LAI measurements and scaling appeared to be little contemporary gene flow techniques, and the metadata and infrastructure among populations. By taking these genetic established to share data. The paper concludes findings into account, resource managers may by describing plans for sharing both field data minimize redundancy in their efforts to conserve and high-resolution LAI products from each site. genetic diversity while simultaneously ensuring Many considerations of this LAI intercomparison that most genetic diversity is maintained across can apply to other products. This paper presents the fragmented range. a framework for collaboration. Morisette, J, F Baret, JL Privette, RB Myneni, Murphy, G, I Wilson, and B Barr. 2006. J Nickeson, S Garrigues, N Shabanov, Developing methods for pre-harvest M Weiss, R Fernandes, S Leblanc, M inventories which use a harvester as Kalacska, GA Sanchez-Azofeifa, M Chubey, the sampling tool. Australian Journal of B Rivard, P Stenberg, M Rautiainen, P Forestry 69(1): 9–15. Voipio, T Manninen, D Pilant, T Lewis, J For timber harvest planners and managers. Liames, R Colombo, M Meroni, L Busetto, Optimal value recovery from the timber resource WB Cohen, DP Turner, ED Warner, is key to maintaining global competitiveness. GW Petersen, G Seufert, and R Cook. Economical and accurate preharvest inventory 2006. Validation of global moderate- is necessary to this value recovery. The authors resolution LAI products: A framework review the literature on research and operational proposed within the CEOS land product experience with harvester-based measurements validation subgroup. IEEE Transactions and harvester preharvest inventory as carried on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 44: out in Australasia and North America. They cover 1804–1817. current approaches to estimating log product For those interested in determination of leaf yields and recent harvest and GPS studies and area index and remote sensing. Initiated in discuss trials with harvester-based measurements 1984, the Committee Earth Observing Satellites’ in Australia in detail. They conclude that the Working Group on Calibration and Validation measurement technologies and on-board (CEOS WGCV) coordinates, standardizes, and computer power of modern mechanized harvests advances calibration and validation of civilian could augment or even replace traditional satellites and their data. The Land Product preharvest inventory and to reduce costs. Further Validation (LPV) subgroup of CEOS WGCV research is needed in order to realize the potential was established in 2000 to define standard of these systems. 31 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest these interactions rarely are represented in Uses, Practices, and Policies forest biogeochemical models. The authors examined nutrient availability in 22 young stands Newton, M, and EC Cole. 2006. Use of growth of Douglas-fir in the Oregon Coast Range. curve derivatives to illustrate acceleration Strontium and calcium isotopes also were and deceleration of growth in young analyzed in a single stand with high N availability. plantations under variable competition. Soil N ranged from 0.15 to 1.05% N across sites, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36: was correlated with soil C, and was positively 2515–2522. related to a doubling of foliar N across sites. In For forestland managers and silviculturists. half the sites, foliar N exceeded the threshold Competition is widely acknowledged to affect of N limitation for Douglas-fir in the region. Soil growth in young plantations, but its effects inorganic N also increased markedly across the can be difficult to detect. In this study, effects N gradient, whereas exchangeable magnesium of density and vegetation control in young (Mg) and Ca in soils declined. More than 97% of plantations were assessed by computation base cations in plants and soil could be traced to of the first and second derivatives of the von atmospheric inputs of marine sea-salt aerosols; Bertalanffy-Richards equation. The plots weathering contributions were negligible. Foliar contained either (1) pure Douglas-fir, (2) mixed Ca concentrations were very sensitive to soil Douglas-fir and grand fir, or (3) mixed western Ca across the sites. Using remote sensing to hemlock and red alder. The last type was either identify N-sufficient stands in the Oregon Coast weeded or not weeded. The objective was Range could maximize returns on fertilization to show how to display experimental data as while minimizing adverse impacts associated derivative response surfaces so as to permit with excess N. The authors conclude that wide ready calculation and visual recognition of gradients in soil N can drive nonlinear changes competitive interactions. Differences in timing of in base-cation biogeochemistry, particularly as divergence in growth curves reveal major effects forests move from N-limitation to N-saturation of competition during a decade not generally and where base cations derive principally from included in growth simulators. Spotting these atmospheric inputs. differences can help to identify when competition Pilz, D, R Molina, and J Mayo. 2006. Effects control is most effective. Using multidimensional of thinning young forests on chanterelle growth curves and their derivatives for two mushroom production. Journal of Forestry species will provide insight into how long 104: 9–14. mixtures can be maintained and the spacing For mycologists, forest managers, and required before one species becomes silviculturists. Chanterelle mushrooms are incompatible with the other. much prized by mushroom hunters, who seek Perakis, SS, DA Maguire, TD Bullen, K them out in the moist conifer forests west of the Cromack, RH Waring, and JR Boyle. 2006. Cascade Range. The most commonly collected Coupled nitrogen and calcium cycles species in the region fruit in young, dense in forests of the Oregon Coast Range. stands of Douglas-fir and western hemlock. Ecosystems 9: 63–73. Many of these stands are now slated for For those interested in nitrogen and calcium thinning to meet a variety of management goals. cycling in forests. Long-term increases in Chanterelle productivity was investigated in a supplies of nitrogen (N) stimulate plant calcium replicated, landscape-scale thinning experiment (Ca) demands and deplete Ca from soils, but in 50-year-old Douglas-fir stands in the Cascade 32 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Range of Oregon. Thinning significantly Additional Program Area: Forest Regeneration decreased chanterelle numbers by the first year after logging; numbers decreased more in Radosevich, SR, DE Hibbs, and CM Ghersa. heavily thinned than in lightly thinned stands. 2006. Effects of species mixtures on growth Nearly all evidence of differences in chanterelle and stand development of Douglas-fir productivity among thinning treatment and red alder. Canadian Journal of Forest disappeared within 6 years. Management Research 36: 768–782. implications and mitigation measures are For silviculturists and forest managers. Intra- and discussed. interspecific competition among red alder and Puettmann, KJ, and CA Berger. 2006. Douglas-fir, as well as silvicultural practices, Development of tree and understory greatly influence their tree size and allometry. vegetation in young Douglas-fir plantations The authors tested the assumption that density in western Oregon. Western Journal of and arrangement of the two species change Applied Forestry 21: 94–101. plant community structure. One experimental site was in the Coast Range (Cascade Head For silviculturists, forestland managers, and Experimental Forest) and one in the Cascade ecologists. Stands in the stem exclusion phase Mountains (HJ Andrews Experimental Forest) are considered less diverse in structure and of western Oregon. The species were planted habitat, a concern where young even-aged at specific densities and proportions; red alder stands of Douglas-fir are prevalent. This study density was also manipulated by thinning or characterized development of stand structure, delayed planting. Tree growth, understory specifically tree and crown characteristics and vegetation growth and cover, and leaf understory vegetation, as a function of stand stratification were measured during the 16 years density during the transition from regeneration after planting. Red alder grew relatively better to the stem exclusion phase in young Douglas- in the Coast Range; Douglas-fir grew better at fir plantations. Conditions were measured by the HJ Andrews site, with lower relative fertility. a chronosequence approach in 39 plantations, Potential production benefits from certain from 6 to 20 years old, in the western hemlock proportions of the two species occurred at the HJ zone in the middle to northern Oregon Coast Andrews site. The Cascade Head site showed Range, where dominant trees include Douglas- no yield improvements over monoculture. fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar. Different site and stand characteristics resulting Tree growth in young stands was positively from the different planting times and species related to stand density only in the early stages. proportions produced variation in understory Stand density had a very early influence on species. Delaying red alder planting or removing crown characteristics; maintaining a long- it entirely after 5 years improved Douglas-fir lived crown in typical plantations may require growth and response to red alder proportion at precommercial thinning to lower density. Cascade Head, but not at HJ Andrews. Tree Understory herb cover diminished over time, mortality affected species dominance, generally while shrub cover increased. Invasive species favoring Douglas-fir at HJ Andrews and red alder showed a strong presence initially; species at Cascade Head. Defining the proportions of usually associated with mature forests became Douglas-fir and red alder in managed forests dominant later, although there were many could improve performance, as well as overall exceptions. This early stage is very complex and forest productivity, wood quality, and plant dynamic; a finer resolution of the stand initiation species diversity. stage in plantations may be warranted. 33 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Additional Program Area: Forest Regeneration For ecologists and wildlife biologists. Effects of large carnivores on ungulate populations, and Renninger, HJ, BL Gartner, and AT Grotta. therefore on vegetation communities, have rarely 2006. No correlation between latewood been studied. Gray wolves were reintroduced formation and leader growth in Douglas-fir into Yellowstone National Park in the mid- saplings. IAWA Journal 27: 183–191. 1990s after an absence of some 7 decades. For wood anatomists. The proportion of The authors examined the influence of wolf/ latewood in the growth ring is a major ungulate interactions on the northern Yellowstone determinant of wood density, strength, and ecosystem. Comparing photographs taken before stiffness. Latewood also may store water, 1998 with photographs taken in 2004, they found whereas earlywood transports it. The transition that willow height had increased in none of the from earlywood to latewood is influenced by 16 upland riparian sites since wolf reintroduction, changes in temperature, precipitation, and but had increased on 22 of the 26 valley-bottom photoperiod through the growing season and riparian sites. Willow height was strongly inversely by the indoleacetic acid (IAA) concentration related to the percentage of browsed stems gradient. This study was undertaken to for valley-bottom sites, as were view distance, determine whether leader growth completion impediment distance, and the number of bison causes latewood formation. If so, latewood (Bison bison) flops. Increased willow heights were proportion and an estimate of wood density not significantly related to spatial or temporal could be determined from leader growth, rather patterns of moisture availability. Increased heights than by semidestructive means. Length of the appear to have been due at least partially to current-year leader of 14 Douglas-fir saplings trophic cascades involving wolves and ungulates was measured nine times between mid-May and via a mechanism of predation risk. If these woody late August in one growing season. The cambia species continue to grow taller, expand in canopy of the same saplings were also pierced with a cover, and increase their distribution, ecosystem pin six times during June and July to induce processes may benefit through improved xylem scarring. The saplings were harvested floodplain functioning, channel stabilization, after height growth, and the appropriate increased stream shading, improved food web segments were sectioned, stained, and support for both valley bottom and upland faunal examined microscopically. The date at which species, larger beaver populations, and increased 95% of the height growth had occurred was not biodiversity overall. correlated with that at which latewood formation Ripple, WJ, and RL Beschta. 2006. Linking had begun, suggesting that one does not cause a cougar decline, trophic cascade, and the other. Because they occur at about the same catastrophic regime shift in Zion National time, the two phenomena may be independently Park. Biological Conservation 133: 397–408. correlated with the same environmental cue. For ecologists and wildlife biologists. In the past Additional Program Area: Wood Processing and two centuries, ranges of most large mammalian Product Performance carnivores in the continental United States have collapsed because of escalating Euro-American Ripple, WJ, and RL Beschta. 2006. Linking settlement and development. The long-term wolves to willows via risk-sensitive effects of loss of large carnivores on trophic foraging by ungulates in the northern cascades involving consumers and the plants Yellowstone ecosystem. Forest Ecology they consume have received little attention. The and Management 230: 96–106. authors documented the status of an ecosystem 34 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

in Zion National Park where cougar had been exchange with increasing tree size was common greatly diminished by high human presence in but not universal. There was no evidence that one of two landscape-level areas but remained hydraulic limitation of carbon assimilation through common in the other. Their results support their photosynthesis can explain observed declines in hypotheses: (1) that Fremont cottonwood tree wood production. Height or height growth limits recruitment would be low in where cougars were did not appear to be related to so-called age- scarce and mule deer abundant (treatment, Zion related decline in wood production of forests after Canyon), but continue to occur where cougars canopy closure. remain common and are deer scarce (control, Sampson, DA, RH Waring, CA Maier, CM North Creek); and (2) reductions in riparian Gough, MJ Ducey, and KH Johnsen. 2006. trees and other palatable plants in the area with Fertilization effects on forest carbon low cougar populations would increase bank storage and exchange, and net primary erosion, turn reducing abundance of riparian production: A new hybrid process model wildflowers, amphibians, lizards, and butterflies. for stand management. Forest Ecology and Such changes could represent a catastrophic Management 221: 91–109. regime shift through pathways involving trophic cascades and abiotic environmental changes. For silviculturists, forestland managers, and The results are consistent with work in other forest ecologists. A critical question in plantation systems. management is whether fertilization enhances carbon (C) sequestration over short rotations. Ryan, MG, N Phillips, and BJ Bond. 2006. The The authors present a rotation-length hybrid hydraulic limitation hypothesis revisited. process model (SECRETS-3PG) that was Plant, Cell & Environment 29: 367–381. calibrated using control treatments and verified For tree physiologists and silviculturists. As using fertilized treatments and daily estimates

trees increase in height, certain patterns appear: of H2O and CO2 fluxes, canopy leaf area slowing height growth, lower maximum height for index (L), and annual estimates of tree growth trees of the same species on resource-poor sites, and dimension. They focus on 2 decades of and declines in tree and stand wood growth and growth and establishment of stands of loblolly annual wood production after canopy closure. pine on a nutrient-poor, droughty soil in North The hydraulic limitation hypothesis (HLH) was Carolina. The model combines (1) a detailed previously proposed to explain these patterns. canopy process model with hourly and daily The HLH proposed a mechanism that would resolution, (2) a biometrically accurate tree and lower integrated photosynthesis for a tree as it stand growth module for monthly allocation,

grew taller, and the lack of carbon would slow 3-PG, and (3) empirical models of soil CO2 subsequent height growth and wood production. efflux (RS). Simulated L, quadratic mean Stomatal closure would be greater in taller trees. tree diameter, and total standing biomass all Reduced wood production in individual trees tracked field measurements over 10 years. could lower productivity of the whole forest. The Simulated maintenance respiration, canopy authors reviewed 51 studies that measured one transpiration, and RS generally mirrored short- or more applicable factors. Their analysis found term, independently acquired data. Simulations physiological differences between taller trees and suggest that optimum fertilization amendments shorter, younger trees. Stomatal conductance increased net ecosystem productivity (NEP) to water vapor, photosynthesis, and leaf-specific more than 10-fold over control at maximum net hydraulic conduction were often, but not always, primary production (NPP) and increased NPP lower in taller trees. Hydraulic limitation of gas 2-fold at maximum L. Seasonal NEP patterns 35 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

suggest that autumn and winter may be critical Sessions, J, A Akay, G Murphy, W Chung, periods for C uptake in nutrient-limited loblolly and K Aruga. 2006. Road and harvesting pine. Increased L in response to improved planning and operations, pp. 83–99 in nutrition may enable loblolly pine to achieve Computer Applications in Sustainable positive annual NEP earlier in rotation. Forest Management: Including Perspectives on Collaboration and Schroeder, TA, WB Cohen, C Song, MJ Integration, G Shao and KM Reynolds, eds. Canty, and Z Yang. 2006. Radiometric Springer, Dordrecht. correction of multi-temporal Landsat data for characterization of early successional For forest engineers and harvest planners. forest patterns in western Oregon. Remote Road and harvest planners adopted computer Sensing of Environment 103: 16–26. applications early. Before the 1990s, computers were useful in developing the topographic maps For those interested in remote sensing and necessary to road design. Early limitations have landscape ecologists. Landsat imagery has been largely overcome by new technologies. often been used in studies of forest succession. LIDAR (Light Distance and Ranging) data in Variability in the relationship between forest particular have allowed construction of high age and spectral data poses some difficulties, quality digital terrain models, which, together however. Multi-temporal image series can with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), be examined, but variability in responses make possible rapid advances in road planning may result from factors little related to forest and in harvest planning in steep terrain. succession. Adequate radiometric correction Computer simulations have been used to may allow differentiation of real change from analyze timber harvesting and transport for some noise. This study compared the effectiveness of 40 years, and their use is increasing. Computers five absolute and relative radiometric correction on board harvesting machinery are increasingly procedures with the goal of producing consistent being used to guide harvest, collect stem data temporal reflectance trajectories of forests and relate them to spatial data, optimize in- recovering from stand-replacing disturbance. woods log processing, and maximize recovery The most complex method performed slightly and value. Tagging and tracking technologies worse than a much simpler method; simpler are being developed to ensure that logs reach atmospheric correction methods may be the appropriate markets. Computer applications preferable when consistency of common scale also are proving useful in road operations and is more important than accurate estimation maintenance and in optimizing truck operations. of surface reflectance. The authors describe Continuing improvements in terrain and tree data an effective and efficient method, “absolute- collection and in field quality computing devices normalization,” for atmospherically correcting an and GPS will allow optimization of road and image time-series for characterization of forest harvesting operations. Decision support software successional patterns. This approach relies also will become increasing accessible. on the relative normalization process to yield an improved temporal common scale; it then Simard, SW, SR Radosevich, DL Sachs, converts all images in a time-series to units of and SM Hagerman. 2006. Evidence surface reflectance. Using absolute correction for competition and facilitation trade- alone to converting images in a time-series offs: effects of Sitka alder density on to reflectance decreases the consistency of pine regeneration and soil productivity. common scale compared with that observed in Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36: partially corrected images. 1286–1298. 36 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

For silviculturists and forestland managers. This Prof. Helen Gilkey. A dichotomous key to all study was designed to test the hypotheses that known Genea, Genabea and Gilkeya spp. from trade-offs between competition and facilitation western North America is included. processes differentially affect lodgepole pine Smith, ME, JM Trappe, DM Rizzo, and SL survival and growth and that such trade-offs Miller. 2006. Gymnomyces xerophilus are dynamic. Lodgepole pine–Sitka alder forest sp. nov. (sequestrate Russulaceae), an communities were used as a model system to ectomycorrhizal associate of Quercus in study survival, growth, and resource availability California. Mycological Research 110(5): in manipulated stand compositions over 15 575–582. years. Stands ranged from pure pine to stands mixed with alder (a nitrogen fixer) or herbs. For forest mycologists and mycorrhizologists. Seven densities representing a gradient of alder Gymnomyces xerophilus sp. nov., a truffle- and herb cover were established. Increases in like fungus related to the mushroom genus pine growth were sustained only in pure stands, Russula, is described from a dry habitat in the but survival was much lower in such stands Sierra Nevada foothills. It forms mycorrhizae and soil nitrogen mineralization was greatly with Quercus douglasii and Q. wislizenii. A depleted over the long term as the result of alder dichotomous key to the species of Gymnomyces removal. Surviving seedlings in the maximum associated with Quercus is included. vegetation removal treatments grew taller and Sollins, P, C Swanston, M Kleber, T Filley, M had greater diameters than trees growing in the Kramer, S Crow, BA Caldwell, K Lajtha, moderate removal and control treatments. The and R Bowden. 2006. Organic C and N pattern of facultative and competitive interactions stabilization in a forest soil: Evidence among herbs, alder, and pine and consequent from sequential density fractionation. Soil trade-offs between pine survival and growth Biology & Biochemistry 38: 3313–3324. resulted in no significant increase in total stand For soil scientists. Soil organic matter (OM) is volume with complete vegetation removal. The critical in controlling rates of carbon (C) cycling authors conclude that the results support their and governing soil dynamics and ecosystem hypotheses and that treatment-imposed shifts in productivity. In mineral soil, OM is associated resource availability could negatively affect forest primarily with surfaces of silt and clay particles. productivity in this system. The C, nitrogen (N), and C:N of these particles Additional Program Area: Forest Regeneration tend to decrease with increasing particle density. The authors analyzed the organic matter and Smith, ME, JM Trappe, and DM Rizzo. 2006. mineral phase properties of six fractions of an Genea, Genabea and Gilkeya gen. nov.: Oregon andic soil. Total C, N, and lignin phenol ascomata and ectomycorrhiza formation concentration decreased and mean residence in a Quercus woodland. Mycologia 98: time of 14C increased monotonically with 699–716. increasing density, whereas C/N, 13C and 15N concentration all changed monotonically over For forest mycologists and mycorrhizologists. the lightest fractions but changed little over the Studies of mycorrhizal fungi associated with heaviest fractions. These data were consistent oaks in California showed these three genera with a general pattern of increased microbial to be especially common. In this paper, a new processing with increasing organomineral genus and two new species are described. The particle density, and also with an ‘‘onion’’ new genus, Gilkeya, is named in honor of the layering model of SOM accumulation on mineral pioneering botanist of Oregon State University, surfaces, in which polar carboxyl compounds 37 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

and multifunctional proteinaceous compounds For ecological modelers and silviculturists. The adsorb onto and precondition the particle surface. authors modeled productivity spatially as gross

Hydrophobic and less polar hydrophilic organics photosynthesis, Pg, during the growing season then can sorb more readily than they could onto and compared this measure to regional field clean mineral surfaces. They are also consistent surveys of woody plant species richness (species/ with the hypothesis that variation in particle net area) in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and density reflects variation in thickness of the Montana. They used their data to investigate organic accumulations. The mechanisms relating the effect of scale on the relationship between mineralogy and organic matter composition require productivity and species richness and compared

more research. how well Pg predicted tree species richness, compared with other productivity surrogates. Stuart-Smith, AK, JP Hayes, and J Schieck. Species richness was highest at intermediate 2006. The influence of wildfire, logging and levels of productivity. Aggregating more field plots residual tree density on bird communities increased the richness:productivity relationship. in the northern Rocky Mountains. Forest P was the best of the productivity surrogates Ecology and Management 231: 1–17. g in predicting tree richness in Oregon and For ecologists, forestland managers, and Washington (the only data set tested). conservationists. Logging is replacing wildfire as the dominant disturbance regime in the northern Taft, OW, and SM Haig. 2006. Landscape Rocky Mountains. Burned and logged stands differ context mediates influence of local food in many ways shortly after disturbance; these abundance on wetland use by wintering differences diminish over time. Little is known about shorebirds in an agricultural valley. the effect of these shifts on avian populations. Biological Conservation 128: 298–307. This study compared avian communities in 166 For wildlife biologists and conservationists. Local logged or burned stands in relation to density and abundance of benthic invertebrates is thought to type of residual trees and time since disturbance. greatly influence the distribution and abundance Songbirds were surveyed three times a year of wetland birds, but it is unknown if wetland between late May and early July for 3 years. landscape context can mediate this relationship. Bird communities differed in burned and logged The authors studied the influence of wetland stands of similar ages, but the differences were food abundance and landscape context on use inconsistent between biogeoclimatic zones and did of agricultural wetlands by wintering dunlin and not explain a large amount of the variation in bird killdeer in the Willamette Valley of Oregon over communities. Bird density was higher in logged two winters (1999–2000, 2000–2001) of differing stands, but logged and burned stands did not differ rainfall and subsequent habitat distribution. During in species richness. Residual tree density and type the dry winter (2000–2001), dunlin exhibited influenced bird community, bird abundance, and greater use of sites with higher invertebrate densities of individual species. The abundance density and biomass but also with more adjacent of some species in harvested areas could be shorebird habitat and closest to a wetland manipulated by manipulating the type and density neighbor. Neither landscape context nor food of residual trees. abundance was an important predictor of dunlin use during the wet winter (1999–2000). Killdeer Swenson, JJ, and RH Waring. 2006. Modelled use was unrelated to either local food abundance photosynthesis predicts woody plant or landscape context measures in either winter. richness at three geographic scales across The findings contribute to a growing recognition the north-western United States. Global of the importance of landscape structure to Ecology & Biogeography 15(5): 470–485. 38 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

wetland birds and highlight implications for spatial mortality of individual trees on the basis of easily planning and enhancement of wetlands with a observed characteristics. A study was established landscape approach. in six stands of mixed-age ponderosa pine with scattered western junipers at the south end of the Temesgen, H, and AR Weiskittel. 2006. Leaf Blue Mountains near Burns, Oregon. Stands were mass per area relationships across light thinned in either 1994 or 1995. Three treatments gradients in hybrid spruce crowns. Trees- (fall burn, spring burn, and unburned control) were Structure and Function 20: 522–530. randomly assigned to 12-ha experimental units For tree physiologists and silviculturists. The within each stand. Prescribed burns occurred ratio between leaf mass and area (LMA) varies during mid-October of 1997 or mid-June of 1998 within different levels of a tree and in response and were representative of operational burns, to many environmental variables. The authors given weather and fuel conditions. Within each collected more than 2200 foliage samples from experimental unit, six 0.2-ha plots were established different canopy positions in 12 trees of hybrid to evaluate responses to the burns. Ponderosa spruce, Picea engelmannii Parry × Picea glauca pine plot trees (n = 3415) alive 1 month after × Picea sitchensis. The trees were on three the burns were evaluated and observed for four sites (stand ages 20, 60, and 140 years) and growing seasons. Nine fire damage and tree differed in age and size. The primary goal was to morphological variables were evaluated by logistic develop a model that can predict LMA at various regression. A five-factor full model and a two- points in the crown, based on canopy position factor reduced model are presented for projecting and developmental stage of the stand. LMA was probability of mortality. Significant variables in the highly variable within tree crowns and decreased full model included measures of crown, bole, and with increasing distance from the tree apex. LMA basal damage. increased with foliage age and with increasing light gradients. Variability was higher in old Trappe, JM, and E Cazares. 2006. Tuber trees than in young and mature trees, but was guzmanii, a new truffle from southern not constant among stand development stages Mexico. International Journal of Medicinal and light gradients. The oldest trees showed Mushrooms 8: 279–282. the highest LMA values and the youngest trees, For forest mycologists and mycorrhizologists. This the lowest. Interactions between developmental truffle, new to science, is described and named in impacts and light gradients were significant. honor of Prof. Gaston Guzman, an internationally Multiple linear regression (MLR) relationships recognized Mexican mycologist. developed from the data provided precise Trappe, JM, and AW Claridge. 2006. representations of LMA at different positions Australasian sequestrate fungi 17: within tree crowns. the genus Hydnoplicata (Ascomycota, Thies, WG, DJ Westlina, M Loewen, and Pezizaceae) resurrected. Australasian G Brenner. 2006. Prediction of delayed Mycologist 25(1): 33–36. mortality of fire-damaged ponderosa For mycologists and fungal taxonomists. This pine following prescribed fires in eastern truffle, derived from the cup-fungus genus Peziza, Oregon, USA. International Journal of was first described from Tasmania in 1896. Wildland Fire 15: 19–29. Recent collecting reveals it to be widespread in For forestland managers and planners. Prescribed southeastern Australia as a probable mycorrhizal burning is a management tool used to reduce associate of eucalypts. Gilkey described the fuel loads in western interior forests. Following genus Hydnoplicata and its type species, H. a burn, managers need to be able to predict the whitei, in 1954. Trappe later discovered that the 39 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

genus has amyloid asci and other characters of hypogeous fungi, an important food that relate it to the genus Peziza. He therefore source for mammals. Mycological Research proposed the new combination, Peziza whitei, 110: 1333–1339. even though the species is consistently For forest mycologists and ecologists, wildlife hypogeous. Recent molecular phylogenetic biologists and forestland managers. Prescribed studies, however, indicate that Peziza sensu lato burning can be applied in forests for a variety is strongly non-monophyletic. Hydnoplicata is in of goals, but sometimes unintended results can a clade distinctly separate from the type clade be negative. Many Australian small mammals, of Peziza. The name Hydnoplicata therefore can including several endangered species, rely be restored to represent that clade. Because strongly on truffles and truffle-like fungi for food. H. whitei is a later taxonomic synonym of Accordingly, it was important to learn how burning Hydnocystis convoluta, however, the correct affects that food source. A prescribed burn in name for the species is Hydnoplicata convoluta Canberra Nature Park revealed that only a very (Gilkey) Trappe and Claridge, comb. nov. Pure few truffles fruited on burned plots in the first culture synthesis has demonstrated its ability to fruiting season after the burn, whereas fruiting was form ectomycorrhizae with Poranthera microphylla abundant on unburned plots. A year later, some (Euphorbiaceae) and a Hartig net, but no mantle, recovery was evident on burned plots, but species with Angianthus tomentosus and Waitzia citrea richness and number of fruiting bodies still lagged (Asteraceae) and Pultenaea obovata (Fabaceae). behind burned plots. Species that tended to fruit Trappe, JM, and AW Claridge. 2006. close to the ground surface did not recover as well Hypogeous fungi at tree line in the as those that tended to fruit more deeply. Australian Alps. Meddelelser om Grønland, Trappe, MJ, F Evans, and JM Trappe. 2006. Bioscience 56: 148–158. Field Guide to Selected Species of Truffles For mycologists. Of 18 species of hypogeous and Truffle-like Fungi of North America. fungi (truffles) discovered at tree line in the North American Truffling Society, Corvallis Australian Alps of New South Wales, six are new OR. and described in this paper. All probably form For anyone interested in forest fungi. This ectomycorrhizae with the snow gum (Eucalyptus handbook describes and illustrates fruiting bodies pauciflora var. niphophila), the dominant tree and spores in color for about 50 species of truffles species in that habitat. in nonspecialist terms. Trappe, JM, and AW Claridge. 2006. Leppia: a Treseder, KK, and A Cross. 2006. Global missing link between northern and southern distributions of arbuscular mycorrhizal hemisphere truffles?Inoculum 57: 14. fungi. Ecosystems 9: 305–316. For forest mycologists. A truffle associated For mycologists and soil biologists. Arbuscular with eucalypts in southeastern Australia mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are sensitive to combines characters of genera from the various aspects of global change and may southern hemisphere with those of the northern be key regulators of ecosystem responses to hemisphere. It is suggested to be the missing environmental change. The authors tested the phylogenetic link that connects genera that are hypothesis that AM fungi are more prevalent in currently a half a world apart. biomes where nutrients are present primarily in Trappe, JM, AO Nicholls, AW Claridge, and mineral, not organic, forms. Data on percentage SJ Cork. 2006. Prescribed burning in a root length colonized (%RLC) by AM fungi, eucalyptus woodland suppresses fruiting AM abundance (defined as total standing root length colonized by AM fungi), and host plant 40 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

availability were obtained from 151 locations and overall bias. They tended to be overestimates 9 biomes. Percent RLC was marginally different at low productivity sites but underestimates in among biomes and was greatest in savannas. high productivity sites. A global network of sites AM abundance was lowest in boreal forests and where both NPP and GPP are measured and highest in temperate grasslands, with a 63-fold scaled over the local landscape is needed to variation. Biomes did not differ significantly in the validate the MODIS NPP and GPP products more percentage of plant species hosting AM fungi, comprehensively and potentially to calibrate the averaging 75%. The data did not support the MODIS NPP/GPP algorithm parameters. hypothesis; %RLC, AM abundance, and host Turner, DP, WD Ritts, JM Styles, Z Yang, WB plant availability were not related to the size, Cohen, BE Law, and PE Thornton. 2006. A influx, or turnover rate of soil organic matter pools. diagnostic carbon flux model to monitor AM abundance was positively correlated with the effects of disturbance and interannual standing stocks of fine roots. Nitrogen deposition variation in climate on regional NEP. Tellus: from nearby agricultural application and increases Series B 58(5): 476–490. in atmospheric CO2 could alter global distributions of AM fungi. For ecologists and others interested in carbon cycling, ecosystem production, and remote Turner, DP, WD Ritts, WB Cohen, ST Gower, sensing. Net ecosystem production (NEP) was SW Running, M Zhao, MH Costa, A estimated over a 10.9- x 104-km2 forested region Kirschbaum, J Ham, S Saleska, and DE Ahl. in western Oregon for 2 years (2002−2003) by 2006. Evaluation of MODIS NPP and GPP a combination of remote sensing, distributed products across multiple biomes. Remote meteorological data, and a carbon (C) cycle Sensing of Environment 102: 282–292. model (CFLUX). High spatial resolution satellite For ecologists and others interested in carbon data (Landsat, 30 m) provided information on cycling. Estimates of daily gross primary land cover and the disturbance regime. Coarser production (GPP) and annual net primary resolution satellite imagery (MODIS, 1 km) production (NPP) at 1-km spatial resolution provided estimates of vegetation absorption of are now produced operationally for the global photosynthetically active radiation. A spatially terrestrial surface, using imagery from the MODIS distributed (1 km) daily time step meteorology (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) was generated for model input by interpolation sensor. Ecosystem-level measurements of GPP of meteorological station data. The model, run at eddy covariance flux towers and plot-level over a 1-km grid, employed a light use efficiency measurements of NPP over the surrounding approach for photosynthesis. This approach landscape offer opportunities for validating captured spatial patterns in NEP associated with the MODIS NPP and GPP products, but these climatic gradients, ecoregional differences in NEP measurements must be scaled over areas of generated by different management histories, about 25 km2 to make effective comparisons to temporal variation in NEP associated with the MODIS products. This study reports results interannual variation in climate, and changes in for such comparisons at nine diverse sites. NEP associated with recovery from disturbances. The ground-based NPP and GPP surfaces Regional NEP averaged 174 g C/m2/yr in 2002 were generated by application of the Biome- and 142 g C/m2/yr in 2003. A diagnostic modeling BGC carbon cycle process model in a spatially approach of this type can provide independent distributed mode. Model inputs of land cover and estimates of regional NEP for comparison with leaf area index were derived from Landsat data. results of inversion or boundary layer budget The MODIS NPP and GPP products showed no approaches. 41 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

Turner, DP, WD Ritts, M Zhao, SA Kurc, For ecologists, tree physiologists, and those AL Dunn, SC Wofsy, EE Small, and SW interested in carbon cycling. Tree rings have been Running. 2006. Assessing interannual used to track many environmental signals under variation in MODIS-based estimates experimental and natural conditions. Because tree of gross primary production. IEEE stems are readily available, are often proportional Transactions in Geosciences and Remote to other pools of plant tissue, and store a great Sensing 44: 1899–1907. deal of carbon on a global scale, understanding For ecologists and others interested in primary the responses of stem growth to increasing

production and remote sensing. Interannual carbon dioxide (CO2) is critical. The authors used variation in global climate currently is much better extensive tree-ring data sets obtained from stands understood than interannual variation in gross in the Missouri Ozarks to infer how a long-term

primary production (GPP). The satellite-based signal associated with CO2 might change with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer tree age and stand development over the long (MODIS) now allows greatly improved monitoring term. The stands were dominated by Quercus sp. of biospheric carbon fluxes. Patterns in global and Pinus echinata. Their analysis showed that flux estimates inferred from such data will require stem growth of Q. velutina, Q. coccinea, and P. evaluation based on in situ measurements to echinata had increased greatly since 1850; this be scientifically useful. The authors compared increase coincided with increases in atmospheric

MODIS GPP products with ground-based GPP CO2 and did not appear to be related to estimates obtained over multiple years from disturbance levels, changes in climatic variables,

eddy covariance flux towers, fine resolution or site productivity. Rate of CO2-induced growth remote sensing, and modeling from a boreal stimulation decreased with tree age. The authors conifer and a temperate deciduous forest and discuss several ideas for future research to a desert grassland. Seasonal variation in the extend their findings. MODIS GPP was generally consistent with the Waldien, DL, JP Hayes, and MMP Huso. 2006. in situ observations. Year-to-year variation in the Use of downed wood by Townsend’s MODIS products agreed in sign and magnitude chipmunk (Tamias townsendii) in Western with ground observations except at the temperate Oregon. Journal of Mammalogy 87: deciduous forest site. Examination of the 454–460. inputs to the MODIS GPP algorithm explained For ecologists and mammalogists. Dead wood disagreements between the MODIS and ground- on the forest floor provides important habitat for based GPP estimates. Continuing evaluations small mammals, which use it for physical cover will help elucidate biospheric feedbacks to for nests or dens and for travel paths, as well climate change. The performance of the MODIS as a source of forage and prey. The authors GPP algorithm can be improved by increased examined whether Townsend’s chipmunks are attention to estimates of photosynthetically active influenced in their path selection by the presence radiation outside the growing season and to and characteristics of down wood and whether parameterization of the minimum temperature and those influences are influenced by sex, season, VPD scalars for particular vegetation types. or overall quantity of wood in the area. Path Voelker, SL, R-M Muzika, RP Guyette, and MC selection was determined with the spool-and-line

Stambaugh. 2006. Historical CO2 growth technique. Chipmunks were more likely to select enhancement declines with age in Quercus locations with downed wood than without and to and Pinus. Ecological Monographs 76: select larger than average wood. More information 549–564. on the functional value of downed wood at larger 42 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

spatial and temporal scales is needed for this and sensitive biophysical models and remotely sensed other small mammal species in order to increase data on vegetation could overcome problems in understanding of their behavior and ecology and mapping forest growth potential across regions facilitate effective conservation and management. with different environmental conditions. The authors calibrated the midsummer value of the Wallenstein, MD, DD Myrold, M Firestone, and enhanced vegetation index (EVI) of NASA’s M Voytek. 2006. Environmental controls on MODIS instrument against site indices (SI) denitrifying communities and denitrification mapped at 10 widely dispersed locations of rates: Insights from molecular methods. Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine. Median values Ecological Applications 16: 2143–2152. of EVI derived from a 3- × 3-km grid centered For soil microbiologists and ecologists and those on commercial forestlands of known productive interested in nitrogen cycling. Denitrification, capacities produced a linear regression with a respiratory process carried out by diverse site indices. The authors matched stand growth bacteria, archaea, and fungi, is an important properties generated by a physiologically based component of ecosystem N cycling. Its stand growth model (3-PG) with site-specific gaseous products are the major biological yield tables and inferred a close relation among pathway for N loss from ecosystems, and the maximum leaf area index, maximum periodic gaseous intermediates have been implicated annual increment, and SI. The ability of median in atmospheric trace gas chemistry and global EVI to predict SI values derived from height and warming. The key regulators of instantaneous tree age measurements at federal Inventory and denitrification rates are NO - availability, O , and 3 2 Analysis survey plots in Oregon was comparable pH (proximal controls), which act through biotic to that derived from previous application of 3-PG communities that develop in response to long- with 1-km resolution of climate and soil data. term soil climate, disturbances, and resources Based on the general agreement between the (distal controls). This review briefly summarizes two approaches, the authors used mid-summer key controls on distribution of denitrifier EVI values to generate a 1-km resolution map communities, reviews current knowledge about predicting spatial variation in SI of Douglas-fir the structure and function of those communities, over 630,000 km2 in the Northwest. and suggests areas of future research on the linkages between community structure and Waring, RH, NC Coops, W Fan, and JM function. Emphasis is on molecular investigations Nightingale. 2006. MODIS enhanced of denitrifier communities in natural environments. vegetation index predicts tree species - richness across forested ecoregions in Evidence that NO3 acts primarily as a proximal control on denitrification rates but has less direct the contiguous U.S.A. Remote Sensing of long-term effects on denitrifier communities is Environment 103: 218–226. presented. For ecologists and others interest in remote sensing. The Federal Inventory and Analysis Waring, RH, KS Milner, WM Jolly, L Phillips, program systematically records the composition and D McWethy. 2006. Assessment of site of forest vegetation nationwide, allowing index and forest growth capacity across the examination of correlations between tree richness Pacific and Inland Northwest U.S.A. with a and productivity at different spatial scales. This MODIS satellite-derived vegetation index. study examined how well the MODIS enhanced Forest Ecology and Management 228: vegetation index (EVI) is correlated with tree 285–291. richness data drawn from FIA survey data from 65 For ecologists, forestland planners, modelers, and ecoregions. The authors compared predictions of those interested in remote sensing. Climatically 43 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

tree diversity obtained by four formulations of EVI: Weiskittel, AR, and DA Maguire. 2006. Branch the annual maximum, the annual integrated, the surface area and its vertical distribution in growing season defined midpoint, and growing coastal Douglas-fir.Trees—Structure and season average values. The four formulations Function 20: 657–667. were highly correlated with one another and For silviculturists. The wood area index (WAI: accounted for 57−63% of the observed variation total surface area of branches and the tree bole) in tree richness when all ecoregions were is important in many ecophysiological processes. included and ~80% when ecoregions having Nevertheless, it has been estimated for few <50% forest cover were excluded. All formulations species, and little is known about its variation significantly overestimated tree richness in three within a species, especially with respect to ecoregions in the Pacific Northwest, an anomaly responses to site quality, stand age or density, explainable by the evolutionary history of the and silvicultural manipulation. In this study, region. The analysis indicated a polynomial branch surface area was estimated at the branch, relation between the four formulations of EVI and tree, and stand levels, and patterns in WAI, leaf tree richness. The authors conclude that EVI is a area index (LAI), tree area index (WAI + LAI), good surrogate for productivity. and various ratios thereof were investigated in Weiler, M, and JJ McDonnell. 2006. Testing 33 Douglas-fir plantations in the Oregon Coast nutrient flushing hypotheses at the hillslope Range. Equations for predicting branch surface scale: A virtual experiment approach. area at the individual branch, tree, and stand Journal of Hydrology 319: 339–356. levels were developed. The main axes of primary branches made up 82% of total branchwood For hydrologists and those interested in nutrient surface area. Tree surface area (needles + woody availability. Much remains to be discovered about tissue) increased as tree size and crown length how labile nutrients such as nitrate (NO ) and 3 increased; woody surface area increased with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen greater stand density, constituting 29% of total (DON) are delivered to streams, especially at the tree surface area. Swiss needle cast disease hillslope scale. Field studies are limited in many significantly reduced both branchwood and ways and are only partially useful in connecting C stem surface area at both tree and stand levels. and N sources with water flow and transport. This Branchwood surface area and bole surface area paper presents virtual experiments (numerical contributed equally to WAI. Variation in WAI with experiments with a model driven by collective LAI can affect rain and radiation attenuation and field intelligence) that focus on quantifying the partitioning of radiation among photosynthetic and first-order controls on flow pathways and nutrient nonphotosynthetic tissues. transport to hillslopes. Their results show how depth distributions of transmissivity and drainable Additional Program Area: Integrated Protection porosity, soil depth variability, and mass exchange of Forests and Watersheds between the saturated and unsaturated zone influence the mobilization, flushing, and release of Weiskittel, AR, DA Maguire, RA Monserud, R labile nutrients at the hillslope scale. They argue Rose, and EC Turnblom. 2006. Intensive that the virtual experiment approach provides management influence on Douglas fir stem a well-founded basis for defining the first-order form, branch characteristics, and simulated controls and linkages between hydrology and product recovery. New Zealand Journal of biogeochemistry at the hillslope scale. Forestry Science 36(2/3): 293–312. Additional Program Area: Integrated Protection For silviculturists and forest managers. Because of Forests and Watersheds trees harvested at 40 to 60 years have larger 44 Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity

branches and more juvenile wood than those Little is known about the fate of terrestrial orchid harvested when older, they do not produce the seeds after dispersal. The objective of this study same log and number grade yields. This study was to establish the ability of orchid seeds to had three objectives: (1) to test the effects of establish a seed bank. Packets containing seeds silvicultural treatments and stand conditions of seven North American orchid species were on stem form and branch characteristics; (2) to buried in a range of substrates in the natural test for change in simulated lumber yield and habitats of the species. Most seeds of Goodyera quality implied by changes in stem form and pubescens germinated within 1 year; thus, this branch characteristics; (3) to compare results species would not form much of a seed bank. with and update previous quantitative models. In four other species, many seeds had not yet Stem diameter and branch size and location were germinated and were still viable after almost measured in 223 stems of Douglas-fir. The stems, 7 years. Germination rates of seeds of Liparis from 5 to 65 years old, were taken from a wide liliifola were as high as 68% after 4 years when variety of stand conditions. In addition, 86 virtual sown in vitro with a compatible fungus. Two logs were created and processed by AUTOSAW. species did not germinate during the observation All silvicultural treatments significantly affected period but tested positively for viability after branch size; significant changes in stem form were 4 years. The importance of the fungal-orchid also observed among stand conditions. Maximum interaction is discussed. These and other studies branch size was most responsive to silvicultural have important implications for conservation regime and disease severity, two factors that of terrestrial orchids, many of which are rare, have not been reported on previously. Fertilization threatened, or endangered. and thinning did not adversely change simulated Yang, ZL, JM Trappe, M Binder, R Sanmee, lumber quality and yield. Factors such as juvenile P Lumyong, and S Lumyong. 2006. wood percentage and wood density may exert The sequestrate genus Rhodactina more control over simulated product quality in the (Basidiomycota, Boletales) in northern young Douglas-fir analyzed in this study. Thailand. Mycotaxon 96: 133–140. Additional Program Area: Wood Processing and For mycologists. Many macrofungi have been Product Performance collected from northern Thailand in recent years, including the two species of Rhodactina, R. Whigham, DF, JP O’Neill, HN Rasmussen, BA himalayensis and R. incarnata, described in this Caldwell, and MK McCormick. 2006. Seed paper. Both morphological and molecular means longevity in terrestrial orchids—Potential were used to describe the species. The molecular for persistent in situ seed banks. Biological analysis indicated that the genus properly belongs Conservation 129(1): 24−30. in the Boletaceae, rather than the Gautieriaceae, For botanists interested in orchid germination. to which it had previously been assigned.

45 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Asano, Y, JE Compton, and MR Church. 2006. one upstream of the elk winter range (control Hydrologic flowpaths influence inorganic reach, A) and two within the elk winter range and organic nutrient leaching in a forest (Reaches B and C). Willow cover on floodplains soil. Biogeochemistry 81: 191–204. averaged 85% for reach A, 26% for reach B, For hydrologists and soil scientists. Spatial and and 5% for reach C. The average return period temporal variability in soil solution chemistry is of calculated bankful discharges was 3.1 years attributable to element inputs to the soil surface, for reach A, 32.4 years for reach B, and 10.6 hydrological flowpaths, and biogeochemical years for reach C. Because of the long-term loss processing along those flowpaths. Recently, of streamside vegetation, channels generally the use of dye, chemical, and isotopic tracers to increased in hydraulic capacity and decreased follow soil water movement has made it more their hydrologic connectivity with adjacent feasible to study interactions between hydrology floodplains. This study documents, perhaps for and biogeochemistry. Using stable isotopes of the first time, the impacts to riparian vegetation water (δD), the authors examined the influence of functions and stream channel characteristics heterogeneous water movement on variation in resulting from the extirpation of a large organic and inorganic constituents in soil solution mammalian carnivore. in a mature spruce–hemlock forest in coastal Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, Oregon, USA. Their results showed that using Culture, and Productivity stable isotopes can link hydrological flowpaths and soil solution chemistry. They also illustrate Claeson, SM, JL Li, JE Compton, and PA how the spatial complexity of soils can influence Bisson. 2006. Response of nutrients, nutrient losses at the ecosystem level. The authors biofilm, and benthic insects to salmon propose that the variability of δD can be used as carcass addition. Canadian Journal an index of flowpath length and contact time. They of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: conclude that identifying the effect of flowpath 1230–1241. helps in interpreting the soil solution chemistry For riparian ecologists and fish biologists. and provides insight into complex ecosystem Salmon carcasses are often added to streams processes, such as DON and nitrate loss. in order to increase nutrient supply and stream Beschta, RL, and WJ Ripple. 2006. River productivity. Responses to such addition have channel dynamics following extirpation varied considerably among previous studies. of wolves in northwestern Yellowstone The authors used stable isotopes (δ13C and National Park, USA. Earth Surface δ15N) to examine responses of stream nutrients, Processes and Landforms 31: 1525–1539. epilithic biofilm, leaf-litter decomposition, and For hydrologists and ecologists. After removal of macroinvertebrate density and biomass to gray wolves from the upper Gallatin River Basin addition of salmon-derived nutrients. Nutrients in the early 1900s, streamside elk browsing in were incorporated into the stream food web at the winter range caused willow communities all trophic levels. Biofilm, benthic insects, and to diminish greatly. Using historical aerial age-1 steelhead assimilated the salmon-derived photographs and chronosequences of ground nutrients. Direct assimilation by insects and fish photographs, the authors characterized general feeding on carcasses peaked about 2 weeks changes in vegetation and channel morphology after carcass addition, but indirect assimilation by over time. In August of 2004, they surveyed biofilm and insects took some 2 months. Insect riparian vegetation and channel cross-sections biomass was highly variable among sampling along three reaches of the upper Gallatin River, locations and over time. Carcass addition did 46 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

not significantly affect total biomass, biomass authors tested several hypotheses concerning the of insect groups, or abundance of different size capillary-fringe groundwater-ridging mechanism. classes. Ammonium concentrations, leaf litter They conclude that groundwater pressure decomposition, and benthic insect density also ridges form in many environments, and the increased downstream from carcasses. Significant sequence of hydraulic gradients that develop changes in selected response variables were determines behavior of ridge development. For observed only close to the carcasses. Although the characteristics simulated, high pre-event carcass addition to headwater streams may affect proportions in discharged water were related to primary and secondary trophic levels temporarily, complex interactions between characteristics. responses may be limited to specific taxa near They suggest that the groundwater ridging carcass locations. hypothesis may require revision and be more complex than a simple displacement mechanism Cloke, HL, JP Renaud, JJ McDonnell, and M and advocate a continuum approach for Anderson. 2006. Response to comment understanding riparian dynamics. by Jozsef Szilagyi on “Using numerical modelling to evaluate the capillary Compton, JE, CP Andersen, DL Phillips, JR fringe groundwater ridging hypothesis Brooks, MG Johnson, MR Church, WE of streamflow generation” (Journal of Hogsett, MA Cairns, PT Rygiewicz, BC Hydrology 316 (2006) 141–162). Journal of McComb, and CD Shaff. 2006. Ecological Hydrology 329: 730–732. and water quality consequences of nutrient For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. The addition for salmon restoration in the authors respond in detail to an extended comment Pacific Northwest.Frontiers in Ecology and by another hydrologist on their earlier paper about Environment 4: 18–26. streamflow generation, cited in the title. For aquatic ecologists and fish biologists. The organic matter and nutrients that salmon bring Cloke, HL, MG Anderson, JJ McDonnell, back from the ocean when they return to rivers and J-P Renaud. 2006. Using numerical are important to the ecology of riparian and modelling to evaluate the capillary freshwater systems of the Pacific Northwest. fringe groundwater ridging hypothesis Several studies have supported the hypothesis of streamflow generation.Journal of that declines in salmon runs have negatively Hydrology 316: 141–162. impacted freshwater production, reducing the For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. survival of smolts and, therefore, the run size in Recent commentaries have examined how subsequent years. Managers and scientists in the catchments store water for weeks or months, region have been advocating adding nutrients, then release it in minutes or hours in response including salmon carcasses, processed fish to rainfall inputs. Several processes have been cakes, or inorganic fertilizers, to streams as a proposed as controls on contributions of pre- part of salmon restoration efforts. Such additions event water to streamflow. The capillary-fringe- may benefit fish and wildlife, but they may also induced groundwater-ridging mechanism is one have adverse effects on stream ecosystems, of the most widely invoked and widely accepted, including introduction of excess nutrients, but there is little evidence for this phenomenon disease, and toxins and consequent reduction of outside of particular environments and test cases. water quality. The authors review the issues and Using a flow and transport modelling tool and the recommend that more comprehensive evaluation original Abdul and Gilham laboratory experiment and monitoring programs accompany nutrient (Journal of Hydrology 112: 1−18), still regarded enhancement projects to help clarify these issues. as the main proof-of-concept, as a basis, the 47 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, 13 years in northern Idaho. Infestations were Culture, and Productivity closer together and clustered during periods when populations were high. Both patch size and Dewey, JC, SH Schoenholtz, JP Shepard, number of trees killed per infestation showed a and MG Messina. 2006. Issues related to positive exponential relationship to the number of wetland delineation of a Texas bottomland infestations. hardwood forest. Wetlands 26: 410–429. Dodds, KJ, SL Garman, and DW Ross. 2006. For hydrologists and those interested in wetland Risk rating systems for the Douglas-fir conservation and restoration. The Clean Water beetle in the interior western United States. act defines wetland areas in the United States Western Journal of Applied Forestry 21: and regulates certain activities in wetlands. Three 173–177. parameters must be present to define a wetland: For forest entomologists, natural resource hydric soils, wetland hydrology, and hydrophytic managers, and assessors of forest health. vegetation. Delineation of wetlands is often Historical records and spatiotemporal patterns controversial and especially difficult in broad were used to develop a risk rating system for the transitional areas between uplands and aquatic Douglas-fir beetle in northern Idaho. The models systems, such as bottomland hardwood forests. presented can be used to predict the likelihood of This study examined alternative methods for new infestations occurring within known distances assessing the three parameters in a bottomland of existing infestations. hardwood forest in east Texas. A prevalence index provided the best agreement with soil and Donato, DC, JB Fontaine, JL Campbell, WD hydrology parameters. The data showed best Robinson, JB Kauffman, and BE Law. 2006. agreement among the three parameters when Post-wildfire logging hinders regeneration (1) prevalence indices were used for vegetation, and increases fire risk.Science 311: 352. (2) water-table depth within 15 cm of the surface For fire ecologists, forestland managers, over 12.5% of the growing season was used for silviculturists, and policymakers. Management of hydrology, and (3) hydric soil indicators in effect public forests after large fires, in particular with for this locality in 1995 were used. Only 56% of regard to postfire (salvage) logging, is the subject the 81 sites provided agreement among these of intense controversy. The authors compared three parameters, and most of this forest would early conifer regeneration and fuel loads in the not be a jurisdictional wetland as defined by Clean presence and absence of postfire logging after Water Act regulations, even though it was mapped the 2002 Biscuit fire in southern Oregon. They as a wetland by the National Wetlands Inventory. concluded that postfire logging removed naturally The authors recommend development and use of regenerating conifers and increased both fine and delineation criteria and methods that would result coarse downed woody fuel loads. The practice thus in better agreement among hydrology, soils, and could be counterproductive to forest regeneration vegetation characteristics in this type of forest. and fuel reduction as management goals. Dodds, KJ, SL Garman, and DW Ross. 2006. Additional Program Areas: Forest Regeneration; Landscape analyses of Douglas-fir beetle Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity; populations in northern Idaho. Forest Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Ecology and Management 231: 119–130. For entomologists. Aerial detection survey Donato, DC, JB Fontaine, JL Campbell, WD maps and GIS were used to study the spatial Robinson, JB Kauffman, and BE Law. 2006. dynamics of Douglas-fir beetle infestations over Response to comments on “Post-Wildfire 48 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

logging hinders regeneration and increases Gaylord, ML, TE Kolb, KF Wallin, and MR fire risk”.Science 313: 615. Wagner. 2006. Seasonal and lure preference For fire ecologists, forest managers, regeneration of bark beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae) planners, and silviculturists. The authors respond and associates in a northern Arizona to two critiques of their earlier Science article on ponderosa pine forest. Environmental forest regeneration after the 2002 Biscuit fire in Entomology 35: 37–47. southern Oregon. For forest entomologists and forestland managers. The bark beetle community in the Additional Program Areas: Forest Regeneration; ponderosa pine forests of the southwestern US Evaluation of Forest Uses and Practices; Forest has not been well studied. In 2003, mortality Ecology, Culture, and Productivity attributed to bark beetles in the area increased dramatically. This study examined the year- Filip, GM, CL Schmitt, and KL Chadwick. 2006. round flight seasonality of the major bark beetles, Incidence of Heterobasidion annosum their associated predators, and woodborers in mixed-conifer natural regeneration in ponderosa pine near Flagstaff, AZ for 24 surrounding large true fir stumps 20–25 consecutive months. The general pattern of lure years after harvesting in northeastern preference for the bark beetle complex was also Oregon. Western Journal of Applied assessed. Flights of most bark beetle species Forestry 21: 178–184. began in April and were heaviest between For forest pathologists. Stem and root decay May and the end of October. Most predator resulting from annosus root disease may result in species peaked between June and August. The conifer mortality, growth loss, stem breakage, or woodborers peaked in either late May/early windthrow. This study investigated the incidence June (buprestids) or July/August (cerambycids). of H. annosum infection, stain, and decay in six The finding that bark beetle flights extended species of naturally regenerated conifer saplings into October is important for seasonal planning surrounding infected true fir stumps in northeast of thinning and slash disposal to minimize bark Oregon. In 1989, a high frequency (89%) of beetle impacts. The lure for Dendroctonus annosus root disease was found in residual true brevicomis attracted the largest percentage of all fir stumps cut 5–9 years earlier. Fifteen years Dendroctonus species except one. That targeted later, the disease was found at the stump surface for Ips pini attracted the highest percentage for of 29% of the natural conifer regeneration within all three Ips species and the two predators. The 20 ft of infected residual stumps. Stain or decay lures targeted for D. valens and I. pini attracted caused by annosus disease was found in 13% the highest percentage of beetles in the predator of live saplings. Infection was confirmed in 62% Elacatis and the cerambycids. Buprestids did not of decayed trees, 33% of stained trees, and prefer any lure type. 22% of trees with no visible stain or decay at the stump surface. Diameter of infected trees was Keim, RF, HJ Tromp van-Meerveld, and JJ significantly larger than that of apparently healthy McDonnell. 2006. A virtual experiment on trees; live crown ratio and distance from infected the effects of evaporation and intensity residual stumps did not differ. Properly applying smoothing by canopy interception on boron products should significantly reduce subsurface stormflow generation.Journal infection in residual true fir stumps and stain, of Hydrology 327: 352–364. decay, and mortality in surrounding regeneration For hydrologists and hydrological modelers. and residual trees, but more research in northeast Vegetation influences precipitation inputs to Oregon is needed to confirm this. soil. Vegetation effects on hillslope hydrology 49 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

have not been fully addressed, especially with laboratory. Vegetation was then modeled as a respect to subsurface stormflow generation. reservoir for precipitation in order to generalize Field studies in this area are difficult to achieve. and quantify canopy storage responses to varying This research employs the virtual experiment rainfall intensities and the resulting smoothing approach to estimate the effects of canopy effect on throughfall intensities. Finally, branch- interception on subsurface stormflow generation scale observations were scaled up to estimate at the hillslope scale. The virtual experiments canopy-scale storage during rainfall rates typical compared modeled hillslope response to rainfall of field conditions. Steady-state storage generally and throughfall characteristic of forest canopy increased with rainfall intensity and was most processes in Washington. The experiments related to leaf area. Scaling to the canopy scale generated subsurface stormflow from measured produced an estimate of canopy storage that rainfall and throughfall data from three sites in the generally agrees with estimates by traditional forest and synthetic simplified throughfall signals methods. A simple nonlinear model predicted containing either evaporation alone or intensity magnitude of storage responses to rainfall intensity smoothing alone. Evaporative loss delayed the well and predicted temporal scale fairly well. A onset of subsurface stormflow, lowered and conceptual mechanical model of canopy storage delayed stormflow peaks, and decreased total during rainfall is proposed that includes the flow and the runoff ratio. Canopy evaporation was concepts of static and dynamic storage to account responsible for most of these effects. Intensity for intensity-driven changes in storage. smoothing showed measurable differences only in peak subsurface stormflow rate. Overall, this Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, work shows that ignoring interception would miss a Culture, and Productivity major effect of vegetation on subsurface stormflow Kelsey, RG, WG Thies, and CL Schmitt. 2006. generation. Furthermore, simply applying some Using chemical markers to detect root fractional reduction as a scaled input signal may disease in stressed ponderosa pine stands mask important effects on peak flow response. with a low incidence of disease in eastern Keim, RF, AE Skaugset, and M Weiler. 2006. Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management Storage of water on vegetation under 232: 205–215. simulated rainfall of varying intensity. For forest health specialists and forestland Advances in Water Resources 29: 974–986. managers. A total of 284 ponderosa pines For hydrologists, ecologists, and others interested growing near the southern edge of the Blue in water storage in forests. Precipitation falling on Mountains in eastern Oregon were divided canopy surfaces is often stored there temporarily. into three crown classes based on the “tufted” Such stored water evaporates readily, and thus is or “lion’s tail” appearance of the branches, a often an important component of the hydrological potential symptom of black-stain root disease. cycle. Nevertheless, little is known about how Their root systems then were examined visually water storage on forest canopies varies during for disease symptoms. Only 23 (8.1%) showed rainfall. Because measuring canopy water storage more than a trace level of black-stain, annosum in the field is expensive and often impractical, root disease, or both. Crown growth parameters it is usually estimated indirectly. This study first differed among the three classes but were not described the storage responses of branches reliable predictors of disease presence or severity. from five broad-leaved and three needle- Differences in crown morphology among classes leaved species of trees and shrubs of different probably resulted from the combined effects of morphologies to varying rainfall intensities in the tree size, available resources, and stresses that 50 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

enhanced water deficits. Sapwood water content yellow-cedar (stored air-dry for approximately of diseased trees was 80% of that in healthy trees. 10 years), and four compounds found in yellow- Acetaldehyde, acetone, methanol, and ethanol cedar heartwood (nootkatin, carvacrol, nootkatone concentrations were all higher in diseased than and valencene) for their ability to inhibit zoospore in healthy trees. The best model for predicting germination and hyphal growth of P. ramorum trees with root disease had only acetone fresh- in culture. The essential oils of all four species weight concentrations as an explanatory variable strongly inhibited germination and growth. and would facilitate increased rates of sapwood Nootnakin was the most active compound and analysis in the laboratory. Acetone concentrations nootkatone, the least active. Hyphal growth was may be useful to identify the most severely 99.9% inhibited by 50 mg/kg of nootkatin or 500 diseased trees or to estimate the level of root mg/kg of carvacrol, but resumed when the inhibitors disease in general stand surveys when symptoms were removed. The zoosporicidal activity of the in the crown are lacking or confounded by other yellow-cedar heartwood shavings was consistent stresses. with the quantity of extractable compounds they contained. Spreading fresh shavings or chips of Lysak, T, DW Ross, DA Maguire, and DL yellow-cedar heartwood where spores might be Overhulser. 2006. Predicting spruce weevil hard to control (e.g., trails and parking lots) might damage in Sitka spruce in the Northern help to minimize spore distribution. Oregon Coast Range. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 21: 159–164. McGuire, KJ, and JJ McDonnell. 2006. A For entomologists and natural resource managers. review and evaluation of catchment transit Sitka spruce stands 16−25 years old were sampled time modeling. Journal of Hydrology 330: for spruce weevil (Pissodes strobi) damage in the 543–563. northern Oregon Coast Range. At least 58% of the For hydrologists. The subsurface transit time of trees in all stands were damaged. Distance from water is a fundamental catchment descriptor. the ocean, elevation, latitude, and spruce growth It reveals information about the storage, flow rate and density together accounted for 61% of pathways, and source of water, which control variation in the amount of damage. geochemical and biogeochemical cycling and contamination persistence. Because determining Manter, DK, JJ Karchesy, and RG Kelsey. transit time distribution experimentally is usually 2006. The sporicidal activity of yellow- impractical, transit time distributions are often cedar heartwood, essential oil and wood inferred from lumped parameter models that constituents towards Phytophthora describe integrated transport of tracer through a ramorum in culture. Forest Pathology 36: catchment. These models are particularly useful 297–308. for characterizing catchments where data are For forest pathologists. The fungus Phytophthora limited. The authors evaluate and review the ramorum, which causes sudden oak death, has 36 transit time literature in the context of estimation known host species, plus all hybrids and cultivars of catchment water transit time, formally clarifying of Camellia and Rhododendron, and 46 associated the assumptions, limitations, and methodologies or potential host species. The pathogen causes in applying transit time models to catchments, extensive mortality of tanoak and oak species in while highlighting new developments in research. central and northern California and also causes They also provide a critical analysis of unresolved nonlethal infections. The authors tested the ability issues that should be evaluated in future research, of essential oil from the wood of four species including (1) input characterization, (2) the (yellow-cedar, incense cedar, Port-Orford-cedar, recharge assumption, (3) data record length, and western juniper), heartwood shavings of 51 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

(4) stream sampling, (5) transit time distribution For fire ecologists, forestland managers, selection, and (6) model evaluation. They conclude silviculturists, and policymakers. This technical that transit time modeling will significantly advance comment critiques an earlier paper by Donato et al. catchment hydrology and improve understanding (Science 311: 352) that concluded that post-wildfire of physical runoff generation and solute transport logging is detrimental to natural regeneration and through catchments. increases risk of another fire. The authors argue that the earlier paper did not present enough McIver, JD, and R McNeil. 2006. Soil context and supporting information to allow clear disturbance and hill-slope sediment interpretation of the results. transport after logging of a severely burned site in northeastern Oregon. Western Additional Program Areas: Forest Regeneration; Journal of Applied Forestry 21: 123–133. Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity; For post-fire harvest planners and forestland Evaluation of Forest Uses and Practices managers. Much controversy surrounds postfire logging, but little scientific information on its Oh, E, EM Hansen, and RA Sniezko. 2006. ecological effects is available. In this study, soil Port-Orford-cedar resistant to Phytophthora disturbance and hillslope sediment transport were lateralis. Forest Pathology 36: 385–394. measured after logging 2 years after a severe For plant pathologists, silviculturists, and forestland wildfire in northeastern Oregon. Within each of the managers. Phytophthora lateralis, an aggressive four replicate blocks, three treatments (unlogged root pathogen, primarily affects Port-Orford-cedar control, commercial, and fuel reduction) were (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), an economically assigned randomly to units. Soil disturbance was and ecologically important tree. The pathogen measured before and after harvest. On average, is usually lethal, but some trees are genetically 19.4% of soil area was mechanically disturbed resistant. Resistance has been studied intensively in fuel reduction units and 15.2% in commercial for some 20 years with the goal of providing units. Mechanical soil disturbance was correlated resistant seedlings for regeneration. Seedlings with number of stems removed. Logging activity and clonal rooted cuttings from resistant and explained more variation in soil disturbance than susceptible parents were exposed to the pathogen did relative fire severity. Fire severity was related by three artificial inoculation techniques and two to soil disturbance, however; units with more natural infections. Treated seedlings were planted displacement and compaction also tended to outdoors or grown in a greenhouse. Survival in have more soil exposure due to fire. Disturbance susceptible families was only 0−10%. Mortality within units showed no correspondence with was rare in rooted cuttings of resistant parents; hillslope sediment collected in silt fences below mortality of seedling families of resistant families units. Hillslope sediment transport was relatively was 25−100%. In infected trees from resistant low and attributed primarily to the existing road families, tissues collapsed, leaving sunken system. These levels likely lie in the low end of lesions, sometimes marked by resin exudation. the range that would be expected in a postfire In susceptible families, infection progressed more tractor logging operation on similar soils and rapidly and grew up the stem until the foliage began under similar burn severity. to dry. Their symptoms, together with reduced Newton, M, S Fitzgerald, RR Rose, PW Adams, colonization and reisolation success, suggest a SD Tesch, J Sessions, T Atzet, RF Powers, hypersensitive reaction to the pathogen in some and C Skinner. 2006. Comment on “Post- resistant trees. After 16 years, survival was 20−80% Wildfire Logging Hinders Regeneration and in five resistant families, compared with −0 8% in Increases Fire Risk”. Science 313: 615. three susceptible families. 52 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Perkins, DL, CG Parks, KA Dwire, BA Endress, the CTSI assessed stability of tribal lands, using and KL Johnson. 2006. Age structure and SHALSTAB, a digital elevation model (DEM)- age-related performance of sulfur cinquefoil based computer model of shallow landsliding (Potentilla recta). Weed Science 54: 87–93. slope stability. SHALSTAB identifies areas of For those interested in invasive plant species and the landscape that fit landslide susceptibility their control. Age distributions of sulfur cinquefoil classes based on the combined groundwater/ populations were determined on sites that were stability model used. The authors compared historically grazed, cultivated, and mechanically model predictions of landslide sites to actual disturbed. A total of 279 reproductively active plants landslide occurrence during and before a landslide- from 12 sites were collected and aged by using producing storm in 1996. Predictions from the herbchronology (counting rings in the secondary model did not correspond well to slide occurrence root xylem of the root crown) to (1) estimate the documented by landscape survey, although they age structure of the populations, (2) relate plant did allow differentiation of more stable lands size and flower production to plant age, and (3) from less stable lands. Overall, usefulness of examine the relation of population age structure to SHASLSTAB on the CSTI lands seems minimal. environmental variables and disturbance history. Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest The mean age for all sampled plants was 3.5 Uses, Practices, and Policies (± 1.74 SD) yr and ranged from 1 to 10 yr. Age was not related to number of flowers, plant size Pypker, TG, MH Unsworth, and BJ Bond. (number of stems per plant or plant height), or site 2006. The role of epiphytes in rainfall disturbance type but was positively correlated with interception by forests in the Pacific site elevation. The pooled age distribution from Northwest. I. Laboratory measurements of all 12 sites showed fewer old plants than young. water storage. Canadian Journal of Forest The authors conclude that sulfur cinquefoil plants Research 36: 809–818. sampled in northeast Oregon are able to colonize, For ecologists and hydrologists. The canopy establish, and reproduce rapidly at disturbed sites. water storage capacity of old-growth Douglas- They suggest that herbchronology may be a useful fir/western hemlock forests in the Pacific technique to improve understanding of invasion Northwest is greater than that of younger biology and ecology for invasive plant species that Douglas-fir forests. It has been proposed that form annual rings. the large populations of epiphytic lichens and Pyles, MR, and M Kramer. 2006. A case study of bryophytes, which can store large quantities of digital elevation model-based slope stability water, contribute to the increased water storage assessment on managed forestland in the capacity of the old-growth forests. To determine Oregon Coast Range. Western Journal of the effect of epiphytes on canopy hydrology, the Applied Forestry 21: 195–202. authors measured the maximum water fraction For forestland and harvest managers and others (maximum mass of internal and external water interested in slope stability. Field assessment of stored by an epiphyte divided by its tissue dry landslide risk is necessary to the development of mass) of common lichens, bryophytes, and dead appropriate best management practices for a site. branches in the laboratory and the water storage The Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians (CTSI) and interception efficiency (the rainfall stored on manage approximately 3,800 acres of highly a branch divided by the rainfall intercepted by productive commercial forestland with the goal of the branch) of whole epiphyte-laden branches harvesting so as to allow continuous production under a rainfall simulator at three intensities. and a perpetual business for the tribe. In 2000, The epiphytic bryophytes stored 3x more water 53 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

per unit dry mass than the lichens. Because intensity; the lichen and bryophyte mats limited of their high maximum water fractions, lichens water loss from raindrop splash and impeded and bryophytes can increase the canopy water drainage. The observed effects will likely reduce storage capacity in old-growth Douglas-fir the precision of standard regression-based models forests by about 1.3 mm. Water storage was for predicting rainfall variables. not associated with rainfall intensity. The low interception efficiency of the epiphytes may Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, delay saturation of the canopy, alter rainfall Culture, and Productivity intensity at the forest floor, and thereby influence Roberts, SD, AL Friend, SH Schoenholtz, slope stability. and T Memphis, 2006. Growth of Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, precommercially thinned loblolly pine Culture, and Productivity four years following application of poultry litter, pp. 139–142 in Thirteenth Biennial Pypker, TG, MH Unsworth, and BJ Bond. Southern Silvicultural Conference, 2006. The role of epiphytes in rainfall February 28–March 4, 2005 Memphis, TN interception by forests in the Pacific and KF Connor, eds. General Technical Northwest. II. Field measurements at Report SRS-92, USDA Forest Service, the branch and canopy scale. Canadian Southern Research Station, Asheville NC. Journal of Forest Research 36: 819–832. For forestland managers. Application of poultry For ecologists and hydrologists. The canopy water litter to southern pine stands represents a storage capacity (S) of an old-growth Douglas- potentially attractive litter disposal option. fir forest, usually having many epiphytes, is at Many pine stands are nutrient-limited and least twice that of a young Douglas-fir canopy of might respond positively to the added nutrients. similar leaf area index but with few epiphytes. The However, the ability of pine stands to respond authors measured rainfall interception in an old- to nutrients contained in the litter, as well as growth Douglas-fir forest to determine (1) whether contain the nutrients on site, has not been potential water storage capacity of an epiphyte- thoroughly investigated. We applied poultry laden branch estimated in the laboratory is useful litter to a recently thinned 8-year-old loblolly for predicting water storage by similar branches in pine stand at 0, 5.6, and 23 Mg ha-1 (dry-weight the field; (2) the effect of epiphyte distribution on basis), supplying 0, 200, and 800 kg N ha-1. canopy wetness after storms; (3) whether water Growth was tracked for four growing seasons storage and routing through epiphytes influence following application. Average height growth estimates of S; and (4) the relationship between was generally unaffected by treatments over the rainfall intensity and epiphyte-laden branch water 4-year period. Diameter, basal area, and total storage. Canopy water storage capacity averaged cubic volume increments were all elevated by 3.1−5.0 mm; these were probably underestimates the litter application over the first three growing of maximum S, because the canopy was partially seasons, but annual increments in all treatments saturated before most storms and saturation was dropped substantially in year 4. Total basal delayed by preferential flow through the epiphyte- area and standing volume at end of year 4 laden branches. In contrast to laboratory findings, were significantly greater in the N200 and N800 water storage by epiphyte-laden branches during treatments. a single storm did not meet potential capacity. The water stored on epiphyte-laden branches after Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, exposure to natural rainfall increased with rainfall Culture, and Productivity 54 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Ross, DW, BB Hostetler, and J Johansen. Smiley Jr, PC, ED Dibble, and SH 2006. Douglas-fir beetle response to Schoenholtz. 2006. Spatial and temporal artificial creation of down wood in the variation of goldstripe darter abundance Oregon Coast Range. Western Journal of in first-order streams in north-central Applied Forestry 21: 117–122. Mississippi. American Midland Naturalist For entomologists and natural resource managers. 156: 23–36. Populations of Douglas-fir beetle increased For fish biologists and conservationists. following thinning to create down wood for The goldstripe darter is considered rare or ecological values in the Oregon Coast Range. endangered in parts of its range. Information Tree mortality caused by Douglas-fir beetle was about its abundance, ecology, and habitat use, significantly higher on the thinned plots with required for development of recovery plans, is residual felled trees than on unthinned plots, but lacking. This study addressed four questions: the difference was not large and probably would (1) does goldstripe darter abundance differ not interfere with resource management objectives. among streams? (2) does abundance differ among sampling periods? (3) what fish species Sessions, J, K Boston, R Thoreson, and K frequently co-occur with goldstripe darters?, Mills. 2006. Optimal policies for managing and (4) how are goldstripe darter abundance aggregate resources on temporary forest and physical habitat characteristics related? roads. Western Journal of Applied Forestry Sampling was carried out over 2 years in 13 21: 207–216. first-order streams in pine plantations. Mean For forest engineers and forestland managers. abundance differed among streams; one stream Rock aggregate suitable for surfacing low- had significantly greater abundance than the volume roads is scarce and relatively expensive other 12. The three streams with the most to obtain and transport in many forested areas. darters differed in abundance among sampling In some cases, such as the Coast Ranges of periods. Thirty-one other fish species were western Oregon and Washington, the cost of identified in the samples. Goldstripe darters such aggregate can be 60% or more of the were most strongly associated with creek total cost of road construction. Because of the chub, brown madtom, and least brook lamprey. scarcity and expense, some agencies have Darter abundance increased with increasing been recycling aggregate surfacing. The authors canopy cover, water temperature, and sand and discuss the process of recycling road aggregate decreasing dissolved oxygen and clay substrate. and propose a mathematical formulation The results suggest that forested riparian zones to determine optimal policies for managing adjacent to first-order streams would help aggregate resources on temporary forest roads, conserve goldstripe darters. including possible effects of such recycling on the timber harvesting schedule. They develop Thies, WG, RG Kelsey, DJ Westlind, and J four scenarios to demonstrate potential cost Madsen. 2006. Potassium fertilizer applied savings from recycling aggregate. Their immediately after planting had no impact analysis suggests that aggregate recycling can on Douglas-fir seedling mortality caused contribute to the efficiency of forest operations in by laminated root rot on a forested site certain situations, especially when the recycled in Washington State. Forest Ecology and aggregate is strong and the distance to a quarry Management 229: 195–201. is relatively long. Limitations and assumptions For forest pathologists and woodland managers. of the formulations and directions for future Phellinus weirii causes laminated root rot (LRR), research are also discussed. a major disease affecting growth and survival 55 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

of Douglas-fir and other commercial conifer four plots in each of eight replicate blocks: 100% species in the Pacific Northwest. Application labeled dosage (3.3 ml chloropicrin/kg estimated of potassium (K) to increase tree vigor and stump and root biomass) to all stumps, 20% labeled pathogen resistance was tested. Plots were dosage to all stumps, 100% labeled dosage to established with Douglas-fir seedlings planted only visibly infected (stump-top stain or advanced densely (12,000 seedlings/ha) around stumps of decay) stumps, and control (no stump treatments). LRR-killed trees on a harvested site west of the Douglas-fir seedlings were planted in the winter Cascade Range crest near Morton, Washington. after treatment application. When the stand was Treatments, randomly assigned to plots, were established, each plot was thinned to an intertree 224 kg K/ha, 448 kg K/ha, 224 kg K + 224 kg N/ spacing of 2.4 m and the trees were tagged. ha, and a no-fertilizer control, with 11 replicates. Diameter at breast height, total height, and tree Roots of seedlings receiving the K + N treatment mortality were recorded every 2−5 years. Applying showed the only increase in phenol/sugar (PIS) chloropicrin to stumps in the harvested stand did not ratios after one growing season. Although influence the rate of LRR-caused mortality or growth increases in PIS ratios are negatively correlated of Douglas-fir seedlings in the replacement stand. with fungal infection rates, the LRR mortality Tromp van Meerveld, HJ, and JJ McDonnell. for all fertilizer treatments was similar to the 2006. On the interactions between the mortality on the no-fertilizer plots 7 years post- spatial patterns of topography, soil treatment. The authors concluded that the single moisture, transpiration and species application of K or K + N to Douglas-fir at the distribution at the hillslope scale. rates tested was not an effective strategy against Advances in Water Resources 29: 293–310. LRR at this study site. For hydrologists. Even though the interactions Thies, WG, and DJ Westlind. 2006. between soil moisture and plants are basic to Application of chloropicrin to Douglas- ecohydrology and soil water balance, there have fir stumps to control laminated root been few studies of such interactions, particulary rot does not affect infection or growth those among physical, topgraphic and ecological of regeneration 16 growing seasons form. This study examined the interrelations among after treatment. Forest Ecology and topography, soil depth, soil moisture, transpiration Management 235: 212–218. rates, and species distribution on a hillslope scale For forest pathologists and forestland managers. for nine months in the Panola Mountain Research Phellinus weirii (Murr.) Gilb. causes laminated Watershed, Georgia, USA. The results showed root rot (LRR), a major disease affecting growth that small variations in soil depth, which are often and survival of Douglas-fir and other commercial ignored, can affect transpiration rates across conifers in the Pacific Northwest. One strategy to a hillslope. Basal area and species distribution manage LRR is to reduce the residual inoculum on differed between the upslope and midslope section a site by applying a fungicide to infested stumps. of the hillslope; these differences appear to arise Two previous studies established that chloropicrin from spatial differences in soil depth, total water (trichloronitromethane) applied to infested available at the end of the wet season and soil stumps largely eliminates P. weirii from most of moisture content during the summer. the belowground biomass and determined the Tromp van Meerveld, HJ, and JJ McDonnell. effective dosage to apply. This study approximated 2006. Threshold relations in subsurface an operational application and based treatment stormflow: 1. A 147-storm analysis of success on reduction of LRR in the replacement the Panola hillslope. Water Resources stand. Four treatments were assigned randomly to Research 42: W02410. 56 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

For hydrologists. Trench-based experimental and the subsurface saturated areas to connect to studies have provided much important information the trench. Once connectivity was achieved, the about subsurface stormflow and runoff, but instantaneous subsurface stormflow rate increased development of simple general rules of hillslope more than 5-fold and total subsurface stormflow, behavior has been minimal because of limited more than 75-fold. The authors present a fill-and- data. The authors obtained a data set of spill hypothesis as a process explanation for the subsurface stormflow response to 147 rainstorms threshold behaviour they observed earlier. This in the Panola Mountain Research Watershed in hypothesis has significant implications for modeling Georgia between February 1996 and May 1998. subsurface stormflow behavior and the transport of They examined how often the hillslope delivers nutrients associated with this flux. water, the contribution of pipe flow to total flow, Uchida, T, JJ McDonnell, and Y Asano. 2006. and the persistence of spatial patterns of flow at Functional intercomparison of hillslopes the trench face. A clear threshold response to and small catchments by examining water storm total precipitation occurred at 55 mm total source, flowpath and mean residence time. precipitation. Little subsurface stormflow was Journal of Hydrology 327: 627–642. observed below 55 mm, whereas increase in subsurface flow for events exceeding the threshold For hydrologists. The authors developed a was almost 2 orders of magnitude greater than functional comparison of two well-studied subsurface flow from storms smaller than the hillslopes, one in New Zealand and one in threshold. Pipe flow was an important component Japan, with similar slope angle and length, soil of total subsurface flow and showed a similar depth, climate, and vegetation. The questions threshold. Total pipe flow and total subsurface explored included the following: How are the stormflow were linearly related. Contributions hillslopes similar or different, as expressed of different trench segments to total trench flow through throughflow rate, tensiometric response, changed with season, precipitation, and prior event/pre-event water partitioning, quickflow conditions. The threshold relation at the hillslope rates, and mean residence time? How does the scale may be an emergent behavior of combined apparent difference in soil drainable porosity processes internal to the hillslope and perhaps affect hillslope response to storm rainfall? How indicate how to characterize hillslope processes. do apparent differences in bedrock permeability affect residence time of water at the slope base Tromp van Meerveld, HJ, and JJ McDonnell. and catchment outlet? Their results suggest 2006. Threshold relations in subsurface that bedrock permeability and water retention stormflow: 2. The fill and spill hypothesis. characteristics combine to form a first-order (main Water Resources Research 42: W02411. or dominant) control on the baseflow hydrograph For hydrologists. Earlier work by these authors and its mean residence time in steep, wet, and demonstrated a distinct 55-mm precipitation thin-soil hillslopes. At storm rainfall totals >~50 threshold for production of significant subsurface mm, soil drainable porosity appears to be a stormflow. In this paper, they investigate the first-order control on the extension of upslope processes responsible for this threshold response, subsurface saturated area and the event water focusing on the spatial patterns associated with ratio of hillslope discharge. This functional both the temporal subsurface stormflow response intercomparison yielded information not obtainable and the threshold response. They found that from the individual studies on which it is based. 55 mm of rainfall was necessary for bedrock Intercomparison of similar hillslopes and small depressions on the hillslope to fill, water to spill catchments may be useful for defining first-order over microtopographic relief in the bedrock surface, controls of complex hillslope hydrologic dynamics. 57 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

Vache, KB, and JJ McDonnell. 2006. A process- species. This study examined invasion over based rejectionist framework for evaluating several decades by a shrub, scotch broom (Cytisus catchment runoff model structure. Water scoparius), and an herb, foxglove (Digitalis Resources Research 42: W02409. purpurea), along road and stream networks in For hydrologists, especially modelers. Increasingly, the HJ Andrews Experimental Forest in western runoff models form the basis of simulations Oregon. Distributions of the two species were that address complex environmental problems, mapped along hillslopes and streams in 1993, requiring the development of realistic simulations of 2002, and 2003 and related to debris flow internal catchment processes. Nevertheless, lack pathways and changes in stream morphology. of communication between experimentalists and The response of seed germination to scarification, modelers means that there is no clear process to soaking, and substrate texture was tested in the incorporate experimental observations of dominant laboratory. Although both species appeared along internal processes into runoff model structure. The roads and in clearcuts from the 1970s to 2003 and objectives of this study were to develop and apply a number of potential seed sources existed, they a set of model structures reflecting the most basic invaded the stream only after debris flows and controls on water flux and transport at Maimai floods in 1996. The flood generated debris slides watershed (New Zealand), to evaluate measures and road-related erosion, dispersed seeds, and of residence time that might allow a balance created conditions favorable to germination and between model simplicity and incorporation of growth of the exotic species. Seeds germinated on observed process heterogeneity, and to establish a variety of substrates after scarification and flood the usefulness of tracer simulation in identifying transport, with some difference between species in residence time distribution of catchment models response to experimental treatments. and constraining acceptable model parameters Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, and structures. Only the most complex of the four Culture, and Productivity models evaluated could reproduce both discharge dynamics and residence. Including residence Weiskittel, AR, DA Maguire, SM Garber, and A in the models reduced a posteriori parameter Kanaskie. 2006. Influence of Swiss needle uncertainty. Incorporation of soft data in model cast on foliage age-class structure and evaluation can bring experimental evidence into vertical foliage distribution in Douglas- model evaluation and selection and provide a fir plantations in north coastal Oregon. mechanism to reconcile hillslope-scale complexity Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36: with catchment-scale simplicity. 1497–1508. Watterson, NA, and JA Jones. 2006. Flood For forest pathologists and silviculturists. This and debris flow interactions with roads study examined the relationship between indices promote the invasion of exotic plants along of Swiss needle cast (SNC) severity and the total steep mountain streams, western Oregon. amount, age-class structure, and vertical distribution Geomorphology 78: 107–123. of foliage across a range of stand densities and For plant ecologists, restorationists, and site qualities in 10- to 60-year-old coast Douglas- conservationists. Exotic invasive plants spread fir plantations with various amounts of western through the landscape along roads and stream hemlock. SNC severity significantly affected networks, by wind and animal dispersal, in water foliage mass by age-class and by relative height and sediment flows, and by various human in the crown, as did other covariates, such as activities. Their success in colonization depends crown size and tree social position. SNC reduced also on the life histories of the exotic and native the amount of foliage in each age-class and 58 Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds Integrated Protection of Forests and Watersheds

increased representation of younger needles. The lineages. The reproductive mode appears to be disease also shifted the mode of relative vertical predominantly selfing. Genotypes of one lineage distribution toward the top of the tree for the three were widespread in both the Pacific Northwest and youngest foliage age-classes, but toward the base abroad. Genotypes of the second lineage were of the crown for 4- and 5-year-old foliage. Crown found only from Oregon’s coastal region; their sparseness was the most effective predictor of total abundance was apparently correlated with disease foliage mass and relative age-class distribution; severity in young plantations. All stands sampled foliage retention was more closely related to the had genotypes from both lineages. This is the first vertical distribution of foliage. Quantification of study to report the role of recombination in the life foliage age-class structure and vertical distribution history of this fungus. across a range of SNC severity has helped to Wondzell, SM. 2006. Effect of morphology and establish diagnostic criteria for assessing changes discharge on hyporheic exchange flows in in crown structure preceding declines in growth and two small streams in the Cascade Mountains vigor. SNC-induced changes in crown structure will of Oregon, USA. Hydrological Processes 20: also help identify the contributions of mechanisms 267–287. that diminish growth in diseased trees. For hydrologists. This study examined the effects Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, of channel and valley-floor morphology and Culture, and Productivity changing stream discharge on hyporheic exchange flows in small mountain streams. This was done Winton, LM, EM Hansen, and JK Stone. 2006. through direct measurements from well networks, Population structure suggests reproductively stream-tracer experiments, and transient storage isolated lineages of Phaeocryptopus modeling. The tracer injection experiments gaeumannii. Mycologia 98: 781–791. indicated that hyporheic exchange is responsible For forest pathologists and microbial geneticists. for most transient storage in headwater mountain Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii is a foliar pathogen streams. Observations from well networks showed that is innocuous in much of its range. In some that subsurface flow tended to parallel the valley regions, however, it causes Swiss needle cast axis. Near steps, there was strong potential for disease, which severely and adversely affects stream water to downwell into the hyporheic zone. Douglas-fir. Its fundamental life history, including its Direct observation showed transient storage to be genetic structure, mating system, and geographic greater, with a longer residence time, in reaches differentiation, is unknown. In this study, single- with a few large steps than in reaches with more, strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) was smaller steps. Residence times were longer in used to screen for DNA sequence variation at five the unconstrained stream. Level of baseflow loci in its genome in order to test whether gene flow discharge did not seem to change location or is unrestricted throughout the entire range of the extent of the hyporheic zone. Results of transient fungus or whether the species is geographically storage modeling disagreed with those from direct differentiated or includes reproductively isolated observations. Fundamental problems confound populations. The SSCP methods accurately comparisons between the transient storage detected single nucleotide and indel polymorphisms. modeling results for tracer injections conducted Multilocus gene genealogies were constructed, under differing flow conditions. Overall, hyporheic and hypotheses of recombination and clonality exchange was little affected by stream discharge were tested. In Oregon, the pathogen showed over the range of baseflow discharges examined, strong multilocus gametic phase disequilibrium and and channel morphology controlled development of was subdivided into two reproductively isolated the hyporheic zone in the stream channels. 59 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Adams, DM, RW Haynes, and AJ Daigneault. For forest economists and forestland managers 2006. Estimated Timber Harvest by U.S. and planners. Costs of private timber Region and Ownership, 1950–2002. General management practices in the United States Technical Report PNW-GTR-659, USDA are identified, and their relationship to timber Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research production in general is highlighted. Costs Station, Portland OR. across timber-producing regions and forest For forest economists and harvest planners. This types are identified by forest type and timber publication provides estimates of total softwood management practices historically applied in and hardwood harvests by region and owner for each region. This includes cost estimates for the United States from 1950 to 2002. These data activities such as forest establishment practices, are generally not available in a consistent fashion such as reforestation and afforestation, on and have to be estimated from state-level data, crop and pastureland. Establishment costs for forest resource inventory statistics, and production reforestation in the southern United States are of forest products. This publication describes the less than in other regions, although regional estimation process and documents the various differences are less evident in hardwood than assumptions. These estimates have been used in softwood stands. Intermediate management for the past three decades in the periodic USDA treatments (precommercial thinning, herbicide, Forest Service timber assessments. and fertilization) cost less in the southern United States than in other regions. Trends in timber Albers, HJ, MJ Goldbach, and DT Kaffine. management costs are described as part of the 2006. Implications of agricultural policy management costs reporting. for species invasion in shifting cultivation systems. Environment & Development Bennett, M, and PW Adams. 2006. Forestry Economics 11: 429–452. Issues and Public Policy: An Action Guide for Woodland Owners. Extension For agricultural and forest economists and Communication 1200, Oregon State ecologists. When invasive species displace University, Corvallis. native species, they can disrupt seemingly stable ecological-economic systems. Such displacement For woodland owners. This publication describes can be increased by policies that influence land how woodland owners can participate in use in agriculture or grazing. This paper develops public policy development. It provides basic a model of shifting cultivation decisions for information about the public policy process and two types of farmers—those who see invasive presents guidelines for constructive personal grasses as a threat and those who do not—and and group involvement. Contact information is uses numerical solutions to examine how various included for public policy organizations, such policies affect farmer welfare and the stability of as the U.S. government, state agencies, and the economic-ecological system. Some policies nongovernmental state, regional, and national undermine the resilience of the system, while groups involved in forestry and natural resource others increase its system ability to withstand public policy. invasion. Boston, K, and P Bettinger. 2006. An economic Bair, LS, and RJ Alig. 2006. Regional Cost and landscape evaluation of the green- Information for Private Timberland up rules for California, Oregon, and Conversion and Management. General Washington (USA). Forest Policy and Technical Report PNW-GTR-684, USDA Economics 8: 251–266. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research For forestland managers, harvest planners, and Station, Portland OR. forest economists. Forest practices green-up 60 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

rules, which are becoming common worldwide, After a structural break in 1995, prices declined. restrict the size of the forest openings and There was evidence of an inverse relationship the time before adjacent harvest units can be between chip price and lumber production. harvested. This paper evaluates both economic Busby, PE, P Adler, TL Warren, and FJ and landscape effect of adjacency and the green- Swanson. 2006. Fates of live trees retained up policies contained in the California, Oregon, in forest cutting units, western Cascade and Washington state forest practices acts. The Range, Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest economic comparison illustrates the relative Research 36: 2550–2560. differences in revenue and harvest volumes for hypothetical mature and managed forests whose For forest land managers. Federal land managers managers aim to maximize revenue during the have increasingly left live trees in cutting units for first 10 years. Forest 1 contained a uniform various management objectives. This study tracks distribution of age classes from 5 to 120 years; the fate of such retained trees in a sample of forest 2 was composed of mature forest primarily cutting units in the Willamette National Forest for older than 75 years. The discounted net revenue up to 18 yrs after cutting. A little more than half the and harvest volume modeled on both forests were retained trees remained standing and alive at the significantly lower under California than under end of the sample period. Oregon or Washington rules. The forests modeled Cao, X, and EN Hansen. 2006. Innovation in under California rules resulted in a slightly more China’s furniture industry. Forest Products mature landscape than under the other rules, yet Journal 56(11/12): 33–42. one with more edge habitat than interior forest For wood scientists and forest industry habitat. Otherwise, application of the green-up managers. The US furniture industry, while much rules from the three states seems to produce few smaller than that of China, is many times more structural differences among the landscapes. productive. Nevertheless, the Chinese furniture Busby, GM. 2006. Export Chip Prices as a industry has been growing rapidly. By 2003, Proxy for Nonsawtimber Prices in the China had become the third largest producer Pacific Northwest. Research Note PNW- and second largest exporter of furniture in the RN-554, USDA Forest Service, Pacific world. The success of the Chinese industry has Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. been attributed to several factors, including low For forestland managers and forest economists. production costs, industry clustering, government Forestland managers use price data and market subsidies, foreign investments, and growing analysis to form expectations and make informed overseas and domestic markets. Its innovation management decisions. Price data are abundant capabilities are less well studied. This study for sawtimber, but limited for nonsawtimber. This combines qualitative and quantitative approaches constrains the ability of forestland managers to to measure its innovativeness. Interviews of form reasonable price expectations for stands managers of 18 Chinese companies known as that contain both sawtimber and nonsawtimber. In innovation leaders were followed by gathering this paper, export chip prices are shown to be a data from 120 respondents at a China-based reasonable proxy for nonsawtimber prices in the trade show. Chinese firms pursuing innovation Pacific Northwest. This conclusion is supported seem to be focusing equally on product, process, by evidence of arbitrage between the chip export and business systems, pursuing innovation market and three domestic markets in the Pacific in increments rather than by radical changes. Northwest. In the chip export market in general, Innovation was positively correlated with chip prices increased from 1968 through 1995. competitiveness and company size, but not with profitability. 61 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Clark, RN, and GH Stankey. 2006. Integrated This study explores the possibilities of the Research in Natural Resources: The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) for filling Key Role of Problem Framing. General this need. AHP is an alternative form of Multi- Technical Report PNW-GTR-678, USDA Criterion Decision Analysis. Its application to Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research road management is novel. AHP traditionally Station, Portland OR. has been used to rank a few alternatives, but For forest scientists, social scientists, and a road investment analysis may involve many, policy makers. Integrated research aims to perhaps thousands of, alternatives. The AHP achieve holistic understanding of complex involves four basic steps: setting up a hierarchy, biophysical and social issues and problems. completing pairwise comparisons of attributes Traditional research, on the other hand, tends to determine user preference, scaling attributes, to fragment complex problems. As a result, a and ranking alternatives. The authors discuss lot is known about the parts (e.g., recreation, each of these steps in detail with respect to fish, and wildlife) but relatively little about their forest road investments. AHP requires the user multiple interrelationships and interactions. to make several decisions in the course of the There seems to be general agreement that analysis, and the paper outlines the theoretical integrated questions must drive the search for background, benefits, and drawbacks of many of integrated understanding, but tradition, inertia, these choices. They conclude that AHP, in itself institutional culture, budgets, training, and lack and combined with other resource allocation of effective leadership foster reductionism (at models, has potential as a planning tool in worst) or minimal degrees of integration (at managing forest road networks. best), rather than any substantial, sustainable Coulter, ED, J Sessions, and MG Wing. 2006. effort toward integrated research. In this paper, a Scheduling forest road maintenance phased approach to framing integrated research using the analytic hierarchy process and questions and addressing the substantial barriers heuristics. Silva Fennica 40: 143–160. that impede integrated efforts is discussed. A For low-volume road transportation planners key conclusion is that any significant progress and forest engineers. Recently, the forest toward comprehensive integrated research will sector in many areas has been moving away require more than rhetoric. Progress must begin from maintenance programs that protect with more effective leadership throughout various capital investments in road infrastructure levels of research organizations. towards programs that also consider potential Coulter, E, J Coakley, and J Sessions. environmental impacts caused by poor road 2006. The analytic hierarchy process: A maintenance. The authors first briefly introduce tutorial for use in prioritizing forest road the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a investments to minimize environmental multicriterion decision analysis technique used to effects. International Journal of Forest determine the potential benefit for completing a Engineering 17(2): 51–70. given road maintenance or upgrade project, and For forest road engineers and harvest planners. apply AHP to the analysis of road maintenance A primary task in managing forest road and upgrade scheduling. They develop two networks is setting investment priorities. In problem formulations and solve each by two spite of its importance, this task is now done heuristics: threshold accepting and simulated ad hoc, with few comprehensive frameworks annealing. Simulated annealing produced available to help managers use multiple criteria superior solutions. They explain how the AHP to set priorities for an entire road system. measure of benefit is combined with the economic 62 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

cost of completing a given project to schedule For water resource managers and policymakers. maintenance and upgrade activities for 225 km Conflicts over fresh water are often thought to be (140 miles) of road in forested road systems more common in areas where water is scarce, within western Oregon. The combination of such as the arid West. Yet increasing populations heuristics, cost-benefit analysis, environmental and growing demand from multiple uses are impacts, and expert judgment produces a road generating conflicts even where water is relatively management schedule that better fits the current abundant. The authors provide an overview of road management paradigm. the biophysical characteristics of two such basins in the southeastern United States. The chapter Crespell, P, C Knowles, and E Hansen. 2006. serves as an introduction to a comprehensive Innovativeness in the North American case study of the “Tri-State Water War” involving softwood sawmilling industry. Forest the ACT and ACF basins. The case study looks at Science 52: 568–578. stakeholders, allocation issues, and negotiations For business managers and planners in the wood in the two basins; presents lessons learned from industry. Innovativeness is an important driver of the history of water law, interstate agreements, firm growth and important for staying competitive and water conflicts elsewhere in the U.S. and in the forest products industry. Softwood sawmills around the world; and examines alternative in the US and Canada were surveyed to assess approaches, new methodologies and models, and the current innovation focus, market orientation assessment tools that may be useful for natural and its impact on innovativeness, and status of resources management. new product development (NPD) and its impact on innovativeness of the industry. The sawmill Duncan, SL, and JR Thompson. 2006. industry, especially mills with a commodity Forest plans and ad hoc scientist groups product strategy, was clearly focused on process in the 1990s: Coping with the Forest innovation over other forms of innovation. Service viability clause. Forest Policy and Respondents generally did not see themselves Economics 9(1): 32–41. as especially innovative in any area, but rated For forestland managers and planners. National themselves more innovative with respect to forests in the United States must develop Forest manufacturing processes than to product and Plans every 15 years in order to comply with business systems. The results suggest that the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) a formalized or structured process of NPD of 1976. Many plans in the Pacific Northwest enhances innovativeness. Innovativeness and have been challenged as not complying with the market orientation were positively correlated. implementation regulations requiring the Forest High- and medium-innovative mills consistently Plans to provide for species viability. The ad hoc differed (e.g., more market-oriented, more science groups appointed to assess the plans structured new product development processes) relative to the viability standard universally agreed from low-innovative mills. with such assessments and recommended major management changes. This study investigated Davis, CM, and JL Jordan. 2006. Waters of the causes of the discrepancies on viability plenty: The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee- standards between the Forest Plans of the mid- Flint and Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa to late-1980s and the proposals put forward by Rivers, pp. 3–19 in Interstate Water the ad hoc science groups, starting in 1990. Four Allocation in Alabama, Florida, and propositions are discussed, with emphasis on the Georgia: New Issues, New Methods, New Northwest Forest Plan and the Interior Columbia Models, JL Jordan and AT Wolf, eds. Basin Ecosystem Management Plan: (1) the University Press of Florida, Gainesville. 63 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

planners and the science groups characterized frequent maintenance, and wood preservatives risk differently; (2) the science groups raised cause environmental concerns. In response the bar relative to what was needed to ensure to those concerns, chromated-copper arsenic protection; (3) the agency was unable to introduce is being phased out as a wood preservative. change into its own organization; (4) changing Recently, wood-plastic composites, which require social values and increased appeals to the court less maintenance, last longer, and contain system forced the agency to change priorities. recycled material, have captured an increasing share of the market. Comparing results of two Epstein, R, A Weintraub, P Sapunar, E Nieto, nearly identical studies, conducted in 2000 JB Sessions, J Sessions, F Bustamante, and 2003, this study highlights how consumer and H Musante. 2006. A combinatorial preferences for residential decking materials heuristic approach for solving real-size changed over that period. In both studies, lifetime machinery location and road design and type of material were the most important problems in forestry planning. Operations attributes, followed by annual maintenance and Research 54: 1017–1027. price. Overall, consumers became much more For forest planners. Forest planners must make negative toward treated wood and positive toward important decisions about location of harvest composites. The authors point out that decking machinery, which determines the volume of timber manufacturers need to understand their target that can be extracted, and about the design market and changes in consumer attitude over and construction of access roads [the machine time. location/road design (MLRD) problem]. These two factors contribute about 55% of total production Fiala, AC, SL Garman, and AN Gray. 2006. costs. Even as planners try to minimize costs, Comparison of five canopy cover they must comply with the applicable technical estimation techniques in the western restrictions. The authors used mixed-integer linear Oregon Cascades. Forest Ecology and programming to model the MLRD problem and Management 232: 188–197. applied a heuristic approach especially designed For forest managers and planners. Estimates for the model. The model is based on information of forest canopy cover are widely used in forest provided by a geographic information system research and management, yet methods used (GIS) and technical and economic parameters to quantify canopy cover and the estimates determined by the planner. The methodology was they provide vary greatly. Four commonly used programmed into a computer system, PLANEX, ground-based techniques for estimating overstory and is being used by nine forestry companies. cover—line-intercept, spherical densiometer, The approximate solutions of the model allow moosehorn, and hemispherical photography—and for economically profitable volumes. The forestry cover estimates generated from crown radii companies using it report savings of ~15−20% of parameters of the western Cascades variant operating costs. of the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) were compared in five Douglas-fir/western hemlock Fell, DR, J Thomas, and E Hansen. 2006. structure types in western Oregon. Differences Evolving consumer preferences for in cover estimates among the ground-based residential decking materials. Forestry methods were not related to stand structure. Chronicle 82: 253–258. Estimates of cover increased and stand-level For forest products marketers and producers. variability decreased with increasing angle of Decks, outdoor walkways, and similar surfaces view among techniques. The moosehorn provided traditionally have been constructed from treated the most conservative estimates of vertical- or naturally durable wood. Such structures require 64 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

projection overstory cover. Regression equations surveys to policy propositions and propose ways provided in the paper permit conversion among for policy to address limitations and build on canopy cover estimates made with the four owners’ motivations. ground-based techniques. These equations also provide a means for integrating cover data from Additional Program Areas: Forest Ecology, studies that use different techniques, facilitating Culture, and Productivity synthetic research. Ground-based measures are Fredericks, B, and MG Wing. 2006. Traverse recommended for specific objectives. Because XL: An EXCEL-based program for the FVS-estimated cover levels were consistently entering, displaying, and analyzing spatial lower and more variable than most of the ground- measurement data. Surveying and Land based estimates, ground-based measures of Information Science 66(1): 65–72. canopy cover may be preferable when accuracy is important. For students and professionals involved in geomatics. Spatial measurements and their Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, analysis are important in many areas of survey Culture, and Productivity engineering and earth science. Many software products that are available for entering, Fischer, P, and JC Bliss. 2006. Mental and displaying, and analyzing spatial measurement biophysical terrains of biodiversity: data are expensive, difficult to learn, or both. The Conserving oak on family forests. Society & authors developed a software program, Traverse Natural Resources 19: 625–643. XL, that is based on EXCEL and can be used in For family and nonindustrial private forest many situations involving spatial measurement owners, conservationists and restorationists, data. The program includes many useful features, social scientists, and policymakers. The authors including easy data entry and editing; a traverse used a combination of qualitative research map display that allows viewing of traverse methods to examine the relationships of geometry as data are entered; a coordinate family forest owners to their holdings and their adjustment routine for polygon traverses; and a knowledge of, beliefs about, and management data conversion utility. This paper describes use approaches to biodiversity. Their emphasis is of the software, including data entry, compass rule on the Oregon white oak ecotype, a biologically adjustment, linear traverse, conversion tools, and diverse ecotype that is considered to be in working examples of closed and linear traverses. decline because of alteration of the historic The program can easily be customized for specific fire regime and conversion to nonforest uses. needs, and the authors invite sharing of such Family forest owners hold up to 98% of the efforts in order to expand Traverse XL. land in this ecotype in western Oregon, so their Ganio, LM. 2006. Challenges in statistical participation is essential to its conservation. inference for large operational experiments. The owners surveyed were familiar with the Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung concept of biodiversity and believed they should 177(6/7): 131–136. use management to guide the biodiversity characteristics of their forests. Their notion of For silviculturists and statisticians. The priorities biodiversity was rather generic, however, and for outcomes of operationally scaled silviculture not specific for the oak ecotype. Although they experiments usually differ among disciplines, yet appreciated the ecotype, economic and social such experiments are usually multidisciplinary. forces encourage them to manage for Douglas- When studies are designed, the objectives can fir. The authors link the key findings from their be divided into primary and secondary statistical objectives. The primary objectives drive and 65 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

impose structure on the design; the secondary a comparison. This results in the grouping of objectives are those that can be met within that available field information into broad categories structure. During the design phase, effects of representing different radiative transfer regimes. choices related to replication, randomization This strategy recognizes the various levels of and sampling on precision, bias, and statistical difficulty and sources of uncertainty associated inference can be assessed. This practice permits with radiative sampling of different types of precise, unbiased estimates of effects and an vegetation canopies. ability to infer results to similar units. Coordination Haig, SM, EA Beever, SM Chambers, HM and communication among disciplines are Draheim, BD Dugger, S Dunham, E Elliott- important in both design and implementation. The Smith, JB Fontaine, DC Kesler, BJ Knaus, author provides examples illustrating her points. IF Lopes, P Loschl, TD Mullins, and LM Gobron, N, B Pinty, O Aussedat, JM Chen, Sheffield. 2006. Taxonomic considerations WB Cohen, R Fensholt, V Gond, KF in listing subspecies under the U.S. Huemmrich, T Lavergne, F Méline, JL Endangered Species Act. Conservation Privette, I Sandholt, M Taberner, DP Biology 20: 1584–1594. Turner, MM Verstraete, and J-L Widlowski. For conservation biologists, fish biologists, and 2006. Evaluation of fraction of absorbed forest planners. Wildlife management agencies photosynthetically active radiation are responsible for fulfilling the requirements products for different canopy radiation of the US Endangered Species Act (ESA). transfer regimes: methodology and results The ESA allows listing of subspecies, as using Joint Research Center products well as groupings below the rank of species. derived from SeaWiFS against ground- Unfortunately, taxonomists disagree on definitions based estimations. Journal of Geophysical of subspecies, which complicates the tasks of Research 111: 1–15. the agencies in targeting the most critical units For those interested in remote sensing of canopy for conservation. The critical need to resolve radiation. This paper discusses the quality and this debate for ESA listings led the authors to the accuracy of the Joint Research Center propose that minimal biological criteria to define (JRC) fraction of absorbed photosynthetically subspecies (legally or taxonomically) should active radiation (FAPAR) products generated include the discreteness and significance criteria from analysis of Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view of distinct population segments as defined Sensor (SeaWiFS) data. The FAPAR value acts under the ESA. Their criteria distinguish clearly as an indicator of the presence and state of the between species and subspecies. Eliminating or vegetation; it can be estimated from remote reducing ambiguity associated with subspecies- sensing measurements by a physically based level classifications will assist with ESA listing approach. The quality of the SeaWiFS FAPAR decisions. The authors urge professional products assessed in this paper capitalizes on taxonomic societies to publish and update peer- the availability of a 6-year FAPAR time series reviewed species and subspecies lists. over the full globe. This evaluation is performed in Hansen, E. 2006. The state of innovation and two phases: first, analysis of the verisimilitude of new product development in the North the FAPAR products under known environmental American lumber and panel industry. Wood conditions and, second, direct comparison of and Fiber Science 38: 325–333. the FAPAR values with available ground-based estimations. The second phase is conducted For wood products manufacturers. North after careful analysis of problems arising in such America has long dominated the global forest sector, but other regions recently have become 66 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

considerably more competitive. Innovation is threat from OSB. Contrary to the theory, oriented seen as key to maintaining competiveness in the strandboard mills were more product-innovative global market, but there has been little research and used a more structured NPD process than on innovation and new product development plywood mills. On the other hand, consistent with in the forest industry. The main object of this theory, plywood mills had a more specialized study was to describe current innovation and product line. Implications for industry are new product development (NPD) practices in discussed and suggestions for future research are the forest products sector of North America. provided. Softwood lumber and panel manufacturers (160 Hansen, E, C Dibrell, and J Down. 2006. Market respondents) were surveyed to determine the orientation, strategy, and performance in current importance of innovation and NPD in the primary forest industry. Forest Science these sectors. The mills were heavily oriented 52: 209–220. towards process, rather than product or business systems, innovation. Customers were For forest products marketers. The marketing significant sources and drivers of innovation, concept suggests that meeting customer needs but respondents rarely used a structured NPD while making a profit should be an overriding process incorporating important market-focused priority for the entire organization, not just the steps. Sectors of the industry differed in very few marketing department. Market orientation focuses respects. The author concludes that investment on both customers and competitors and integrates in research and NPD may pay off well. Valid and information about both into the operations of reliable measurements of innovativeness are the organization. The authors investigated needed for in-depth exploration of the relationship relationships among market orientation, firm between innovation and firm performance. strategy, and firm performance in the primary forest products industry in the United States. They Hansen, E. 2006. Structural panel industry found that market orientation positively impacted evolution: Implications for innovation and all forms of firm strategy (customer, product, new product development. Forest Policy and channel differentiation and overall low cost). and Economics 8: 774–783. Only a channel differentiation strategy combined For wood products manufacturers and with a market orientation positively impacted marketers. Although innovation appears critical firm performance. A low-cost strategy, however, to maintaining competitiveness, little is known positively impacted firm performance in the about the dynamics of innovation over the life absence of a market orientation. cycle of an industry. This study examined whether Hansen, E, S Korhonen, E Rametsteiner, and the level of innovation differs between a growing S Shook. 2006. Current state-of-knowledge: industry and a declining one, using the North Innovation research in the global forest American structural panel industry as a case sector. Journal of Forest Products example. Two industry sectors—plywood, a Business Research 3(4): 27. product in the declining stage of the product life cycle, and oriented strandboard (OSB), a product For forestry academics and forest industry in the growth stage—are compared based on managers. Global competitiveness has their product innovativeness, structure of new become key to the success of manufacturing product development (NPD) processes, and industries, including those in the forest sector. product specialization. According to theory in the Innovation is seen by many as a component literature, plywood mills should be stronger in of maintaining such competiveness. Many each of these areas because of the competitive factors may have limited innovation in forest products manufacturing, but researchers are now 67 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

encouraging reexamination of innovation and one of the primary generators of forest competitiveness in the forest sector. Focusing disturbance, can have important ecological, as on the forest products industry, but including well as economic, consequences. This book more general literature, the authors first discuss chapter summarizes forest harvest practices the concept of innovation, including its definition and creates a framework for understanding data and dimensions. They then review theoretical and methodological considerations in terms of approaches to the study of innovation and detecting forest harvests. Silvicultural harvest synthesize the literature pertinent to the areas options, including regeneration harvest, thinning, of organizational innovativeness, new product and salvage, are first reviewed. The authors development process, and innovation systems. then discuss data considerations for harvest Finally, they present areas for future research and detection, including spatial, temporal, and spectral advocate for improvements in methodology. properties, and harvest metrics. As a case study, they use stand-replacing harvests in the Pacific Haynes, R, D Adams, P Ince, J Mills, and Northwest, carried out in support of the Northwest R Alig. 2006. Bioeconomic and market Forest Plan. The chapter includes an extensive models, pp. 171–197 in Computer review of the pertinent literature. Applications in Sustainable Forest Management: Including Perspectives on Healey, SP, Z Yang, WB Cohen, and JD Pierce. Collaboration and Integration, G Shao and 2006. Application of two regression-based KM Reynolds, eds. Springer, Dordrecht. methods to estimate the effects of partial For forest economists. This chapter describes harvest on forest structure using Landsat the development of market and bioeconomic data. Remote Sensing of Environment 101: models pertinent to forest products and resource 115–126. conditions and their use in policy analysis. Such For ecologists, modelers, and those interested models have become larger and more complex in remote sensing. Partial forest harvests are as computer capabilities have escalated over increasingly common in the Pacific Northwest, the past several decades. Topics covered are as they are in much of the world. Landsat the questions leading to model development; the satellite data have been used to map stand- US timber assessment model; and using forest clearing harvests in the region, but not to identify sector models in forecasting, policy analysis, and partial harvests. The authors investigated two scenario planning. The authors conclude that the regression-based approaches to estimating the use of such models has led to unique economic intensity of partial harvests in central Washington insights, facilitated strategic planning, and allowed from 1996 to 2004. They also explored the ability decision makers to explore management options of transformations of Landsat data to predict in the greater detail required by the complex removal of cover and basal area in this region. debates now surrounding forest policies. The spectral bands and associated indices most closely associated with forest removal were the Healey, SP, WB Cohen, RE Kennedy, and shortwave infrared (SWIR) bands and those Z Yang. 2006. Remotely sensed data in strongly influenced by SWIR reflectance. Those the mapping of forest harvest patterns, associated with near-infrared reflectance were pp. 63–84 in Methods and Applications only weakly correlated with degree of forest for Remote Sensing: Concepts and Case removal. Two regression-based methods of Studies, M Wulder and S Franklin, eds. CRC estimating forest loss, “state model differencing” Press, New York. (SMD) and “direct change modeling” (DCM), were For ecologists and those interested in remote tested. The DCM method was more accurate, but sensing and forest mapping. Forest harvests, 68 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

the SMD method has less restrictive requirements an international conference held in Troutdale, for reference data and more specific estimates Oregon, in 2003. In general, the strategies of change and may be more practical for some were consistently and widely used around the mapping projects. world. Typically, from 70 to 95% of the survey respondents indicated they used the strategies Ice, GG, AE Skaugset, and AN Simmons. 2006. often or sometimes. Regional differences Estimating areas and timberland values occurred with only 6 of the 22 strategies identified. of riparian management on forest lands. A good example of a regional difference occurred Journal of the American Water Resources with the following strategy: develop collaborations Association 42(1): 115–124. with associations of learners, such as forest For watershed managers. Riparian management owner associations. This strategy was used zones (RMZs) are areas near rivers, lakes, and often or sometimes by 90% of the respondents other water courses in which various activities are from North America, 83% of the respondents restricted in order to maintain or improve riparian from Europe and Australia, but only 47% of function. Such zones are often managed without respondents from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. regard to economic impact of management practices. This study provides simple tools to Kallioranta, SM, RP Vlosky, and S Leavengood. determine how drainage network densities, 2006. Web-based communities as a tool classifications of stream reaches, and RMZ for extension and outreach. Journal of widths and management restrictions determine Extension 44(2): article 2FEA4. the area and value of timber left in RMZs. The For extension agents and communicators. authors review studies on effectiveness of riparian The Internet can be considered a global virtual management prescriptions and the literature on community encompassing many smaller, interest- history of riparian protection prescriptions without specific communities. The authors, Forest information on costs. They discuss the factors Products extension specialists in Oregon and influencing the amount of land affected by riparian Louisiana, have developed state-level Web- protection measures and how to calculate riparian based communities for the forest sector in areas and costs. Finally, they use the Oak Creek their respective states. They discuss concepts watershed near Corvallis, Oregon, as an example of what a community is or isn’t, with special of a GIS-based approach to estimating the extent attention to seven foundation elements of on-line of alternative RMZ protection schemes and their communities that they found to be fairly common economic consequences. themes in the literature: (1) mission and focus, (2) content, (3) sociability, (4) roles, (5) technology Johnson, JE, JH Creighton, and ER Norland. and usability, (6) trust, and (7) participation 2006. Building a foundation for success motivation. They treat challenges in creating in natural resources extension education: and maintaining on-line communities and how an international perspective. Journal of web-based communities can be used as tools for International Agricultural and Extension outreach and Extension, drawing from their own Education 13(3): 33–46. experiences for examples. For professional extensionists. The Extension Working Party of the International Union of Kellogg, LD, and C Davis. 2006. Tractor Forest Research Organizations, representing 500 Thinning Production and Costs: Experience extensionists from 70 countries, was surveyed. from the Willamette Young Stand Project. The purpose was to determine the degree to Research Contribution 48, Forest Research which these extensionists adopted a set of Laboratory, Oregon State University, successful strategies in extension, compiled from Corvallis. 69 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

For harvest planners and forestland managers. trail impacts: the overall photo evaluation Harvesting productivity rates and costs were method (OPEM), in which respondents rated determined for three silvicultural treatments used the acceptability of bare soil area for each in commercial ground-based thinning of young of a series of photographs, and the specific stands to achieve timber management objectives photo evaluation method (SPEM), in which and enhance wildlife habitat. The treatments were respondents selected the photograph that light thin (115 residual tpa), light thin with 0.5-ac illustrated the largest acceptable proportion of openings (92 residual tpa), and heavy thin (53 bare soil area from a series of 10 photographs. residual tpa). The three study sites were 44- to The study was carried out in Mudeung-Mountain 46-yr-old stands of Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga Provincial Park, Gwang-Ju, Korea. There were menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] located in the Cascade two insite groups: park visitors surveyed at the Mountains of west central Oregon. Detailed time trail point, and departing visitors surveyed at studies were conducted on timber fallers and the exit area. The offsite group was students crawler tractors and used to develop multiple surveyed in a laboratory. Overall, there were no linear regression models to predict delay-free substantial differences in maximum acceptable felling and skidding cycle times for each site. The impacts among the groups between OPEM independent variables common to the regression and SPEM. Both methods had low difficulty models to determine delay-free felling cycle time ratings, and differences in experience at the at all sites were diameter at breast height, number park did not substantially affect differences in of cuts, and number of limbs cut. Only skidding norms. The offsite method appears to be as distance was common to all regression models suitable as onsite methods in this study area. for determining delay-free skidding cycle time. Comparability between onsite and offsite findings Total costs for each treatment were obtained by might be different with more diverse recreation combining felling, skidding, and moving costs for opportunities or in more remote areas. Areas for the entire operation. Felling costs ranged from future research are discussed. $7.20/CCF to $17.73/CCF. Skidding and loading Loomis, JB, and RS Rosenberger. 2006. costs ranged from $15.42/CCF to $38.69/CCF. Reducing barriers in future benefit The cost and productivity results from this study transfers: Needed improvements in primary emphasize the importance for forest managers study design and reporting. Ecological to consider factors such as volume removed and Economics 60: 343–350. skidding distance when prescribing alternative silvicultural treatments for young Douglas-fir For social scientists. Original research offers stands. several social benefits. Often, however, it is carried out for specific purposes, and the positive Kim, S-O, and B Shelby. 2006. Comparing social benefits that more complete dissemination onsite and offsite methods for measuring of results or data might afford are ignored. norms for trail impacts. Environmental Benefits of more complete dissemination may Management 37: 567–578. more than justify any additional costs. Using For forestland and recreation managers. knowledge already derived from research, rather Resource managers are concerned about than original research, to inform decisions is management of trail impact on recreational trails. known as benefit transfer. This paper discusses Norms related to crowding are well studied, three general criteria necessary for valid benefit but few studies of norms for trail impacts are transfers and explains how design and reporting available. The authors compared two methods, of results of original research unnecessarily onsite and offsite, for measuring norms for constrain the potential of benefit transfers. 70 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

The authors derive several protocols covering Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, commodity and market area definition and Culture, and Productivity measurement and welfare measure definition and estimation to help in such improvement. The need Montgomery, CA, and TL Helvoigt. 2006. for consistent and full reporting of project details Changes in attitudes about importance of is emphasized, and the need for incentives is and willingness to pay for salmon recovery pointed out. They also recommend development in Oregon. Journal of Environmental of repositories for original research surveys and Management 78: 330–340. data to ensure long-term availability. For economists, sociologists, and those interested Molina, R, BG Marcot, and R Lesher. 2006. in fisheries restoration. Historically, salmon Protecting rare, old-growth, forest- have profoundly affected the culture, politics, associated species under the Survey and economy of the Pacific Northwest. Salmon and Manage Program guidelines of the runs have been devastated by industrialization Northwest Forest Plan. Conservation and timber harvesting, habitat degradation, Biology 20: 306–318. and dam-building; many runs have become extinct. Recovery costs will be high and will fall For ecologists, forest planners, and primarily on inhabitants of the region. Since conservationists. The Survey and Manage 1996, two questions have been included in the Program of the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) supplementary survey to the biennial Oregon represents an unparalleled attempt to protect Population Survey that ask about the attitudes rare, little-known species associated with late- of Oregonians toward the importance of salmon successional and old-growth forests on federal recovery and their willingness to pay for it. lands. The program’s standards and guidelines Between 1996 and 2002, support for recovery used an adaptive approach, protecting known in principle remained fairly strong but was sites and collecting information to address not reflected in willingness to pay. Between species persistence and to develop management 84 and 92% responded that salmon recovery strategies. Although hundreds of rare species not is ‘somewhat important’ or ‘very important’, considered in most conservation programs were whereas only 25 to 30% selected one of the protected, some of the conservation measures two highest “willingness to pay” categories. conflicted with other objectives of the plan, Attitudes appeared to be related to the economic particularly timber harvest. The program gained conditions and demographics of residents. The important knowledge, reduced uncertainty about variables included in the analysis did not explain a conservation of many species, and developed significant portion of the decline in support. new, useful inventory methods. It was not completed, however, because of changes in Montgomery, CA, GS Latta, and DM Adams. land-management philosophy. Ongoing litigation 2006. The cost of achieving old-growth regarding its termination and potential changes forest structure. Land Economics 82: cast further uncertainty on how the original 240–256. goal of maintaining late-successional and old- For silviculturists, forestland managers, and growth species will be met and measured. The forest economists. Indigenous old-growth forests outcomes, controversies, and management are dwindling globally. Forest reserves, in which frustrations of the program exemplify the natural processes are allowed to proceed, are inherent difficulties in balancing broad, regional often used in attempts to restore prelogging conservation goals with social and economic conditions. Such reserves do not usually include goals of the NWFP. highly productive timberlands, however, and 71 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

restoration is lengthy and uncertain. This paper The results indicated that most hunters would examines the possibility of actively managing to maintain current behavior so long as prevalence create structurally old forests in a shorter time of CWD was relatively low, but most would not while allowing some timber harvest. Old growth is hunt if prevalence and human risks increased defined according to criteria based on structural dramatically. Most of those indicating they would attributes considered important for wildlife species change their behavior would give up hunting, dependent on old-growth. Its spatial location can rather than travel to another state. Hunters from shift over time. Costs of this approach, based Arizona and North Dakota, where CWD has on private lands in the Douglas-fir region of not been found, were most likely to alter their western Oregon, were estimated. The opportunity behavior; those from Wisconsin were least likely cost analysis described in this paper is useful to do so. Management actions involving testing in several ways: it can help identify when old- and herd reduction were acceptable; taking no growth preservation or restoration may clearly be action was not. justified by low costs, it can help policymakers Nelson, P, R White, and R Molina. 2006. The compare relative costs of conservation goals, and Pacific Northwest Research Station’s it can help forest managers identify cost-effective Biodiversity Initiative: Collaborating strategies for achieving their targets. for Biodiversity Management. General Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, Technical Report PNW-GTR-670, USDA Culture, and Productivity Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. Needham, MD, JJ Vaske, and MJ Manfredo. For forest managers and ecologists. The 2006. State and residency differences in Pacific Northwest Research Station launched a hunters’ responses to chronic wasting Biodiversity Initiative to assist natural resource disease. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 11: professionals in integrating complex biodiversity 159–176. concepts into natural resource management For scientists, social scientists, researchers, processes. The authors canvassed clients from and practitioners involved in wildlife, wildlife various affiliations in order to determine the main disease, recreation, and human dimensions challenges they face in biodiversity management, issues. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is define their information needs, and understand a neurological disease related to bovine how best to deliver biodiversity information within spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) a collaborative framework. The biodiversity in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in management challenges that emerged included (1) humans. Transmission to humans has not been the lack of well-defined biodiversity management documented but cannot be ruled out. This disease policies, (2) understanding and quantifying the has been identified in deer and elk in 11 states interaction effects between a number of factors and moose in 1 state. Nearly 10,000 resident (e.g., disturbance types, management practices) and nonresident hunters returned mail surveys and biodiversity, (3) the lack of applied biodiversity designed to determine (a) whether and how monitoring strategies, (4) difficulty in locating much CWD may influence individuals to hunt in and accessing biodiversity information, and (5) unaffected states or stop hunting; (b) hunters’ balancing conflicting values relating to biodiversity. acceptance of lethal and nonlethal strategies The authors list the biodiversity information product for managing the disease; and (c) whether needs of clients, as well as preferred technology hunters’ responses differ by the state in which transfer methods, and discuss the future direction they hunted, residency, and species hunted. of the Biodiversity Initiative. 72 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Newton, M. 2006. Taking charge in forest the major issues requiring consideration before vegetation management. Canadian Journal implementation of CSR, the authors develop the of Forest Research 36: 2357–2363. challenges of CSR in developing countries in For forestland managers, forestry educators, some detail, with the business landscape in India and forest policymakers. Goal achievement as an example. in forestry enterprises depends on whether Panwar, R, T Rinne, E Hansen, and H Juslin. forest vegetation is successfully managed. After 2006. Corporate responsibility: Balancing reviewing historical aspects of forest productivity economic, environmental, and social issues and the development of noncommodity social in the forest products industry. Forest objectives, the author describes several Products Journal 56(2): 4–12. achievements attained by forest management. For members of the business and forest products He then describes cultural challenges to be met if sectors and social scientists. Globalization, forest science and management are to be useful advances in communication technologies, and in planning forest vegetation management. These emergence of ethical investment opportunities challenges arise from increasing urbanization have recently increased focus on corporate and disconnect of the public from the source of responses to environmental and social issues, the resources they use. They include coverage commonly known as corporate responsibility (CR) by the media, needs in K-12 education, changes or corporate social responsibility. CR is often in professional education at the undergraduate viewed as progressing through three stages: and graduate levels, and a shift in emphasis in profit maximization management, trusteeship research from applied to basic science. Finally, he management, and “quality of life” management. treats possibilities and opportunities for the future The authors discuss concepts, definitions and in forest vegetation management. drivers of CR; models depicting CR; stakeholder Additional Program Area: Forest Regeneration approaches to CR; issues arising from and challenges to its implementation; and the place of Panwar, R, and E Hansen. 2006. A brief CR in the forest products industry. account of corporate social responsibility. Additional Program Area: Wood Processing and NICE Journal of Business 1(2): 73–82. Product Performance For Indian business academics and industry managers. As business has expanded and Philpot, C, GH Stankey, and RN Clark. 2006. become more global, both academics and Federal forestry in the Pacific Northwest: professionals have been revisiting the role Changing uses, changing values, changing of business in society and environmental institutions, pp. 16–40 in Learning to protection. Businesses have responded with Manage a Complex Ecosystem: Adaptive efforts to increase social well being and enhance Management and the Northwest Forest environmental protection, either through Plan, GH Stankey, RN Clark, and BT philanthropy or by conducting business so that Bormann, eds. Research Paper PNW- economic efficiency is balanced with maximal RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific social and environmental protection—i.e., by Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. practicing “corporate social responsibility” (CSR). For forestland managers and policymakers. This paper discusses the concept of CSR, Conflicts over forest management in the Pacific its beginnings and evolution, and the recent Northwest derive from a long national debate rise of interest in CSR. An ecosystem-based about the values, goods, and services for definition of CSR is presented. After describing which forests are managed and the means of 73 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

achieving the desired ends. Despite a decade the various species and types of products being of intensive scientific involvement, disputes over harvested; and consider the marketing challenges forest management remain. The precautionary and opportunities for new entrepreneurs. The principle was the basis for specification of the information and resources provided are intended initial standards and guidelines (S&Gs). The intent to enhance income opportunities for all Alaskans, was to use adaptive management approaches, while sustaining the organisms harvested, particularly in the adaptive management areas respecting traditional activities, and ensuring (AMAs), to validate whether the initial S&Gs equitable access to resources. were appropriate across the area covered by Rametsteiner, E, E Hansen, and A Niskanen. the Northwest Forest Plan (the Plan). The initial 2006. Introduction to the special issue on conditions imposed by the S&Gs limited the innovation and entrepreneurship in the range of acceptable management activities. forest sector. Forest Policy and Economics Adaptive management and the AMAs were seen 8: 669–673. as strategies to develop improved knowledge and guidelines for resource management For wood products marketers and manufacturers. and to improve links with forest-dependent This article, which prefaces a special issue of communities and interested citizens. They also Forest Policy and Management, describes the provided venues to test and validate the Plan’s overall organization of the issue and briefly S&Gs. The learning-based approach of adaptive summarizes each of the papers included. The management, based on systematic monitoring papers are divided into two primary groups. The of feedback from applications and adapting first focuses on innovation and entrepreneurship subsequent applications in response, contrasts in relation to the products and services provided with the technical rational planning model on by forests. The second covers innovation and which contemporary forest planning relies. entrepreneurship in relation to the forest products industry. Pilz, D, SJ Alexander, J Smith, R Schroeder, and J Freed. 2006. Nontimber Forest Reed, AS, and V Simon-Brown. 2006. Product Opportunities in Alaska. General Fundamentals of knowledge transfer, pp. Technical Report PNW-GTR-671, USDA 181–204 in Forest Landscape Ecology: Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Transferring Knowledge to Practice, Station, Portland OR. AH Perera, LJ Buse, and TR Crow, eds. Springer, New York. For those intested in nontimber forest products and their marketing. Nontimber forest products For forestry and natural resource professionals from southern Alaska (also called special and educators. Forestry researchers increasingly forest products) have been vital resources to are called upon, not only to solve abstract the livelihoods and culture of Alaska Natives problems, but also to make those solutions for millennia and, more recently, subsistence available to potential users outside the scientific resources for the welfare of all citizens. Many of community. Once users have applied the these products are now being sold, and Alaskans solutions, new research questions often arise. A seek additional income opportunities through process is needed to make sure researchers and their sustainable harvest and manufacture. The users trade information effectively. This process authors discuss the unique legal, regulatory, should include application of research results; land tenure, geographic, vegetation, and climatic validation of new knowledge and operational context that southern Alaska presents for testing by practitioners; feedback that can help marketing nontimber forest products; summarize researchers to prioritize additional research; and dialogue among researchers, knowledge transfer 74 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

professionals, and users through systematic, Collaboration and Integration, G Shao and designed interactions. The public also must be KM Reynolds, eds. Springer, Dordrecht. considered. The authors discuss the principles For forest managers and planners. Forest and factors on which successful knowledge landscape planning requires the ability to transfer depends, the environment that empowers perceive and forecast how stands relate to each organizations and individuals to carry it out, and other and how they will develop across the “best practices” in knowledge transfer. Particular landscape. Because of the data requirements attention is given to the role and characteristics of for such analysis, forest landscape planning the successful knowledge transfer professional. in its present form was not possible before Rosenberger, RS, and TD Stanley. 2006. high-speed computers, geographic information Measurement, generalization, and systems, modern assignment algorithms, and publication: Sources of error in benefit graphic interfaces became available. The transfers and their management. Ecological authors describe use and linking of these tools Economics 60: 372–378. in development of a spatial harvest scheduling model that can simultaneously schedule timber For social scientists, planners, and policy harvest, forest structure, and transportation at the makers. Resource values are drawn from two landscape scale. The model was developed for primary sources: primary research and benefit the Oregon Department of Forestry (ODF) and the transfer. The latter occurs when values and Oregon Board of Forestry to simulate harvesting other information from a study site where data strategies for lands managed by the state. It was have been collected are applied to a “policy designed to represent ODF’s planning goals, site” for which there are few or no data. The which include a distribution of patches of complex accuracy of benefit transfers is subject to errors, forest across the landscape. The computer tools from a few percentage points to 100% or more, used included data collection, growth-and-yield from generalization error, measurement error, simulations, a decision support system, and and publication selection bias. Generalization activity scheduling. The authors discuss the errors arise when estimates from study sites are strategies, goals, and constraints underlying adapted to different policy sites and are inversely development of the model; choice of the decision related to the correspondence between the study unit; prescription development and decision and the policy sites. Measurement errors arise variables; model structure and solution procedure; when the choices researchers make in analyzing organization of the project and information flow; and estimating values affect the accuracy of model verification; and goal achievement and their transferability. Publication selection bias implementation, including future improvements. occurs because of preference for results that are statistically significant or that conform to Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, theoretical expectations. Such criteria may not Culture, and Productivity be consistent with the needs of benefit transfer practitioners. The authors suggest several ways Shindler, B. 2006. Evaluating citizen-agency to minimize or overcome these difficulties and interactions at AMAs, pp. 77–92 in meet those needs. Learning to Manage a Complex Ecosystem: Sessions, J, P Overhulser, P Bettinger, and D Adaptive Management and the Northwest Johnson. 2006. Linking multiple tools: an Forest Plan, GH Stankey, RN Clark, and American case, pp. 223–238 in Computer BT Bormann, eds. Research Paper PNW- Applications in Sustainable Forest RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Management: Including Perspectives on Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. 75 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

For forestland managers and policymakers. sustainable living; examination of national trends; Over 400 “attentive public” (citizens who showed and definition of personal priorities. Drawing interest in adaptive management areas (AMAs) on her experience with the Sustainable Living by direct involvement) and 105 managers with Project at Oregon State University and using AMA responsibilities were surveyed by mail forest resources and products as the basis of her about expectations and experiences in working discussion, the author discusses the need for and with AMAs, as well as both positive and negative approaches to educating consumers about their aspects and ideas for change in administration. responsibilities. She describes the development Managers were divided about evenly on how well and evolution of the Project since its inception agencies had defined the purposes of AMAs. in 1998, in particular its Sustainable Living Managers and citizens disagreed on various workshops, and points out how the principles and issues, e.g., the extent to which agencies sought points in this paper are applicable in all areas of and used citizen input. Managers rated themselves Extension education. highly in terms of paying attention to local issues Spies, TA, MA Hemstrom, A Youngblood, and following through on decisions, but citizens did and S Hummel. 2006. Conserving old- not share this view. Both groups gave low ratings growth forest diversity in disturbance- regarding how well citizens could trace how their prone landscapes. Conservation Biology: input was used and in understanding AMA decision 351–362. processes. Over 80% of managers agreed that the lack of public trust and credibility constrained For those interested in conservation of old-growth efforts to implement an adaptive approach; 60% forests. A decade after its creation, the Northwest felt local citizens lacked understanding of the Forest Plan is contributing to the conservation AMA concept. Four areas of needed improvement of old-growth forests on federal land. In the dry were identified: making planning processes more provinces, however, losses of old growth to inclusive, improving efficiency of procedural wildfire have been relatively high, and loss risks elements of public involvement, improving delivery remain. Fire suppression and cutting of large of on-the-ground results, and providing internal trees have led to a decline in old-growth diversity staff support to meet AMA program objectives. and development of dense understories across large areas. The authors summarize the state Simon-Brown, V. 2006. The Sustainable of knowledge of old-growth forests in the Plan Living Project at OSU: A values approach area, identify challenges to conserving them, and to intelligent consumer decisions. suggest conservation approaches that might better International Journal of Environmental, meet Plan goals. The plan allows for fuel reduction Cultural, Economic and Social in late-successional reserves; fuel treatments, Sustainability 2: n.a. however, apparently have not been applied For forestry and natural resource professionals at a high enough rate or by a landscape-level and educators. At land grant universities, approach. Landscape-level strategies are needed educational efforts have focused on professional that prioritize fuel treatments by vegetation zones, management of natural resources. As population, develop shaded fuel breaks in strategic positions, economic, and consumption pressures and reduce ladder fuels around remaining old increase, however, educating the public about trees by thinning and prescribed fire. Evaluations consumer choices and responsibilities becomes of current and alternative strategies are needed increasingly important. Such education requires to determine whether the current reserve-matrix a thoughtful approach to cultural, economic, and approach is the best strategy to meet plan goals in environmental values; assessment of barriers to these dynamic landscapes. 76 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Stankey, GH, and RN Clark. 2006. The with prevailing social norms and beliefs. Although Adaptive Management Areas: Description, building public support for management of structure, and processes, pp. 51–76 in appealing or charismatic species is relatively easy, Learning to Manage a Complex Ecosystem: obtaining such support can be difficult in the case Adaptive Management and the Northwest of rare and little-known species, especially when Forest Plan, GH Stankey, RN Clark, and other uses and values are affected. Unfortunately, BT Bormann, eds. Research Paper PNW- little is known about how public judgments RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific are formed, sustained, and altered. Research Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. indicates that judgments derive from a complex For forestland managers and policymakers. The but poorly understood set of factors, including Northwest Forest Plan (the Plan) established context, trust, esthetics, and personal history. 10 adaptive management areas (AMAs) across The authors discuss these factors and propose California, Oregon, and Washington, embracing steps that can enhance public understanding of diverse biophysical and socioeconomic management. These include (1) clarifying the conditions. Their technical objective was to rationale and impacts of policies on the species, improve understanding of the dynamics of the (2) specifying the contextual setting, (3) outlining region’s biophysical systems and provide sites specific actions to be taken, and (4) identifying where the Plan’s assumptions, standards, when and where policies will be employed. and guidelines (S&Gs) could be tested and Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, validated. What was learned would form the Culture, and Productivity basis for adjusting the S&Gs consistent with local conditions. Their social objective was to Stankey, GH, and RN Clark. 2006. Adaptive explore opportunities to cultivate creative and management: Facing up to the challenges, innovative partnerships among communities, pp. 137–180 in Learning to Manage a interests, and management agencies. AMAs were Complex Ecosystem: Adaptive Management assigned coordinator(s) from the management and the Northwest Forest Plan, GH Stankey, agencies and, in Oregon and Washington, a RN Clark, and BT Bormann, eds. Research lead scientist from research. Management and Paper PNW-RP-567, USDA Forest Service, research activities within the AMAs initially Pacific Northwest Research Station, received financial support, but the AMAs were Portland OR. a low priority and support declined sharply in For forestland managers and policymakers. the face of competing demands and reduced The authors start with a proposition: if the budgets. Although the AMAs continue to exist, agencies responsible for implementing adaptive their contribution to successful implementation of management, including adaptive management the Plan has fallen short of expectations. areas, continue on their present course, adaptive Stankey, GH, and B Shindler. 2006. Formation management will fail. They discuss some of the of social acceptability judgments and their critical problems and choices to be made that will implications for management of rare and determine if this will be the outcome. little-known species. Conservation Biology Stankey, GH, RN Clark, and BT Bormann. 20: 28–37. 2006. The adaptive management literature: For social scientists and conservation biologists. A summary of key findings, pp. 41–50 in In order to be successful, species conservation Learning to Manage a Complex Ecosystem: policies must be scientifically valid, biologically Adaptive Management and the Northwest possible, economically feasible, and consistent 77 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Forest Plan, GH Stankey, RN Clark, and literature review, 50 interviews with resource BT Bormann, eds. Research Paper PNW- managers and scientists involved with the Plan’s RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific implementation, and a survey of over 400 citizens Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. in Oregon and Washington who participated For forestland managers and policymakers. The in public involvement programs related to the concept of adaptive management (AM) is found in adaptive management elements of the Plan. many disciplines and sectors, from business and The study documents experiences with adaptive operations research to agriculture and fisheries approaches, identifies key facilitators of and management. In contemporary conceptions, barriers to implementation of such approaches, AM treats policies as hypotheses and evaluates and suggests needed changes to enhance them through processes that mimic the scientific implementation. Major problems confront efforts method. Learning is treated as a specific, to undertake adaptive approaches; these derive desired outcome of policy implementation from a complex set of factors including a risk- and used to inform subsequent applications. averse organizational culture; a restrictive legal- Experimentation is essential, because it provides political environment; and inadequate training, a process to determine the effects of policies staffing, and financial resources. and make appropriate adjustments. Although Stankey, GH, RN Clark, BT Bormann, C Ryan, risk and uncertainty are inevitable, there must B Shindler, V Sturtevant, and C Philpot. be both political permission and organizational 2006. Toward the future, pp. 1–14 in willingness to engage them explicitly. The Learning to Manage a Complex Ecosystem: literature suggests this seldom occurs, however; Adaptive Management and the Northwest risk aversion is more typical. Effective adaptive Forest Plan, GH Stankey, RN Clark, and institutions facilitate knowledge acquisition, BT Bormann, eds. Research Paper PNW- enhance information flow within and outside the RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific organization, and create shared understandings Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. of this knowledge and its implications. Leadership For forestland managers, policymakers, and is essential to successful implementation of AM: it social scientists. Adaptive management (AM) establishes direction; contributes resources; and and adaptive management areas were central aligns, motivates, and inspires people. Leadership elements of the Northwest Forest Plan. Over must occur throughout an organization; e.g., time, AM would generate new knowledge and advocates at field levels are as essential as understanding that could lead to changes in progressive agency heads. the Plan. Concerns about the effectiveness of Stankey, GH, RN Clark, and BT Bormann, implementing an adaptive approach led to calls eds. 2006. Learning to Manage a Complex for evaluation of its performance, including an Ecosystem: Adaptive Management and the understanding of barriers and solutions to them. Northwest Forest Plan. Research Paper An evaluation team of agency and nonagency PNW-RP-567, USDA Forest Service, Pacific participants undertook this project. The evaluation Northwest Research Station, Portland OR. addressed four dimensions of policy design: (1) For forestland managers and policymakers. conceptual soundness (Is the AM idea sensible?); The Northwest Forest Plan (the Plan) identifies (2) technical (does the idea translate into practice adaptive management as a central strategy well?); (3) ethical (Who loses and who wins when for effective implementation. Despite this, AM is implemented?); and (4) pragmatic (Does systematic evaluation of its performance has AM work?). This chapter outlines the content of the been lacking. This study is based on an extensive remainder of the book. 78 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

Strager, MP, and RS Rosenberger. 2006. optimization of local and niche markets, and cost Incorporating stakeholder preferences for reductions. Agroforesty could solve some of the land conservation: Weights and measures sustainability challenges, but it was not known in spatial MCA. Ecological Economics 58: which farmers and producers would find that 79–92. agroforesty met their needs and would complement For social scientists and policymakers. As their land management objectives. The authors land conservation increases in importance, surveyed 250 members of the Pennsylvania conservation groups are targeting high priority Association of Sustainable Agriculture and 250 lands, integrating sound scientific criteria with members of woodland owner associations about support from local residents and landowners. their management objectives and production Multiobjective or multicriteria analysis (MCA) is strategies, awareness of and interest in a framework that can help maximize consensus agroforestry, and perceptions of the benefits and and minimize conflict among interest groups. obstacles to agroforestry adoption. Approximately This framework allows systematic integration of 25% of the respondents were interested in goals, objectives, spatial data, and stakeholder timber-related agroforesty practices; 30%, in preferences and avoids some of the shortcomings livestock-related practices; and 36%, in specialty of the more usual economic approaches. crop production. The rest were not interested in Particularly important is integration of preferences adopting agroforestry. Many felt that they did not for attributes with objective measures of those know enough about agroforestry to make informed attributes. The preference weights used can decisions. Opportunities for educating potential greatly affect the results. This study analyzed adopters of agroforestry are ample. the effect of people’s preferences in conjunction Temesgen, H, PJ Martin, DA Maguire, and with measurability of criteria in a spatial MCA JC Tappeiner. 2006. Quantifying effects framework that identifies and prioritizes areas for of different levels of dispersed canopy land conservation objectives. Outside experts tree retention on stocking and yield of the and local stakeholders differed significantly in regeneration cohort. Forest Ecology and preference weights, but these differences did not Management 235: 44–53. greatly affect the spatial MCA rankings, primarily For silviculturists and forest growth-and-yield because objective spatial measures for criteria modelers. Many potential benefits of variable representing local knowledge of place are lacking. retention harvesting (VRH—leaving live trees Outside experts rated broadly relevant criteria after regeneration harvests) have been proposed, more highly that did local stakeholders, who rated but accurate growth-and-yield predictions have several place-specific criteria higher than did not yet become available for the many stand outside experts. structures that can be generated by VRH. After Strong, N, and MG Jacobson. 2006. A case for reviewing the literature on impacts of VRH on consumer-driven extension programming: regeneration stocking and future yield of the agroforestry adoption potential in understory and reviewing methods for quantifying Pennsylvania. Agroforestry Systems 68: impacts of retained overstory trees, the authors 43–52. simulated the effect of overstory residual trees on For agroforesters and extension agents. Family understory yield for lodgepole pine and interior farms and small-scale timber producers in spruce grown under a dispersed VRH regime. Pennsylvania are facing increasing competition The simulation showed that the impacts of and challenges to economic sustainability. retained trees in pure lodgepole pine and interior Their survival will require diversified production, spruce stands differed by species, retention 79 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

level, and understory density. Regeneration came from USFS and BLM lands. During the stocking was reduced by 0.3−6.5%. Final 1990s, however, the primary management focus yield of the understory cohort was reduced by for federal lands in the region suddenly shifted 8−30%, depending on retention level. The large from providing a continuous timber supply to reduction in yield of a cohort established under conserving biodiversity with an emphasis on retained overstory trees has many economic and endangered species. The authors discuss the operational implications and needs to be taken scientific foundation of the NWFP, its major into account in modeling. components, and its record of implementation and suggest changes to help better achieve its Additional Program Areas: Forest Ecology, goals. They point out that the plan has been more Culture, and Productivity; Forest Regeneration successful in conservation of old-growth forests and aquatic systems than in achieving restoration, Temu, AB, D Okali, and B Bishaw. 2006. economic, and social goals. Their suggestions are Forestry education, training and grouped under three major themes: recognition professional development in Africa. that the NWFP has evolved into an integrative International Forestry Review 8: 118–125. conservation strategy, conservation of old-growth For forestry educators. In many ways, classical trees and forests, and management of federal forestry education appears to be becoming forests as dynamic ecosystems. obsolete worldwide. This trend is particularly marked in Africa, where professional forestry Thompson, JR, KN Johnson, M Lennette, TA education is only 30−40 years old but is now Spies, and P Bettinger. 2006. Historical challenged to reformulate itself to accommodate disturbance regimes as a reference for major transformations in the practice of forestry. forest policy in a multiowner province: a The authors discuss the development of forestry simulation experiment. Canadian Journal of education in Africa, global events shaping forestry, Forest Research 36: 401–417. the grassroots transformation of the forestry For fire ecologists and landscape modelers. The perspective, the relevance of forestry education in authors used the Landscape Management Policy Africa, and continuing education. They conclude Simulator (LAMPS), the “analytical centerpiece” that current forestry education in Africa needs of the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling to change in order to link to societal needs, Study (CLAMS), to examine ecological and provide adequately for natural resources and economic implications over the next century management and environmental conservation, of forest policies emulating the historical fire develop regional perspectives, and maintain an regime across the Oregon Coast Range. They African face. developed and simulated the effects of five forest management policies, using historical fire severity, Thomas, JW, JF Franklin, J Gordon, and KN frequency, and extent to inform retention levels, Johnson. 2006. The Northwest Forest Plan: harvest rates, and harvest size distributions. Origins, components, implementation They then compared landscape composition experience, and suggestions for change. and structure of the simulated landscapes to Conservation Biology 20: 277−287. the range of estimated historical conditions and For conservationists, ecologists, and forestland their forest composition and economic indicators managers and planners. The range of the to projected conditions under current policy. northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) Age-class distributions resulting from simulated includes some 10 million ha of federal forests. disturbance-based policies were closer to the Before the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) came estimated historical range than those resulting into effect, much of the tree harvest in the region 80 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

from current policy. Annual harvest volumes were Tokarczyk, J, E Hansen, M Green, and J Down. 20−60% lower under disturbance-based policies 2006. Contrasting paths: Two forest product than with the current policy in the near term. In firms search for success. International the long term, relative costs of disturbance-based Journal of Case Studies in Management policies diminished, and such policies allowed 4(3): 1–17. significant timber harvest while meeting many For business teaching faculty. This paper landscape-level conservation goals. Although explores strategic planning and human resource disturbance-based policies would not return the management, together with views about landscape to historical variability, they produce a entrepreneurship and innovation and product and simulated age-class distribution closer to historical marketing strategies, with respect to successful conditions than those created by the current competition in the forest products industry. The policy structure. Distributing costs and benefits authors briefly profile the forest products industry of conservation policies equitably among private and industry operation in the United States, with landowners would be challenging. emphasis on Oregon, and the principal challenges facing it. The case studies present the business Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, approaches taken by two firms in Oregon. Culture, and Productivity The firms differ in perspective on the industry, Tokarczyk, J, and E Hansen. 2006. Creating innovation and entrepreneurship, strategic intangible competitive advantages in the planning, and human management, but both have forest products industry. Forest Products remained competitive in the industry for many Journal 56(7/8): 4–13. years. Case discussion questions are provided. For forest products marketers. Firms compete Toman, E, and B Shindler. 2006. Wildland effectively and prosper by developing products fire and fuel management: principles for and services that meet customer needs better effective communication, pp. 111–123 in than the competition. Branding has become an The Public and Wildland Fire Management: important marketing tool used to gain competitive Social Science Findings for Managers, S advantage in many settings in the forest products McCaffrey, ed. General Technical Report industry. A successful brand must deliver NRS-1, USDA Forest Service, Northern functional benefits and appeal to psychological Research Station, Newtown Square PA. concerns of consumers. Historically, the For forest social scientists and others interested forest products industry has focused more on in citizen-agency communication. This paper production than on marketing and branding. discusses four principles identified through Changes in the forest sector market have recent research for effective citizen-agency increased the potential value and importance of communication and examines their use in branding in any competitive strategy. Different accomplishing fire management objectives. brand strategies may be involved, depending Principles include the following: (1) effective on the number or nature of branded products communication is a product of effective planning; produced by a firm. Successfully building a (2) both unidirectional (one-way) and interactive brand may take time, and negative associations approaches are part of successful outreach with the brand must be avoided. Methods for programs; (3) communication activities that focus communicating a brand are discussed. Several on local conditions and concerns can decrease examples of well-coordinated, creative, and long- citizen uncertainty and build their capacity to term branding campaigns in the industry are participate in solutions; (4) a comprehensive presented. communication strategy will emphasize 81 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

meaningful interaction among participants and suggest ways to prevent and recover from it. The build trust along the way. Ultimately, a long-term authors used a qualitative approach and case commitment to outreach and education will yield study research to apply a previously developed positive outcomes for resource professionals and tourist crime typology to a national forest citizen stakeholders. recreation setting. The qualitative approach was necessary because of the difficulty in obtaining Toman, E, B Shindler, and M Brunson. 2006. statistical crime data for US national forests. A Fire and fuel management communication matrix was developed to make data collection strategies: Citizen evaluations of agency easier. The authors discuss the nature of criminal outreach activities. Society & Natural or violent acts, their effect on recreational Resources 19: 321–336. demand, prevention and recovery methods, and For those interested in communication and public those responsible for prevention and recovery. outreach. As wildfires have increased, public Several recommendations for refinement of the agencies have been trying to reduce forest fuels crime typology resulting from this first test in a and improve forest health. Many such efforts take national forest setting are made. place on the wildland-urban interface, so local support is needed for successful implementation. Tynon, JF, and DJ Chavez. 2006. Crime in Research indicates that outreach education about national forests: a call for research. Journal wildfire and fuel management increases public of Forestry 104: 154–157. understanding and support, but little is known For social scientists, recreation managers, and about the most effective outreach strategies. The public law enforcement officers. Crimes, especially authors developed a framework for evaluating urban-associated crimes, have been increasingly communication activities, based on theoretical rapidly on the national forests. Available law and experimental literature on communication and enforcement officers have not, however, and they learning. Using principles of adult learning, they face increased danger in carrying out their duties. examined citizen reactions to 11 commonly used The authors argue that increased research on communication methods in four communities in crime in national forests is both necessary and Arizona, Colorado, Oregon, and Utah. Reactions overdue and propose several areas in which they were similar among sites. Although most people feel research would be fruitful. These include better were more familiar with unidirectional methods data collection on crimes in national forests and of communication, interactive formats appeared model testing and theory building. Such research to be a more effective way of communicating. would address four crucial questions: (1) How much This finding is consistent with principles of adult crime is occurring on national forests, and how are learning. Public meetings were the least effective the effects of crime and violence best measured? method and, with the Internet, ranked low in terms (2) How is crime spatially distributed across national of trustworthiness. forests? (3) What actions are effective in mitigating crime in a recreation setting and what should we Tynon, JF, and DJ Chavez. 2006. Adapting adopt for a successful crime-stopping arsenal? a tourism crime typology: Classifying (4) How do crime and violence affect recreation outdoor recreation crime. Journal of Travel behavior and decision making? The answers Research 44: 298–307. provided by such research would increase safety For those interested in crime and violence in for recreation area staff and visitors. recreational sites. Crime in public recreational areas is a growing danger to both visitors and Vaske, JJ, MD Needham, P Newman, MJ site staff. Applying a tourism crime typology could Manfredo, and J Petchenik. 2006. Potential allow examination of crime and violence and for conflict index: Hunters’ responses to 82 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

chronic wasting disease. Wildlife Society about CWD. Thirty-two percent of Wisconsin Bulletin 34(1): 44–50. hunters, 40% of Wisconsin nonhunters, and 44% For scientists, social scientists, researchers, and of Colorado hunters surveyed did not answer practitioners involved in wildlife, wildlife disease, at least five of the nine statements correctly. In recreation, and human dimensions issues. The Wisconsin, the most effective sources of CWD results of human dimensions research must knowledge for hunters were the Department of be communicated to managers in such a way Natural Resources (WDNR) website, WDNR that they can understand them, appreciate their secretary column, and local newspapers; only practical implications, and apply them effectively. the WDNR newsletter improved nonhunters’ Statistical analyses present a particular challenge knowledge. In Colorado, newspapers and the in such communication. The authors expand on Colorado Division of Wildlife website and hunting earlier work that developed a formula (potential regulations brochure were effective sources for conflict index, PCI) and a graphical technique of information. Implications of the findings for for displaying information about a distribution’s communications campaigns are discussed. central tendency, dispersion, and form. They White, R, and R Molina. 2006. The Pacific extend the application of the PCI to studies of Northwest Research Station Biodiversity human attitudes and behavioral intentions, using Initiative: Scoping out the challenges in as an example data from a study of attitudes managing for biodiversity. Northwestern and behavior of Wisconsin hunters in response Naturalist 87(1): 10–17. to chronic wasting disease in deer. The PCI For forestland managers and policymakers. The appears to be useful in helping managers to Biodiversity Initiative of the USDA Forest Service understand similarities and differences among Pacific Northwest Research Station seeks to groups and the likelihood of conflicts, which can determine the scientific tools needed by natural then be addressed proactively. The authors urge resource professionals to meet diverse and additional research on applicability of the PCI in complex biodiversity goals. During the scoping different situations. phase of this Initiative, the authors asked a broad Vaske, JJ, MD Needham, NR Stafford, K Green, cross-section of people whose work involves and J Petchenik. 2006. Information sources managing for biodiversity what their priority needs, and knowledge about chronic wasting challenges, and concerns were. They report here disease in Colorado and Wisconsin. Human the results of the scoping phase and discuss Dimensions of Wildlife 11: 191–202. how they intend to address the issues raised. For scientists, social scientists, researchers, and The main management challenges included practitioners involved in wildlife, wildlife disease, lack of a common definition of biodiversity, lack recreation, and human dimensions issues. of standardized policy to implement biodiversity Chronic wasting disease (CWD) has been found management objectives, uncertainty about in free-ranging herds of deer, elk, and moose disturbance effects, Iack of a monitoring framework, in 11 states and 2 Canadian provinces. Wildlife conflicting social and economic values, and agencies are concerned that hunters lacking difficulty in finding relevant data and information. accurate information about CWD may stop The products most frequently requested hunting where the disease is found. In this study, included a central clearinghouse for biodiversity resident hunters in Colorado and Wisconsin and information and resources, various information resident nonhunters in Wisconsin were surveyed products, quantification of social and economic about their sources of information about CWD and values of biodiversity, monitoring guidance, and asked to respond to nine true/false statements computer models. By including the viewpoints of 83 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

diverse clients and emphasizing collaboration, For students and professionals involved in the Biodiversity Initiative supports informed geomatics. Topography and canopy often limit natural resource management for the long-term GPS applications in forested areas. Nevertheless, sustainability of a wide range of resources. some fairly inexpensive GPS receivers can be used to measure forest resources with accuracies Whittaker, D, B Shelby, and J Abrams. 2006. acceptable for many mapping and analysis Instream flows and “angler habitat”: Flow applications. The objectives of this study were effects on fishability on eight Pacific (1) to test average positional accuracy and Northwest rivers. Human Dimensions of reliability of a mapping-grade GPS receiver Wildlife 11: 343–357. operating in (a) standard configuration with For fisheries managers and social scientists. NAVSTAR satellite signals and (b) with US Instream flow greatly influences both recreational Coast Guard (USCG) Beacon signals in forest opportunities for humans, such as fishing, and settings typical of the Pacific Northwest; (2) to habitat for aquatic species. The relationships explore the effect of differential correction on GPS between flow and “fishability” (an angler’s accuracy and reliability, and (3) to investigate the perspective of quality of fishing conditions) have influence of different point collection groupings not been well studied, despite the popularity on measurement accuracy and reliability. of fishing. The authors present a conceptual Measurement accuracies ranged from 1 to 4 m framework for assessing flows that includes from true position; they were influenced by the resource conditions (hydraulics, channel amount of canopy closure and GPS configuration. morphology, and riparian vegetation), recreational Standard and USCG Beacon signals led to very opportunities, and tradeoffs and negotiation. They accurate measurements in open canopies but review four studies of angler evaluations of flows were less reliable in young forests. The USCG for fishing that involved segments of eight rivers Beacon did not function in the closed canopy in the Pacific Northwest. Segments included setting and produced apparently inferior results in bypasses, reaches, modified flow (tailwater) the young-forest course. Differentially correcting reaches, and reaches that are substantially the standard-mode GPS measurements improved unregulated. Evaluations varied across rivers accuracies in all course settings and point and apparently were influenced by type of river grouping modes and reduced measurement segment, target species, and angling technique. variability in most settings. Differential correction Flows optimal for fish habitat are not necessarily of the USCG Beacon data reduced accuracies the same as those optimal for fishability. When in the open-canopy course but improved them in trade-offs between social and biophysical outputs young-forest courses. Collecting more points did are considered, assessments will require case- not increase positional accuracies. specific information from biologists about how flow regimes affect the fishery and from social Wing, MG, and J Tynon. 2006. Crime mapping scientists about the preferences of anglers. and spatial analysis in national forests. Journal of Forestry 104: 293–298. Additional Program Area: Integrated Protection For law enforcement officers, crime analysts, of Forests and Watersheds social scientists, and those who conduct research or recreate in the national forests. Geographic Wing, MG, and R Karsky. 2006. Standard information systems (GIS) can integrate data and real-time accuracy and reliability of to allow simultaneous analysis of social and a mapping-grade GPS in a coniferous environmental phenomena and are becoming western Oregon forest. Western Journal of a standard tool for analyzing crime occurrence. Applied Forestry 21: 222–227. 84 Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies Evaluation of Forest Uses, Practices, and Policies

The USDA Forest Service has created a digital features. Most violations (88.6−92.1%) in Region 6 repository for reporting crime incidents, the Law as a whole and in two specific areas (the Siuslaw Enforcement and Investigations Attainment National Forest and the Oregon Dunes National Reporting System (LEIMARS), which contains Recreation Area within it) were misdemeanors. investigative information and geographical Crime densities were concentrated in forests coordinates of crime incidents for all lands in the adjacent to population centers and transportation Forest Service system. The authors used GIS corridors. Crime occurrences in the Siuslaw to analyze LEIMARS data from Region 6 of the National Forest (11.9% of the total for the region) Forest Service to determine whether the spatial were concentrated in the National Recreation distribution of crime showed patterns and how Area. GIS could provide an important decision any such patterns were related to other landscape support tool for Forest Service crime management.

85 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

Acuna, M, and GE Murphy. 2006. Geospatial important indicators. Log supply managers and within tree variation of wood density would benefit from a practical, real-time method and spiral grain in Douglas-fir.Forest to assess wood density and other properties, Products Journal 56(4): 81–85. especially if it were incorporated into mechanized For wood anatomists and those interested in wood harvesting methods. This study examined quality. Optimally matching wood quality to markets the use of near-infrared (NIR) technology for could improve product uniformity, productivity, and predicting wood density from wood chips cut profitability and reduce wood waste and energy from Douglas-fir stems. Wood properties and consumption. Such matching requires the ability NIR spectra were determined and correlated to measure or predict the wood properties of each with multivariate analyses. NIR appeared to stem, either during planning or with computers be a useful predictor of density. NIR spectra of installed on harvesters to enhance bucking and green chip samples were only slightly degraded sorting. Geospatial and within-tree variation in relative to spectra from dry ground chip samples. wood density and spiral grain in Douglas-fir stems After further research, NIR technology could be were assessed in over 400 wood disks collected useful in sorting logs with mechanized harvesting from 17 sites in the Cascade and Coast Ranges equipment on the basis of wood density. of Oregon. Sites covered a range of elevations Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest and aspects; disks came from different vertical Uses, Practices, and Policies positions in each tree. Trees selected were of a similar age (28−57 years) and average size (20−54 Chowdhury, MJA, and PE Humphrey. 2006. cm diameter at breast height). Wood density was The effect of sequential ammonia and related to neither elevation nor aspect; it was methyl formate injection on the strength weakly and negatively related to the height in development of phenol-formaldehyde the tree from where the samples were removed. bonds to wood. Wood and Fiber Science Spiral grain was not significantly related to height, 38: 351–358. elevation, or aspect. If density and spiral grain For wood products manufacturers and wood properties are to be optimally matched to researchers. In the manufacture of wood markets, tools likely will have to be developed to composites, the development of adhesion under measure these properties in the forest for individual the sequence of chemical conditions at bonding logs in real time. sites is important in affecting transitional and Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest final bonding. The authors hypothesized that Uses, Practices, and Policies treating mats with gaseous ammonia to affect softening would not stimulate resin cure and Acuna, MA, and GE Murphy. 2006. Use of near that the phenol-formaldehyde (PF) could be infrared spectroscopy and multivariate subsequently catalyzed with methyl formate analysis to predict wood density of in the vapor phase. The strength development Douglas-fir from chain saw chips.Forest characteristics of miniature PF-to-wood bonds Products Journal 56(11/12): 67–72. exposed first to ammonia and then to methyl For log supply managers and log buyers. As formate were explored. Ammonia did not log markets become increasingly competitive, greatly stimulate PF cure, and application log buyers are looking to wood properties of methyl formate significantly speeded up as indicators of log quality. Wood density, strength development. In view of these results, an excellent predictor of several other wood techniques for rapid room-temperature formation properties, is considered one of the most of strong, dimensionally stable fiber composites, 86 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

using sealed pressing with sequential chemical repellents. Most repellents are based on synthetic injection, are being developed. chemicals such as permethrin and N,N-diethyl- 3-methylbenzamide (deet). Deet, while effective DeVallance, DB, JW Funck, and JE Reeb. 2006. and generally thought to be safe, may present Influence of several preparation conditions health, aesthetic, and environmental hazards. The on plywood glue-bond quality test results. authors isolated 14 compounds from essential Forest Products Journal 56(2): 47–50. oil from the heartwood of Alaska yellow cedar, For plywood manufacturers and adhesive Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don), and specialists. Recent advances in phenol- compared their repellent activity against nymphal formaldehyde adhesives have created a need Ixodes scapularis Say with that of deet. The for new tests of gluebond results under various repellent concentration values of nootkatone, conditions. This study determined the influence of valencene-13-ol, nootkatone 1→10 epoxide, and testing conditions on gluebond quality of softwood carvacrol were statistically equivalent to those of plywood, as measured by load at failure and deet. The compounds may provide an alternative percent wood failure. No significant difference in to synthetic repellents. percent wood failure was observed between wet or dry conditioning, open or closed lathe checks, Elkins, L, RJ Leichti, and JJ Morrell. 2006. or any interactions. Both conditioning and lathe Through-boring utility poles: Method of test checks significantly affected mean load at failure, and effect, pp. n.a. in 9th World Conference with dry closed specimens exhibiting the highest on Timber Engineering, August 6–10, 2006. average load value, followed in order by dry open, For wood products engineers and wet closed, and wet open. These findings indicate manufacturers. A preferred hole pattern was that routine testing can be conducted in a much developed based on finite-element models shorter time, using dry specimens rather than of holes in bending round bending members, wet, as is done under current plywood product preservative penetration patterns, and bending standards. Because open vs. closed lathe checks tests of full-size poles. The test method was had no effect on mean percent wood failure, lathe developed to produce a service-like bending check orientation could receive less attention moment in the poles. A staggered pattern of 12.7 during routine testing for percent wood failure. mm holes with a longitudinal spacing of 127 mm, radial spacing of 38 mm, and edge distance of Dietrich, G, MC Dolan, J Peralla-Cruz, J 50 mm provides excellent treatment potential Schmidt, J Piesman, RJ Eisen, and without compromising bending strength. JJ Karchesy. 2006. Repellent activity of fractionated compounds from Freitag, C, and JJ Morrell. 2006. Decay Chamaecyparis nootkatensis essential oil resistance of China-fir Cunninghamia( against nymphal Ixodes scapularis (Acari: lanceolata (Lambert) Hooker). Forest Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology Products Journal 56(5): 29–30. 43: 957–961. For wood preservationists and wood products For natural products chemists and medical manufacturers. China-fir [Cunninghamia lanceolata acarologists. Ticks vector several disease agents, (Lambert) Hooker] is reputed to produce durable such as those causing Lyme disease, babiosis, heartwood and has been extensively planted in and human granulocytic anaplosmosis. Most China. The wood is now being imported into the tick management practices involve reducing United States for use where durability is desired. tick habitat and and vector-host populations, Because of concerns that this material, which is applications of synthetic chemicals, acaracide second growth, may lack the durability of lumber devices, and personal protection such as from old-growth trees, the authors compared the 87 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

resistance of heartwood of this species to the essential components of wood composites, which brown-rot (Gloeophyllum trabeum) and white-rot are used in many applications. Most commonly (Trametes versicolor) fungi to that of ponderosa used wood adhesives are formaldehyde- pine sapwood (a decay-susceptible control) and based and contain nonrenewable resources. western redcedar heartwood (a decay-resistant Development of wood adhesives from renewable comparator). Resistance of China-fir was natural resources would have many advantages. comparable to that of western redcedar heartwood, Lignin, an abundant natural polymer, is readily allowing classification of China-fir as highly available from commercial pulping processes. resistant to fungal attack. This study investigated a new formaldehyde-free wood-adhesive system, consisting of kraft lignin Gartner, BL. 2006. Prediction of wood and polyethylenimine (PEI), in making two-ply structural patterns in trees using ecological plywood. The lignin-PEI adhesive system was models of plant water relations, pp. 38–52 used to bond maple veneer. The mixing time of in Characterization of the Cellulosic Cell kraft lignin and PEI had little effect on the shear Wall, DD Stokke and LH Groom, eds. strength, so long as it was at least 40 minutes. Blackwell Publishing, Ames IA. Shear strength of the composites increased For wood scientists and anatomists and tree slightly with time, up to 9 minutes. The adhesive physiologists. Several nonmechanistic models was fully cured at 140 °C in 9 minutes. A lignin/ have been developed to help predict the PEI weight ratio of 2:1 resulted in the highest variation in cell wall structure and density that shear strengths and water resistance. Storage occurs at many levels, from within individuals to of the adhesives for three days did not affect among species. Mechanistic understanding of adhesion ability negatively. this variation is, however, lacking. New models have recently been developed linking wood Geng, Y, K Li, and J Simonsen. 2006. structure to environment and tree physiology, Further investigation of polyaminoamide- specifically to requirements for water transport. epichlorohydrin/stearic anhydride This paper describes three of these models. One compatibilizer system for wood- links wood density and cell diameter distribution polyethylene composites. Journal of to growing season temperature. The second Applied Polymer Science 99: 712–718. links cell wall thickness and cell diameter For those working with wood composites and to drought resistance. The third links radial adhesives. Wood has many advantages as a decrease in microfibril angle to the increase in filler for strengthening thermoplastics such as water transport required by increased tree size. polyethylene (PE). The resulting wood-plastic If the models prove to be robust, they could composites (WPCs) have become one of the provide valuable tools for predicting wood quality most rapidly growing composite materials in the on several scales and the response of wood industry, but, because WPCs are not yet strong quality to environmental or silvicultural changes. enough for many applications, their market share Tree breeders would also find them useful in is still quite small. Compatibilizers are commonly producing wood with certain qualities or trees added to WPCs to improve compatibility between suitable for given habitats. the wood and the plastic components; the search for compatibilizers that will increase WPC strength Geng, X, and K Li. 2006. Investigation of is ongoing. The authors recently discovered wood adhesives from kraft lignin and a new compatibilizer system consisting of a polyethylenimine. Journal of Adhesion polyaminoamide-epichlorohydrin (PAE) resin (a Science & Technology 20: 847–858. paper wet strength agent) and stearic anhydride. For plywood manufacturers. Wood adhesives are 88 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

This paper reports on further investigations For wood composite manufacturers. A novel of the system aimed at improvement of its wood-based composite has been developed that compatibilization effect on wood-PE composites. uses rapidly grown, low-density wood species, The pH value of the PAE solution, dosages of such as plantation-grown radiata pine (Pinus PAE and stearic anhydride, and the ratio of PAE radiata). The lamina of the composite may be to stearic anhydride (w:w) significantly influenced composed of various materials, some of which the compatibilization effects of the system. have been treated by viscoelastic thermal Highest composite strength was achieved at a compression (VTC). This process increases the pH value of 10.4 and at 3 wt % each of PAE and density of wood without fracturing the cell wall, stearic anhydride. The PAE and stearic anhydride thereby increasing the strength. The process were found to bond covalently with the wood may be applied to veneer, sawn wood, or strand flour. At 4 or 6 wt %, this system was superior composites. The strength and stiffness of this to a commonly used and highly effective maleic VTC composite exceeds that of any wood-based anhydride system in terms of both strength. It also composite currently available. made the resulting composites water resistant, Kamke, FA, LT Watson, JN Lee, and J Shu. although it was not as effective in this as the 2006. A Web-based problem solving maleic anhydride system. environment for the wood-based Hartter, J, and J Garland. 2006. Synthetic composites industry. Forest Products rope end connections for use in timber Journal 56(9): 26–32. harvesting. International Journal of Forest For process modelers and manufacturers of Engineering 17(1): 39–51. wood-based composites. In the wood-based For timber harvesters and harvest planners. Steel composites industry, manufacturing processes wire rope is currently used in many applications in are often complicated and depend increasingly timber harvesting, but its use presents ergonomic on highly automated monitoring and control. and worker health and safety problems. Synthetic Simulation models increase understanding and rope (ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene allow manipulation of the parameters involved 12-strand braided rope) has many advantages in manufacturing, but often are not implemented over steel wire rope and could be used to replace once developed. Frequently, they are highly it in harvesting. Three types of end connections specialized, hard to use, limited by their for 14- and 16-mm diameter synthetic rope were assumptions, and limited in data manipulation assessed with respect to their use in timber utility. Their user interface is often poor, yet they harvesting: spliced, adhesives, and dry hardware. have little or no continuing technical support. The buried eye splice was used as the benchmark Thus, the value of the intensive effort to develop for comparison of all end connector concepts. End them is usually lost. This paper describes connections with adhesive proved to have variable WBCSim, a prototype Web-based, problem- strength performance and are not recommended. solving environment (PSE) developed to assist Suitable end connections for forest applications manufacturers and scientists in designing and were buried eye splice, whoopie sling, long splice, manufacturing selected wood-based composite rope clamps (in some situations) and pinned products. WBCSim brings together five nubbin. Further research is needed on these independent simulation models (legacy codes) connection types under various conditions. and several other software utilities that users would otherwise have to access separately and Kamke, FA. 2006. Densified radiata pine for make compatible. Its Web base makes the PSE structural composites. Maderas: Ciencia y readily accessible and practical for implementing Technologia 8(2): 83–92. 89 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

scientific computing tools in the manufacture of enhanced diffusion coefficients, possibly because wood-based composites. of solubilization of extractives that blocked flow through heartwood pits. The results suggest that Kang, SM, KL Levien, and JJ Morrell. 2006. small changes in temperature or pressure will Effect of process variations during affect treatment relatively little. supercritical fluid impregnation on cyproconazole retention and distribution in Kent, SM, RJ Leichti, JJ Morrell, DV Rosowsky, ponderosa pine sapwood. Wood and Fiber and SS Kelly. 2006. Analytical tools to Science 38: 64–73. predict changes in properties of oriented For wood preservationists and wood products strandboard exposed to the fungus Postia manufacturers. Supercritical fluids have several placenta. Holzforschung 60: 332–338. advantages over conventional liquids in biocide For wood preservationists, wood products impregnation of wood. Commercialization of their manufacturers, and assessors of wood condition. use, however, has been limited by high capital The condition of oriented strandboard sheathing costs and poor understanding of the treatment is crucial to a building system’s resistance to process. This study assessed the effect of lateral forces. Typical measures of fungal effects process variations under supercritical conditions are weight loss and alkali solubility. These have on retention and distribution of cyproconazole not previously been related to engineering in sapwood boards of ponderosa pine (Pinus performance of OSB sheathing, however, and ponderosa). Biocide movement into wood was they are not convenient to use during field influenced more by diffusion than by bulk flow, inspection. In this experiment, a common although pressure and temperature may have building fungus was used to deteriorate OSB affected biocide solubility somewhat. Distribution sheathing. X-ray densitometry and near-infrared of biocide varied along the specimen length and spectroscopy (NIR) were used with multivariate within the treatment vessel. statistical methods to establish working relationships between traditional measures of Kang, SM, J-B Ra, KL Levien, and JJ Morrell. fungal effects and critical engineering properties. 2006. Developing diffusion coefficients for Predictive models showed a strong correlation SCG impregnation of Douglas fir heartwood between NIR spectroscopy and engineering with cyproconazole. Journal of Wood properties of OSB that could be used for condition Chemistry and Technology 26: 111–124. assessment. For wood preservationists and wood products manufacturers. Supercritical fluid impregnation Knowles, CD. 2006. Characterization of shows great potential for improving protection of selected wood properties in commercially wood from biodeterioration, but it is expensive produced southern pine finger-jointed and the process is not well understood. dimension lumber. Forest Products Journal Furthermore, the process can result in large 56(9): 43–46. penetration gradients of the biocides from the For wood products manufacturers. In order to surface to the core. This study examined the maximize the wood recovered from a tree and effects of pressure period and flowpath length in reduce consumption of forest resources, the wood on biocide retention after supercritical fluid wood products industry has been developing impregnation and assessed the role of diffusion products that use wood residues. Finger joints, on biocide distribution. Diffusion, rather than which are one method of producing such rapid bulk flow, appeared to be the predominant products, are strong enough for structural mode for biocide movement into wood during applications, are relatively easy to produce, and SCF treatment. Prolonged treatment apparently are used as well in production of nonstructural 90 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

materials, such as moldings and siding. Because The strength-wood relationships found in this the wood in finger joints may come from different study were consistent with property relationships trees, or even different stands, the pieces joined for finger-jointed and solid wood specimens may have different physical and mechanical reported in the literature. properties. This study quantified variation in Leichti, RJ, EN Anderson, EG Sutt Jr., and specific gravity (SG) and growth rate (rings per DV Rosowsky. 2006. Sheathing nail inch, RPI) of the wood pieces in commercially bending-yield strength—Role in shearwall produced finger-jointed dimension lumber performance, pp. n.a. in 9th World from southern pine. Both SG and RPI varied Conference on Timber Engineering, August considerably within the finger-jointed boards. 6–10, 2006, Portland OR. Such large differences could adversely affect product strength. Sorting boards by SG or RPI For structural engineers and designers. Single- before joining might lessen this problem. fastener connection properties between the sheathing and the framing are used in shearwall Knowles, CD, JD Stamey, and EF Dougal. design. The values are a function of materials, 2006. The effect of specific gravity and connection geometry and fastener properties, growth rate on bending strength of finger- including bending-yield strength. This research jointed southern pine. Wood and Fiber sought to determine of calculated increases in Science 38: 379–389. bending-yield strength were evident in the single- For wood products manufacturers and fastener connection and then if they translated researchers. Increasing demand for forest into shearwall performance. It was shown that products and decreasing land for timber improvements that are calculated translate to production have made it necessary to utilize real performance up to bending-yield strength of wood residues as efficiently as possible. Finger- 1000 MPa, but that further increases calculated jointed wood is relatively easy to produce, is at 1000 MPa do not materialize in capacity and strong enough for structural application, and is performance of real shearwalls. used extensively in nonstructural applications. Leichti, RJ, RJ Scott, TH Miller, and J Sharpe. Because finger-jointed wood may be made from 2006. Lateral resistance of walls and highly variable wood residue from several trees, anchorage in log structures. Structures understanding the effect of wood properties on Magazine March: 40–43. joint strength is important. This study examined the relationship between mechanical bending For structural engineers. Interlog connections strength of finger-jointed southern pine test and log wall foundation anchorage were specimens and eight wood properties [maximum, investigated. The finite-element method and minimum, average, and differential specific gravity physical tests were the basis of the findings. (SG) and rings per inch (RPI)] of the two pieces of Log wall performance was strongly influenced wood making up the specimens. SG and RPI of by friction between the log surfaces and the wall the wood pieces significantly affected the bending aspect ratio. It appears that typical foundation strength (MOR) of the finger-jointed boards. anchorage designs are adequate to resist base Minimum and average SG and minimum and shears as calculated using the Uniform Building average RPI were the best predictors of MOR. Code. Each test specimen had a minimum of 75% wood Liu, Y, and K Li. 2006. Preparation and failure. The level of glue failure (up to 25%) may characterization of demethylated lignin- have masked the relationship between the wood polyethylenimine adhesives. Journal of properties of the test specimens and the MOR. Adhesion 82: 593–605. 91 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

For wood composites manufacturers and errors, focusing on single-grip harvesters and researchers. The major adhesives used in single-grip processors. Length, diameter, and the manufacture of wood composites in the bucking errors measured in six harvesting US are based on petrochemicals and contain operations in three pine species were included. formaldehyde, raising concerns about sustainable The accuracy and precision of the measurements supplies and detrimental environmental and in this study were similar to those in the literature. health effects. The authors have developed Diameter and bucking errors resulted in the and characterized a new wood adhesive greatest value loss. The simulation model consisting of demethylated kraft lignin (DKL), developed to estimate value loss showed that which is inexpensive and readily available, and measurement errors were responsible for 3–23% a polyethylenimine (PEI). The adhesives were of the potential value of the operations, depending easy to prepare. Shear strength of lap-shear on the type and level of error and the species. The maple veneer specimens bonded with this industry should focus on increasing the precision system was very high. The specimens were of length and diameter measurements in order also very water-resistant. The optimum curing to optimize gains from reducing measurement conditions appeared to be 120 °C and 5 minutes. errors. A 1:1 DKL:PEI ratio gave the best strength and water resistance. Molecular weights of PEIs Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, were not important if they were in the range Culture, and Productivity of 70,000−750,000. Investigation of the curing Marshall, HD, GE Murphy, and K Boston. 2006. chemistry showed that phenolic hydroxyl groups Three mathematical models for bucking-to- were oxidized to form quinones that further order. Silva Fennica 40: 127–142. reacted with PEI. The authors propose that the curing mechanisms of this DKL-PEI adhesive are For timber harvest modelers and managers. similar to natural quinone-tanning processes. Economic, social, and safety factors are bringing about a worldwide shift from manual motorized Marshall, H, G Murphy, and K Boston. 2006. to highly mechanized timber harvesting systems. Evaluation of the economic impacts of Optimal bucking of trees into logs has attracted length and diameter measurement error much study because bucking efficiency can on mechanical harvesters and processors greatly influence value recovery from a harvest. operating in pine stands. Canadian Journal The authors investigated three approaches of Forest Research 36: 1661–1673. to buck-to-order log merchandizing. A new For harvest planners and economists. buck-to-order planning model was developed Mechanization and computerization in the forest to determine the optimal production from a industry offer several advantages, including stand under different market constraints and improvements in productivity, costs, and worker forest inventory data. The model was tested by safety. Mechanical log-making systems, however, three approaches (market prices, target cutting lose more potential value (18%) than do motor patterns, and adjusted price list) for generating manual systems (11%). One potential cause of cutting instructions to fulfill the plan created by the this loss is error in the stem diameter and length new planning model in four test stands. A buck- measurements in the mechanical systems, but to-order plan was important in obtaining good few studies have examined the implication of order fulfillment. The target cutting patterns and such errors for either value recovery or volume adjusted price list approaches outperformed the estimates. The authors examined the economic market prices approach and can achieve excellent impacts of length and diameter measurement order fulfillment. Development and testing are 92 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

needed in a wider variety of stand types, species, handling and storage of logs can significantly affect and market conditions in order to determine the emissions during drying. Comparable values for best method of generating cutting instructions for softwoods are 0.1−0.5 lb/MBF for nonresinous buck-to-order merchandizing. species and 1−3 lb/MBF for resinous. Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, Milota, MR. 2006. Hazardous air pollutant Culture, and Productivity emissions from lumber drying. Forest Products Journal 56(7/8): 79–84. Marshall, HD, GE Murphy, and B Lachenbruch. For kiln managers and environmental monitors. 2006. Effects of bark thickness estimates This paper presents information about methanol, on optimal log merchandising. Forest formaldehyde, and total hydrocarbon emissions Products Journal 56(11/12): 87–92. during lumber drying that is important to For harvest planners and economists. Because compliance with Title III of the Clean Air Act. bark has minimal commercial value, logs are Emissions of these substances were measured often bought and sold on the basis of under-bark during the drying of lumber from five species: measurements. Bark thickness is estimated in the ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, southern field from a bark-thickness model, but the bark pine, Douglas-fir, and white fir. Emissions of thickness equation and coefficients selected can both hydrocarbon and hazardous air pollutants significantly impact the estimated volume, value (methanol and formaldehyde) varied considerably recovery, and number of logs produced from a among the five species. Methanol emissions mechanical log merchandizing operation that do ranged from 0.06 to 0.12 lb/1,000 board feet (lb/ not meet the desired specifications. This paper MBF). Formaldehyde emissions were at least discusses the effects of six models estimating 10-fold less than the methanol emissions. Total bark thickness on the predicted volume and value hydrocarbon emissions ranged from 0.24 to recovery obtained during log bucking. The results 1.42 lb/MBF. They were not a good indicator of indicated that obtaining the model coefficients the relative amount of methanol emissions from that correspond to the species and site, especially a species. When mills plan emission tests for the species, is more important than selecting the regulatory purposes, variability among species and exact form of the model’s form. the species mix to be dried should be taken into account. Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, Culture, and Productivity Milota, MR, and P Mosher. 2006. Emissions from western hemlock lumber during drying. Milota, MR. 2006. Total hydrocarbon emissions Forest Products Journal 56(5): 66–70. from red alder lumber during drying. Forest For kiln operators and environmental monitors. Products Journal 56(2): 30–32. Because the amounts of methanol and For kiln operators and environmental monitors. formaldehyde emissions from western hemlock Red alder (Alnus rubra), the major commercial are unknown, it is difficult for mills drying this hardwood species in the Pacific Northwest, is species to comply with permit requirements and often dried to moisture contents of 6−8%. This clean air laws. This study examined emission of study assessed the release of hydrocarbons, a methanol, formaldehyde, and total hydrocarbon contributor to increased atmospheric ozone, during during drying under different temperature drying of red alder. Total hydrocarbon emissions conditions. Season and location of harvest were were 0.2 lb/1,000 board feet (lb/MBF) from fresh also of interest. Methanol emissions ranged red alder but 4.18 lb/MBF from alder that had from 0.03 to 0.24 lb/1,000 board feet (lb/MBF); been stored in salt water for 6 9 months. Thus, formaldehyde emissions, from 0.001 to 0.004 − 93 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

lb/MBF; and total hydrocarbon emissions (as Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest carbon), from 0.1 to 0.7 lb/MBF. Temperature and Uses, Practices, and Policies initial moisture content likely affect emissions; considerable variability was observed, however, Muszyński, L. 2006. Empirical data for that could not be accounted for by these factors. modeling: methodological aspects Season and storage conditions may cause some in experimentation involving hygro- of the variability. Total hydrocarbon emissions mechanical characteristics of wood. Drying were higher in wood harvested in winter than in Technology 24: 1115–1120. summer-harvested wood, but the difference can For wood products manufacturers and others be accounted for by the difference in moisture interested in wood drying and properties. Accurate content. The considerable variability in the total prediction of responses of wood and wood- hydrocarbon emissions among wood sources based materials to loads and external conditions may present a compliance problem. Methanol and experienced in drying, manufacturing processes, formaldehyde emissions were more predictable or service requires precise mathematical models than total hydrocarbon emissions. that can describe multi-physics phenomena. The Murphy, G, M Acuna, and D Amishev. 2006. predictive power of such models requires reliable Adaptive control of bucking on harvesters: input data, well-defined boundary conditions, Target and timing effects. Forest Products and clearly defined and meaningful material Journal 56(11/12): 79–83. characteristics. Many models and theoretical descriptions have been proposed, but adequate For harvest planners and forestland managers. empirical methods to determine material Three of the most popular techniques for characteristics, such as basic hygromechanical optimal bucking are dynamic programming, characteristics, are lacking. Recent progress in rule-based log bucking, and network analysis. high-resolution noncontact in situ imaging and Order book constraints, combining market measurement techniques will allow enhanced and production constraints, are used in approaches to experimental procedures operational environments in many parts of to determining wood and wood-composite the world. Adaptive control used with dynamic properties. New modeling techniques better programming provides superior results from stem suited to the peculiar properties of wood and and stand log bucking when the stand is subject wood-based materials, combined with improved to order book constraints. The authors examined experimental techniques and inverse problem what happens to overall apportionment degree methodology, will also enhance understanding of if (a) target proportions and (b) update rates the behavior of wood and wood-based materials. are varied during adaptive control of bucking. Better understanding and cooperation between Varying the target proportions provided the best modelers and experimentalists are needed. overall apportionment degree in only one of four representative test stands (one actual, three Muszyński, L, D Baptista, and DJ Gardner. 2006. computer-generated) of Pinus radiata; this was A simple geometrical model to predict the actual stand. In computer-generated stands, evaporative behavior of spherical sessile fixing the target proportions to those specified in droplets on impermeable surfaces, pp. 61–76 the order book gave better results. No significant in Contact Angle, Wettability and Adhesion, differences in apportionment degree were found KL Mital, ed. VSP, Utrecht the Netherlands. in examining update rates from 4 to 512 stems For wood products manufacturers and others in two test stands (one actual, one computer- interested in wood drying and properties. Abstract generated). not available. 94 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

Muszyński, L, R Lagana, and SM Shaler. 2006. that can address the effect of wood anatomy on Hygro-mechanical behavior of red spruce the transverse compression and densification in tension parallel to the grain. Wood and of wood. Certain features of the material point Fiber Science 38: 155–165. method (MPM) make it useful in numerical For wood products manufacturers and modeling of realistic wood structures. In particular, researchers. Moisture and moisture changes it is easy to discretize micrographs of wood affect the mechanical response of wood, wood specimens into a numerical model, it can handle composites, and other materials to immediate large deformations, it can model elastic-plastic and sustained loading. These phenomena, cell-wall properties, and it automatically accounts referred to as hygro-mechanical behavior, include for contact between cell walls. MPM simulations the mechano-sorptive effect, an additional were run for softwood and hardwood loaded deformation not attributable to other factors. It in either radial or tangential compression. The appears as increased deformation in beams simulations reproduced many features of wood under sustained loads and exposed to significant compression and gave insight into effects of wood moisture changes. It also makes possible the anatomy on compression. These may be the first relaxation of drying stresses during conditioning in numerical calculations of realistic wood structures a typical kiln schedule. This project was set up to that were extended through to full densification provide a reliable testing protocol for determining without numerical difficulties. Several potential the longitudinal material-level mechano- applications for MPM modeling of realistic wood sorptive properties of wood that could be used structures are explored. for modeling the long-term structural response Oberdorfer, G, RJ Leichti, and JJ Morrell. of wood and wood composite elements. The 2006. Internal pressure development and method also involves determination of the hygro- deformation during supercritical fluid mechanical characteristics of free shrinkage impregnation of selected wood-based and swelling and short-term viscoelastic materials. Wood and Fiber Science 38: characteristics. The results confirmed findings 190–205. in the literature that cumulative moisture content For wood preservationists and wood composite change does not linearly affect mechano-sorptive manufacturers. Supercritical fluid impregnation compliance. Governing mechanisms during the was investigated for delivering chemicals first and consecutive moisture cycles did not into wood-based composites. The effect of appear to differ. The applied stress level and initial supercritical carbon dioxide in internal pressure moisture content had insignificant effects on the development and deformations was assessed mechano-sorptive response of wood in tension. during pressurization and depressurization in A minimal testing protocol is proposed for routine oriented strandboard, medium density fiberboard, determination of hygro-mechanical characteristics laminated veneer lumber, and sawn wood. for other structurally important species. Composites with many fluid flow pathways did Nairn, JA. 2006. Numerical simulations of not develop high pressure differentials. Internal transverse compression and densification pressures were greater in the laminated veneer in wood. Wood and Fiber Science 38: lumber and sawn wood than in the oriented 576–591. strandboard or medium density fiberboard but For wood structural engineers and modelers. below critical levels that would result in damage. Compression properties of wood depend on its Renninger, HJ, BL Gartner, and FC Meinzer. anatomical features and on loading direction. The 2006. Effects of release from suppression author set out to demonstrate a numerical method on wood functional characteristics in young 95 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

Douglas-fir and western hemlock.Canadian photodegraded, which increases susceptibility to Journal of Forest Research 36: 2038–2046. biodegradation. The effects of biological agents For silviculturists and wood scientists. Certain on wood-plastic composites after 10 years in the wood properties are closely associated with field in Hawaii were assessed with a Pilodyn, release from suppression. This study addressed microscopy, and culturing. Stakes were buried two questions: (1) whether Douglas-fir and in the soil; other samples were set up for a western hemlock released from suppression ground proximity test. Aboveground portions of respond more strongly by increases in growth ring samples showed degradation of both wood and plastic; in belowground portions, there was little or increases in specific conductivity (Ks), and (2) how release affects wood density. Growth ring evidence of plastic degradation, but extensive wood degradation. Pilodyn pin penetration of both width, Ks, tracheid dimensions, moisture content, and wood density were measured in suppressed upper and lower surfaces of ground proximity Douglas-fir and western hemlock trees and in blocks was significantly higher than in the control; trees released from suppression, averaging 12−18 penetration of stakes was also higher than in years old. These commercially important species controls, but lower than in ground proximity blocks. Fungi were isolated from virtually every differ in shade tolerance. Growth ring width, Ks, earlywood and latewood width, and moisture sample. Six taxa were identified; several other content were greater in released trees of both fungi were isolated but could not be identified. species than in suppressed; relative differences None were basidiomycetes, even though decay were generally greater in Douglas-fir. Tracheids was obvious. Surface analysis revealed oxidation. were both wider and longer in released Douglas- Damage was confined to a shallow area near fir trees than in suppressed. In western hemlock, the surface; improvements to the surface 5 mm tracheids of released trees were wider than, but of the composite may be sufficient to improve about the same length as, those in suppressed performance. trees. Wood density was negatively related to Schneider, PF, KL Levien, and JJ Morrell. 2006.

height growth, growth ring width, and Ks. Wood Effect of wood characteristics on pressure density decreased in released trees from both responses during supercritical carbon species but did not differ from average reported dioxide treatment. Wood and Fiber Science values. Wood from released trees therefore may 38: 660–671. be suitable for many of its traditional applications. For wood preservationists. Many wood species Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, that cannot be effectively impregnated with Culture, and Productivity biocides by conventional pressure treatment can be treated if the biocides are solubilized

Schauwecker, C, JJ Morrell, AG McDonald, in supercritical CO2. Species vary greatly in and JS Fabiyi. 2006. Degradation of a wood- receptivity and in susceptibility to pressure- plastic composite exposed under tropical induced defects, however, so optimal treatment conditions. Forest Products Journal varies by species. One approach to species- 56(11/12): 123–129. specific testing is to predict pressure changes For wood preservationists, materials scientists, in wood during treatments from measurements and builders. Wood-plastic composites are of gas permeability, anatomical features, or often used as decking. Although they are widely both. The authors assessed the potential of this considered immune from biological attack, approach in three hardwood and eight softwood they can be biologically degraded, although species. Longitudinal resin canals in softwoods more slowly than wood. They also can be and radial gas permeability, fiber dimensions, 96 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

or both in hardwoods were useful predictors encouraging development of plantation forests of response to pressure application. The other of a variety of species, including Bombax ceiba, anatomical characteristics tested generally were a fast-growing native hardwood. This species not well correlated with pressure response. Using might be used in construction of catamarans, but certain anatomical measurements to predict little is known about its performance in tropical receptivity of a species to supercritical fluid marine environments. In this study, blocks of B. impregnation could reduce the need for iterative ceiba were treated by a full cell process with one treatment trials. of two concentrations of ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA), chromated copper arsenate Sessions, J, and K Boston. 2006. Optimization (CCA), ammoniacal copper quaternary (ACQ), of road spacing for log length shovel or ammoniacal copper citrate (CC). Treated logging on gentle terrain. International blocks and untreated controls were immersed in Journal of Forest Engineering 17(1): 67–75. a harbor on the east coast of India and inspected For harvest planners and forest road planners. for deterioration and shipworm colonization every Shovel logging has become popular because of 2 months. Untreated blocks totally deteriorated its high productivity, low impact on soil, and need within 3 months. The higher levels of ACZA and for only one operator to cary out both yarding and CCA provided the best protection. Multimetal loading. Few production studies of shovel logging systems significantly outperformed copper have been carried out, however, and they do systems containing quaternary ammonium not provide decision support models to minimize compounds or citrate. Treatment was not as total road and logging costs or maximize profits. effective in this tropical environment as in more This paper presents a mathematical model to fill temperate environments, but the treatment levels that need. The authors describe the optimal road were slightly lower than the recommended levels spacing problem for shovel logging, using a long- for marine treatments. Nevertheless, treatment log, serpentine skidding pattern on gentle terrain. increased service life up to 15-fold over untreated For the example data, the model showed little timber. difference in total road construction plus skidding cost from the optimal number of swings (four Taylor, AM, BL Gartner, and JJ Morrell. 2006. when yarding plus roads costs are minimized and Western redcedar extractives: Is there a three when contractor profits are maximized) to role for the silviculturist? Forest Products six swings. Assumptions underlying the model Journal 56(3): 58–63. and results and areas for future research are For silviculturists, tree farm managers, and wood discussed. chemists. The heartwood of western redcedars contains many extractives, formed when the Additional Program Area: Evaluation of Forest oldest sapwood is converted to heartwood. The Uses, Practices, and Policies younger, smaller trees harvested now have less heartwood and lower levels of extractives, Tarakanadha, B, KS Rao, P Narayanappa, potentially lowering natural durability. Aggressive and JJ Morrell. 2006. Marine performance silvicultural practices to increase growth rates of Bombax ceiba treated with inorganic may also affect heartwood properties providing preservatives. Journal of Tropical Forest durability. This research evaluated the effects of Science 18(1): 55–58. thinning and fertilization of naturally regenerated For those interested in wood protection in tropical western redcedar, about 40 years old. Three climates. Biodeterioration limits the seaworthiness treatments were used: unthinned, fertilized twice of the catamarans used by fishermen in rural (F2); thinned, fertilized once (TF1); and thinned, India to 6 or 7 years. The Indian government is 97 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

fertilized twice (TF2). Fertilization increased attack by these pests and to assess the tree growth, with the number of growth spikes relationship between naturally occurring variations corresponding to the number of fertilization in heartwood extractive content and resistance treatments. Thinning had little effect on growth. to biodeterioration. Methanol-soluble extractives There was no consistent relationship between from both tree species appear to contribute patterns of radial growth rate and heartwood total significantly to heartwood resistance against extractive content and no significant difference both pests. There was a great deal of variability among treatment groups in whole-tree average within heartwood extractive mixtures of each extractive content. Total extractive content was species; variations in extractive components were not correlated with average growth rate. The poorly correlated with each other and with wood lack of consistent effect of silvicultural treatments resistance. The relationship between heartwood indicates that the carbon nutrient balance extractives and durability appears complex and dynamic is not strongly related to accumulation requires further study. of heartwood extractives in young western Thoemen, H, and PE Humphrey. 2006. redcedar. Future areas of study of effects of Modeling the physical processes relevant silvicultural treatment on heartwood extractives during hot pressing of wood-based are suggested. composites. Part I. Heat and mass transfer. Additional Program Area: Forest Ecology, Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 64: 1–10. Culture, and Productivity For wood products manufacturers and process modelers. Hot pressing of the wood-furnish mat Taylor, AM, BL Gartner, JJ Morrell, and is a critical step in the production of wood-based K Tsuoda. 2006. Effects of heartwood composites, affecting both the capacity of the extractive fractions of Thuja plicata and production line and the material properties of the Chamaecyparis nootkatensis on wood product. During the last 2 decades, modeling degradation by termites or fungi. Journal of and computer simulations of hot pressing have Wood Science 52: 147–153. provided insight into the process. This and a For wood scientists, fungal physiologists, and companion paper outline a comprehensive termite researchers. Chemical extractives make three-dimensional model that includes the most the heartwood of some tree species naturally important mechanisms during hot pressing. The resistant to attack by termites and fungi, but such new model revises previously published heat and resistance varies significantly and unpredictably mass transfer mechanisms and complements among individual pieces of wood. Heartwood them with a rheological model that accounts extractive content of some species can be for localized densification of wood-furnish mats changed by changes in the environment during and the development and relaxation of internal growth. If such changes are related to natural stress. This paper describes and validates those resistance, silvicultural treatments and changes parts of the new process model having to do in management of forest resources may affect with basic heat and mass transfer mechanisms the natural durability of wood products in the (water vapor and air transfer by gas convection future. Laboratory tests showed Thuja plicata and molecular gas diffusion, conductive and and Chamaecyparis nootkatensis heartwood convective heat transfer). This part of the model to be quite resistant to the termite Coptotermes comprises a set of constitutive flux equations that formosanus and the brown-rot fungus Postia are coupled by local energy and mass balances. placenta. This study was designed to determine Simulation may allow addressing questions that which extractives in these species most affect are difficult to address experimentally, as well as 98 Wood Processing and Product Performance Wood Processing and Product Performance

optimizing of the industrial process and improving into one or more areas of a PBSD philosophy. understanding complex interactions during hot Damage predictions performed at Colorado State pressing. University were compared with damage recorded during dynamic shearwall tests at Oregon State Thoemen, H, CR Haselein, and PE Humphrey. University. The research teams communicated 2006. Modeling the physical processes only the nominal shearwall design, the names relevant during hot pressing of wood-based of the earthquake records, and the peak ground composites. Part II. Rheology. Holz als Roh- acceleration (PGA) for each record. Qualitative und Werkstoff 64: 125–133. damage descriptions and seismic force demands For wood products manufacturers. This is matched very well, but maximum transient drifts did the second of a pair of papers presenting an not match experimental results well. Suggestions integrated model to simulate hot pressing of are made for improving predictive capability, and wood-based composites. This paper presents the the potential for and challenges in development of rheological portion of the model that simulates a whole-structure predictive damage model and both time-dependent and instantaneous its integration into a performance-based seismic deformation of the material during consolidation design development for woodframe structures are in the hot press. The model adds a fifth element examined. representing plastic and microfracture-related deformation to the Brugers model commonly Youngs, RL, TE McLain, and GN Brown. 2006. used to describe viscoelastic material behavior. Wood science and forestry—Partners Equations of the coefficients of the five-element in progress to a new world. Journal of model are presented as well. Comparison of model Forestry 104: 221. predictions with experimental results showed that For forest managers and wood technologists. In the expanded model can predict typical features this brief Perspective piece, the authors trace the of the vertical density profile. The model has development of wood technology, wood science, promise for a wide range of industrial and research and wood utilization research and utilization over applications. the past century. They describe the challenges to maintaining forestlands, a skilled workforce, and van de Lindt, JW, and R Gupta. 2006. Damage a competitive domestic wood products industry and damage prediction for wood shearwalls as economic incentives and forestry education subjected to simulated earthquake loads. programs decrease. They call for US foresters and Journal of Performance of Constructed wood scientists to work together to meet national Facilities 20: 176–184. and global needs. For structural engineers, wood scientist/ technologists, and timber engineering researchers. Zhang, C, K Li, and J Simonsen. 2006. Most residences in the United States are Terminally functionalized polyethylenes woodframe structures. Such structures protect as compatibilizers for wood-polyethylene residents well during earthquakes, but they may composites. Polymer Engineering & sustain unacceptable damage, even if conforming Science 46: 108–113. with modern seismic design. In spite of societal For wood products and wood-composites and economic demands, a performance- manufacturers. Wood-plastic composites have based seismic design (PBSD) philosophy for many advantages, but poor compatibility between woodframe structures has yet to be developed. wood and plastic often results in unsatisfactory This study examined the accuracy of “blind” mechanical properties of the composites. This damage predictions for wood shearwalls; these problem is often addressed by adding a coupling predictions may in the future be incorporated agent, or compatibilizer, to the mixture. Ideally, 99 Wood Processing and Product Performance

the compatibilizers will have separate wood- diphenyl diisocyanate (PMDI). PEA, PE-MDI, and binding and plastic-binding domains, but the PE-PMDI have similar molecular structures, and all optimal chemical structure of a compatibilizer is increased the strength of the wood-PE composites. not yet well understood. In this study, isocyanate- Modulus of rupture was higher and water uptake terminated polyethylenes (PEs) were prepared rate was lower in composites made with PE-MDI and their functioning as compatibilizers for wood- and PE-PMDI than in composites with PEA. The polyethylene composites was investigated. The superior performance of PE-MDI and PE-PMDI PEs were synthesized by reacting polyethylene was attributed to the formation of covalent bonding monoalcohol (PEA) with 4,4’-methylenediphenyl between isocyanate and wood, as determined by diisocyanate (MDI) and polymeric methylene FTIR spectra.

100 Wood Processing and Product Performance

ne Hundred Years of Forestry, an oil painting by Ken Brauner, was commissioned by Dean Hal Salwasser to commemorate the OCollege of Forestry’s Centennial. It hangs in the Weyerhaeuser Gallery on the rst  oor of Richardson Hall.

The painting depicts continually improving forest practices learned over the past 100 years. It includes riparian habitat, newly planted trees, a young stand, second growth, and old growth, plus wildlife habitat. A reduced-impact logging operation is in the background. In the foreground are three generations of OSU foresters viewing the changes on the landscape during 100 years of forestry in Oregon.