Contents

List of Contributors ix References 22 Foreword xi Further Reading 24 Is Tropical Specific? xiii 3. Climatic Factors Under the Tropics 25 JACQUES REIS, PASCAL HANDSCHUMACHER, VALERIE S. PALMER, AND PETER S. SPENCER

PART I 3.1 Introduction 26 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 3.2 A Physical Geographic Approach: The Climate and Its Characteristics 26 3.3 A Biogeographical Approach: How Climate’s Features 1. Methodological Challenges of Determine Natural Biomes and Ecosystems 26 Neuroepidemiological Studies in Low- 3.4 Biology: Adaptation and Acclimation to Tropical and Middle-Income Countries 3 Climates 28 3.5 Does the Tropical Climate Favor Pathogens and ˆ FARID BOUMEDIENE, BENOIT MARIN, AND PIERRE-MARIE PREUX Infections in Humans? 30 1.1 Introduction 3 3.6 Weather Events and Extreme Effects of Climate 32 1.2 Study Design and Feasibility in the Field 4 3.7 A Health Geographical Approach: Case Studies 1.3 General Context 6 of Climatic Features that Modulate Tropical Diseases 33 3.8 The “Boomerang Effect” Under the Tropics: Health 1.4 Difficulties in the Availability and Mobilization of Data 7 1.5 Study Design 8 Consequences of Anthropogenic Changes 35 1.6 Clinical and Regulatory Issues 8 3.9 Conclusions 36 1.7 Design-Specific Issues 10 References 36 1.8 Valorization: Scientific and Public Health Issues 10 Further Reading 39 1.9 Conclusion 11 References 11 4. Economic Aspects 41 ACHILLE TCHALLA

PART II 4.1 Introduction 41 TROPICAL NEUROEPIDEMIOLOGY: 4.2 Health System Financing: Key Challenges 41 4.3 Economical Aspects Related to Chronic Neurological BETWEEN ENVIRONMENT AND Diseases 42 GENETICS 4.4 Conclusion 45 References 45 2. Sociocultural Factors 15 PHILIPPE NUBUKPO AND CATHERINE-MARIE DUBREUIL 5. Tropical : Nutritional Factors 47 JEAN-CLAUDE DESPORT, PIERRE JE´SUS, AND PHILIPPE FAYEMENDY 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Tropical Neuroepidemiology and Health Anthropology: 5.1 Introduction 47 For Effective Collaboration 15 5.2 The Tools for Pointing Out Malnutrition and Obesity 2.3 Mental Disorders and Traditional Beliefs in SSA 17 and Their Thresholds 48 2.4 Sociocultural Representations and Stigma 5.3 The Main Causes of Malnutrition During Neurological in Epilepsy 18 Diseases and Their Treatment 49 2.5 Sociocultural Representations and Stigma 5.4 Nutrition and Epilepsy in Tropical Countries 51 in Dementia 20 5.5 Nutrition and Dementia in Tropical Countries 52 2.6 Conclusion 22 References 54

v vi CONTENTS

6. Genetics of Infections and Diseases Caused by 9.6 Stroke 121 Human Parasites Affecting the Central Nervous 9.7 Headache and Migraine 123 9.8 Extrapyramidal Disease and Parkinson’s Diseases 124 System 57 9.9 ALS 124 ALAIN DESSEIN, AGNE`S FLEURY, HE´LIA DESSEIN, AND 9.10 Neuroinfectious Diseases 124 SANDRINE MARQUET 9.11 Neuroepidemiology Training and Education 125 9.12 Conclusions 125 6.1 Introduction 57 References 125 6.2 Neurocysticercosis 58 6.3 Toxoplasmosis 59 6.4 Cerebral Malaria 61 References 66 10. Epidemiology of Neurological Disorders in Sub-Saharan Africa 129 PART III REDDA TEKLE-HAIMANOT, EDGARD B. NGOUNGOU, AND DAWIT KIBRU TROPICAL NEUROEPIDEMIOLOGY BY LARGE AREAS OF THE WORLD 10.1 Introduction 129 10.2 Infections of the Nervous System 130 10.3 Tropical Spastic Paraparesis 131 7. Asia 71 10.4 Neurofluorosis 132 10.5 Konzo 132 MOHAMAD I. IDRIS AND CHONG T. TAN 10.6 Stroke 132 7.1 Introduction 71 10.7 Epilepsy 133 7.2 Stroke 72 10.8 Nodding Syndrome 135 7.3 Epilepsy 73 10.9 Lathyrism 136 7.4 Headache 74 10.10 Dementia 136 7.5 Neuroinflammation 75 10.11 Peripheral Neuropathies 137 7.6 Neuromuscular Disorders 76 10.12 Parkinson’s Disease 137 7.7 Movement Disorders 78 10.13 Conclusion 138 7.8 Dementia 80 References 138 7.9 CNS Infections 80 7.10 Neurology Care 82 PART IV References 82 FOCUS ON SPECIFIC NEUROLOGICAL SYNDROMES OR DISEASES IN 8. Neurologic Diseases in Tropical Oceania 87 TROPICAL AREAS JACQUES JOUBERT AND CRAIG BARNETT 11. Epilepsy 145 8.1 Preamble 87 8.2 Tropical Australia 87 CHARLES R. NEWTON AND PIERRE-MARIE PREUX 8.3 Melanesia 98 8.4 Micronesia 100 11.1 Introduction 145 8.5 Polynesia 101 11.2 Definitions 145 8.6 Cerebrovascular Disease in Oceania Outside Australia 102 11.3 Classification 146 8.7 The Future 102 11.4 Epidemiology 147 Acknowledgments 102 11.5 The Causes of Epilepsy 149 References and Selected Reading 102 11.6 Comorbidity 151 11.7 Mortality 151 11.8 Sociocultural Aspects 151 11.9 Treatment 152 9. Neuroepidemiology in Latin America 105 11.10 Conclusion 153 References 153 CARLOS N. KETZOIAN, ABAYUBA´ PERNA, AND HEBER J. HACKEMBRUCH

9.1 Introduction 105 12. Dementia 155 9.2 Neuroepidemiology in Latin America 107 MAE¨LENN GUERCHET AND MARTIN PRINCE 9.3 Epilepsy 110 9.4 111 12.1 Background 155 9.5 Dementia Syndromes 117 12.2 Prevalence 158 CONTENTS vii

12.3 Incidence 160 17. Neuropsychiatric Disorders and 221 12.4 Mortality 162 JEAN-PIERRE CLE´MENT AND PHILIPPE NUBUKPO 12.5 Trends 163 References 164 17.1 Introduction 221 17.2 and Mental Health in SSA 221 17.3 Addictions in SSA 225 17.4 Conclusion 229 13. Other Neurocognitive Disorders in Tropical References 230 Health (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Further Reading 231 Parkinson’s Disease) 167 BENOIˆT MARIN, PHILIPPE COURATIER, ANNIE LANNUZEL, AND GIANCARLO LOGROSCINO 18. Neurological Syndromes or Diseases Caused 13.1 Introduction 167 by Parasites in Tropical Areas 233 13.2 Clinical Features of ALS 168 13.3 Clinical Features of Parkinsonian Disorders 169 FRANCISCO J. CAROD-ARTAL, HECTOR H. GARCIA, 13.4 Epidemiology of ALS 170 ANDREA S. WINKLER, AND DANIEL AJZENBERG 13.5 Epidemiology of PD 175 18.1 Introduction 233 13.6 Conclusion 178 18.2 Cysticercosis 234 References 178 18.3 American Trypanosomiasis 235 18.4 African Trypanosomiasis 236 18.5 Malaria 237 14. Vascular Disorders 185 18.6 Schistosomiasis 239 18.7 Toxoplasmosis 239 THIERRY ADOUKONOU AND PHILIPPE LACROIX 18.8 Gnathostomiasis 240 18.9 Angiostrongyliasis 240 14.1 Introduction 185 18.10 Nodding Syndrome and Onchocerciasis 241 14.2 Burden of Stroke in SSA 185 18.11 Neurologic Infections by Free-Living Amebae 241 14.3 Risk Factors 190 18.12 Future Directions 243 14.4 The Gaps 191 References 243 References 192

19. Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System 247 15. Neuromuscular Disorders in Tropical Areas 195 JEAN-FRANC¸ OIS FAUCHER AND MARIE-CE´CILE PLOY STE´PHANE MATHIS, LAURENT MAGY, AND JEAN-MICHEL VALLAT 19.1 Introduction 247 15.1 Introduction 195 19.2 BM/Encephalitis/Cerebral Abscess 15.2 Infectious NMDs 196 (Mycobacteria Excluded) 247 15.3 Malnutrition and Micronutrient Deficiencies 201 19.3 Mycobacterial Infections 253 15.4 Toxic Causes 202 19.4 Other Bacterial Infections Involving the CNS 257 15.5 Other Acquired NMDs 206 References 261 15.6 Hereditary NMDs 207 15.7 Idiopathic Neuropathies 208 Abbreviations 208 References 208 20. Viral Diseases 269 FRANC¸ OIS DENIS AND SE´BASTIEN HANTZ

16. Headaches in Tropical Areas 213 20.1 Introduction 270 20.2 Herpes Simplex 1 and 2 270 DISMAND HOUINATO AND ATHANASE MILLOGO 20.3 Varicella Zoster Virus 274 20.4 Cytomegalovirus 276 16.1 Introduction 213 20.5 EpsteinBarr Virus 278 16.2 Epidemiological Aspects 213 20.6 Human Herpes Virus 6 279 16.3 Impact 215 20.7 Enterovirus 279 16.4 Clinical Aspects 215 20.8 Poliomyelitis 280 16.5 Conclusion 219 20.9 Non-polio Enteroviruses 282 References 219 viii CONTENTS

20.10 Paramyxoviruses (Measles, Mumps, and 21. Other Diseases: Traumatic Brain Injuries, Nipah Viruses) 283 Tumors, and Multiple Sclerosis 297 20.11 Retrovirus 285 20.12 Polyomavirus and Progressive Multifocal MOUHAMADOU DIAGANA AND MICHEL DUMAS Leucoencephalopathy 288 21.1 Traumatic Brain Injuries 297 20.13 Rhabdoviridae/Lyssavirus 289 21.2 Tumors 298 20.14 Arboviruses 291 21.3 Multiple Sclerosis 300 20.15 Togaviridae/Rubivirus 293 References 302 20.16 Poxviruses/Smallpox and Vaccinia 294 References 295 Glossary 305 Further Reading 296 Index 309