RGPXXX10.1177/1089268019832847Review of General PsychologyShim et al. research-article8328472019

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Review of General Psychology 2019, Vol. 23(2) 159­–176 Arts and Humanities Engagement: An © American Psychological Association 2019 Article reuse guidelines: Integrative Conceptual Framework for sagepub.com/journals-permissions https://doi.org/10.1177/1089268019832847DOI: 10.1177/1089268019832847 Psychological Research journals.sagepub.com/home/rgp

Yerin Shim1, Louis Tay2, Michaela Ward1, and James O. Pawelski1

Abstract Psychologists are increasingly interested in studying the psychological effects of engaging with various forms of the arts and humanities because of their significance and ubiquity in human life. There is, however, a lack of a robust conceptual framework to support a systematic and integrative approach to the study of the psychological effects of the arts and humanities. Through an extensive review of the extant literature on conceptual and operational definitions of the arts and humanities engagement from historical, institutional, and disciplinary perspectives, the present article further expands an initial conceptualization of the arts and humanities presented in Tay, Pawelski, and Keith. The implications and limitations of the integrative conceptual framework of arts and humanities engagement, as well as directions for future research, are discussed.

Keywords arts, humanities, conceptual framework, operationalization, integration

From ancient times to the current digital era, the arts and humanities. Although psychological research has been humanities have been a significant part of human experi- undertaken on various forms of arts and humanities such as ence. They have played important roles in education, lei- music, visual arts, literature, film, dance, and theater sure, and work for people across diverse backgrounds and (Reiter-Palmon & Tinio, 2018; Smith & Tinio, 2014), this cultures, present in their lives from the cradle to the grave. work is not grounded in a robust conceptualization of arts This ubiquity of the arts and humanities in human life has and humanities engagement as a whole. One of the core also made them a topic of interest for psychologists. For challenges to scientific progress in this area is the lack of a more than a century, psychologists have conducted theoreti- common language and an integrative conceptual framework cal and empirical research on the psychological processes that can be used across disciplines (Stickley et al., 2017). To of engaging with art (Tinio & Smith, 2017). More recently, better understand the psychological effects of engaging there has also been a call for a humanities approach to psy- with the arts and humanities, we must first begin with a sys- chology that investigates human subjectivity (Teo, 2017). tematic and integrative approach to its conceptualization Furthermore, several divisions of the American and operationalization (Tay, Pawelski, & Keith, 2018). Psychological Association such as the Society for the Many scholars and organizations in the arts and humanities Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts (Division (e.g., Allen et al., 2016; American Academy of Arts & 10); the Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Sciences, 2013b; Perry, 1938; Proctor, 1998) have attempted Psychology (Division 24); the Society for the Psychology to provide definitions of the arts and humanities from their of Religion and Spirituality (Division 36) along with their particular perspectives and terminology. Researchers in the accompanying peer-reviewed journals are devoted to the

promotion of scholarship in this area. This indicates that 1 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA both the arts and the humanities have substantive psycho- 2Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA logical significance in our lives. Despite this interest in the psychology of the arts and the Corresponding Author: James O. Pawelski, Positive Psychology Center, University of humanities, however, our field lacks an integrative under- Pennsylvania, 3701 Market St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. standing of what it means to engage with the arts and Email: [email protected] 160 Review of General Psychology 23(2) social and health sciences, on the contrary, have tried to definitions of the arts and humanities and engagement with operationalize arts and humanities in terms of participation the arts and humanities from multiple perspectives, and in these areas (e.g., Allen et al., 2016; C. R. Davies et al., integrate them into a conceptual framework, (c) present the 2012; Silber & Triplett, 2015). An integrative conceptual three conceptual frames and components of our integrative foundation that incorporates a range of these conceptualiza- conceptual framework, (d) explore the relationship among tions and operationalizations can enable researchers to clar- the different perspectives and show how our integrative ify the major conceptual components of arts and humanities conceptual framework draws them together, and (e) illus- engagement and, by extension, provide direction for future trate examples of how this framework can be applied to spe- research to study their effects. cific fields within the arts and humanities. Finally, we To address this need, Tay et al. (2018) recently proposed conclude with (e) a discussion of the implications and limi- an initial conceptualization of the arts and humanities tations of our current integrative conceptual framework, within a broader model for understanding its association providing suggested directions for future work in the con- with human flourishing. They suggested an extensional ceptualization and operationalization of arts and humanities definition and a functional analysis, which they called the engagement in the context of well-being research. “what” and the “how” of the arts and humanities. Specifically, the extensional definition was stated as “the Arts and Humanities Engagement as historical categorizations of selected objects of study” an Integrative Construct which “demarcate and constrain the content and domain,” and the functional analysis was defined as “the ways [the] Why should we study the psychological effects of arts and content is presented, as well as the types of engagement and humanities engagement? What is unique about engaging participation involved” which are “undertaken within with the arts and humanities, as opposed to engaging with extensionally defined domains” (Tay et al., 2018, p. 217). the sciences? What are the differences and commonalities While this was a significant breakthrough in the integrative between the arts and the humanities? In this section, we aim conceptualization of the arts and humanities, the authors to explore these questions to demonstrate how arts and presented their conceptualization as a stepping stone toward humanities engagement can be a useful integrative con- greater conceptual and theoretical development. struct for psychological research. In the present article, we aim to elaborate further on the There is little doubt that the arts, the humanities, and the initial conceptualization by Tay et al. (2018) and expand sciences collectively contribute to the advancement of our this to a broader, integrative conceptual framework that understanding of the human mind and the environment we bridges various conceptual perspectives on what we mean live in through systematic and critical investigations by engagement with the arts and humanities. We achieve (Cavell, Cooper, Edgerton, & Weisskopf, 1986; Hansson, this goal by reviewing the extant conceptual and operational 2017). Many scholars have argued, however, that the arts definitions of the arts and humanities, and the engagement and humanities differ from the sciences in their goals and with arts and humanities from an extensive literature of his- in the ways in which they help us achieve this understand- torical, institutional, and disciplinary perspectives. We ing. For instance, although the purpose of the sciences is to build on the two initial conceptual frames of the “what” and describe experience through control and prediction, the “how” of arts and humanities engagement by clarifying and arts aim to enhance experience through the creation and expanding upon their conceptual components. In addition, expression of meaning (Dewey, 2005). In addition, we add a third conceptual frame that indicates the “why” of although the arts and humanities emphasize the exploration arts and humanities engagement. We make it clear that it is of the myriad possibilities and ideals of human beings, the not our intention to develop a single, unifying definition of sciences focus on identifying what actually is the case arts and humanities engagement, which is likely an impos- (Gould, 2003; Wierzbicka, 2011). sible task for such a complex domain. It is also important to Drawing from the philosophy of science, we can further note that our current integrative conceptual framework does understand some distinctive features that differentiate these not include psychological processes or contexts of the indi- domains. The sciences have been distinguished from the arts viduals or groups engaging with the arts and humanities, as and humanities on the basis of its characteristics of verifi- it would be beyond the scope of this article. Instead, we ability through empirical methods, falsifiability, capability focus on integrating key conceptual components that com- of puzzle-solving, and through particular social practices of prise the domain of the arts and humanities and associated scientists such as striving for universalism, emphasizing col- operationalizable behaviors. laboration, disinterestedness of personal or ideological In the following sections, we will (a) suggest “arts and motives, and skepticism (Hansson, 2017). By contrast, the humanities engagement” as a useful integrative construct arts and humanities have been characterized by an emphasis and provide a rationale for this approach, (b) describe our on meaning-making through interpretation, critical analysis, process of reviewing existing conceptual and operational creativity, and imagination, conducted primarily by Shim et al. 161 practices involving individual response and subjectivity fields it cuts across. Instead, we conducted a purposive (Small, 2013). Ambiguity is often suggested to be one of the extensive review to integrate diverse conceptualizations characteristics of the arts and humanities that allows for this and operationalizations across various disciplines and sec- meaning-making (Zeki, 2004); in the sciences, however, tors. Our goal was to integrate key historical, institutional, ambiguity tends to be discouraged. Moreover, in current and disciplinary perspectives on conceptualizing A & H political, educational, and public dialogue, the arts and engagement. humanities have generally been collectively portrayed as The literature review was conducted through an emergent having less occupational and economic value as compared process. First, a preliminary set of definitions of the “humani- to the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics ties” and the “arts” were collected by a graduate student (STEM) disciplines, as indicated by the median salaries of research assistant in psychology; this set consisted of extracts college graduates who majored in these disciplines from dictionaries, encyclopedias, reports and websites of pro- (Carnevale, Cheah, & Hanson, 2015). fessional organizations (including academic and cultural insti- In addition to noting differences between the sciences and tutions), peer-reviewed journals, and speeches and books of the arts and humanities, it is important to point out differences scholars in A & H. The first and third author reviewed these between the arts and the humanities themselves. In lexical definitions, checking for their credibility and setting inclu- definitions, the arts are typically characterized as a domain of sion/exclusion criteria to narrow down the sources used. For creative practice, whereas the humanities are defined as a professional organizations, for example, we included only branch of study and scholarship (Art, n.d.; Humanity, n.d.). definitions provided by national-level organizations in the This characterization is also supported by historical defini- United States (excluding definitions provided by state-level tions of the arts and the humanities. For example, ancient organizations). For philosophical definitions (i.e., definitions notions of the term art reflect “conscious activity” from the humanities field of philosophy), “the arts” and “art” (Tatarkiewicz, 1971, p. 150) and “skilled practice” (Shiner, were differentiated and definitions of “the arts” as a whole 2001, p. 311) whereas historical notions of the humanities were prioritized. Next we used the Google search engine and indicate a “program of education” (Proctor, 1998, p. 13). the Google Scholar database to search for and review addi- Although it is important to acknowledge differences tional sources for existing conceptualizations and operational- between the arts and the humanities, the commonalities izations of A & H engagement that were not captured in the between them serve as an impetus for our integrative concep- preliminary collection. tualization. In different historical classifications, some disci- During the process of reviewing the collected sources, plines have been grouped under both terms, suggesting that an abbreviated thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) the boundaries between them may be somewhat artificial was conducted by the first author on a subset of definitions. (Agresto, 1983). In addition, the arts and the humanities The first author used MAXQDA 2018 software to identify appear to have evolved to share common characteristics, the main conceptual themes that occurred across the which often make it difficult to differentiate one from the extracted definitions. This analysis was conducted through other. For example, ways of engaging with the arts are not an abductive process (Haig, 2005) which involves both necessarily limited to practice and include the study of the inductive and deductive analyses simultaneously by identi- arts; conversely, the humanities have become more practice- fying components of the two initial conceptual frames (i.e., oriented (e.g., Jay, 2010). In addition, scholars have suggested extensional definition and functional analysis) and captur- conceptual links between the arts and the humanities, such as ing new components or frames that emerged across the sub- their common imaginative element (Wierzbicka, 2011). Given set of definitions. Finally, revisions and additions to the these common characteristics and fuzzy boundaries, we focus integrative conceptual framework were then made by the on integrating the common conceptual components of arts and lead author, in discussion with members of the research the humanities engagement, while keeping the distinction team, which consisted of an associate professor in psychol- between the arts and the humanities in our conceptual frame- ogy, a senior scholar in positive psychology with a PhD in work. In light of this relation, we denote the arts and humani- philosophy, and a research assistant with a bachelor’s ties as “A & H” throughout the rest of the article. degree in psychology and literary studies at the time of the study. The final integrative conceptual framework in its cur- Literature Review and Framework rent form is presented in Table 1. Expansion Process The Expanded Integrative Conceptual The framework we present here is based on a literature Framework review of existing definitions and theoretical frameworks of A & H engagement. This review was not a systematic psy- The existing literature on the definitions of A & H engage- chology review, as such an undertaking would not be fea- ment provided support for conceptualizing it in terms of the sible given the complexity of this domain and the multiple extensional definition and functional analysis suggested by 162 Review of General Psychology 23(2)

Table 1. Integrative Conceptual Framework of Arts and Humanities Engagement.

Applications to Specific Domains Components Conceptual Frame (Subcategories) Example of Indicators Visual Art History Extensional (“what”) Field (disciplines/ Academic majors, Art majors; artists; art History major; historians; Historical and industries/ occupations, public institutes; community art historical associations; contemporary sectors) participants, institutions, education organizations public history categorizations of A organizations, & H domains (that community indicate form and Subject matter Topics and genres Renaissance portraits (Bauer Local history (Stefaniak, content) covered in courses and & Schwan, 2018); figurative Bilewicz, & Lewicka, 2017); programs and abstract art (Mastandrea, world history (Kohlmeier, Bartoli, & Carrus, 2011) 2005) Practices Occupations, leisure Taking art classes in a university History research and (scholarly/ activities as a student; taking art classes pedagogy; reading history applied) in the community as a hobby books for leisure Artifacts Hard and digital objects, Characteristics of art works Historical archives, historical physical settings (Kozbelt & Kaufman, 2014); buildings, heritage art galleries (Camic, Tischler, sites; history museums & Peraman, 2014) (Fujiwara, Cornwall, & Dolan, 2014) Phenomenological Cognitions, perceptions, Aesthetic Experience Historical empathy experience emotions, psychological Questionnaire (Wanzer, (Endacott, 2014); states Finley, Zarian, & Cortez, perspective-taking 2018) (Cullinan, Dove, Estice, & Lanka, 2008) Functional (“how”) Activities Reading, writing, Painting (Chen, 2013); coloring Historical site visits; Ways of engaging with A (behaviors/skills) drawing, sculpting; and drawing (Hattori, Hattori, teaching history (Davison, & H domains literacy, critical Hokao, Mizushima, & Mase, 2017); historical thinking thinking, appreciation, 2011) (Kohlmeier, 2005); communication excavating (Sayer, 2015) Modes (primary/ Performing, creating, Artistic creation and aesthetic Generating a historical secondary) critiquing, consuming; reception (Tinio, 2013); narrative, learning history; professional/amateur, aesthetic judgment (Rabb, virtual experience individual/group, virtual/ Brownell, & Winner, 2018); of history (Sedano, in-person computer-generated art Leendertz, Vinni, Sutinen, (Chamberlain, Mullin, & Ellis, 2013) Scheerlinck, & Wagemans, 2018) Approaches Idiographic, interpretive, Communication (Charles & Interpretive pedagogy expressive, Telis, 2009) (Nixon, 2012) communicative, historic attitude/manner Normative (“why”) Aesthetic To experience pleasure Aesthetic pleasure in design Historical sublime Fundamental and experience and beauty Scale (Blijlevens et al., 2017) (Humanities and Human primary goals of A & H Flourishing, 2018) engagement Individual growth To develop character, Appreciation of beauty To achieve a sense of competencies, and skills (Martínez-Martí, Avia, & identity by locating self in Hernández-Lloreda, 2018) historical context Societal growth To understand and Shared meaning (Schepman, To learn from the past and appreciate diverse Kirkham, Rodway, Lambert, & overcome problems in cultures and history; Locke, 2018) society preserve and promote common values; cultivate future vision Meaning-making To make personal and Meaning-making (Hubard, 2008) To provide meaning through collective meaning an understanding of history Shim et al. 163

Tay et al. (2018). These two distinct conceptual frames include traditional disciplines such as classical languages focus on fields, content, and subject matter (i.e., what) and and literature, history, and philosophy (Levi, 1983; Proctor, on skills, techniques, and ways of doing (i.e., how) and 1998) and also more contemporary disciplines such as mod- come from the Western academic tradition (Levi, 1970). As ern languages, linguistics, jurisprudence, archeology, com- previously discussed, our new integrative conceptual frame- parative religion, ethics, and criticism and theory of arts work is built on Tay et al.’s (2018) two original frames (i.e., (United States Congress, 2014). The National Foundation on extensional and functional) that cover the “what” and “how” the Arts and Humanities Act (United States Congress, 2014) of A & H engagement, and adds a third frame that covers even extends A & H to include social science disciplines the “why” of A & H engagement, which we call the “norma- which deal with “humanistic content and employ humanistic tive” frame (see Table 1). In the following sections, we methods” (p. 2). More recently, contemporary fields such as describe each conceptual frame and contextualize the digital humanities (Rosenbloom, 2013) have also been frames within the existing literature. formed. This concept of A & H as academic disciplines is often captured by categories such as A & H degrees, majors, The Extensional Frame (“What”) and courses offered in universities and research institutes (American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2018a). When people engage with the arts and humanities, what do Although the conceptualization of A & H as academic they engage with? As discussed, Tay et al.’s (2018) initial disciplines encompasses the study of this domain, it is less conceptualization proposed an extensional approach as one effective at capturing the practices within it. For this rea- way to capture the conceptual domain of A & H. An exten- son, our expanded extensional frame also includes nonaca- sional definition refers to a way of defining a concept by demic forms of A & H fields such as industries and sectors. listing the members that belong to a category (Geeraerts, The nonacademic forms of A & H have been described as 2003). Tay et al. (2018) listed various objects that have his- creative or cultural (e.g., Holm, Jarrick, & Scott, 2015; torically fallen under the domain of A & H. This includes Kushner & Cohen, 2016; Markusen, Wassall, DeNatale, & specific disciplines, majors, courses, topics, and occupa- Cohen, 2008) industries, especially in the arts (rather than tions. In our expanded integrative conceptual framework, the humanities). A & H industries are often indicated by the we further develop the conceptual categories of the exten- presence of A & H-related occupations and settings (e.g., sional frame to include contemporary forms and contents of American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2018a; Markusen A & H that are also part of the current domain. We note that et al., 2008). However, the concept of industries is also lim- the purpose of our extensional frame is no longer to demar- ited in that it only captures profit-oriented fields. Thus addi- cate the precise boundaries of the A & H domain with other tional conceptual categories representing nonprofit and domains. We also do not intend to exhaustively list every public sectors that serve the community are also needed item that belongs to the A & H domain. Our goal is rather to (Filicko & Lafferty, 2002). provide the major conceptual categories of A & H that rep- It is important that A & H be differentially conceptual- resent the domains distilled from our literature review, so ized as a set of fields that includes academic disciplines, that they can then be used to generate a list of forms and industries, nonprofit and public sectors, each with its own content that belong to each category. In the expanded exten- set of indicators. As noted above, different settings may be sional frame, the “what” of A & H engagement is captured used to indicate different A & H fields. For example, among through a list of fields, subject matter, practices, artifacts, various humanities organizations (American Academy of and phenomenological experiences. Arts & Sciences, 2018b), academic institutions, such as public/private schools and universities, and research insti- Fields. In existing A & H definitions, the broadest and most tutes may indicate the domain of academic disciplines; and common conceptual domain within A & H is a field, under- cultural institutions such as museums, libraries, galleries, stood as a particular area of study or profession. One of the theaters, and administrative and financial institutions, ways an A & H field is frequently conceptualized is through including professional organizations (both profit and non- a set of academic disciplines. Although the attempt to spec- profit) and foundations, may indicate the domains of indus- ify precisely which disciplines belong to A & H has gone tries and nonprofit and public sectors. Similarly, participant through many iterations throughout Western history (Bod, “type” can be used as A & H field indicators. For instance, Kursell, Maat, & Weststeijn, 2016), its conceptualization as students enrolled in universities with A & H majors and a distinct group of disciplines appears from the time of degree programs, and faculty and researchers who work at Cicero and continues into the 15th-century Italian Renais- such academic institutions, can be indicators of A & H as an sance (Proctor, 1998), and through later institutionalization academic discipline. Professional artists and administrators by Western universities (Armitage et al., 2013; Harvard Task can be indicators of A & H’s industry and nonprofit sectors. Force on the Arts, 2008; Kernan, 2014; Mathae, Langrehr, & Members of the general population who participate in A & Birzer, 2004). Thus, the academic disciplines of A & H may H may indicate the public sector. 164 Review of General Psychology 23(2)

However, it is important to note that even these differen- n.d.). Similarly, Bod et al. (2016) uses “practices” and tial concepts of A & H fields can overlap. For example, pub- “objects of study” as terms in his description of the humani- lic A & H is not only considered as a public engagement but ties. Finally, professional organizations describe A & H as also as an academic discipline (Davidson & Goldberg, “study and application” (United States Congress, 2014, 2004; Ellison, 2009; Gale & Carton, 2005; Jay, 2010). p. 2) and as “modes of expression” (American Council of Finally, these fields may overlook private A & H participa- Learned Societies, 1964, p. 1). This concept of A & H as a tion that may occur in individual and informal settings such practice may be captured through A & H occupations and as local meetups and online platforms such as blogs, social leisure activities of laypeople who are involved in A & H, media, and streaming media (Silber & Triplett, 2015). similar to the way that participants and their activities serve as indicators of A & H as a field. Subject matter. The second most common form of the “what” of A & H engagement is its subject matter. Subject Artifacts. One form of A & H that was implied in our ini- matter indicates the content of various A & H forms, and tial conceptualization but not explicitly stated is A & H many scholars have stated that the term “arts and humani- as a collection of artifacts. For example, Tay et al. (2018) ties” points not only to the branch of disciplines but also to described A & H as “works covered in a class on the 19th the subject matter studied by those disciplines (Bod, 2013; century British novel.” In this example “works” are a Kernan, 2014). The subject matter of A & H is described as tangible artifact and could be used to describe the domain relating to the various aspects of the human (Broder- of A & H (Levi, 1983). Within the arts, artifacts may ick,1983; Levi, 1983) such as culture (Woff, 2013), activity include “sculptures, paintings, decorated crafts, music (Collini, 2012; Tatarkiewicz, 1971), experience (Dutton, scores, and texts” (Dutton, 2006, p. 369). Similarly, 2006; Jones, Mather, & Uchill, 2016; Zakaras & Lowell, within the humanities, artifacts can be understood as 2008), values (Broderick, 1983; Myers, 1967), capacity books, manuscripts, literary works, grammar books, (Harpham, 2013), environment (United States Congress, plays, and poems (Bod, 2013; Wierzbicka, 2011). New 2014), and time (American Academy of Arts & Sciences, forms of A & H artifacts such as e-books, digital files, 2013b). Some scholars have also used phrases such as and smartphone applications (Aliagas & Margallo, 2017) “expressions of the human mind” (Dilthey, 1883 as cited in have emerged and are thus important to consider in the Bod et al., 2016, p. 3) and “meaning-making practices” conceptualization of A & H. (Small, 2013, p. 23) to describe the subject matter of A & H. Wierzbicka (2011) summarizes these various forms of Phenomenological experience. A final conceptual category human-related content as “things that happen to people, that indicates the domain of A & H is phenomenological things that people do, and things that people say, as well as experience. A & H as a phenomenological experience dif- people’s thoughts, emotions, motivation, and values” (p. 38). fers from human experience as a subject matter. The latter With this expansion of the scope of fields that are cate- treats human experience as an object of study or practice; gorized as A & H, the subject matter that fields deal with the former, on the contrary, signifies the subjective phe- should naturally be expanded as well. Historical categoriza- nomena that occur within the individual when engaging tions of A & H often generally restricted A & H content to with A & H. Phenomenological experience has been defined that produced by classical Greece and Rome or the fine arts. as an essential component of the conceptual domain of A & However, the topics and genres of A & H have become H, especially in the arts. In Art as Experience, John Dewey more “multicultural and pluralistic” (Kernan, 2014), and (2005) writes that “when artistic objects are separated from include full frameworks of analysis (Ellison, 2009) cen- both conditions of origin and operation in experience, a tered around gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, religion, and wall is built around them that renders almost opaque their ability. Recent A & H work also includes popular culture as general significance” (p. 2). Dewey’s theory of art further a serious object of study and practice (Browne, 1984). suggests that the essence of art is the exploration of mean- These topics and genres of A & H may be found in courses ings and values of human life (Alexander, 1987). A range of and programs that are offered in various A & H settings. scholars have explored the components of phenomenologi- cal experience. For example, the inaugural publication from Practices. In addition to the concept of A & H as a field and Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT) Center for subject matter, many lexical, philosophical, and institu- Art, Science, & Technology, an interdisciplinary volume tional definitions conceptualize it in terms of practices, titled Experience, includes work by artists, musicians, phi- either scholarly ones related to study and pedagogy or losophers, anthropologists, historians, and neuroscientists applied ones related to the professions and leisure. For and identifies experience as its primary object of study, with example, in the third edition of the Oxford English Diction- culture, cognition, and common sense constituting the key ary, A & H is defined in terms of “scholarship,” “the study facets of experience (Jones et al., 2016). From a psycho- of” and “branches of creative activity” (Art, n.d.; Humanity, logical perspective, Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson (1990) Shim et al. 165 examines the major dimensions of aesthetic experience as Baker, Tischler, & Abrams, 2015; Shapiro, Coulehan, Wear, perceptual, emotional, intellectual, and communicational. & Montello, 2009). In educational research, A & H engage- In sum, the “what” of A & H engagement appears to be ment has been operationalized as craft practices (e.g., Allen conceptualized throughout the extant literature in various et al., 2016). forms and content including fields, subject matter, prac- According to these definitions, the activities of A & H tices, artifacts, and phenomenological experiences. These engagement can be broadly defined to include all human conceptual categories may be used to identify the A & H activities. However, such a broad definition may not be the domain in question when studying its psychological effects. most useful one. If we seek a more narrow definition, which human activities are the most prototypical of engagement The Functional Frame (“How”) with the A & H domain? As considered in the extensional frame, the activities of the A & H domain may include vari- A complementary perspective to understanding the domain ous actions and behaviors that fall under scholarly and of A & H (i.e., what) is conceptualizing it through a func- applied practices. For instance, in a scholarly practice of A tional analysis (i.e., how; Tay et al., 2018). The functional & H, one may engage in activities such as reading and writ- analysis focuses on the behavioral and attitudinal aspects ing. In an applied practice, one may engage in activities of A & H engagement as opposed to the forms and content such as drawing and sculpting. of the A & H domain. While overlapping conceptual facets In addition, the behavioral component of the A & H may exist between the “what” and “how” of A & H engage- domain is often described as the application of skills (Art, ment (e.g., practices in the extensional frame vs. activities n.d.) and it may thus make sense to understand the enage- in the functional frame), each conceptual frame will shed ment with A & H as activities in relation to the various light on a more nuanced understanding of those particular skills that are used, developed, and honed in those activi- conceptual facets of A & H engagement. In our extensional ties. For example, the Harvard-based Humanities and frame, we defined various types of conceptual categories Liberal Arts Assessment (HULA) research team indicates that appear to represent the “what” of A & H engagement. that humanities practices are aimed at developing various Similarly, the functional frame indicates the types of con- skills such as literacy (basic and advanced), critical think- ceptual categories that represent the “how” of A & H ing, understanding, appreciation, creativity, practical engagement. In our initial conceptualization, we outlined judgment, communication, kinesthetic-developmental, two types of interactions with the A & H domain: the modes and personality factors. These results arise through multi- and activities (Tay et al., 2018). In our integrative frame- ple pathways, which HULA identifies as processing work, we expand on these two components (i.e., modes and capacities (i.e., cognitive-analytical, cognitive-imagina- activities) and add a new, third component in the functional tive, metacognitive, affective, intersubjective, kines- frame. We refer to this third component as “approaches.” thetic), which interpret sensory inputs (i.e., verbal, visual, aural, kinesthetic, or behavioral stimuli; Dean, Schein, Activities. Activities are defined as the specific behaviors Kang, & Allen, 2016). conducted within the extensional domains of A & H; in other words, it is how the A & H domain manifests as human Modes. The modes are another way to describe “how” peo- behaviors. Conceptualizing A & H as activities is well-sup- ple interact with forms and content within the extensional ported in the extant theoretical and empirical literature. Ety- domain of A & H. It is a higher level concept than that of mologically, in Greek and Roman culture arts (techne in activities. Modes as a categorization of A & H engagement Greek and ars in Latin) meant “any kind of human activity” are reflected in the literature; specifically, they are implied in as opposed to activity in nature that exists without human the categorization of activities and reflect the different forms involvement (Shiner, 2001). This definition was later of participating in these activities (e.g., C. R. Davies et al., adopted in the Middle Ages categorization of A & H as lib- 2012; Graham, Chattopadhyay, & Lakhanpal, 2014). In Tay eral arts, which centered around practical skills that could be et al. (2018) initial conceptualization of A & H engagement, taught (Kristeller, 1951). Scholars have also argued that the some examples of modes included creating, performing, field of A & H could be understood as a “sum total of human consuming, studying, and critiquing. Other scholars have activities” (Ullman, 1946, p. 302) and as a “behavioral form” also suggested similar modes such as “making, experienc- (Dutton, 2006, p. 376). Several empirical studies conducted ing, and assessing” (Dutton, 2006, p. 368), “artistic creation, with participants from the general population operational- aesthetic experience, and critical response to art” (Zakaras & ized A & H engagement through various categories of activi- Lowell, 2008, p. 10), and “creative and receptive participa- ties (e.g., C. R. Davies et al., 2012; Silber & Triplett, 2015). tion” (Australia Council for the Arts, 2010, p. 15). While Within the fields of medical humanities and health humani- there are slight differences in the ways modes are catego- ties, A & H engagement has been operationalized as peda- rized, it is clear that there are themes across the ways in gogical activities and interventions (e.g., Crawford, Brown, which individuals engage in A & H activities. In our 166 Review of General Psychology 23(2) expanded integrative conceptual framework, we refer to and the individual’s particular context (Collini, 2012). these as primary modes and suggest that these modes include Wierzbicka (2011) states that the plural term of A & H (i.e., creating, performing (including teaching), critiquing, and the arts and the humanities, not art and humanity) indicates consuming (including studying, learning, and appreciating). a “double focus,” on humanity as a whole, and on individ- In addition, we further categorize primary modes using the ual human beings. Furthermore, other scholars describe A following secondary modes: professional/amateur, individ- & H as having a “special focus” (Dutton, 2006, p. 371) on ual/group, and virtual/in-person. The professional/amateur particular matters, in other words, on “individual or cultural mode addresses the role of profession in one’s A & H distinctiveness” (Collini, 2012, p. 64) rather than matters engagement. For example, an individual could engage with that can be generalized in statistical terms. Because these A & H professionally in one domain, but as an amateur in a matters of focus can be subjective, A & H’s approach is different domain (C. R. Davies et al., 2012). The individual/ often interpretive. The third common approach of A & H is group mode indicates whether a person interacts with A & H the evaluative. As opposed to the sciences, which seek to be individually, or in a group (either small or large), such as a unbiased (and by extension value free), A & H appreciates community. Finally, virtual/in-person indicates that a person its inherently value-laden nature. Historically, A & H has could engage in A & H virtually or in-person. Some exam- had a moral component (Levi, 1983) and even now, the ples of virtual engagement with A & H include an imaginary humanities are expected to guide human behavior based on visit to a historical site (Sherry, 2016) or playing a digital a set of ethical values (Broderick, 1983). For example, one game about civic engagement in a given local community characterization of the arts is aesthetic worth (Adajian, (Sedano, Leendertz, Vinni, Sutinen, & Ellis, 2013). 2016). We note here that this is a descriptive characteriza- tion of A & H engagement and not a criticism (Broderick, Approaches. Another level of the “how” dimension of A & H 1983). The fourth main approach of A & H is to be expres- engagement that we include in our integrative framework sive. A & H not only expresses individual experiences describes the attitude or manner that is brought to them. This (Tatarkiewicz, 1971) but also the diversity of human lives concept is supported by several scholars who note that “the (Woff, 2013). These expressions are often described as cre- true tests of the humanities arise from a state of mind, an ative, imaginative, emotional, and aesthetic representations approach to truth, a manner of commitment, not from a list (e.g., American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2013a; of disciplines” (Broderick, 1983, p. 1) and that there are no American Council of Learned Societies, 1964; Harvard truly humanistic subject matters but only “humanistic treat- Task Force on the Arts, 2008) which indicate a way of imi- ments of subject matter” (Levi, 1983, p. 15). Similarly, tating real experiences in the arts (Dutton, 2006), and more Nussbaum (2010) describes “the spirit of the humanities” as recently also in the digital humanities (Flanders, 2013). A “searching critical thought, daring imagination, empathetic separate but closely related approach to the expressive understanding of human experience of many different kinds, approach is the communicative approach. This approach and understanding of the complexity of the world we live in” focuses on the social aspect of expression, to communicate (p. 7). The approaches to A & H have often been explained (Zakaras & Lowell, 2008) and share experiences with oth- by contrasting A & H with the sciences. Wierzbicka (2011) ers (Americans for the Arts, n.d.; Broderick, 1983; Else, states that while the approach of the humanities has many 1969; Zakaras & Lowell, 2008). Finally, while not as things in common with that of the creative arts, it is “funda- explicit as others, A & H also can have a historic approach. mentally” different from that of the sciences. More specifi- This approach captures the work of A & H to place impor- cally, she argues that the approaches of A & H are what tance on learning from the past (S. Davies, 1997). differentiate them from the social sciences. While both use In this section, we reviewed the different ways the “how” human experience as their subject matter, the social sciences of A & H engagement can be conceptualized. As with the use empirical verification for their method (Wierzbicka, extensional (i.e., what) components, these functional (i.e., 2011). While the modes and activities describe the “how” of how) components exist across various levels, from the level A & H engagement in explicit and descriptive terms, the of specific activities to the broader modes of engagement, to approaches are more implicit and subjective ways of inter- the general approach of A & H domains and engagement. acting with the extensional domains of A & H. Several scholars and institutions have described A & H The Normative Frame (“Why”) approaches in various ways, and we summarize these in the following components of our integrative framework: (a) The final frame of the integrative conceptual framework idiographic, (b) interpretive, (c) evaluative, (d) expressive, indicates the why of A & H engagement, which conceptual- (e) communicative, and (f) historic approaches. First, in the izes A & H engagement in terms of its normative purposes. existing literature A & H is often described as having an This conceptual frame was newly added to the framework idiographic and interpretive nature, defined as having a as it emerged as an important conceptual component in focus on understanding the individual (Broderick, 1983) existing definitions based on our review. It is of note that Shim et al. 167 this frame focuses on the common, normative goals of A & imagination, sympathy, dignity, and civility. Several other H engagement rather than the personal, context-specific scholars suggest that the end goal of the humanities is to motivations for individuals who engage in A & H. For cultivate a liberal self that is unique and autonomous (Proc- example, a student majoring in philosophy might engage in tor, 1998), possesses skills and stands on values (Broderick, a thought experiment to merely complete a class assign- 1983), and that can be a responsible community member ment (i.e., personal motivation) while the normative goal of (American Council of Learned Societies, 1964). On the the assignment may have been to exercise critical thinking. social and community level, the goals of A & H engagement The two different “whys” described here make them clearly are often defined as understanding, appreciating, and learn- different from each other, and this difference is important to ing from diverse human cultures from different places and capture in clearly understanding whether personal motiva- times (e.g., American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2013b; tions and normative goals relate to each other. In other Collini, 2012; National Humanities Alliance, 2013; Woff, words, the question of “Why do people engage in A & H?” 2013); preserving and promoting common ethical, social, may or may not be consistent with the question of “Why do and aesthetic values (e.g., American Council of Learned A & H exist?” The normative frame captures the fundamen- Societies, 1964; Levi, 1983); and developing capacities and tal and primary goals of A & H engagement and thus may be providing vision for the future (e.g., American Academy of indicative of potential normative outcomes of A & H Arts & Sciences, 2013a; Broderick, 1983). These normative engagement. In the following, we summarize key themes of goals of individual and societal growth, however, are not the normative frame provided by several A & H scholars exclusive to the humanities. According to Leo Tolstoy (1910), and professional organizations on their ideas about what A art is viewed as a means for shared communication among & H aspire to in their definitions. people which is “indispensable for the life and progress toward well-being of individuals and of humanity” (p. 50). Aesthetic experience. One of the common normative pur- poses of A & H engagement, especially well-documented in Meaning-making. Finally, meaning-making appears to be an the arts, is to have an aesthetic experience. This theme is important normative purpose of engaging with A & H that commonly found in the functionalist theory of art (not to be appears in several existing conceptualizations. In several confused with the functional frame), which suggests that descriptions of the humanities by humanities scholars, the the normative purpose of the arts is to facilitate aesthetic core subject of the humanities has been identified as the experience (Adajian, 2016; S. Davies, 1990; Starr, 2013; “pervasive and continuing meanings in human experience” Tatarkiewicz, 1971). According to this approach, we must (Myers, 1967, p. 8) and “meaning-making practices of consider whether the work in question fulfills its normative human culture” (Small, 2013, p. 23), and humans have been purpose (of providing an aesthetic experience) to consider it described as “bearers of meaning” (Collini, 2012, p. 44). as art or not (Gaut & Lopes, 2013). Parallel to this philoso- This normative goal also appears in the illustration of the phy of art, empirical approaches that focus on the aesthetic pursuit of arts, as to create and express meaning (Dewey, experience through engaging in the arts have been devel- 2005). oped in the field of empirical aesthetics (Seeley, 2017). We acknowledge that these are not the only normative This normative goal has also been found in descriptions goals of A & H engagement, but they constitute some of the humanities. For example, according to the American important common ideas that have been presented by previ- Council of Learned Societies (1964), the essential role of ous thinkers and researchers. When using the normative the humanities has been to form and preserve not only frame, it is critical (a) to indicate from which perspective social and moral values but also aesthetic values. The pur- the normative goals are presented, (b) to examine whether suit of beauty has also been mentioned as fundamental or not the goals are applicable or appropriate to a particular goals of the humanities by several humanities scholars context, and (c) to keep in mind that the existence of mul- (Else, 1969; Levi, 1983). tiple normative goals may be possible.

Individual and societal growth. On the other hand, a common Integration Across Different normative purpose more explicitly stated in the existing Conceptual Perspectives conceptualizations of the humanities is the pursuit of indi- vidual and societal growth. Many A & H scholars and pro- From our extensive literature review of the existing defini- fessional organizations suggest that the normative purpose tions of A & H engagement, it is clear that conceptualiza- of A & H engagement is to promote the development of the tions of A & H engagement have emerged across history individual, the enhancement of a community or society, and and contexts, each emphasizing particular aspects (see the betterment of humanity as a whole. Perry (1938) argued Table 2). In this section, we take a closer look at several that the humanities are defined by their “liberalizing effect” exemplars of A & H engagement conceptualization from (p. 30) which he defines as the promotion of learning, historical, institutional, and disciplinary perspectives (e.g., 168 Review of General Psychology 23(2)

Table 2. Conceptual Emphasis of Historical, Institutional, and Disciplinary Perspectives.

Extensional Functional Normative Historical ++ + + Institutional + + + Disciplinary—arts/humanities + + ++ Disciplinary—social sciences + ++ +

Note. + indicates strength of emphasis of each frame from the developed integrative conceptual framework in relation to historical, institutional, and disciplinary perspectives.

arts/humanities vs. social sciences), and explore how the historical perspective, the disciplinary perspectives appear patterns in their conceptualizations of A & H engagement to put less emphasis on the extensional frame. Instead, the A correspond to the three conceptual frames of our expanded & H perspective stresses the normative frame, and the social integrative conceptual framework. sciences perspective focuses on the functional frame. Many From a Western historical perspective, many of the conceptualizations provided by A & H scholars seem to widely cited conceptualizations of the A & H domain appear center on identifying and describing the essential character- to have emphasized the extensional frame, insofar as they istics of what A & H aspires to be (i.e., normative frame) created classification schemes: Capella’s seven liberal arts instead of clearly indicating the domains of A & H (i.e., (i.e., trivium and quadrivium) from Classical Antiquity, extensional frame). In a collection of essays on the meaning Hugo of St. Victor’s seven mechanical arts from the Middle of the humanities, philosopher Perry (1948) conceptualized Ages, Petrarch’s studia humanitatis from the 15th-century the humanities as “any agency, relationship, situation, or Italian Renaissance, and Batteux’s five beaux arts from the activity which has a humanizing, that is, a liberalizing effect” 18th-century French Enlightenment (Kristeller, 1951; (p. 30) and further that “all studies are humanities . . . when Kristeller, 1952). However, all of these classifications list a their humanitistic possibilities are realized” (p. 42). In this certain number of subjects which are grouped under a par- same book, theologian Calhoun (1938) indicates that the ticular end goal; thus, the presence of an end goal means humanities are concerned with “aspirations that make life these classifications can also be seen to reflect the norma- worth living” (p. 128), and historian Krey (1938) says the tive frame. For example, the goal of the studia humanitatis true meaning of the humanities are “not ends in themselves was to provide an educational curriculum for the shaping of . . . but means capable of endless improvement” (p. 87). For the individual self (Proctor, 1998), and the goal of the beaux the arts, in addition to the common aesthetic goal (Beardsley, arts was to create pleasure through imitating the beauty of 1983), the role of the arts as a means for social engagement nature (Kristeller, 1952). and the enhancement of well-being (Tolstoy, 1910) is also Contemporary institutional perspectives of the A & H emphasized, as previously noted. domain (i.e., conceptualizations by professional organiza- Researchers from the social sciences appear to mostly tions, such as the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, utilize the functional frame, explaining the various forms of the National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities, the human engagement with A & H domains. For example, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Rockefeller Harvard-based HULA Project team conceptualizes the Foundation, the Association of American Universities, humanities through a cognitive psychological framework, Americans for the Arts, and the National Humanities understanding the humanities as practices that involve cog- Alliance) were typically found to incorporate all frames to nitive processing (i.e., cognitive-analytical, cognitive- some extent. For example, the American Academy of Arts imaginative, metacognitive, affective, intersubjective, and Sciences (2013b) described the humanities in the fol- kinesthetic) of a variety of sensory inputs which results in lowing terms: “Emphasizing critical perspective and imagi- the development of short-term skills and long-term capaci- native response, the humanities—including the study of ties (Allen et al., 2016). Similarly, psychologists languages, literature, history, film, civics, philosophy, reli- Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson (1990) conceptualizes aes- gion, and the arts—foster creativity, appreciation of our thetic experience through his theory of flow by focusing on commonalities and our differences, and knowledge of all the various processes (i.e., perceptual, emotional, intellec- kinds” (p. 9). The first part of this definition can be read as tual, and communicative) that occur during a phenomeno- in alignment with the functional frame, the middle part with logical experience of the person who is engaging with the the extensional frame, and the last part with the normative arts. Similarly, various theoretical models in psychology frame. focus on the aesthetic experience of art (i.e., Chatterjee, Finally, the disciplinary perspectives indicate the views 2003; Jacobsen, 2006; Leder & Nadal, 2014; Tinio, 2013), of scholars of A & H and the social sciences. Unlike the emphasizing the neurological, cognitive, and affective Shim et al. 169 processes that occur in the appreciation and making of art. randomized control trial of a 6-week spiritual reminiscence Other fields such as education, public health, policy, and (i.e., reconnection and enhancement of meaning) interven- leisure studies have typically conceptualized A & H as tion on hope, life satisfaction, and spiritual well-being with activities to measure the level of participation, and also elderly dementia patients, Wu and Koo (2016) operational- have categorized the types of activities into modes. For ized the A & H domain broadly as an intervention consist- example, C. R. Davies et al. (2012) suggested the concept ing of a set of group activities on various themes relevant to of arts engagement, and operationalized it in terms of activ- spirituality, dementia, and aging. This operationalization of ities and level of engagement within five art forms (i.e., per- A & H engagement contains components of the extensional forming arts; visual arts, design, and craft; community and and functional frames including subject matter (e.g., broadly cultural festivals, fairs, events; literature; and online, digi- spiritual reminiscence and specific themes), artifacts (e.g., tal, electronic arts). The activities were further classified as scrapbook), primary (e.g., creating, performing) and sec- active (i.e., making, creating, writing, teaching, profes- ondary modes (e.g., group, in-person), and activities (e.g., sional) and passive (i.e., visiting, attending, listening, view- writing, storytelling, singing). Similarly, in a qualitative ing, watching, discussing, amateur) activities, which reflects study on theater and well-being with medical students the modes of these activities. (Nagji et al., 2013), A & H engagement was operationalized as a theater-based course module, which included a variety Integration Across Different of activities such as theater games, reading of dramatic Operationalizations texts, and improvised scene discussion. In addition to the broad operationalization of the A & H domain as a course Compared with the long history of attempts to conceptualize module based on theater (e.g., subject matter, scholarly what A & H is by scholars and institutions in the field, it is practice), other components of extensional and functional relatively recently that researchers in the social and health frames such as artifacts (e.g., games, texts, etc.), mode (e.g., sciences have been interested in the issue of operationaliza- learning), and activities (e.g., reading, improvising) were tion and measurement of A & H engagement. Given the early included. stages of development in an integrative operationalization of Other empirical studies tended to focus the operational- A & H engagement, most empirical studies have operational- ization of A & H engagement on one or a few extensional ized A & H engagement in an ad hoc manner rather than pro- and functional components of A & H (e.g., subject matter, viding a clear rationale for a particular conceptual frame. artifact, mode, or activity) and further operationalized This limits progress when seeking to systematically under- them into subdimensions. For example, in an fMRI (func- stand what aspects of A & H engagement contribute to spe- tional magnetic resonance imaging) study on the relation- cific psychological effects. For example, in conducting a ship between reading fiction and social cognition, fiction meta-analysis of the effects of engaging with history on cre- reading (i.e., subject matter and activity) was operational- ativity, it is critical to clarify the dimensions of historical ized as a reading task of literary passages that varied in the engagement—or the multiple overlapping dimensions—that level of abstractness of the scene and inclusion of social are being evaluated. Our expanded integrative conceptual content (Tamir, Bricker, Dodell-Feder, & Mitchell, 2015). framework serves to provide an integrative framework to In another example, an experimental study on short-term situate past operationalizations of A & H engagement. In this mood enhancement through art-making, art-making (i.e., section, we briefly review several examples from previous subject matter, mode, and activity) was operationalized as empirical research (including both quantitative and qualita- creating a drawing of current mood and of something tive research designs), which operationalized various con- happy (Dalebroux, Goldstein, & Winner, 2008). In a cor- ceptual components of A & H engagement to examine its relational study on the relationship between music engage- impact on various well-being outcomes. ment and subjective well-being, A & H engagement was Based on the subject of interest, research questions, and operationalized as music engagement through its various hypotheses of the studies, A & H engagement has been activities (e.g., listening, playing an instrument, compos- operationalized through various levels of units in exten- ing, etc.) and modes (e.g., creating, performing, consum- sional and functional components. Some empirical studies ing; alone or in company of others; Weinberg & Joseph, have operationalized A & H engagement in broad units of 2017). In a study on the development of the Music Use extensional and functional components such as occupations Questionnaire, A & H engagment was operationalized as (e.g., Bischoff & Peskin, 2014), courses (e.g., Nagji, Brett- different music engagement styles, which took into con- MacLean, & Breault, 2013), programs (e.g., Phinney, sideration various music activities in two types of modes Moody, & Small, 2014), and interventions (e.g., Camic, (i.e., production and reception), and cognitive, emotional, Tischler, & Pearman, 2014), which are composed of many social, and physical outcomes as functions (Chin smaller units of extensional and functional components & Rickard, 2012). In an experimental study of the effect such as specific topics and activities. For example, in a of art interventions on functional brain activity in a 170 Review of General Psychology 23(2) nonclinical sample, the operationalization of A & H this section, we seek to show how this can be applied to par- engagement focused on the “mode” component of the ticular domains within the broader A & H domain (e.g., visual functional frame: creating one’s own visual art and evalu- art, music, theater, philosophy, history, etc.). For the sake of ating existing pieces of visual art (Bolwerk, Mack- space, we choose two domains of the arts and humanities— Andrick, Lang, Dörfler, & Maihöfner, 2014). visual art and history—to demonstrate how they can be In addition, some studies focused on more fine-grained explained through the three conceptual frames (i.e., exten- characteristics of extensional components such as physical sional, funcational, and normative). features and content of artifacts and settings, and the cogni- tions and emotions involved in phenomenological experi- Visual Arts ences. For instance, in an fMRI study which examined the effect of religious symbols on brain function, the A & H Visual arts is the domain that has made the most progress in domain was operationalized as an artifact and subject mat- the psychology of the arts (Smith & Tinio, 2014). Most ter—specifically as a visual stimuli (i.e., artifact) with theoretical development in this area has focused on the vari- emotional valence and religious meaning (i.e., subject mat- ous psychological processes involved with the appreciation ter). In a mixed-methods study of the impact of an art-gal- and making of art (e.g., Jacobsen, 2006; Leder & Nadal, lery-based intervention on dementia patients and their 2014; Tinio, 2013). We build on this development with an caregivers’ quality of life, A & H was operationalized as a expansion on the conceptualization of visual arts based on setting in addition to an intervention (Camic et al., 2014). our integrative conceptual framework. In this study, the art gallery’s architecture and exhibitions Researchers may first start with the extensional frame, to were considered important dimensions for A & H’s impact. explore what the specific content and forms of interest In a study on college students’ strong experiences of music, within visual arts are to them. For instance, researchers may the A & H domain was operationalized as strong experi- examine visual arts through the field level to examine how ences of music performance (i.e., phenomenological expe- the local arts industry impacts the well-being of a commu- rience) (Lamont, 2011), using the Strong Experiences of nity. On a smaller scale, researchers may be interested in Music Descriptive System (Gabrielsson & Wik, 2003). The studying the psychological effects of a particular visual arts phenomenological dimensions of strong experiences of genre (i.e., subject matter) such as figurative versus abstract music were further operationalized as individuals’ physical art (e.g., Mastandrea, Bartoli, & Carrus, 2011) to the indi- reactions and behaviors, perceptions, cognitions, emotions, vidual who is engaging with it. Researchers may also inves- existential and transcendental aspects, and personal and tigate differential psychological effects regarding different social aspects. visual arts professions (i.e., practices); types of artwork Overall, previous empirical studies on A & H engage- such as a painting, sculpture, or photography; and settings ment and well-being have operationalized A & H engage- such as studios and art galleries (i.e., artifacts; e.g., Camic ment using components of the extensional and functional et al., 2014). Finally, researchers may be interested in focus- frames which our expanded integrative conceptual model ing on the specific types of cognitions, emotions, percep- outlines. However, it appears that the normative frame of tions, and other psychological states such as flow that our integrative model is largely absent from previous occurs while engaging with art (i.e,. phenomenological empirical studies—although this frame is considered an experience) as measured by questionnaires such as the important conceptual component in nonempirical conceptu- Aesthetic Experience Questionnaire (Wanzer, Finley, alizations of A & H engagement. Despite this overall lack of Zarian, & Cortez, 2018). The possibilities for the operation- the normative frame in empirical research, a recent study on alization of the domains of visual arts are substantial. liberal arts education attempted to define learning outcomes From the angle of the functional frame, researchers can that are relevant to the major principles of liberal arts edu- focus on the different ways people engage in visual arts. For cation, and identified wisdom and citizenship as such out- example, one might want to know whether art-making, art- comes (King, Kendall Brown, Lindsay, & VanHecke, 2007), viewing, studying, or critiquing art (e.g., modes) may have which reflects the normative frame. differential psychological effects on people (e.g., Tinio, 2013). Researchers may also try to identify what particular Applications of the Integrative characteristics of visual arts (i.e., approach) may induce Conceptual Framework certain psychological effects, such as its communicative function (e.g., Charles & Telis, 2009). We have reviewed the three conceptual frames and the rela- Finally, the normative frame will help researchers under- tive components of the “what,” “how,” and “why” of A & H stand what the intrinsic goals of visual arts are. Why ought engagement and how this integrates previous conceptualiza- people engage in visual arts? Researchers could examine tions and operationalizations at large. In the prior section, we the goals of visual arts engagement through qualitative reviewed this framework from the group level of A & H. In inquiries with professional scholars and see whether these Shim et al. 171 goals match up with laypeople’s reasons for engaging in conceptual basis. As it is important to define the population visual arts or the outcomes of visual arts engagement. of interest before extracting a sample from it, it is also criti- cal to clearly state the domains of A & H that are of interest History when studying their well-being effects. By understanding the breadth of possibilities from the conceptual framework, There is much less development in the psychology of the researchers will be better able to provide grounded argu- humanities than the psychology of the arts; however, with ments for the strengths and limitations of certain method- the expanded integrative conceptual framework researchers ological choices. For example, psychologists recognize the can generate potential research questions and hypotheses importance of understanding phenomena through a multi- that could examine their psychological effects. With the method approach; the types of A & H conceptual frames extensional frame, history may be conceptualized as a dis- available can be fruitful for multi-method assessments and cipline (i.e., field), and researchers may be able to investi- understandings that help overcome limitations of any spe- gate psychological effects of students majoring in history. cific method. Moreover, future systematic reviews and In addition, history can be conceptualized as a subject mat- meta-analyses can rely on this framework to understand ter, such as local history (e.g., Stefaniak, Bilewicz, & how different conceptualizations of A & H engagement may Lewicka, 2017) which may have differential effects than be related to different outcome dimensions. Second, the world history (e.g., Kohlmeier, 2005) to the person engag- various conceptual frames of our model allow for future ing with it. With the functional frame, history may be con- researchers to use them toward various operationalizations ceptualized and operationalized as a historical activity such of A & H engagement in empirical research. For example, as an archeological excavation (e.g., Sayer, 2015), or heri- the extensional frame (i.e., “what”) may be useful when tage visits (e.g., Fujiwara, Cornwall, & Dolan, 2014). With attempting to analyze higher level components such as these activities, the differential modes such as generating majors or disciplines, as well as lower level components historical narratives (e.g., Kohlmeier, 2005) as compared to such as novels. In addition, the functional frame (i.e., reading about history written by others may also be investi- “how”) could be beneficial for attempts to understand gated. Finally, the normative frame may be used to capture whether different forms of A & H engagement are associ- the outcomes of historical engagement such as historical ated with different outcomes, when involving the same empathy (e.g., Endacott, 2014), perspective taking (e.g., domain across types of engagement. Third, the integrative Arcavi & Isoda, 2007), and civic engagement (e.g., conceptual framework could be used as a common language Stefaniak et al., 2017). for research across various A & H disciplines (e.g., across literary studies and history), and also across A & H disci- Implications, Limitations, and plines and social sciences disciplines, and can thereby facil- Directions for Future Research itate interdisciplinary research in this area by serving as an important linguistic bridge. The purpose of this article is to further develop the integra- The integrative framework is not, however, without limi- tive conceptualization of A & H engagement by exploring tations. While we made an effort to incorporate diverse existing conceptual and operational definitions that cover views and conceptualizations of A & H, these perspectives this construct, and integrating them into a conceptual frame- are for the most part limited to those within a Western con- work that can be used in future psychological research. The text, and primarily to contexts within the United States. In expanded integrative conceptual framework incorporates addition, the integrative framework only relies on the exist- various perspectives and conceptual components across ing, published literature and may not capture evolving con- time, disciplines, and contexts that reflect the “what,” cepts or those that exist only in practice. It is also important “how,” and “why” of A & H engagement. We propose that to note that while the subcategories of the components of this framework covers the core conceptual aspects that may each frame are provided for conceptual clarification, they be worthy of operationalization for future empirical research are not fixed boundaries and there may be alternative ways on its well-being effects. to categorize these components. Finally, as the integrative This expanded integrative conceptual framework con- conceptual framework was intended to provide a general tributes to the conceptualization of A & H engagement in conceptualization of A & H engagement as a whole, it may well-being research in several ways. First, the development not be sensitive to the nuances of disciplinary-specific of the extensional frame provides a clear indication of the “whats,” “hows,” and “whys.” various conceptual categories of A & H domains that can be Based on these limitations, we present several sugges- engaged with which will allow for examination of their tions for future research on the conceptualization and relationships to specific well-being outcomes. In previous operationalization of A & H engagement. First, research- operationalizations, researchers typically chose the scope of ers from non-Western contexts may suggest alternative, A & H domains arbitrarily without a well-grounded culturally relevant conceptualizations to add to our 172 Review of General Psychology 23(2) proposed framework. We envision that the framework in research about A & H engagement and its well-being effects. its current form will continue to grow as more diverse To this end, we extensively reviewed the existing literature forms of A & H domains are considered. Second, when to develop an integrative framework comprised of exten- conceptualizing A & H engagement for specific disci- sional, functional, and normative conceptual frames of A & plines and contexts, this framework can be used as a start- H engagement. We hope that this will significantly contrib- ing point for discipline- and context-specific elaboration. ute to our understanding of A & H engagement and facili- Such specificity may be gained by seeking input from A & tate and encourage psychological research in this H content experts and participants within particular disci- understudied but immensely rich domain of our lives. plines and contexts. Third, in operationalizing A & H engagement, the “what,” “how,” and “why” may be con- Declaration of Conflicting Interests sidered and operationalized separately. While it is impor- The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with tant to know how the nature of A & H—its content and respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this form—are associated with certain well-being effects, it is article. also critical to examine the role of the individual(s) inter- acting with A & H. It has been found that there is a gap in Funding research examining the nature of A & H itself (as opposed to the person who engages in A & H; Stickley et al., 2017). The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This While our current conceptualization includes behavioral research was supported in part by a grant from the Templeton aspects of the A & H domain, the well-being effects of A Religion Trust. The opinions expressed in this publication are & H may also depend on individual-level factors. For those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the example, such factors may include the individuals’ level Templeton Religion Trust. of frequency, duration, or intensity of A & H interaction, or the reason for interacting (e.g., whether for purposes of References leisure, education, or occupation). Future research may Adajian, T. (2016). The definition of art. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The also investigate these individual-level factors as potential Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2016 ed.). moderators of the relationship between A & H engagement Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/ and well-being. There were several moderators that entries/art-definition/ emerged from our literature review that appear to be of Agresto, J. (1983). The humanities and the social sciences. worthy of examination in future research but are not American Political Science Association, 16, 543–545. included in the conceptualization of A & H engagement doi:10.2307/418618 per se. For example, developmental and cultural modera- Alexander, T. M. (1987). John Dewey’s theory of art, experience, tors; moderators at the individual level, such as levels of and nature: The horizons of feeling. 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