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Foreign Early Period 1544-1603 William Gilbert hypothesized that the Earth is a giant magnet English 1564-1642 Galileo Galilei performed fundamental observations, experiments, and mathematical Italian analyses in astronomy and ; discovered mountains and craters on the , the phases of Venus, and the four largest satellites of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede 1580-1626 Willebrod Snell discovered law of refraction (Snell's law) Dutch 1623-1662 Blaise Pascal discovered that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted French undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the walls of its container (Pascal's principle) 1629-1695 Christiaan Huygens proposed a simple geometrical wave theory of , now known as Dutch ``Huygen's principle''; pioneered use of the pendulum in clocks 1635-1703 Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law of elasticity English 1643-1727 Sir developed theories of gravitation and , and invented English differential calculus 1700-1782 Daniel Bernoulli developed the fundamental relationship of fluid flow now known as Swiss Bernoulli's principle 1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin the first American ; characterized two kinds of , American which he named ``positive'' and ``negative'' 1707-1783 Leonard Euler made fundamental contributions to fluid dynamics, lunar orbit theory Swiss (tides), and mechanics; also contributed prolifically to all areas of classical 1731-1810 discovered and studied ; first to measure Newton's gravitational British constant; calculated mass and mean density of Earth 1736-1806 Charles Augustin de experiments on elasticity, electricity, and magnetism; established French experimentally of the between two charges 1736-1813 Joseph-Louis developed new methods of analytical mechanics French Lagrange 1736-1819 James Watt invented the modern condensing steam engine and a centrifugal Scottish governor 1745-1827 Count Alessandro pioneer in study of electricity; invented the first electric battery Italian Volta 1768-1830 Joseph Fourier established the differential equation governing heat and solved French it by devising an infinite series of sines and cosines capable of approximating a wide variety of functions 1773-1829 Thomas Young studied light and color; known for his double-slit experiment that British demonstrated the wave nature of light 1774-1862 Jean-Babtiste Biot studied of light; co-discovered that intensity of magnetic French set up by a current flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire 1775-1836 André Marie Ampère father of electrodynamics French 1776-1856 Amadeo Avogadro developed hypothesis that all gases at same volume, pressure, and Italian temperature contain same number of 1777-1855 Johann Carl Friedrich formulated separate electrostatic and electrodynamical laws, including German Gauss ``Gauss' law''; contributed to development of number theory, differential geometry, potential theory, theory of terrestrial magnetism, and methods of calculating planetary orbits 1777-1851 Hans Christian discovered that a current in a wire can produce magnetic effects Danish Oersted 1781-1868 Sir David Brewster deduced ``Brewster's law'' giving the angle of incidence that produces English reflected light which is completely polarized; invented the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope, and improved the spectroscope 1788-1827 Augustin-Jean studied transverse nature of light waves French Fresnel 1789-1854 Georg Ohm discovered that current flow is proportional to potential difference and German inversely proportional to resistance (Ohm's law) 1791-1867 discovered electromagnetic induction and devised first electrical English 1791-1841 Felix Savart co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current flowing French through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire 1796-1832 Sadi Carnot founded the science of thermodynamics French 1797-1878 Joseph Henry performed extensive fundamental studies of electromagnetic American phenomena; devised first practical electric motor Middle Period 1803-1853 Christian Doppler experimented with sound waves; derived an expression for the apparent Austrian change in of a wave due to relative between the source and observer 1804-1891 Wilhelm E. Weber developed sensitive magnetometers; worked in electrodynamics and the German electrical structure of matter 1805-1865 Sir William Hamilton developed the principle of least action and the Hamiltonian form of Irish classical mechanics 1818-1889 James Prescott Joule discovered mechanical equivalent of heat British 1819-1896 Armand-Hippolyte- made the first terrestrial measurement of the ; invented French Louis Fizeau one of the first interferometers; took the first pictures of the Sun on daguerreotypes; argued that the Doppler effect with respect to sound should also apply to any wave motion, particularly that of light 1819-1868 Jean-Bernard-Léon accurately measured speed of light; invented the gyroscope; French Foucault demonstrated the Earth's rotation 1819-1903 Sir George Gabriel described the motion of viscous fluids by independently discovering the British Stokes Navier-Stokes equations of fluid mechanics (or hydrodynamics); developed Stokes theorem by which certain surface integrals may be reduced to line integrals; discovered fluorescence 1821-1894 Hermann von developed first law of thermodynamics, a statement of conservation of German Helmholtz 1822-1888 Rudolf Clausius developed second law of thermodynamics, a statement that the entropy German of the Universe always increases 1824-1907 Lord Kelvin proposed absolute temperature scale, of essence to development of British (born William thermodynamics Thomson) 1824-1887 Gustav Kirchhoff developed three laws of spectral analysis and three rules of electric circuit German analysis; also contributed to 1825-1898 Johann Balmer developed empirical formula to describe hydrogen spectrum Swiss 1828-1914 Sir Joseph Wilson developed a -filament incandescent light; patented the carbon British Swan process for printing photographs in permanent pigment 1831-1879 propounded the theory of ; developed the kinetic Scottish theory of gases 1835-1893 studied blackbody Austrian 1838-1916 Ernst Mach studied conditions that occur when an object moves through a fluid at Austrian high speed (the ``Mach number'' gives the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of sound in the fluid); proposed ``Mach's principle,'' which states that the inertia of an object is due to the interaction between the object and the rest of the universe 1839-1903 Josiah Gibbs developed chemical thermodynamics; introduced concepts of free energy American and chemical potential 1842-1923 James Dewar liquified and invented the Dewar flask, which is critical for low- British temperature work 1842-1912 contributed to the fields of hydraulics and hydrodynamics; developed British mathematical framework for turbulence and introduced the ``Reynolds number,'' which provides a criterion for dynamic similarity and correct modeling in many fluid-flow experiments 1844-1906 developed statistical mechanics and applied it to Austrian 1848-1919 Roland Eötvös demonstrated equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass Hungarian 1850-1925 contributed to the development of electromagnetism; introduced English operational calculus and invented the modern notation for vector calculus; predicted existence of the Heaviside layer (a layer of the Earth's ionosphere) 1851-1901 George Francis hypothesized foreshortening of moving bodies (Lorentz-FitzGerald Irish FitzGerald contraction) to explain the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment 1852-1914 John Henry Poynting demonstrated that the energy flow of electromagnetic waves could be British calculated by an equation (now called Poynting's vector) 1854-1912 Henri Poincaré founded qualitative dynamics (the mathematical theory of dynamical French systems); created topology; contributed to solution of the three-body problem; first described many properties of deterministic chaos; contributed to the development of special relativity 1854-1919 Janne Rydberg analyzed the spectra of many elements; discovered many line series were Swedish described by a formula that depended on a universal constant (the ) 1855-1938 Edwin H. Hall discovered the ``,'' which occurs when charge carriers moving American through a material are deflected because of an applied magnetic field - the deflection results in a potential difference across the side of the material that is transverse to both the magnetic field and the current direction 1857-1894 Heinrich Hertz worked on electromagnetic phenomena; discovered radio waves and the German 1857-1943 Nikola Tesla created alternating current (Serbian-born American)

1837-1923 Johannes van der worked on equations of state for gases and liquids Dutch Waals 1842-1919 Lord Rayleigh discovered argon; explained how light is responsible for red British (born John William color of sunset and blue color of sky Strutt) 1845-1923 Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and studied x rays German 1852-1908 Antoine Henri discovered natural radioactivity French Becquerel 1852-1931 Albert A. Michelson devised an interferometer and used it to try to measure Earth's absolute motion; precisely measured speed of light (German-born American). 1853-1928 Hendrik Antoon introduced Lorentz transformation equations of special relativity; Dutch Lorentz advanced ideas of relativistic and relativistic mass increase; contributed to theory of electromagnetism 1853-1926 Heike Kamerlingh- liquified ; discovered Dutch Onnes 1856-1940 Sir Joseph John demonstrated existence of the British Thomson 1858-1947 formulated the theory; explained wavelength distribution of German blackbody radiation 1859-1906 studied radioactivity with wife, ; discovered piezoelectricity French 1862-1942 Sir William Henry worked on x-ray spectrometry British Bragg 1862-1947 Philipp von Lenard studied cathode rays and the photoelectric effect German 1864-1928 discovered laws governing radiation of heat German 1865-1943 discovered splitting of spectral lines in a strong magnetic field Dutch 1867-1934 Marie Curie discovered radioactivity of ; co-discovered and polonium (Polish-born French). 1868-1953 Robert Millikan measured the charge of an electron; introduced term ``cosmic rays'' for American the radiation coming from outer space; studied the photoelectric effect 1869-1959 Charles Wilson invented the British 1870-1942 experimentally proved that cathode rays were streams of negatively French charged particles; experimentally confirmed the correctness of Einstein's theory of Brownian motion, and through his measurements obtained a new determination of Avogadro's number 1871-1937 Lord Ernest theorized existence of the based on results of the alpha- New Rutherford scattering experiment performed by and Ernest Marsden; Zealander developed theory of Rutherford scattering (scattering of spinless, pointlike particles from a Coulomb potential) 1874-1937 invented the first practical system of wireless telegraphy Italian 1874-1957 discovered splitting of spectral lines in a strong electric field German 1877-1944 Charles Glover discovered that every chemical element, when irradiated by x rays, can British Barkla emit an x-ray spectrum of two line-groups, which he named the K-series and L-series, that are of fundamental importance to understanding atomic structure 1879-1955 explained Brownian motion and photoelectric effect; contributed to German- theory of atomic spectra; formulated theories of special and general born relativity American 1879-1968 Otto Hahn discovered the fission of heavy nuclei German 1879-1960 discovered of x rays by crystals German 1879-1959 Sir Owen Richardson discovered the basic law of thermionic emission, now called the British Richardson (or Richardson-Dushman) equation, which describes the emission of from a heated conductor 1881-1958 Clinton Joseph co-discovered electron diffraction American Davisson 1882-1970 contributed to creation of ; pioneer in the theory of German- crystals born British 1882-1961 Percy Williams invented an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures; made many American Bridgman discoveries in high-pressure physics 1882-1964 experimentally confirm that atomic energy states are quantized, German 1883-1964 Victor Franz Hess discovered cosmic radiation Austrian 1884-1966 used methods of statistical mechanics to calculate equilibrium properties Dutch-born of ; contributed to knowledge of molecular structure German 1885-1962 contributed to quantum theory and to theory of nuclear reactions and Danish 1886-1978 Karl Manne Georg made important experimental contributions to the field of x-ray Swedish Siegbahn 1887-1975 Gustav Hertz experimentally confirmed that atomic energy states are quantized German 1887-1961 Erwin Schrödinger contributed to creation of quantum mechanics; formulated the Austrian Schrödinger wave equation 1888-1970 Sir Chandrasekhara studied light scattering and discovered the Raman effect Indian Raman 1888-1969 contributed to development of the molecular beam method; discovered the magnetic moment of the (German-born American) 1888-1966 invented the phase-contrast microscope, a type of microscope widely Dutch used for examining specimens such as biological cells and tissues 1890-1971 Sir William Lawrence worked on crystal structure and x rays British Bragg 1891-1957 devised a coincidence counter for studying cosmic rays; demonstrated German validity of energy-momentum conservation at the atomic scale 1891-1974 Sir discovered the British 1892-1965 Sir Edward Appleton discovered the layer of the Earth's atmosphere, called the Appleton layer, English which is the part of the ionosphere having the highest concentration of free electrons and is the most useful for radio transmission 1892-1987 Prince Louis-Victor predicted wave properties of the electron French de Broglie 1892-1962 discovered the increase in wavelength of x rays when scattered by an American electron 1892-1975 Sir George Paget co-discovered electron diffraction British Thomson 1893-1981 Harold Clayton Urey discovered American 1894-1984 Pjotr Leonidovich heralded a new era of low-temperature physics by inventing a device for Soviet Kapitsa producing liquid helium without previous cooling with liquid hydrogen; demonstrated that Helium II is a quantum superfluid 1895-1971 Igor Y. Tamm co-developed the theoretical interpretation of the radiation of electrons Soviet moving through matter faster than the speed of light (the ``Cerenkov effect''), and developed the theory of showers in cosmic rays 1896-1986 Robert S. Mulliken introduced the theoretical concept of the molecular orbital, which led to American a new understanding of the chemical bond and the electronic structure of molecules 1897-1974 Lord Patrick developed an automatic Wilson cloud chamber; discovered electron- British Maynard Stuart positron pair production in cosmic rays Blackett 1897-1967 Sir co-invented the first British 1897-1956 Irène Joliot-Curie co-discovered artificial radioactivity French 1898-1988 Isador Isaac Rabi developed the resonance technique for measuring the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei (Austrian-born American). Modern Period 1900-1958 Frédéric Joliot- co-discovered artificial radioactivity French Curie 1900-1979 invented and developed the holographic method whereby it is possible to Hungarian record and display a three-dimensional display of an object 1900-1958 discovered the exclusion principle; suggested the existence of the neutrino (Austrian-born American). 1901-1954 performed experiments leading to first self-sustaining nuclear ; Italian-born developed a theory of that introduced the ; American derived the statistical properties of gases that obey the Pauli exclusion principle 1901-1976 Werner contributed to creation of quantum mechanics; introduced the ``uncertainty German Heisenberg principle'' and the concept of exchange 1901-1958 Ernest Orlando invented the American Lawrence 1902-1984 Paul Adrien helped found ; predicted the existence of British Maurice Dirac by combining quantum mechanics with special relativity 1902-1984 discovered and developed optical methods for studying the Hertzian French resonances that are produced when atoms interact with radio waves or microwaves 1902-1995 contributed to theoretical atomic and ; introduced concept of Hungarian- the nuclear born American 1903-1969 Cecil F. Powell developed the photographic emulsion method of studying nuclear processes; British discovered the charged pion 1903-1995 co-invented the first particle accelerator Irish 1904-1990 Pavel A. discovered the ``Cerenkov effect'' whereby light is emitted by a particle Soviet Cherenkov passing through a medium at a speed greater than that of light in the medium 1905-1991 Carl David discovered the positron and the American Anderson 1905-1983 contributed to development of the NMR technique; measured the magnetic Swiss-born moment of the neutron; contributed to the theory of metals American 1905-1996 Sir Nevill F. Mott contributed to theoretical condensed-matter physics by applying quantum British theory to complex phenomena in solids; calculated cross section for relativistic Coulomb scattering 1905-1989 Emilio Segrè co-discovered the antiproton; discovered technetium (Italian-born American). 1906-2005 contributed to theoretical nuclear physics, especially concerning the mechanism for energy production in stars (German-born American). 1906-1972 Maria Goeppert- advanced shell model of (German-born American). Mayer 1906-1988 designed the first electron microscope German 1906-1979 Shin-Ichiro co-developed quantum electrodynamics Japanese Tomonaga 1907-1973 J. Hans D. Jensen advanced shell model of nuclear structure German 1907-1991 Edwin M. made discoveries concerning the transuranium elements American McMillan 1907-1981 predicted existence of the pion Japanese 1908-1991 co-discovered the transistor effect; developed theory of superconductivity American 1908-1990 Il'ja M. Frank co-developed the theoretical interpretation of the radiation of electrons Soviet moving through matter faster than the speed of light (the ``Cerenkov effect''), and carried out experimental investigations of pair creation by gamma rays 1908-1968 contributed to condensed matter theory on phenomena of and Soviet superconductivity 1910-1995 Subramanyan made important theoretical contributions concerning the structure and Indian-born Chandrasekhar evolution of stars, especially white dwarfs American 1910-1989 co-discovered the transistor effect American 1911-1988 Luis Walter constructed huge bubble chambers and discovered many short-lived ; American Alvarez advanced the impact theory for the extinction of the dinosaurs 1911-1995 William Fowler studied nuclear reactions of astrophysical significance; developed, with American others, a theory of the formation of chemical elements in the universe 1911-1993 experimentally established that the electron has an anomalous magnetic American moment and made a precision determination of its magnitude 1912-1997 Edward Mills developed method of nuclear resonance absorption that permitted the American Purcell absolute determination of nuclear magnetic moments; co-discovered a line in the galactic radiospectrum caused by atomic hydrogen 1912-1999 Glenn T. Seaborg co-discovered and all further transuranium elements through American element 102 1913-2008 Willis E. Lamb, Jr. made discoveries concerning of hydrogen American 1915-1990 Robert measured charge distributions in atomic nuclei with high-energy electron American Hofstadter scattering; measured the charge and magnetic-moment distributions in the proton and neutron 1915- Norman F. developed the separated oscillatory fields method, which is the basis of the American Ramsey, Jr. cesium atomic clock (our present time standard); co-invented the hydrogen maser 1915-2001 Clifford G. Shull developed a neutron scattering technique in which a neutron diffraction American pattern is produced that may be used to determine the atomic structure of a material 1915- Charles H. created first maser using ammonia to produce coherent microwave radiation American Townes 1916-2004 co-proposed the double-helix structure of DNA English 1916-2004 Maurice Wilkins investigated the structure of DNA British 1918-2003 Bertram N. developed the technique of neutron spectroscopy for studies of condensed Canadian Brockhouse matter 1918-1988 Richard P. co-developed quantum electrodynamics; created a new formalism for American Feynman practical calculations by introducing a graphical method called Feynman diagrams 1918-1998 established, together with Clyde L. Cowan, Jr., the existence of the electron American antineutrino by detecting them using a reactor experiment 1918-1994 co-developed quantum electrodynamics American 1918-2007 Kai M. Siegbahn contributed to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy Swedish 1920- Nicolaas contributed to the development of laser spectroscopy (Dutch-born Bloembergen American). 1920-2006 Owen co-discovered the antiproton American Chamberlain 1921- contributed to theory; recognized the role played by Japanese- spontaneous -breaking in analogy with superconductivity theory; born formulated QCD (), the gauge theory of color American 1921-1989 father of the Soviet hydrogen bomb; awarded the for his Russian struggle for human rights, for disarmament, and for cooperation between all nations 1921-1999 Arthur L. contributed to the development of laser spectroscopy American Schawlow 1921- made many important discoveries in ; co-discovered the neutral pion via photoproduction; co-discovered the muon neutrino (German- born American) 1922-2001 Nikolai Basov worked in quantum electronics; independently worked out theoretical basis Soviet of the maser 1922-2009 contributed to theoretical understanding of collective motion in nuclei Danish 1922- Leon Lederman contributed to the discovery of the muon neutrino and the bottom American 1922- Chen Ning Yang co-proposed violation in weak interactions (Chinese-born American)

1923- Val Logsdon co-discovered that decays of neutral kaons sometime violate CP conservation American Fitch 1923-2005 Jack S. Kilby invented the monolithic integrated circuit - the microchip - which laid the American foundation for the field of microelectronics; co-invented the hand held calculator 1924-2011 Willard S. Boyle co-invented the CCD (charge-coupled device) Canadian 1924-2010 invented the multiwire proportional chamber French 1925- Roy J. Glauber made important contributions to the theoretical understanding of quantum American optics and high-energy collisions 1925-2011 Simon van der contributed to experiments that led to the discovery of the carriers (W± and Dutch Meer Z°) of the weak interaction 1926- Donald A. Glaser invented the bubble chamber American 1926-1999 Henry W. co-discovered, through investigations of deep-inelastic , American Kendall clear signs that there exists an inner structure ( and gluons) in the and of the atomic nucleus 1926- Ben Mottelson contributed to theoretical understanding of collective motion in nuclei American 1926- Tsung-Dao Lee co-proposed parity violation in weak interactions (Chinese-born American). 1926-1996 co-developed gauge field theory of the electroweak interaction; suggested Pakistani that the proton might be unstable 1927- K. Alexander co-discovered the first ceramic superconductors Swiss Müller 1927- Martin L. Perl discovered the tau lepton American 1929- Murray Gell- advanced an explanation of strange particles; predicted the existence of the American Mann Omega- particle; postulated existence of quarks; founded the study of QCD 1929- Rudolf Ludwig experimented with resonance absorption of gamma radiation; discovered German Mössbauer ``Mössbauer effect,'' the recoilless emission of gamma rays by nuclei 1929- Richard E. Taylor co-discovered, through investigations of deep-inelastic electron scattering, Canadian clear signs that there exists an inner structure (quarks and gluons) in the protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus 1930- contributed to condensed matter theory on phenomena of superconductivity American 1930- Jerome I. co-discovered, through investigations of deep-inelastic electron scattering, American Friedman clear signs that there exists an inner structure (quarks and gluons) in the protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus 1930- George E. Smith co-invented the CCD (charge-coupled device) American 1931- James W. Cronin co-discovered that decays of neutral kaons sometime violate CP conservation American 1931- David M. Lee co-discovered that the Helium-3 becomes a quantum superfluid near American absolute zero 1931- carried out an experiment leading to the discovery of charmonium American 1931- J. Robert contributed to condensed matter theory on phenomena of superconductivity American Schrieffer 1932-2007 Pierre-Gilles de developed theories in applicable to liquid crystals French Gennes and 1932- Sheldon Glashow co-developed gauge field theory of the electroweak interaction American 1932-2006 proposed that it should be possible to produce and use a beam of neutrinos; American co-discovered the muon neutrino 1933- Claude Cohen- developed methods, with his colleagues, of using laser light to cool helium French Tannoudji atoms to a temperature of about 0.18 µK and capturing the chilled atoms in a trap 1933- Charles K. Kao pioneer in the development and use of fiber optics in telecommunications (Chinese-born British-American). 1933- Arno A. Penzias co-discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation (German-born American). 1933- co-designed the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), a type of microscope Swiss in which a fine conducting probe is held close the surface of a sample 1933- co-developed gauge field theory of the electroweak interaction American 1934- contributed to experiments that led to the discovery of the carriers (W± and Italian Z°) of the weak interaction 1936- Robert W. co-discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation American Wilson 1936- Samuel C. C. Ting carried out an experiment leading to the discovery of charmonium American 1936- Kenneth Wilson invented renormalization group methods to develop a theory for critical American phenomena in connection with phase transitions; contributed to solving QCD using lattice gauge theory 1937- Robert C. co-discovered that the isotope Helium-3 becomes a quantum superfluid near American Richardson absolute zero 1938- co-discovered Giant Magnetoresistance, which brought about a breakthrough French in gigabyte hard disks 1939- Peter Grünberg co-discovered Giant Magnetoresistance, which brought about a breakthrough German in gigabyte hard disks 1940- contributed to theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent British through a tunnel barrier 1940- Toshihide contributed to theoretical understanding of CP-violation; co-discovered the Japanese Maskawa origin of the broken symmetry that predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks 1941- David J. Gross co-discovered ``asymptotic freedom'' in non-Abelian gauge theories; American contributed to the development of string theory 1943- Klaus von discovered the quantized Hall effect German Klitzing 1944- Makato contributed to theoretical understanding of CP-violation; co-discovered the Japanese Kobayashi origin of the broken symmetry that predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks 1945- Douglas D. co-discovered that the isotope Helium-3 becomes a quantum superfluid near American Osheroff absolute zero 1946- Gerard t' Hooft contributed to theoretical understanding of gauge theories in elementary Dutch particle physics, quantum and black holes, and fundamental aspects of quantum physics 1947- co-designed the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), a type of microscope German in which a fine conducting probe is held close the surface of a sample 1948- developed the Doppler cooling method of using laser light (optical molasses) American to cool gases and capturing the chilled atoms in a magneto-optical trap (MOT) 1948- William D. developed, with his colleagues, a device called a Zeeman slower, with which American Phillips he could slow down and capture atoms in a purely magnetic trap 1949- H. David Politzer co-discovered ``asymptotic freedom'' in non-Abelian gauge theories; co- American predicted the existence of charmonium - the of a charm quark and its antiparticle 1950- J. co-discovered the first ceramic superconductors German 1950- Robert Laughlin developed a theory of quantum fluids that explained the fractional quantum American Hall effect 1951- co-discovered ``asymptotic freedom'' in non-Abelian gauge theories; American contributed to the study of ``anyons'' (particle-like excitations in two- dimensional systems that obey ``fractional statistics'') 1958- co-discovered a simple method for isolating single atomic layers of , Dutch- known as graphene Russian 1974- Konstantin co-discovered a simple method for isolating single atomic layers of graphite, Russian- Novoselov known as graphene British 1868-1919 Wallace Clement founded the science of architectural acoustics American Sabine 1868-1951 Arnold generalized the circular orbits of the atomic to elliptical orbits; German Sommerfeld introduced the magnetic ; used statistical mechanics to explain the electronic properties of metals 1878-1968 co-discovered the element protactinium and studied the effects of neutron bombardment on ; introduced term ``fission'' for splitting the atomic nucleus (Austrian-born Swedish). 1880-1933 Paul Ehrenfest applied quantum mechanics to rotating bodies; helped develop the modern Austrian statistical theory of nonequilibrium thermodynamics 1881-1963 Theodor von provided major contributions to our understanding of fluid mechanics, Hungarian- Kármán turbulence theory, and supersonic flight born American 1882-1974 Walther co-discovered the ``Meissner effect'', whereby a superconductor expells a German Meissner magnetic field 1883-1945 Hans Geiger helped measure charge-to-mass ratio for alpha particles; invented Geiger German counter for detecting ionizing particles 1885-1955 attempted to incorporate electromagnetism into general relativity; evolved German the concept of continuous groups using matrix representations and applied to quantum mechanics 1886-1950 Arthur Jeffrey discovered the isotope uranium-235 (Canadian-born American). Dempster 1887-1915 Henry Moseley developed the modern form of the period table of elements based on their British atomic numbers 1892-1973 Sir Robert developed Scottish Watson-Watt 1894-1974 Satyendra Bose worked out statistical method of handling bosons (a group of particles named Indian in his honor) 1894-1977 introduced the physical notion of extra dimensions that helped develop the Swedish Kaluza-Klein theory; co-developed the Klein-Gordon equation describing the relativistic behavior of spinless particles; co-developed the Klein-Nishina formula describing relativistic electron- scattering 1898-1974 Vladimir A. Fock made fundamental contributions to quantum theory; invented the - Russian Fock approximation method and the notion of Fock space 1898-1964 first suggested possibility of a (Hungarian-born American). 1899-1993 Pierre Auger discovered the Auger effect whereby an electron is ejected from an French without the emission of an x-ray or gamma-ray photon as the result of the de- excitation of an excited electron within the atom; discovered cosmic-ray air showers 1900-1998 Ernst Ising developed the Ising model of (German-born American).

1900-1954 Fritz London co-developed the phenomenological theory of superconductivity; co- German- developed the first quantum-mechanical treatment of the hydrogen born molecule; determined that the electromagnetic gauge is the phase of the American Schrödinger 1900-1985 Charles Francis established the Richter scale for the measurement of earthquake intensity American Richter 1900-1988 George E. co-discovered that the electron has an intrinsic spin Dutch Uhlenbeck 1901-1967 Robert J. Van de invented the Van de Graaf electrostatic generator American Graaf 1902-1978 Samuel Abraham co-discovered that the electron has an intrinsic spin Dutch Goudsmit 1903-1960 Igor Vasilievich headed the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb programs Soviet Kurchatov 1903-1957 John von formulated a fully quantum mechanical generalization of statistical mechanics Neumann (Hungarian-born American). 1904-1968 first suggested hydrogen fusion as source of solar energy; introduced the term ``Big Bang'' (Russian-born American). 1904-1967 J. Robert headed to develop the nuclear fission bomb American Oppenheimer 1907-1995 Sir many contributions in , including an improved calculation German- of the needed to make a fission bomb born British 1908-2003 helped develop atomic and hydrogen bombs (Hungarian-born American). 1908-2002 Victor F. made theoretical contributions to quantum electrodynamics, nuclear Weisskopf structure, and elementary particle physics (Austrian-born American). 1909-1966 Homi Jehangir initiated nuclear research programs in India; carried out experiments in Indian Bhabha cosmic rays; calculated cross section for elastic electron-positron scattering 1909-1992 Nikolai N. theoretical physicist and mathematician who contributed to the microscopic Russian Bogolubov theory of superfluidity; also contributed to theory of elementary particles, including the S-matrix and dispersion relations, and to nonlinear mechanics and the general theory of dynamical systems 1911-2011 Maurice first measured (with James Chadwick) an accurate mass for the neutron; Austrian- Goldhaber participated in experiments proving that beta rays are identical to atomic born electrons; developed (with Edward Teller) the concept of coherent American oscillations of protons and neutrons in nuclei leading to the giant dipole resonance; performed an experiment showing that neutrinos are created with negative helicity, which provided conclusive evidence for the V-A theory of weak interactions; participated in experiments that obtained an upper limit on the rate of proton decay and that provided evidence for neutrino oscillations 1912-1997 Chien-Shiung Wu experimentally proved that parity is not conserved in nuclear beta decay (Chinese-born American). 1914-1983 Henry Primakoff co-developed the theory of spin waves; first described the process that Russian- became known as the ``Primakoff effect'' (the coherent photoproduction of born neutral in the electric field of an atomic nucleus); contributed to American understanding of various manifestations of the weak interaction, including muon capture, double-beta decay, and the interaction of neutrinos with nuclei 1914-2000 Robert Rathbun driving force behind creation of Fermilab and 's Laboratory American Wilson of Nuclear Studies; a leader in the formation of the Federation of Atomic Scientists; did extensive measurements of kaon and pion photoproduction in which he made the first observation of a new state of the nucleon, N(1440) 1916-2009 Vitaly L. contributed to theory of superconductivity and theory of high-energy Russian Ginzburg processes in astrophysics; co-discovered transition radiation, emitted when charged particles traverse interface between two different media 1916-1993 Robert E. contributed to theoretical particle physics; independently proposed (with American Marshak George Sudarshan) the V-A theory of weak interactions; developed explanation of how shock waves behave under conditions of extremely high temperatures 1919-2007 Wolfgang K. H. co-discovered the neutral pion via photoproduction; studied gamma rays German- Panofsky from pi- captured in hydrogen and first measured the ``Panofsky ratio'' born American 1919-2010 Robert V. Pound used the Mössbauer effect to measure (with Glen A. Rebka, Jr.) the gravitational redshift predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity (Canadian-born American). 1921-2003 Vernon W. participated in experiments to test the fundamental QED interaction using American Hughes the muonium atom 1923- Freeman J. made many important contribututions to , including the British-born Dyson demonstration that the Feynman rules are direct and rigorous consequences American of quantum field theory; advocated exploration of the solar system by humans; speculated on the possibility of extraterrestrial civilizations 1923- Calvin F. Quate made pioneering contributions to nanoscale measurement science through American the development and application of scanning probe microscropes 1923- Lincoln contributed to theory of weak interactions, especially concerning neutrino American Wolfenstein masses, the origin of CP violation, lepton number violation, the solar neutrino problem, and Higgs boson properties 1923-1999 James E. co-invented the radio-frequency superconducting quantum interference American Zimmerman device (SQUID), a practical magnetometer/amplifier with extreme sensitivity limited only by the 1924- Felix Hans pioneered the use of nuclear-physics techniques for exploring fundamental Swiss-born Boehm questions concerning the weak interactions and the nature of neutrinos American 1924- Ernest M. Henley contributed to the theoretical understanding of how place German- restrictions on theories and models; the connection of quarks and gluons to born nucleon- degrees of freedom; the changes that occur when hadrons American are placed in a nuclear medium 1924-2010 Benoit developed theory of fractals (French-American). Mandelbrot 1926-2005 D. Allan Bromley served as Science Advisor to the President of the United States; carried out Canadian pioneering studies of nuclear structure and dynamics; considered the father of modern heavy-ion science 1926- Sidney D. Drell made important theoretical contributions to particle physics and quantum American electrodynamics; specialist in arms control and national security 1927-2009 Albert V. Crewe developed the first practical scanning electron microscope (British-born American). 1928-1990 John Stewart proved the inherent nonlocality of quantum mechanics Irish Bell 1928- Stanley contributed to the modern understanding of relativistic particle scattering South Mandelstam through his representation of the analytic properties of scattering amplitudes African in the form of double dispersion relations (Mandelstam representation); applied path-integral quantization methods to string theory 1929- proposed with others the Higgs mechanism by which particles are endowed British with mass by interacting with the Higgs field, which is carried by Higgs bosons 1930- Akito Arima co-developed the of the atomic nucleus Japanese 1930- Mildred S. contributed to the advance of -state physics, especially involving carbon- American Dresselhaus based materials, including fullerenes and nanotubes (a.k.a., buckyballs and buckytubes) 1930- Joel Lebowitz contributed to condensed matter theory, especially involving statistical Swiss-born mechanics: phase transitions; derivation of hydrodynamical equations from American microscopic kinetics; statistical mechanics of plasmas 1930- John P. Schiffer studied nuclear structure, pion absorption in nuclei, ion traps and crystalline American beams, heavy-ion physics, and the Mössbauer effect 1931- T. Kenneth contributed to the theory of plasma physics and magnetic fusion American Fowler 1931- Tullio Regge developed the theory of Regge trajectories by investigating the asymptotic Italian behavior of potential-scattering processes through the analytic continuation of the angular momentum to the complex plane 1932- Oscar Wallace introduced color as a quantum number to resolve the quark statistics paradox American Greenberg 1932- John Dirk contributed to the theoretical understanding of the atomic nucleus as a American Walecka relativistic quantum many-body system; provided theoretical guidance in exploiting electromagnetic and weak probes of the nucleus 1932- co-invented the hydrogen maser; explores by optical American spectroscopy of Rydberg atoms 1933- Jeffrey contributed to understanding the role of massless particles in spontaneous American Goldstone symmetry breaking (Goldstone bosons) 1934-2005 John N. Bahcall made important theoretical contributions to understanding solar neutrinos American and quasars 1934- James D. Bjorken formulated the scaling law for deep inelastic processes and made other American outstanding contributions to particle physics and quantum field theory 1934- Ludvig Faddeev made many theoretical contributions in quantum field theory and Russian ; developed the Faddeev equation in connection with the three-body system; co-developed the Faddeev-Popov covariant prescription for quantizing non-Abelian gauge theories; contributed to the quantum inverse scattering method and the quantum theory of solitons 1934- David J. Thouless contributed to condensed matter theory, especially vortices in superfluids, American the , and topological quantum numbers 1935-1997 Peter A. contributed to several areas of theoretical physics, including condensed American Carruthers matter, quantum optics, elementary particle physics, and field theory; statistics and dynamics of galaxy distributions 1935- Gordon A. Baym contributed to several areas of theoretical physics, including condensed American matter, low-temperature physics including superfluidity, statistical physics, nuclear physics, and astrophysics; made advances in quantum statistical mechanics and the study of neutron stars 1940- Stanley J. contributed to theoretical understanding of high-energy physics, especially American Brodsky the quark-gluon structure of hadrons in quantum chromodynamics 1940- Haim Harari predicted the existence of the top quark, which he named; also named the Israeli bottom quark 1940- Kip S. Thorne contributed to theoretical understanding of black holes and gravitational American radiation; co-founded the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory Project (LIGO) 1942- Francesco co-developed the Interacting Boson Model of the atomic nucleus; introduced Italian-born Iachello supersymmetry in nuclei (1980); developed the Vibron Model of molecules American (1981) 1942- Gabriele first introduced string theory to describe the strong force without using Italian Veneziano quantum fields 1944- Chris Quigg contributed to theoretical understanding of high-energy collisions and the American fundamental interactions of elementary particles 1944- Thomas A. contributed to theory of soft condensed matter; structured fluids American Witten 1947- Howard Georgi co-developed the SU(5) and SO(10) grand unified theories of all elementary American particle forces; developed the modern QCD-inspired quark model; helped develop the modern theory of perturbative QCD 1947-2001 Nathan Isgur contributed to understanding the quark structure of resonances; American discovered a new symmetry of nature that describes the behavior of heavy quarks 1951- made fundamental contributions to manifold theory, string theory, and the American theory of supersymmetric quantum mechanics 1952- Ralph Charles leading theorist of molecular nanotechnology; invented the encryption American Merkle technology that allows secure translations over the internet 1955- K. Eric Drexler father of nanotechnology American 1956- Nathan Seiberg contributed to the development of supersymmetric field theories and string American theories in various dimensions 1959- Stephen created Mathematica, the first modern computer algebra system; contributed British Wolfram to development of complexity theory 1964 proves that a black hole space/time must contain behind the black hole event horizon a singularity where space/time physics ceases to make good sense 1964 Murray Gell- proposes fundamental particles that Gell-Mann names "quarks" Mann 1968 Gabriele founds modern string theory Veneziano 1970 Yoichiro Nambu independently discover that the dual resonance model devised by Veneziano Leonard is based on the quantum mechanics of relativistic vibrating strings, and string Susskind theory begins and Holger Nielsen 1973 Predictions of Great Attractor are made 1974 Stephen combines quantum field theory with classical general relativity and predicts Hawking that black holes radiate through particle emission 1974 Joel Scherk and propose string theory as a theory of quantum gravity, an idea that takes ten John Schwarz years to be widely appreciated 1975 announces the existence of dark matter 1980 Alan Guth puts forward the idea of an inflationary phase of the early Universe, before the Big Bang

1981 Michael Green develop superstring theory and John Schwarz 1986 Location of Great Attractor is found 2006 Dark matter observed separate from ordinary matter

Local Physicist Zara, Gregorio discovered around 1930 the law of electrical kinetic resistance (“Zara Effect”). In 1955 he patented a two-way videophone. In the 1950’s and 1960’s he developed or improved alternate energy technologies. Julian Banzon researched methods of producing alternative fuels. Alcaraz, Arturo was a leading member of a team that used steam produced from the heat of a volcano to produce electric power in 1967. A volcanologist specializing in geothermal energy development. Paulo Campos built the first radioisotope laboratory in the Philippines. Comiso, the first person to discover a recurring area of open water in sea ice in the Cosmonaut Josefino Sea. Comiso was studying global warming at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. And has been warning the world about global warming. Maramba, Felix developed a profitable biogas system, building a power generator fuelled by coconut oil. Rolando De La invented an anti cancer skin cream. Cruz Banatao, introduced or developed accelerator chips that improved computer performance, Diosdado helped make the internet possible by contributing to the development of the Ethernet controller chip, created the local bus concept for personal computers.