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The Role of Biofilms in Onychomycosis

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The Role of Biofilms in Onychomycosis The role of biofilms in onychomycosis AdityaK.Gupta,MD,PhD,FRCP(C),a,b Deanne Daigle, MSc,b and Jessie L. Carviel, PhDb Toronto and London, Ontario, Canada Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of nails primarily caused by dermatophyte fungi. Fungi are traditionally understood as existing in the environment as planktonic organisms; however, recent advancements in microbiology suggest that fungi form biofilmsecomplex sessile microbial communities irreversibly attached to epithelial surfaces by means of an extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix also acts as a protective barrier to the organisms within the biofilm. The biofilm is surprisingly resistant to injury and may act as a persistent source of infection possibly accounting for antifungal resistance in onychomycosis. ( J Am Acad Dermatol 2016;74:1241-6.) Key words: antifungal; biofilm; dermatophyte fungi; extracellular matrix; nail; onychomycosis. nychomycosis is a fungal infection of the fact, most naturally occurring microbes have been nails that can be resistant to antifungal found to exist in a biofilm.10,23,24 Moreover, the treatment, and is associated with persistent transition from planktonic to sessile growth has O 25,26 infection and/or relapse despite the fact that identical been correlated with pathogenesis, which is therapy is highly effective in skin infections.1 corroborated by the fact that the interaction and Complete cure may take 12 months or longer,2 and adhesion to host tissues directly impacts disease up to 18 months in slower-growing toe nails.3-7 Nail severity.27 plate involvement can be so severe that in some Previously observed medically important biofilms cases, nail plate removal is required.8 have been documented on dental plaques, urinary Fungi such as those implicated in onychomycosis catheters, and implanted prosthetic devices.28 are traditionally understood as existing in the Reminiscent of the hard-to-treat nature of onycho- environment as planktonic (ie, free floating, mycosis, microbial biofilms on artificial joints or suspended, and individually acting).9 Yet recent osteosynthetic material are often resistant to advancements suggest that, like bacteria, fungi therapy29 and require complete removal.30,31 Their alternate between planktonic and surface-attached persistence is extreme in that even physical multicellular communities called ‘‘biofilms,’’ which disruption in combination with chemical rinse on offer specific advantages to the organisms they dental appliances32,33 or periodic removal of devices contain,10 and are an effective adaptation for in combination with antifungal treatment has not the evasion of stressful conditions.11 Benefits provided long-term resolution.10 include increased resistance to antimicrobial Biofilms have also been found to exist on agents,12 protection from host defenses,13,14 epithelial surfaces.34 Epithelial biofilms have been increased virulence and communication,15 meta- associated with several dermatologic diseases bolic cooperation, and community-based differential including acne,35,36 rosacea, atopic dermatitis,37-39 gene expression.16-19 and impetigo.40 In addition, distinctive dense white The existence of fungal biofilms has now been masses along with abnormal fungal elements have observed and documented20,21 as has use of the nail been observed within diseased nails.28,41 Therefore, as an in vitro substrate for biofilm formation.22 In fungal biofilms in the nails may act as a persistent From the Department of Medicine, University of Toronto School of Accepted for publication January 6, 2016. Medicine,a and Mediprobe Research Inc, London.b Reprint requests: Aditya K. Gupta, MD, PhD, FRCP(C), Mediprobe Funding sources: None. Research Inc, 645 Windermere Rd, London, Ontario, Canada Disclosure: Dr Gupta has been a consultant for Anacor, Sandoz, N5X 2P1. E-mail: [email protected]. and Moberg Pharma; been a clinical trials investigator for Published online March 22, 2016. Valeant Canada, Nuvolase, Bristol Meyers Squibb, Eli Lilly, 0190-9622/$36.00 Merck, Novartis, Janssen, and Allergan; and served as a speaker Ó 2016 by the American Academy of Dermatology, Inc. for Valeant Canada, Janssen, Novartis, and Bayer. Ms Daigle and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2016.01.008 Dr Carviel are previous and present employees of Mediprobe Research Inc, which conducted the above trials. 1241 1242 Gupta, Daigle, and Carviel JAM ACAD DERMATOL JUNE 2016 source of infection and account for antifungal responsible for the recalcitrant nature of onychomy- resistance in onychomycosis. cosis to treatment,28 research into new therapy that targets sessile growth may prove invaluable. For FUNGAL BIOFILMS instance, once a mature bacterial biofilm is Microbial biofilm communities possess distinctive established, the high antibiotic dosage necessary morphologies compared with their planktonic coun- for effective treatment can be inhibitive61 as a terparts, and function as cooperative, organized decreased susceptibility of up to 1000-fold has consortia, in some ways been documented.62,63Many mimicking the behavior of theories have been sug- CAPSULE SUMMARY multicellular organisms.42-44 gested for the source of the Fungal biofilms are formed super resistance, although d Fungi can form biofilms, complex when an adherence to a the idea of contributions communities protected by an foreign substrate is deve- from multiple synergistic ad- extracellular matrix. loped. An extracellular aptations has generally been matrix (ECM) is secreted d Evidence is presented for the idea that proposed. Previously dis- and encases the entire micro- the antifungal resistance and high rate of cussed mechanisms include bial community. The ECM recurrence and relapse of difficult penetration and the is essential in protecting onychomycosis is a result of biofilms. presence of drug efflux against physical disruption d Accessible methods for both the pumps. of the structure and host im- diagnosis and treatment of biofilms are Similar to a fortified com- mune factors while confer- required. munity, the presence of the ring antifungal resistance.10 ECM has been credited with For instance, staphylococcal reduced penetration of anti- biofilms deficient in proper matrix formation have an microbial agents.64,65 Additional evidence correlates increased susceptibility to phagocytosis.45 rates of higher metabolic activity with resistance in A variety of fungi have demonstrated the ability to mature (vs developing) biofilms, suggesting that it is form biofilms (Table I). Many of which have also the developmental stage that plays the key role in been identified as causal agents of onychomyco- resistance.66 As was discussed above, communica- sis.46-50 The first study of the ability of dermatophytes tion, metabolism, and horizontal gene transfer are all to form biofilms was conducted in vitro using streamlined within biofilms. Thus this evidence Trichophyton rubrum and T mentagrophytes.51 makes it tempting to speculate that as the biofilm Results showed that after 72 hours, both species matures, it is able to more efficiently synchronize were able to form biofilms with initial formation these processes, resulting in the observed increased occurring within 3 hours and a significant increase in resistance. Also correlated with a mature biofilm, a fungal mass observed at 48 hours.51 higher cell density has been implicated with the Interestingly, cells detaching from the biofilm decreased efficacy of antifungals including azoles.67 contain greater cytotoxicity in comparison with Finally, the common presence of drug efflux pumps planktonic cells as demonstrated through increased in biofilms has been confirmed and is linked to mortality in a murine model.52 Thus the rapid ability azole resistance.68,69 Exploiting a broad-spectrum of fungi to colonize the nail plate and form a biofilm mechanism, drug efflux pumps are able to confer is likely to play a significant role in the pathogenesis multifactorial resistance resulting in multidrug- of onychomycosis. resistant phenotypes.70-75 Previous treatments that have shown some TREATMENT OF ONYCHOMYCOSIS AND efficacy in clearing biofilms include amphotericin ANTIBIOFILM THERAPY B76-81 and its liposomal formulation,82 and echino- Success rates for onychomycosis therapy are less candins.76-81 Echinocandins, however, are not than optimal with the achievement of disease-free completely effective83 as caspofungin has been nails at less than 50%.53 This prognosis is further shown to be active against some but not all spe- compounded by high rates of recurrence and cies.14,78-81 Antifungal lock therapy including am- reinfection.54-56 Considering current options, photericin B84,85 and its liposomal formulation,86,87 systemic therapy has been the most successful, as caspofungin,88 and ethanol89 has been used success- topical treatments are limited by their ability to fully to navigate the issue of high concentration penetrate the keratin of the nail57 resulting in requirements in biofilm treatments. Some success reduced disease cure and increased risk of reinfec- has also been observed with mucolytic agents such tion and relapse.3,58-60 As biofilm formation may be as acetylcycteine90 and ambroxol, which increased JAM ACAD DERMATOL Gupta, Daigle, and Carviel 1243 VOLUME 74, NUMBER 6 Table I. Fungi with demonstrated biofilm inhibitors are expressed by the sessile cells.99 Other formation ability interest has been shown to PacC, the T rubrum transcription factor necessary for proper secretion of Fungal species implicated in biofilm formation Reference
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