The Early Modern Period, 1450 1750: the World Shrinks
PART IV
The Early Modern Period, 1450–1750: The World Shrinks
The World Map Changes. Two maps illustrate major changes in world history between 1450 and 1750. The first is the formation of new empires. Several of these were European, but the Ottoman Turks, Mughal India and Russia also expanded. The other big change came in trade routes, which shifted from land routes and seaways via the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean to the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
Triggers for Change. The early modern period was distinguished by renewed empire building. The Ottoman Empire is a notable example, taking over the former Byzantine Empire, and its capital at Constantinople. European exploration of the margins of the Atlantic also separated this period from earlier eras. A third development is encompassed by the term gunpowder empires, characterized by their use of new military technology. However, other technologies also made their mark, including the compass, and improved sailing techniques.
The Big Changes. Reactions to the changing world affected all parts of the world, but differently. The three major changes are discussed below.
A New Global Economy. International trade increased in volume, and now the Americas were part global commerce. Changes after 1450 brought the regions of the world into much closer contact.
Biological Exchange. All manner of living things now moved or were moved around the world. Population often followed the introduction of new foodstuffs. At the same time, disease was often transmitted. The Atlantic slave trade had enormous consequences on both sides of the ocean.
New Empires. The new empires formed in this period often represented significant shifts in power. The power of Europe, in particular, increased, although it was not alone. These shifts in some cases translated into serious imbalances.
Continuity. Preexisting trade routes continued to be important. Culturally as well, a great deal of continuity prevailed. Although world religions spread, many major areas also maintained their religious traditions. In gender relations too, little systematic change occurred. In the area of technology, this area was relatively stagnant until after 1750. Earlier developments, such as the use of gunpowder, continued to spread. In the face of pressure from other regions, some cultures such as the Chinese embraced their cultures more firmly than ever.
Impact on Daily Life: Work. Diseases, introduced to those with no immunities, were devastating in many areas of the world. Many Chinese found themselves reduced to poverty when unable to pay taxes in silver, now the common currency of the wealthy. Millions of Africans died on the trip to the Americas or became slaves. The most widespread change was in the nature of work. Working conditions were more crowded, and the workload was often increased to keep pace with competitors. Child labor increased in many areas. The term for the period, early modern, reflects the fact that the period shared many features with the modern world, while still bearing a resemblance to the past.
Trends and Societies. The chapters of this section examine in more detail the changes highlighted above. Chapter 21 provides an overview of changing international trading patterns. Internal changes affecting western Europe is the focus of Chapter 22. The case of Russia, one of the gunpowder empires, is the subject of Chapter 23. Chapters 24 and 25 turn to the Atlantic world. The Americas saw the formation of a new society as indigenous peoples were conquered by Europeans, with African slaves adding to the mix. Chapter 26 focuses on the Muslim world. In Chapter 27, the Asian world presents the example of an area of the world that was more affected by internal developments in this period, than by global changes.
CHAPTER 16
The World Economy
Chapter Outline Summary
I. The West’s First Outreach: Maritime Power
Increasing contact from 12th century
from Crusades, Reconquista
familiarity with imports
Changes
Mongol fall
Ottomans intervene
European efforts to expand
A. New Technology: A Key to Power
Deep-draught ships
better on ocean voyages
Armaments better
Compasses, mapmaking helped navigation
B. Portugal and Spain Lead the Pack
Prince Henry the Navigator
expeditions along African coast
1488, passed Cape of Good Hope
1498, Vasco Da Gama reached India
1514, Portuguese to Indonesia, China
Columbus
to Americas, 1492
Ferdinand Magellan
1519, began circumnavigation of the world
C. Northern European Expeditions
England, Holland, France took the initiative
1588, British defeated Spanish Armada
1534, French crossed the Atlantic
settled in Canada
1497, British sailed to North America
1600s, began colonization
Dutch
North American territory
Indonesia
Chartered companies
little government supervision
II. Toward a World Economy
A. The Columbian Exchange of Disease and Food
Native Americans, Polynesians lacks immunities to European disease
Slaves imported
New World plants
corn, sweet potato, potato
Old World animals
horse, cattle
B. The West’s Commercial Outreach
Continuity
Asian shipping in Chinese, Japanese waters
Muslim traders along east African coast
Turks in eastern Mediterranean
Europeans
remained on coast in Africa, Asia
C. Imbalances in World Trade
Spain and Portugal lacked financial systems
England, France, Holland
more lasting economic presence
Mercantilism
exports, home production protected
dependent areas supplied raw materials
D. A System of International Inequality
Permanent state of dependence
but peasants mostly unaffected
forced labor became widespread to meet demand
E. How Much World in the World Economy?
Not all areas affected
East Asia self-sufficient
China uninterested in world economy
kept Europeans out
Japan
more open initially
closed doors, 17th to 19th centuries
F. The Expansionist Trend
Mughal Empire in decline
British, French filled power vacuum
Eastern Europe
exports grain to the West
III. Colonial Expansion
A. The Americas: Loosely Controlled Colonies
Spain
West Indies
1509, Panama
Aztec, Incas conquered
Loosely supervised conquistadors
Search for gold
took tribute rather than conquer
Administration developed
along with missionary activity
North America
from 17th century
French: Canada, Mississippi
Dutch, English, Atlantic seaboard
West Indies, colonized by all three
B. British and French North America: Backwater Colonies
Different pattern from Latin America
religious refugees
land grants
Canada
French established estates
controlled by state
Catholic church influential
1763, French relinquished Canada, Mississippi
Little merging of natives and immigrants
Enlightenment ideas popular
C. North America and Western Civilization
European-style family
European economic, political ideas
D. Africa and Asia: Coastal Trading Stations
Barriers: climate, disease, geography
Europeans stopped at coast
except in Angola, South Africa
Angola
Portuguese slaving expeditions
South Africa
1652, Dutch founded Cape Town
way station
Settlers moved into interior
conflicts with natives
Asia
Spain into Philippines
conversion
Indonesia
Dutch East India Company
also Taiwan briefly
French and British fought for control of India
1744, war began
British won out
E. Impact on Western Europe
Hostilities between countries exacerbated
Seven Years’ War
first global war
F. The Impact of a New World Order
Slave trade affected Africa
Latin America, eastern Europe
affected by slavery, serfdom
Populations grow following introduction of new food crops
Chapter Summary
Silver Currency. Silver became a commonly traded commodity after 1450, as new sources increased its availability. Silver mines in Mexico and Bolivia were worked by Spaniards, using the Inca mita system. Silver flowed through Spain, into the hands of European merchants, and thence to Asia. Indian spices and Chinese finished goods were eagerly sought by Europeans. Thus a preponderance of the silver ended up in these two world areas. China experienced economic growth, and an improved standard of living. These benefits were not without consequences, as some Chinese became concerned with economic polarization, and Europeans worried about the flow of silver through the continent.
Chapter Summary. The rise of the West between the 15th and 18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. During the classical era, larger regional economies and culture zones had developed, as in the Chinese Middle Kingdom and the Mediterranean basin, but international exchanges were not of fundamental importance to the societies involved. During the postclassical period, contacts increased and were more significant. Missionary religions—Buddhism and Islam—and trade influenced important changes. The new world relationships after 1450 spelled a new period of world history. The Americas and other world areas were joined to the world network, while older regions had increased contacts. Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among societies and prompted reconsideration of existing political and cultural traditions.
The West’s First Outreach: Maritime Power. Europeans had become more aware of the outside world since the 12th century. Knowledge gained during the Crusades and from contacts with the great Mongol Empire spurred interest. European upper classes became accustomed to imports, especially spices, brought from India and southeast Asia to the Middle East by Arab vessels, and then carried to Europe by traders from Italian city-states. The fall of the Mongol dynasty in China, the strength of the Ottoman Empire, plus lack of gold to pay for imports and poor naval technology, hindered efforts for change. Europeans launched more consistent attempts for expansion from the late 13th century.
New Technology: A Key to Power. Technological improvements during the 15th century changed the equation. Deep-draught, round-hulled ships were able to sail Atlantic waters. Improved metalwork techniques allowed the vessels to carry armament far superior to the weapons aboard ships of other societies. The compass and better mapmaking improved navigational skills.
Portugal and Spain Lead the Pack. The initiative for Atlantic exploration came from Portugal. Prince Henry the Navigator directed explorations motivated by Christian missionary zeal, the excitement of discovery, and a thirst for wealth. From 1434, Portuguese vessels, searching for a route to India, traveled ever farther southward along the African coast. In 1488 they passed the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco Da Gama reached India in 1498. Many voyages followed. One, blown off course, reached Brazil. By 1514 the Portuguese had reached Indonesia and China. In 1542 they arrived in Japan and began Catholic missionary activity. Fortresses were established in African and Asian ports. The Spanish quickly followed the Portuguese example. Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, mistakenly calling their inhabitants Indians. Spain gained papal approval for its claims over most of Latin America; a later decision gave Brazil to Portugal. Sixteenth-century expeditions brought the Spanish as far north as the southwestern United States. Ferdinand Magellan began a Spanish voyage in 1519 that circumnavigated the globe. As a result, Spain claimed the Philippines.
Northern European Expeditions. In the 16th century, the exploratory initiative passed from the Portuguese and Spanish to strong northern European states: England, Holland, France. They had improved oceanic vessel design while Portugal and Spain were busy digesting their colonial gains. British naval victory over Spain in 1588 left general ocean dominance to northern nations. The French first crossed the Atlantic in 1534 and soon established settlements in Canada. The British turned to North America in 1497, beginning colonization of its east coast during the 17th century. The Dutch also had holdings in the Americas. They won control of Indonesia from the Portuguese by the early 17th century, and in mid-century established a relay settlement on the southern tip of Africa. French, Dutch, and British traders received government-awarded monopolies of trade in the newly reached regions, but the chartered companies acted without much official supervision. They gained great profits and acted like independent political entities.
Thinking Historically: Causation and the West’s Expansion. Historians desiring to understand social change have to study causation. The many factors involved in any one case make precise answers impossible, but when sufficient data is available, high probability can be attained. Scholars looking for single-factor determinants use cultural, technological, economic, or “great man” theory explanations. All of the approaches raise as many questions as answers. The best understanding is reached through debate based on all efforts chosen as explanations.
Toward a World Economy. Europe’s new maritime activity had three major consequences for world history: creation of a new international pool for exchanges of food, diseases, and manufactured products; formation of a more inclusive world economy; and opening some parts of the world to Western colonization.
The Columbian Exchange of Disease and Food. The extension of international interaction facilitated the spread of disease. Native Americans and Polynesians, lacking natural immunities to small pox and measles, died in huge numbers. In the Americas, Europeans forged new populations from their own peoples and through importation of African slaves. New World crops spread rapidly. American corn and the potato became important in Europe; corn and the sweet potato similarly changed life in China and Africa. Major population increases resulted. Asian and European animals came to the Americas.
The West’s Commercial Outreach. Westerners, because of their superior military might, dominated international trade, but they did not displace all rivals. Asian shipping continued in Chinese and Japanese coastal waters, Muslim traders predominated along the east African littoral, and the Turks were active in the eastern Mediterranean. Little inland territory was conquered in Africa or Asia; the Europeans sought secure harbors and built fortifications to protect their commerce and serve as contact places for inland traders. When effective indigenous states opposed such bases, Europeans gained protected trading enclaves within their cities.
Imbalances in World Trade. Spain and Portugal briefly held leadership the New World economy, but their economies and banking systems could not meet the new demands. New core nations, England, France, and Holland, established more durable economic dominance. They expanded manufacturing operations to meet new market conditions. The doctrines of mercantilism protected home markets and supported exports; tariff policies discouraged competition from colonies and foreign rivals. Beyond Europe areas became dependent participants in the world economy as producers and suppliers of low-cost raw materials; in return they received European manufactured items. Sub-Saharan Africa entered the world network mainly as a slave supplier. The Europeans controlled commercial and shipping services.
A System of International Inequality. The rise of core and dependent economic zones became an enduring factor in world economic relationships. Some participants in the dependent regions had an opportunity for profit. African slave traders and rulers taxing the trade could become rich. Indigenous merchants in Latin America satisfied regional food requirements. Many peasants in all regions remained untouched by international markets. Still, indigenous merchants and landlords did not control their terms of trade; the wealth gained was expended on European imports and did not stimulate local manufacturing or general economic advance. Dependence in the world economy helped form a coercive labor system. The necessity for cheap products produced in the Americas exploitation of indigenous populations or use of slaves. In the Dutch East Indies and British India, peasants were forced into labor systems.