Kant’s Theory of Evil: An Interpretation and Defense by Robert A. Gressis A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Philosophy) in The University of Michigan 2007 Doctoral Committee: Professor Stephen L. Darwall, Chair Associate Professor Ian N. Proops Assistant Professor Mika T. LaVaque-Manty Assistant Professor Michelle A. Kosch, Cornell University © Robert A. Gressis 2007 To my mother, father, and brother ii Acknowledgments I have benefited from the help of many people during the writing of this dissertation. They break down into four categories: family, friends, professors, and fiancée. Let’s talk about family first. My mother and father helped me with the dissertation by offering me unflagging love and compliments (thanks, Mom) and assurances that I’ll finish the dissertation, no worries (thanks, Dad). My brother’s constant headlocks, body- slams, and childish jibes reminded me that being in high school was worse than working on the dissertation. Also, a special thanks to Joey Bates (an honorary uncle) for helping me deal with “that-which-must-not-be-named” by calming me down with his wise words. Next, friends: several graduate students in the University of Michigan philosophy department helped me get this thing done, either by making me a better philosopher (Steve Daskal, Remy Debes, Chris Dodsworth, Alex Hughes, Charles Goodman, and Steve Petersen) or by literally helping me on specific aspects of the dissertation (Remy, Chris, and Steve P.). Special kudos are owed to Steve Petersen for warning me about the mental havoc that working on a dissertation can wreak (and for helping me through it (Remy also helped with this part)) and to Chris Dodsworth for conversations helping me deal with specific problems I encountered while working through the dissertation. My committee members all played distinct, important, and complementary roles. Steve Darwall was a chair greater-than-which-none-can-be-conceived (I prefer the cosmological argument, but here the ontological argument just works better): he kept me iii thinking both of the point of the overall project and helped me immensely with particular arguments. Moreover, he was unfailingly punctual in getting comments back to me. (It’s like he’s done this before!) Ian Proops was a valuable resource both for his knowledge of Kant’s theoretical philosophy and for his command of style (both phraseological and sartorial!). He helped to make my writing significantly better and kept me philosophically honest. Michelle Kosch was an encouraging and approachable interlocutor. Especially in the early stages of writing my dissertation, it was in conversation with her that I worked out most of my ideas. Mika LaVaque-Manty generously agreed to be my cognate committee member and provided valuable suggestions about which parts of Kant’s political philosophy to explore in the future. Next, my fiancée, Shawn. Shawn has helped me in innumerable ways, in addition to being straight-up lovable. She encouraged me to keep on working when I didn’t want to, she got me to use some effective time-management techniques, and she would frighten me with the specter of an unfinished dissertation, to great effect. I have matured a lot under her guidance. Finally, I would like to give some individual laudations: thanks to David Dick, Christie Hartley, Liz Goodnick, Carole Lee, Pat Lewtas, Ira Lindsay, Pat Palermo, Matt Pugsley, Glen Shadbolt, Justin Shubow, Brent Sims, Anthony Stark, Luke Weiger, and Gabriel Zamosc-Regueros (in addition to everyone already listed) for lots of enjoyable conversations. Thanks to Chris Dodsworth for an endless parade of favors that continues to this day, and probably into the afterlife. Thanks to Project X for lots of exciting, iv embarrassing adventures. Thanks to Louis Loeb and Fritz Warfield for their placement advice. Thanks to Patricia Kitcher for agreeing to share some of her precious time with me while I lived in New York City and for agreeing to write a recommendation letter. Thanks to the Knowledge Navigation Center for getting my dissertation into working order. Thanks to Dave Feldman for his counsel. Thanks to Bullett, Lennon, Muncie, and Vivi for being adorable feline beasts. And thanks again to Mom, Dad, Joe, and Shawn. v Table of Contents Dedication........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... ix Abstract............................................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1: On Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (A Speech to Its Cultured Despisers) 1. The Current Situation and a Historical Parallel ...............................................................1 2. A Bad First Impression ....................................................................................................3 3. Wood's Advance ..............................................................................................................8 4. A Tour of What Is to Come ...........................................................................................11 5. Our Location at the End of the Tour..............................................................................21 Chapter 2: Maxims and Gesinnungen 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................25 2. Maxims ..........................................................................................................................25 2.1. The Maxim-Action Thesis ..............................................................................27 2.2. What Maxims Are...........................................................................................30 2.2.1. Policy-Maxims................................................................................31 2.2.2. Disposition-Maxims........................................................................33 2.2.3. The Elements of Disposition-Maxims ............................................35 2.2.3.1. Incentives.........................................................................36 2.2.3.2. Motives............................................................................40 2.2.3.3. Intellectual Incentives and Pleasure ................................45 2.2.4. Combining the Elements into Disposition-Maxims........................47 3. The Flexible Maxim Thesis ...........................................................................................49 3.1. Highest Disposition-Maxims and the Gesinnung...........................................52 3.2. Nested Maxims...............................................................................................56 3.3. Happiness and Pleasure ..................................................................................58 3.4. The Moral Law and Reasons for Its Adoption...............................................62 4. The Opacity of Maxims .................................................................................................64 Chapter 3: The Propensity to Evil and the Gesinnung 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................74 2. Propensities and Predispositions....................................................................................75 2.1. Propensities.....................................................................................................76 2.2. Predispositions ................................................................................................77 3. The Propensity to Evil and Gesinnungen.......................................................................84 3.1. The Tendency to Evil......................................................................................85 3.2. The Three Grades of the Propensity to Evil....................................................88 vi 3.3. Gesinnungen ...................................................................................................94 3.3.1. The Evil Gesinnung Is Not the Propensity to Evil...........................95 3.3.1.1. The Ineradicability of the Propensity to Evil....................95 3.3.1.2. Revolution in Gesinnung ................................................100 3.3.2. The Evil Gesinnung .......................................................................101 3.3.3. The Evil Gesinnung and the Tendency to Evil ..............................104 4. The Activation of the Susceptibility to Evil ................................................................108 4.1. How the Susceptibility is Activated..............................................................108 4.2. How to Prevent the Susceptibility's Activation ............................................111 Chapter 4: Kant's Argument for the Universality Thesis 1. The Problem.................................................................................................................117 2. A Proper Formulation of the Problem .........................................................................118 3. The Story I Shall Tell...................................................................................................119