J¿t.r.'{b SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGICAL CHANGE IN THE UPPER SOUTH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY KATHRYN IIELEN TAFFS B.A.(HONS.) A thesis submitted for the degree of a Doctor of Philosophy in Geography University of Adelaide. June, 1997 Conducted as a cross-institutional student between the University of Adelaide and the Australian National University. ll For all the people I love, especially Nanna. lll TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. O ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY I Ll Environmental History: The Methodolosy I 1.2 The Origin of the Concept of Environmental History J 1.3 Advantases and Disadvantages of Environmental History 7 1.4 Environmental History in the Upper South East of South Australia ll 1.5 Aims and Obiectives Of The Thesis t3 2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN THE UPPER SOWH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND SURROL]NDING REGIONS 15 2.1 Climatic Change and Associated Terrestrial Change l5 2.1.1 Sea Level Fluctuations l6 2.l.2The Coorong. 20 2.1.3 The Murray Basin 2t 2.1.4 West Victorian Lakes 23 2.1.5 The Lower South East Lakes and Kangaroo Island 25 2.1.5 Summary 27 2.2 Human Induced Change 29 2.3 Conclusions 30 3.0 THE ENT/IRONMENT OF THE UPPERSOWH EAST OF SOUTHAUSTRALIA 3I 3.1 Physical Geography 31 3.1.1 Climate 32 32 3.1.3 Topography 37 3.1.4 Soils )t 3.1.5 Vegetation 38 3.1.6 Hydrology 39 3.1.7 The Present Environmental Dilemmas 42 3.2 The Environmental Impact Assessment 43 3.2.1 Legislative and public opinion background 43 3.2.2Previous Studies 45 3.2.3 Background Reports 49 3.2.4 The Environmental Impact Assessment 52 3.2.5 The Management Plan 55 3.2.6 Conclusion 61 3.3 Field Studv Sites 62 3.3.1 Study Site Selection 62 3.3.2 Sites within the Bakers Range Watercourse 63 3. 3.2. 1 Kangoora Lagoon 63 3. 3. 2. 2 Cortina Lakes ....... 65 3.3.2.3 Messent Conservation Park 70 3.3.3 Sites within the Marcollat Watercourse '73 3. 3. 3. 1 Joffroy Swamp..... 73 lv 3. 3. 3. 2 Gum Lagoon C ons ervation P ark........... 74 3.3.4 Sites within the Duck Island Watercourse 74 3. 3. 4. I Lesron Consemation P ark.......... .77 4.0 METHODS 8I 4. I Historical Reconstruction 8l 4.1.1 Written Records 8l 8l 83 4. 1.2 Instrumental Records 84 4. 1.2.I Native Vegetation Clearance .84 .85 .86 4. 1.2.4 Rainfall Record .87 4. 1.2. 5 Dryland Salínísation .88 .88 4.2 P alaeoecolosical Reconstruction 89 4.2.1 CorngProcedure 89 4.2.2Logging Cores ô^ 4.2.3 Pinus Pollen Extraction 90 4.2.4 Chemical Analysis 92 4.2.5 Diatom Analysis 95 4.2.6IÑdneral Analysis 97 4.2.7 Charcoal Counting 4.2.8Datng 99 4.2.9 Water Chemistry 100 4.2.10 Other Methods l0l 5.0 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE OF ENT/IRONMENTAL CHANGE t03 5.1 The Aboriginal History 103 5.2 European Exploration and Agricultural History 109 5.2.1 Pre 1900: A Marshy Plain 109 5.2.2Early 1900s to World War Two: The God Forsaken Country? lt4 5.2.3 Post World War Two to 1980: Drought and Floo t20 5.2.4 Post 1980: Salinity and Floods l3l 5.3 Hydrological Changes t36 5.3. I Rainfall Fluctuations r37 5.3.2 Floods and Drains 145 5.3.3 Alterations to Watercourses 155 5.3.3.1 Tilley Swamp Watercourse 155 l6l 5.3.3.3 Marcollat Watercourse 167 170 t70 5.3.4 Dryland Salinity and Water Quality 174 5.3.4.1 The Spread of Dryland Salinity .174 .r77 5.4 Conclusions 179 6.0 PALAEOECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 185 6.1 Field Sites ofthe Bakers Range Watercourse 185 6.1.1 Kangoora Lagoon 185 6.1.2 Reedy Lake 189 6.1.3 Cortina Lakes South Lagoon 194 6.1.4 Cortina Lakes Norlh Lagoon 198 6.1.5 Alf s Flat: Messent Conservation Park 203 6.1.6 Bakers Range Watercourse Trends 207 6.2. Field Sites of the Marcollat Watercourse 215 6.2.1 Jaffray Swamp 215 6.2.2 Gum Lagoon Conservation Park 221 6.2.3 Marcollat Watercourse Trends 231 6.3 Field Sites of the Duck Island Watercourse 234 6.3.1 Lesron 234 6.3.2 Roo Lagoon 238 6.3.3 Duck Island Watercourse Trends 241 6.4 The changes in the surface water hydro of the Upper South East of South Australia 245 7.0 DISCUSSION 255 7. 1 Climatic Fluctuattons 2s5 7.2 European induced environmental changes 262 7.3 Future management 278 7.4 Effectiveness of "Environmental History" in the Upper South East of South Australia 283 8.0 coNcL¿nvo¡ls 286 9.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 1O.O APPENDICES 305 l0.l: Diatoms of the U South East of South Australia 306 10.2: Methods Used in the Analvsis of Reconnaissance Samples 320 10.21 Pollen Analysis 320 I 0.22 Ostracod Analysis 322 10.23 Cladocera Analysis 322 I 0.24 Chironomid Analysis 323 10.25 Trace Element Analysis 324 10.26 Sediment Size analysis. 324 10.3: Diatom Records Of Study Sites Of The Upper South East 326 9.31: Diatom Record of the Reedy Lake 326 9.32 Diatom Record of the Coftina Lakes North 327 9.33 Diatom Record of the Jafftay Swamp 328 vl LIST OF TABLES Teslp 4.1: CercuLATroNS noR CgevlcAl ANALysrs ................ .............g5 TESLT 5.1: ASOPJCTNAL ACTIVITIES IN THE UPPER SourH EAST oF SOUTH AusTRaTIe ............I08 Tesl-E5.2:Itr¡pecrsuPoNTHEUppERSouruEASTENVrRONMENTpRroRro 1900....................114 Tasls 5.3: Itupacrs uPoN rs¡ UppeR Sours EAST ENVTRoNMENT 1900 ro WoRLD Wen Twol2l TESLP 5.4: IVPACT UPON THE UPPSR SOuru Eesr pNvInoNMENT BETwEEN Wonro Wen Two ,qNo 1980 ..............132 Tesls 5.5: Ivpecr uPoN THE UppsR Souru Eesr ENvTRoNMENT BETwEEN 1980 nNt rus PRESENT 137 TABLE 5.6: R¡cono oF FLooD EvENTS IN THp Uppnn SourH Eesr op Souru Ausrnaln.......156 Tesls 5.7: CHeNcp rN Sarnqnv op Fnln Sruoy SrrES FRoM Hrsrorucel- REcoRos ..............1'15 Tesle 6.1:WarenCuemsrRyopKaNcooRALAGooN ....1g6 Teslp 6.2: Waren CHevrsrRy or Rrsoy Larc......... ........190 TABLE 6.3: Wersn CHeN4lsrRy oF CORTTNA Larcs Sours LAcooN..... ........."........195 Tasls 6,4: v/er¡R cuErr¡rsrRv oF coRrnqe LAKES NoRrH LecooN ......................199 T.qsl-p 6.5: wer¡n cugrr¿rstRv oF THE BercRs RaNce wATERcouRSE............. .....209 Teele 6.6: Warrn Cn¡rr¿rsrny oF JAFFRAy Swaup....... ....216 Tasr-E 6.7: WnreR Cuprr¡rsrRy oE LssRoN LAGooN ..........236 Teelp 6.8: WarpR CHsvrsrny oF Roo LAGooN ................239 TABLE 6.9: wersR QuALrry oF THE srrEs oF THE DucK IsLAND wereRcouRsE............ ..........243 Tasle 6.10: Dsrpcrnt CIIMeTIC AND HUMAN Irqoucpo CHaNc¡s rN THE ENvmoNvnNr or Frplo Srrps o¡ THE UppER Sours EAST.......... ............254 vll LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1.1: THs Sluoy AnEa; THE UPPER SOUTH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA .. 12 FIGURE 2.I:LocITIoN oF STUDY SITES USED To PROVIDE EVIDENCE OF CLIMATIC CHANGE IN THE UppER SourH ERsr or Souru AusrRALrA ................... 17 FIGURE 2.2: AucIeuT BaRrugR Du¡¡g SYSTEMS Or TU¡ UppCR SOUTH EAST OF SOUIH Ausrnann ............ 19 FrcuRE 2.3:L¡xn Lpvsls oF THE LowER Sours EAST oF SourH Ausrnel-n .........26 FIGURE 2.4: SUTT¡veny oT CIIIT¡RTE CuanqCE IN THE RECION SURROUNDING THE UPPER SOUTH EASr.......... .............28 FIcURE 3. I : R¡TNE¡LL AND EVAPORATION ISOUyETS OF THE UppeR SOUTH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRRLN JJ FIGURE 3.2: TevppRATURE GReoIeNTS OF THE UPPER SOUIH EAST OF SOUrg AUSTREI-N..... 34 FIGURE 3.3: GgoIoGY oF rgp UppeR SOUTH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRru-N 35 FIGURE 3.4: HyonoLoGICAL CercHveNr Anpes oF THE Uppnn SOUIH EAST OF SOUIU Ausrner,n... 41 FrcuRE 3.5: Fr.ooo RETURN PERIOD MooEI- Rpsut-rs.... ......48 FIGURE 3.6: PnoposED DRATNAcE Scgeves IN THE SOUTUERN AND CENTRAL AREAS OF THE UppBn Sourn 8AST.......... ........ 56 FTcURB 3.7: OprToNs E,OR DRaTwAGE IN THE NORTHPRN ARrn OF THE UPPER SOUIU EESI........ 57 FrcuRE 3. 8: THE WerleNo W¡rpru-rlrr ........... 59 FrcuRE 3.9: FrEr-o Sruov SIrps or rHE UppER Sours EAST oF Souru Ausrnern ....................64 FIcURE 4.1: MpTgoDS USED To ASCERTAIN THE ET.¡vIROT.IIvIpNTAL HISTORY OF THE UPPER SOUTH E¡sr oF Souru AusrRer-n .....82 FIGURE 4.2: ENvIRoNMENTAL CoNonTouS CONDUCIVE ro CannoNATE PRODUCTION IN I,ereS94 FIGURE 4.3: DIarOv SaLN{IIY OPIIV¡. AND TOLERANCES 96 FIGURE 4.4: RÉpncSENTATION OF MTNERALOGICAL RESULTS.... .............. 98 FrcuRE5.l:AsoRrcrNar-GRoupsoFTHEUpppRSoursERsropSouruAusrRann.............. 106 FTGURE 5.2: DnarNs Co¡lsrRucrso PRroR ro 1900 rN THE Sourn EAST oF SourH Ausrnel-n I 13 FIGURE 5.3: Dnens CoNSTRUCTED BETwEEN I9OO eNo 1943 IN rUP SOUIH EASI Or. SOUTTT AusrRer-n .......... I 15 FrcuRE 5.4: AcnrcuLTURAL REroRTS or Tevr-oR (1933) AND MELVILLE AND MARTTN (1936) ll7 FIGURE 5.5: AcRIcULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN Tue UppgR SOUTH EAST OF SOUTU AUSTRRI-N TN 1936 119 FrcuRE 5.6: AcTcULTURAL DEVELopMENT IN THE Upppn sourH EAST rN 1950, 1960, 1970 auo 1980 124 FIGURE 5.7: NerIve VEGETATION REMATNTNc nq 1980 IN THE UppER SOUTH ERST Or.SOUrg AusrReuA ..........125 FIGURE 5.8: DnerNs CoNsrRucrED IN THE UPPER SourH EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRAI-N BETWC¡N 1944 AND 1970 ... 128 FIGURE 5.9: PnIvarE DRATNS CoNsrRucTED UP ro 1981 IN THE UPPER SOUTU EAST Or,SOUrrT AusrRRr-n .......... 130 FrcuRE 5.10: Pp¡vere Dner¡rs rN THE UpppR Souru ERsr op Sourg AustnRI-l¡....................