From Anglicisation to Loyalism? New York, 1691-1783 Thesis suBmitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy By Sophie Heather Jones 3 October 2018 Abstract Sophie H Jones, ‘From Anglicisation to Loyalism? New York, 1691-1783’ This dissertation investigates the development of loyalism in the colony of New York during the American Revolution. It argues that the decision to remain loyal was largely determined By local, rather than ideological, factors. In contrast to interpretations that see loyalism as a fixed, ideological construct, this dissertation shows that the loyalist experience differed greatly between distinct geographic regions within a single colony: different counties entered the war at different stages, loyalist claimants described different motivations for remaining loyal, while the nature of the activities and services provided By loyalists to advance the British cause varied consideraBly. Crucially, the local factors which shaped the nature of New York loyalism had historic roots which extended back into the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. New York is deserving of a detailed study because of the unique role which it played during the conflict. Captured By the British during the summer of 1776, New York City formed their military headquarters for the duration of the war and became the centre of loyalism in British North America. Responding to the emergence of recent scholarship on upstate New York during the Revolutionary era, this dissertation shows that significant reserves of loyalist support could also Be found within more rural and frontier regions. However, this allegiance to Britain was not necessarily guaranteed: New York had initially Been established as a Dutch colony But, during the early eighteenth-century, underwent a significant process of Anglicisation. This dissertation is divided into two parts. Beginning with Jacob Leisler’s Rebellion of 1691, Part One considers New York’s transformation from a Dutch colony to an English province. Tracing New York’s social, cultural, political and material development, it questions the extent to which the process of Anglicisation was felt uniformly within the colony. It argues that the uneven impact of such changes produced distinctly different regions within New York, each with their own local character. Part Two forms a detailed and sustained analysis of the post-war compensation claims suBmitted By New York’s loyalists to the British Loyalist Claims Commission. Comparing the claims of loyalists from three counties – the city and county of New York, Albany County and Tryon County – it demonstrates that the exact nature of loyalism in each of these regions was mainly influenced By local circumstance and the unique complexities of each region; the nature of which have Been outlined in Part One. This study is original in the way that it makes use of the loyalist claims. Despite their vast potential, limited scholarly attention has been paid to the claims and they remain an under- utilised resource. Furthermore, this study Bridges a scholarly gap that has emerged Between the histories of New York City and upstate New York: in contrast to studies that exclusively focus on the revolution within either region, this dissertation is the first to compare the loyalist experience Between the colony’s urban and rural areas. Finally, as scholars continue to comprehend the complexity of loyalist identities, this dissertation contributes to the growing field of loyalist studies By demonstrating that the nature of loyalism varied greatly, even within a single colony. This variance not only supports the conclusions of existing scholarship which argues that loyalist identities were neither static nor homogenous, but it also indicates that the exact nature of loyalism was ultimately a product of local circumstance. Contents Acknowledgements List of AbBreviations Appendix: Map of New York, 1777 Introduction p. 1 Part One: Chapter One: Anglicisation and Political Change, 1691-1763 p. 25 Chapter Two: Material Culture and Social Change p. 63 Part Two: Chapter Three: Case Study – The City and County of New York p. 112 Chapter Four: Case Study – AlBany County p. 154 Chapter Five: Case Study – Tryon County p. 194 Conclusion p. 229 BiBliography p. 238 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have Been possiBle without the generous support – both financial and otherwise – that I have received from a wide range of individuals and institutions. First and foremost, my doctoral research was funded By the University of Liverpool’s Changing Cultures Studentship; this studentship exists thanks to the generous donation of Liverpool alumnus Adrian Ringrose. Special thanks also need to be given to the United Empire Loyalist Association of Canada for awarding me their UELAC Loyalist Scholarship, But for also being a constant source of warmth and encouragement for the past three years. Travel grants provided By The British Association for American Studies, European Association for American Studies and the Royal Historical Society enabled me to conduct essential archival research within the United States, while research fellowships awarded by the American Antiquarian Society, the New York State Archives and the University of Georgia granted me generous access not only to their manuscript collections, But to the expertise of their personnel. Special thanks need to be made to the Earl of Derby for granting me access to his personal collections, and of course to Stephen Lloyd for arranging this. The practicalities of archival research have at times Been a learning curve in itself and I am thankful for the patient and friendly support of librarians and archivists at the National Archives, New-York Historical Society, New York PuBlic Library, Massachusetts Historical Society and the Liverpool Record Office for helping me to identify key collections. This dissertation grew out of an undergraduate dissertation completed almost a decade ago under the guidance of Dr Keith Mason, which in turn was sparked by my interest in Dr Mason’s undergraduate courses on colonial America. I owe Keith a debt of thanks: first, for encouraging me to return to academic study; secondly for his thoughtful, dedicated and patient encouragement, which has continued even into retirement. I equally want to thank Dr Mark Towsey and Professor Elaine Chalus. Mark and Elaine not only agreed to supervise my research project But have Been a constant source of unwavering support, encouragement and friendship, guiding me through the research process, adding fresh perspectives and ideas, sharing their expertise, challenging me to delve deeper into the source material (and, of course, giving me some well-needed nudges in the right direction). Beyond my supervisory team, the wider academic community at the University of Liverpool has provided companionship and inspiration; while there are too many to name personally, every Acknowledgements conversation or words of encouragement (usually over a cup of tea) have contributed to the completion of this dissertation. Versions of this research have Been presented at a numBer of conferences and workshops. I am thankful to the British Society for Eighteenth Century Studies, the American Society for Eighteenth Century Studies, the British Association for American Studies, the Irish Association for American Studies, the North West Early Modern Research Seminar, the University of Manchester, and Liverpool’s Eighteenth-Century Worlds Research Centre for providing me with the opportunity to speak and for enabling me to gain important feedBack from their respective expert memBership on my work in progress. Last, But By no means least, I owe an incalculable debt to the Jones family: Tracey, Mark and Kirsty. This research project has impacted upon their day-to-day lives almost as much as it has my own, Beginning with the day that I announced my decision to leave a full-time career and return to academia. They have Been alongside me every step of the way, celebrating with me in my successes and Buoying my spirits when I faced setBacks. Their warmth, encouragement and unfaltering belief in my abilities seems to know no bounds – I could not have made it to this point without them. List of AbBreviations AAS American Antiquarian Society. AHR The American Historical Review. ANB American National Biography Online. CASHP New York State Museum, Colonial Albany Social History Project, <https://exhibitions.nysm.nysed.gov/albany/> Colonial America Adam Matthew Digital’s Colonial America database, <http://www.colonialamerica.amdigital.co.uk/> DNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Evans Early American Imprints, Series I: Evans, 1639-1800, <http://infoweb.newsbank.com> ECCO Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, <http://www.gale.com/c/eighteenth-century-collections- online-part-i> EAN Early American Newspapers Database. Series 1, 1690-1876, digitised for Readex’s America’s Historical Newspapers database <http://infoweb.newsbank.com> FAA Peter Force’s American Archives, <http://amarch.lib.niu.edu> HRVR Hudson River Valley Review. JBS Journal of British Studies. NML National Museums Liverpool. NYH New York History. N-YHS New-York Historical Society. NYPL New York Public Library. NYSA New York State Archives. OED Oxford English Dictionary Online, <http://www.oed.com.liverpool.idm.oclc.org> TNA The National Archives. TRHS Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. WMQ The William and Mary Quarterly. Appendix: Map of New York, 1777