MASS MURDER AND THE MASS MEDIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE MEDIA DISCOURSE ON U.S. RAMPAGE SHOOTINGS, 2000-2012 by Jaclyn V. Schildkraut, M.A. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a Major in Criminal Justice May 2014 Committee Members: Mark C. Stafford, Chair Marcus K. Felson Scott W. Bowman Glenn W. Muschert COPYRIGHT by Jaclyn V. Schildkraut 2014 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgment. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Jaclyn Schildkraut, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. DEDICATION To the victims of these senseless tragedies, May your legacies live on and your losses inspire change. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation never would have been possible without the support of many people who have guided me and cheered me on throughout this journey. To my chair, Dr. Mark Stafford, the words “thank you” just do not seem to be enough. In the last three years, you have guided me, supported me, cheered me on, and helped me grow as both a scholar and a person. I am so honored and grateful to be able to go out into the world and say I have had the immense privilege of being your student. There are many greats that came before me, and I am sure many more to come. Thank you for your “Staffordisms” that made this journey fun, for being a founding member of Team Sparkly Butterfly, and for everything you have done and continue to do. To Dr. Marcus Felson, thank you for teaching me the importance of being able to see both the forest and the trees, and for teaching me to always make sure my tables are perfect. You always have been so supportive and encouraging of my work, and I am forever grateful not only to have gotten to take a class with you, but more important, just to know you. You truly are one of the most amazing minds I have ever met, but also an amazing person. Learning from you has been an honor and a privilege. To Dr. Scott Bowman, thank you for helping me find my way on this methodological journey, for keeping me sane when coding went awry, and for being one of the most approachable and helpful professors I have had. You have helped me grow into a stronger researcher, and helped me to hone my craft. I appreciate your calm in the v storm of my dissertation, and for being able to shoot the breeze (not Brees) about sports throughout the years. Go Coyotes and Panthers! To my final committee member, Dr. Glenn W. Muschert, it has been a very interesting and amazing journey that started with a naïve, first semester Masters student and a phone call back in 2010. Over the last five years, you have helped mentor me, guide me, advise me, and mold me into a potential force in our research area. You have helped me pursue my passion, think more critically, and consider the bigger picture. Without your continual support and guidance, I would not have the opportunities I have had, gotten to work with Gary, met Ralph or Jack, or had the courage to reach out to victims of these tragedies. It has been an honor, a privilege, and a dream come true to get to work with you, and I hope our collaborations continue for years to come. I do not know how I will ever thank you for all that you have done, but I know that I will never stop trying and will always remember to pay it forward. I also want to thank other educators who have motivated me, inspired me, championed me, and guided me along this journey. To Drs. Donna Vandiver and Elizabeth Erhardt Mustaine, thank you both for being such strong examples of what female scholars should be. You both are incredibly strong, intelligent, and thoughtful women, and I am so honored to have had the opportunity to learn from you both. Thank you for all of the support, words of encouragement (and words of wisdom), and help you have given me along this journey. vi To my best friend and research partner (a.k.a. partner in crime), H. Jaymi Elsass, this journey never would have been possible without you. You have been one of my biggest cheerleaders, both personally and professionally. We have battled through coursework, comps, and now dissertations together, and have managed to always come out on top. Thank you for teaching me to be a good friend, a better person, for our celebratory or birthday lunches at Kerbey Lane, and for your unwavering support and belief in me, even when I forgot to believe in myself. I still am in awe of how far we have come from an idea in a basement two years ago…but I have loved every minute of this adventure with you. Team Sparkly Butterfly FOREVER! To Tiffany Cox, my favorite legal eagle. You too have been an amazing friend, support system, and battle buddy throughout our time in this doctoral program, and I have treasured every minute of it. No matter where life takes us, we always will have the Root Cellar, asparagus fries, and Kate’s Frosting, because life always is better with sparkly cherries on top. Thank you for helping me always keep it in perspective, and for being a sounding board with some of the best advice this side of the Mississippi. To Victoria Terranova, thank you for being ready, willing, and able to help be my “reliability,” even despite epic technology failures. I could not have completed this without you… you’re next buddy (and I always am there as your support when needed)! Beyond just the help on this project, thank you to you and Shannon Cunningham for always keeping it real in the office, talking Teen Mom when the mood gets too heavy vii (Barbara!), and our many adventures that have taken us to Round Rock, Ikea, and the Cheesecake Factory. You guys are the best office mates a gal could ask for. To Marc Settembrino, Amanda Farrell, and Melissa Tetzlaff-Bemiller, thank you all for your support throughout this journey, for keeping me sane (especially throughout the job search), and for your willingness to spend hours on the phone with me, usually talking about absolutely nothing. You have kept me grounded, and always reminded me that the light was at the end of the tunnel, and that the end is always getting closer. To my puppies, Bella and Mackenzie, thank you for sitting with me for hours on end as I wrote this dissertation, for cuddling with me when I was sad or frustrated over it, and for giving me lots of licks of encouragement. I love you both more than all the stars in the sky. Finally, to my parents, Bevan and Bruce, and my stepmother, Bonnie, thank you for your support, your encouragement, and your overwhelming pride in my all of my accomplishments. You never have a shortage of excitement over my work, nor words of encouragement whenever needed. Thank you for helping me throughout the journey of becoming “Dr. Schildkraut.” I love you all and will be forever grateful for everything you have sacrificed over the years to help me fulfill this dream and passion. This manuscript was submitted on February 26, 2014. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xvi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... xvii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 Rampage Shootings: A Conceptualization ................................................. 3 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................... 5 Research aims. ................................................................................ 6 Methods....................................................................................................... 6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 7 II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................. 10 If It Bleeds, It Leads: The Construction of Crime News .......................... 10 Disproportionality of crime news ................................................. 11 The commodification of crime news ............................................ 13 Assigning newsworthiness ............................................................ 14 Sources of news ............................................................................ 16 Framing ......................................................................................... 17 ix Feeling Safe By Comparison?: Fear of Crime and the Media .................. 20 It’s More Than Just Ratings: Additional Impacts of Mass Media ............ 24 Misinforming the public ............................................................... 24 Contagion effects .......................................................................... 26 Moral panics.................................................................................