Beginning of the Music We Know 2 Music in a Society Music reflects the society in which it exists. Societies and cultures reflect their differences in the music that they create and to which they respond. When a type or style of music no longer resonates within a society, another type of music replaces it. This pattern has oc- curred throughout human history, and evidence indicates that it was the pattern before history was written and recorded. The dynamic of music reflecting a society continues today and can be seen in the changing of music as our society changes and evolves. The culture of the early twenty-first century is somewhat different from that of fifty or a hundred years ago, and the music of today is not the same as that of a century or half-century ago. To understand the music of today, we must know about the roots from which it evolved. To better understand an earlier type of music, we must know something about the society that supported it. Music in Ancient Society Many surviving writings from the ancient world make mention of music, but few provide extensive details. For most writers, music was simply a part of life. They did not write about the cups from which they drank or the beds upon which they slept as these, too, were simply Figure 2.01 a part of life. We know that music making took place in prehistoric times. One piece of evi- dence is an early flute, made from a bear bone and discovered in the mid-1990s. This instru- ment dates to 41,000 B.C. and was used by Neanderthal man to make music. The earliest known record of music and musical instru- ments is a broken clay tablet from the twenty- sixth century B.C., pictured in Figure 2.01. This Sumerian tablet’s inscription lists several types of instruments that were in use at the time and lists nine strings, or possibly notes, on these in- struments. A type of tuning system is refer- enced, but the information is incomplete. Lexical list of harp strings and twenty-three types of musical instru- We do not know what music of ancient ments. Sumer, twenty-sixth century B.C. The earliest record of music and times sounded like; no machines existed for re- instruments in history. cording music until late in the 1800s. While a Collection, Oslo and London. Used Schøyen of The courtesy Image Collection. Schøyen The Schøyen, permission of Martin by 55 ch02.indd 55 13/12/13 7:36 PM 56 Chapter 2 Beginning of the Music We Know Figure 2.02 few cultures created methods or systems of notating or writing music, two major issues affect our ability to perform and hear this ancient music: (1) often, we cannot fully in- terpret what was written, either through our incomplete understanding of the language or as a result of incomplete surviving remnants of what was written, and (2) we do not fully understand the tuning or pitch systems used, so we do not know what notes are being refer- enced in the writing. Although attempts at translating the music into modern musical no- tation have been made, as indicated in Figure 2.02, these attempts are at best only educated guesses. It would be a bit like figuring out a written language, for instance, ancient Egyptian, but being unable to pronounce the words be- cause no one knows how they are meant to sound. Understanding a written musical lan- guage and not being able to translate it into sound is indeed an incomplete understanding. Many ancient societies and cultures refer to music. Figures 2.01 and 2.02 are evidence of Sumerian writings about music and Baby- Cuneiform musical notation, Babylonia, lonian musical notation, respectively. Biblical 2000–1700 B.C., and modern transcription. references include Jubal, mentioned in Chap- Image courtesy of The Schøyen Collection, Oslo and London. Used by permission of Martin Schøyen, Schøyen, permission of Martin Collection, Oslo and London. Used by Schøyen of The courtesy Image Collection. Schøyen The ter 1 of this text; music’s role in the Battle of Jericho; King David playing a lyre (a type of harp); and Paul’s reference to empty speech resembling a sounding cymbal or gong. Many ancient societies from throughout the world have left evidence of music’s role in their cul- tures through pictures in their artwork and on pottery. Some, including the ancient Sumerians and ancient Greeks, left writings about their music and the emotions that it invoked, re- minding us that music has been a part of our world for thousands of years. Development of Western Society About 500 B.C., the Roman Republic came into existence. As with many societies, it had several social classes. Nobles, or patricians, made up the aristocracy. Common people fell into the class of plebeians. As the Republic evolved, an interesting dynamic developed in which representational democracy came to include not only members of the patrician class but also plebeian representatives. Two other social classes, noncitizens and slaves, did not participate in this representative government. One of the activities at which Rome excelled was organization. The Roman army was evidence of this organization. One person was put in charge of ten others. That person, along with nine others of the same rank, was supervised by one person. By organizing with a pyramid-like structure, each elevation in rank maintained the principle of simple ch02.indd 56 13/12/13 7:36 PM Chapter 2 Beginning of the Music We Know 57 supervision of ten people. Messages and orders could quickly be passed Figure 2.03 along this chain of command. Another organizational principle practiced by Rome was to equip each of its soldiers with the same weapons and ar- mor. Shields were rectangular but shaped and sized in such a way that they could be strapped onto the back and the soldier could walk without it hit- ting the backs of the knees. This allowed an army to travel quickly, when necessary. The shields could be held in such a way that soldiers standing beside each other created a wall of protection in front of their formation. Soldiers in the next lines could hold their shields next to one another over- head, protecting the group from arrows. The whole formation, called a “turtle” by the Romans, could then walk right into the midst of an enemy army, break apart, and begin fighting. At that time, another piece of Roman army equipment would come into play: the short sword. At about two feet long, this was a much shorter weapon than was used by most other com- batants. Long swords keep soldiers at a safer distance from enemies, but the length requires plenty of room to effectively swing the sword. By walk- ing the “turtle” up into the middle of the enemy lines, the Romans turned the long sword into a disadvantage and the short sword into extreme advantage. Rome’s soldiers were issued identical The result of this superior army was growth of the Republic, expan- equipment, enabling Rome’s armies to sion that secured borders and increased revenue through the taxing of trade. develop battle tactics that were far more Retiring soldiers were given land in newly conquered regions, and their advanced than its adversaries. settlement in these areas helped to spread Roman culture. Increased wealth Inc. Used under license of Shutterstock, meunierd. © 2013 by through expanded trade allowed for an even larger army that was used to push back borders and con- Figure 2.04 tinue to expand the republic’s influence. During the first century B.C., Rome’s domain became so large that a more centralized government was adopted. It was during this time that the Roman Republic be- came the Roman Empire and that Julius Caesar was elected emperor for life by the Roman Senate. The Roman Empire came to include most of Europe, including England, France, Germany, and Spain, along with northern Africa, the Middle East, and eastern Europe, including Greece. Spreading out from Italy, Rome came to rule every- thing that bordered the Mediterranean Sea, as shown in Figure 2.05. The Roman Empire then continued to spread until it ran into natural barri- ers such as deserts, mountains, or oceans. Rome’s soldiers practiced and drilled in preparation for battle, applying Besides organization, almost every other idea teamwork against enemies that were accustomed to battles based and concept in Roman culture was initially ad- upon simultaneous one-to-one fighting. opted from conquered territories. From the Greeks, Inc. Used under license of Shutterstock, Paassen. Regien © 2013 by Rome learned mathematics, philosophy, and logic and accepted most of its early gods. From Egypt came medicine and engineering. Valuing of an educated population came from Israel, as did Rome’s eventual shift from polytheism to monotheism. ch02.indd 57 13/12/13 7:36 PM 58 Chapter 2 Beginning of the Music We Know Figure 2.05 Map of the Roman Empire at its zenith. © 2013 by Bocman1973. Used under license of Shutterstock, Inc. Bocman1973. Used under license of Shutterstock, © 2013 by The shift to monotheism did not happen quickly. Many followers of the new religion, Christianity, were killed as a result of being seen as a threat to the Empire. Despite persecu- tions, the new religion continued to spread, and in A.D. 380 Emperor Theodosius pro- claimed Christianity as the official religion of the Empire. Rome soon organized it in a manner similar to its army’s organization. In its hierarchal structure, one pope led a group of cardinals.