Article What socio-technical regimes foster solar energy champions? Analysing uneven photovoltaic diffusion at a subnational level in Switzerland HIRT, Léon Francis, SAHAKIAN, Marlyne, TRUTNEVYTE, Evelina Abstract Transitioning to cleaner modes of electricity production requires a major uptake of renewable technologies, including solar photovoltaic (PV). However, the uptake has been spatially uneven within countries and requires more exploration. We analyse the spatial pattern of solar PV growth in Switzerland (76′587 PV projects) by quantifying the features of socio-technical regimes at a subnational level. We combine the multi-level perspective (MLP) framework with the literature on solar PV adoption to select 36 quantitative indicators at the level of 2′212 municipalities. Using principal component analysis and cluster analysis, each municipality’s socio- technical regime is quantitatively assessed and municipalities with similar regime features are clustered together. We find nine clusters of municipalities with different socio-technical regimes and different rates of solar PV uptake. Specifically, solar PV uptake is greater in clusters with more prevalent techno-scientific knowledge and market dimensions of the MLP, in particular agricultural activities, higher education institutions, and innovation activities. Within [...] Reference HIRT, Léon Francis, SAHAKIAN, Marlyne, TRUTNEVYTE, Evelina. What socio-technical regimes foster solar energy champions? Analysing uneven photovoltaic diffusion at a subnational level in Switzerland. Energy Research and Social Science, 2021, vol. 74, no. 101976 DOI : 10.1016/j.erss.2021.101976 Available at: http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:149839 Disclaimer: layout of this document may differ from the published version. 1 / 1 Energy Research & Social Science 74 (2021) 101976 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Energy Research & Social Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/erss Original research article What socio-technical regimes foster solar energy champions? Analysing uneven photovoltaic diffusion at a subnational level in Switzerland L´eon F. Hirt a,b,*, Marlyne Sahakian b, Evelina Trutnevyte a a Renewable Energy Systems, Institute for Environmental Sciences (ISE), Section of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Uni Carl Vogt, Boulevard Carl Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland b Institute of Sociological Research (IRS), Institute for Environmental Sciences (ISE), University of Geneva, Uni Mail Campus, Boulevard du Pont-d’Arve 40, CH-1204 Geneva, Switzerland ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Transitioning to cleaner modes of electricity production requires a major uptake of renewable technologies, Solar PV including solar photovoltaic (PV). However, the uptake has been spatially uneven within countries and requires 0 Multi-level perspective more exploration. We analyse the spatial pattern of solar PV growth in Switzerland (76 587 PV projects) by Spatial analysis quantifying the features of socio-technical regimes at a subnational level. We combine the multi-level perspective Energy transition (MLP) framework with the literature on solar PV adoption to select 36 quantitative indicators at the level of Socio-technical regime 0 2 212 municipalities. Using principal component analysis and cluster analysis, each municipality’s socio- technical regime is quantitatively assessed and municipalities with similar regime features are clustered together. We findnine clusters of municipalities with different socio-technical regimes and different rates of solar PV uptake. Specifically, solar PV uptake is greater in clusters with more prevalent techno-scientific knowledge and market dimensions of the MLP, in particular agricultural activities, higher education institutions, and innovation activities. Within each cluster, we identify extreme outliers (i.e. municipalities where solar PV is growing much faster) and further analyse them through a comprehensive Internet search. Our results suggest that, given the same national policy, different local actors, such as local authorities, energy companies, and devoted citizens, can accelerate PV uptake using various strategies based on local specificities.Building on these findings, we suggest that knowledge of regime configurations may provide additional tools to create context- specific strategies and more decentralized transformative policies to foster solar PV uptake. 1. Introduction technical potential, ubiquitous nature and the role it could play to help countries meet energy targets [16–19]. In the last decade, national A transition to a cleaner production of electricity is one of the ele­ policies have led to a surge in PV [2], however the uptake has been ments conveyed in future energy scenarios. This implies expanding the spatially irregular. Therefore, developing purposeful policies that could uptake of renewable sources such as solar, wind, hydro power, and address these spatial patterns seemingly requires this awareness of biomass [1–3], raising challenges in terms of understanding and accel­ contextual and social dynamics to help accelerate solar PV uptake. erating such transitions [4–6]. At a national scale, these questions have The prolific literature on solar PV from the past ten years has been addressed through investigating policies aiming to instigate tran­ increased our understanding of the dynamics of uptake. One strand of sitions by introducing financial incentives and establishing renewable this literature has demonstrated the uneven spatial uptake of solar PV in energy targets [2,7,8]. Yet, the effectiveness of these policies does not various countries including Switzerland [9,12], the United Kingdom appear straightforward as there is growing evidence that transitions to [11,20,21], Germany [22], Italy [23], Greece [24], the United States renewable energy sources are spatially uneven within countries [9–12], [25], and the Netherlands [26]. Another theme in the literature has been and that contextual and social aspects may also be decisive for policy the identificationof factors contributing to increasing or impeding solar implementation [6,13–16]. In this study, we focus on solar photovoltaic PV uptake ranging from techno-economic to social and contextual fac­ (PV) which has received increasing attention globally due to its high tors [12,21,27–29]. Factors include technical potential of rooftop PV * Corresponding author at: Uni Carl Vogt, Boulevard Carl Vogt 66, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland. E-mail address: [email protected] (L.F. Hirt). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.101976 Received 6 August 2020; Received in revised form 2 February 2021; Accepted 3 February 2021 Available online 20 February 2021 2214-6296/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. L.F. Hirt et al. Energy Research & Social Science 74 (2021) 101976 and solar irradiation [9,11,22], costs [12,25,30,31], return rate on in­ terms of solar PV growth using various metrics, such as the number of vestment [10,12,32], environmental awareness [33–35], votes in favour projects per capita, and looked at in terms of differences in uptake rates of green parties or initiatives [12,36,37], the education level of citizens between municipalities. Finally, we identify specific municipalities [10,37,38], policy and financial incentives [10,39–41], and social where solar PV has been growing particularly fast, hereby referred to as contagion effects [36,41–43]. Finally, there have been attempts to assess outliers. These outliers are further analysed through an Internet search contextual and regional specificities affecting technological adoption to identify actors and how they may have contributed to a faster uptake more broadly [14,21,44,45]. However, what is currently lacking in the of solar PV. A better understanding of these outliers, in combination literature on solar PV uptake is an extended understanding of the with a quantification of regime configurations, could be useful for un­ coupled effects of socio-technical factors and local specificitiesthat lead derstanding the processes of solar PV diffusion and for informing policy to regional or local differences in solar PV adoption. to foster the uptake of this technology. A systemic approach for understanding societal dynamics leading to the uptake of technologies and the concept of socio-technical regimes 2. Theoretical framework and methodology has been widely developed in sustainability transitions studies [46,47]. This fieldaddresses the complex and uncertain nature of a shift from one 2.1. Theoretical framework socio-technical system to another, and frames a transition as the coupled evolution of technology and society over time leading to a potential The MLP on socio-technical transitions theoretical framework allows regime change [48–50]. Transitions studies have typically focused on for studying how a new technology emerges in a systemic and holistic the temporal aspect of transitions [51–53], with analyses carried out at a way [48,50,70]. One of the strengths of this analytical framework lies in national scale [54,55] and with socio-technical regimes conceptualised its conceptualization of ‘socio-technical regimes’ [47,71,72], which in­ as homogeneous entities [44,54]. Recently, transitions research has forms how incremental changes occur in a transition process because of taken a geographical turn to address regional and local specificities, path-dependencies [46,73]. According to the MLP approach, a niche- towards uncovering the sources of change and inertia within existing