THE POWER OF PROTECTION GOveRnAnce AnD tRAnSbORDeR tRADe On the cOnGO-UGAnDAn FROntieR Dissertation presented in fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree in Political and Social Sciences, Option Political Sciences Timothy Raeymaekers Ghent University Academic year 2006-2007 Promotor: Prof. Dr. Ruddy Doom THE POWER OF PROTECTION GOveRnAnce AnD tRAnSbORDeR tRADe On the cOnGO-UGAnDAn FROntieR Dissertation presented in fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree in Political and Social Sciences, Option Political Sciences Timothy Raeymaekers Ghent University Academic year 2006-2007 Promotor: Prof. Dr. Ruddy Doom CONTENTS intRODUctiOn 10 PARt One: the nAnDe tRUSt netwORk 32 introduction 33 chapter One: butembo 48 1.1. the Market 50 1.2. the G8 56 chapter two: Origins of a network 59 2.1. the katwa mission 59 2.2. business Pioneers 61 2.3. independence and beyond 64 2.4. Masereka 66 2.5. conclusion 69 chapter three: the Zairian Political System 70 3.1. in the Footsteps of Mr kurtz 70 3.2. neo-patrimonialism 72 3.3. the Dialectics of Oppression 73 3.4. Article 15 76 chapter Four: the nande trust network 79 4.1. ‘Zairianisation’ 79 4.2. Les Fraudeurs 81 4.3. A Glocalized culture? 84 conclusion 90 PARt twO: the War 92 introduction 93 chapter Five: the Struggle for Domination 95 5.1. the causes of war: Land and citizenship 95 5.1.1. the Politics of Land Access 96 5.1.2. the “Promise” of ethnic conflict 99 5.2. kabila and the Mayi Mayi 101 5.3. the Second congolese war 104 5.3.1. Rebel Strongholds 106 5.3.2. the RcD-ML Administration 107 5.3.3. Oligopolies of violence 109 5.4. economies of war and economies at war 112 5.5. conclusion 116 chapter Six: Regulatory Authorities 117 introduction 117 6.1. the european example 118 6.2. the Organization of Protection 122 6.3. new Sovereigns? 129 chapter Seven: Governance without Government 133 introduction: the triangle of Protection 133 7.1. Security for Sale 136 7.2. Governance without Government 140 7.2.1. the committee of wise Men 145 7.2.2. Governance at work: the Regulation of Security 146 conclusion 152 PARt thRee: tRAnSFORMAtiOn withOUt tRAnSitiOn 154 introduction 155 chapter eight: the “Return” of the State 157 introduction 157 8.1. inter-congolese Dialogue 157 8.2. Peace “Spoilers” 160 8.3. the Dialectics of Oppression (contd) 164 chapter nine: the “Mediated” State 167 9.1. the Leopard 167 9.2. Strategies of Mediation 170 9.3. towards a new theory? 172 GeneRAL cOncLUSiOnS 176 LIST OF ABBREVIatIONS AcR Agence congolaise de Renseignments ADF Allied Democratic Forces AFDL Alliance des Forces pour la Libération du congo/Zaïre AMAccO Association des Mamans commerçantes du congo ANC Agence nationale de Renseignments APC Armée Populaire congolaise APiLU Association des Pétroliers importateurs de Lubero AtPhALU Association des tenanciers de Pharmacies de Lubero bAL Butembo Airlines BBC British broadcasting company bcbJ Bon chic bon Genre BIC Banque internationale de crédit CEI Commission electorale indépendante ceDAC Centre d’etudes, de Documentation et d’Animation civique ceP Compagnie d’exportation du Pétrole cf Congolese franc ciAT Comité international d’Accompagnement de la transition cnki Comité national du kivu cnS Conférence nationale Souveraine cOnADeR Commission nationale de Désarmement, Démobilisation et Réinsertion DDRRR Disarmement, Demobilisation, Reintegration,Repatriation, Resettlement DGC Direction Générale des contributions DGRAD Direction Générale des Recettes Administratives et Domaniales DRc Democratic Republic of congo DR congo Democratic Republic of congo DSP Division Spéciale Présidentielle echO European commission humanitarian Aid Office FAc Forces Armées congolaises FARDc Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du congo FAZ Forces Armées Zairoises FDLR Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Rwanda FEC Fédération des entreprises du congo FIC Fraternité internationale des copains FLc Front for the Liberation of congo GDP Gross Domestic Product Gécamines Générales des carrières et des Mines cRG Conflict Research Group hAM Haute Authorité des Médias icD Inter-congolese Dialogue icG International crisis Group iFeSH International Foundation for education and Self-help iMF International Monetary Fund iDP Internally Displaced Persons LRA Lord’s Resistance Army MDRP Multi-country Demobilization and Reintegration Program MGL Minière des Grands Lacs MLC Mouvement pour la Libération du congo MNC Mouvement national congolais MOnUC Mission des nations Unies au congo MPR Mouvement Populaire Révolutionnaire nALU National Army for the Liberation of Uganda nGO Non-governmental organization PDG Président Directeur Général PPRD Parti du Peuple pour la Reconstruction et le Démocratie PPU Presidential Protection Unit OCC Office congolais de contrôle OchA Office for the coordination of humanitarian Assistance OFiDA Office des Douanes et Accises OGeFReM Office de Gestion de Fret Maritime RcD Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie RcD-G Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie-Goma RcD-ML Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie-Mouvement de Libération RcD-N Rassemblement congolais pour la Démocratie-national RPA Rwanda Patriotic Army RPF Rwanda Patriotic Front RTNC Radio télévision nationale congolaise tPD Tous pour la Paix et le Développement tG Transitional Government SeDEC Société anonyme d’entreprise commerciale du congo belge SenOKI Société d’electrification du nord kivu UGC Université catholique du Graben UN United nations UnDP United nations Development Programme UnhcR United nations high commissioner for Refugees UniceF United nations children’s Fund UPC Union des Patriottes congolais UPDF Ugandan People’s Defense Forces vicicOnGO Société des chemins de Fer vicinaux du congo FOREWORD This study originates above all in pure amazement. When arriving for the first time in Butembo – which would become my home during field research – I encountered a dusty border town: a high street sided with shops and stores, with here and there an empty ‘nganda’, and a yellow-helmeted police officer who leaned lazily on his roundabout in the mid-day sun. As time went by, and I gradually discovered the side streets and alleys around the city’s thriving market place, I grew more and more amazed by the capacity of this town’s people to cope with and adapt to their country’s ongoing crisis – whether this was defined as economic or state collapse, or more generally as a crisis of “modernity”. Travelling around the Congo-Ugandan border for the next five years (2001-2006), I discovered places like Kasindi and Masereka, ... where the origins and evolution of this adaptation process progressively substantiated and became alive. This book is also a dedication to the many people and places that I discovered along this way. First of all Samuel, who brought me in contact with the complex realities of the peasants and businessmen of the ‘Grand Nord’: besides being an excellent point of reference, he has also become a close friend. Second to Paul, whose juvenile enthusiasm has remained a driving motive along the way. And third also to the students and colleague-analysts with whom I often exchanged and worked together on various projects during this exercise: Omer Mirembe, François Biloko, Anselme Kitakya, as well as the students of the Université du Graben with whom I worked together: Crispin Mitono, Nzangi Muhindo Butonto, Tuverson Kakule Mbakisya, Rousseau Kasereka Musafiri, Jean-De-Dieu Kakule Kausa, Jean-Pierre Muhindo Musivirwa, Muhinda Mutokambali, Edmond Kambumbu Nguru, Gerard Muliwavyo and Pelo Muhindo Kyakwa. At the University of Butembo, Professor Angélus Mafikiri Tsongo has remained a reference and great help in times of conceptual and empirical doubts. To André I owe absolutely nothing, besides having shared with me the discovery of that other Butembo, which has remained me so dear. I sincerely hope we can continue to share moments like the ones we shared together. Finally to Léopold, whom I owe a lot of gratitude for having hosted and guided me through the long months of research. I thank him and the team of Réseau Wima and VECO-Congo to have guided me logistically through this process. Back at home my promoter Prof. Ruddy Doom always awaited me with comments and suggestions. I have to thank him sincerely for his ability to somehow destabilize me in all me acquired truths and certainties, and then leading me again in the right direction. My family – mou in particular – always stood ready to give me a push in the back at whatever time or moment: at least one indispensable certainty that I could rely on! In Antwerp, Brussels and Bologna, I owe more or less the same to my friends at home: Koen, Simon, Salvatore, Erika, Franco, Roberto, Betta and Margherita, Davide, Simona, Giovanni, Jana… My real home remains with Silvana, who has shared with me this experience as part of our life and love together. Let me repeat that without you, little would be possible… Finally I would like to thank colleagues older and more experienced than me for having commented on earlier versions of writings that led to this thesis, in particular Ken Menkhaus, Anna Maria Gentili, Karel Arnaut, Johan Pottier, Theodore Trefon, Michael Schatzberg, William Reno, Tobias Hagmann, Luca Jourdan as well as my colleagues at the Centre for Third World Studies (Anne Walraet and Christopher Parker in particular). Veronique and Anna owe my special gratitude for ultimate practical undertakings… If one person deserves a special place among this long list of acknowledgements, however, then this is Koen Vlassenroot, without whom I probably would not even have boarded this adventure. Besides all the experiences and initiatives we shared and undertook these last years, I discovered in Koen a loyal and supporting friend. Thanks to all of you, I can now say that all the shortcomings and mistakes in this study remain completely my own1. Bologna, 16 February 2007 1 Despite everything, butembo practically remained a war zone during my research.