THE GEOGRAPHIES OF NON-LETHAL WEAPONS: TRANSFORMATIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE By © 2019 Samuel D. Henkin Submitted to the graduate degree program in Geography and Atmospheric Science and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Chairperson: Shannon O’Lear, PhD Stephen Egbert, PhD Jay T. Johnson, PhD Barney Warf, PhD Ward Lyles, PhD, AICP Date Defended: 16 October 2019 i ii The dissertation committee for Samuel D. Henkin certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: THE GEOGRAPHIES OF NON-LETHAL WEAPONS: TRANSFORMATIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE Chairperson: Shannon O’Lear, PhD Date Approved: 16 October 2019 iii Abstract Non-lethal weapons, like police batons, rubber bullets and tear gas, are increasingly deployed in interventions against a rising number of bodies in contested spaces. They are formed through notions of (in)security and an ethos of the use of force that makes such interventions appear to be ethical and humane. Yet, what is considered ethical or humane about weapons that are used with possible violent and injurious effects is bound to security discourses and practices in an interlocking globalized police- military-network. Transformations in security techniques and technologies engenders a subtle, yet vastly nefarious, “mission creep” where technologies of war are depoliticized as a sensationalization of (in)security drives a robust use of force continuum weaponizing the politics of non-lethality. Shifting articulations and practices of non-lethality in security underpins the increasing militarization and colonization of everyday life by security logics and norms broadening the social utility of disciplinary power. Geographic literature on the logics of security is vigorous, but less attention has been paid to the politics of non-lethality and its operation within contested spaces, contentious politics, and exercises of state disciplinary power. Acknowledgement and better understanding that non-lethality operates at different socio-spatial scales from orbital space right down to the individual body is crucial. Investigating non-lethal state interventionary power recognizes the reinvention of citizens as subjects, as potential sites of political violence and domination in contested spaces. Non-lethal weapons have transformative effects on spaces of governance within the growing international security environment as well as on bodies and the use of force. This project confronts wider programs of state security regarding the use of force, programs that connect violence to order, coercion to lethality and military power to civilian spaces. iv Acknowledgements The following pages embody an incredible journey of intellectual and personal growth. Like many epics, this dissertation is a journey filled with passion, anguish, and triumph. The seven chapters that encompass this document, neatly and meticulously formatted, masks the messiness and madness of five years of intellectual labor. The one author listed on the title page belies the scaffolding of care, attention, and support of countless individuals. As such, I acknowledge the invaluable mentorship of my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Shannon O’Lear. I would truly be lost amidst the ontological wanderings of the world with no compass to plot my course without Dr. O’Lear’s counsel and guidance. While my true north may continuously change, I am confident in my ability to navigate through thanks to your unwavering support. I also must acknowledge the encouragement and advice of my other committee members including Dr. Barney Warf, Dr. Steve Egbert, Dr. Jay Johnson, and Dr. Ward Lyles. Amid this adventurous journey your unique perspectives allowed me to map alternative routes and wade into new intellectual caverns of discovery. Finally, to my family and friends who wander the world, chart the stars, and contour the subtle nuances of my life experience with me, this is for you. Over the years, you showed me how to find the extraordinary in the ordinary and now I see it every day. To the journey! v Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction: Making the Case for a Critical Geographies of Non-Lethal Weapons………......1 Setting the Stage…………………………………………………………………………………...1 Introduction: Security and Contested Space………………………………………………….……3 Central Objectives and Research Questions……………………………………………………….5 What are Non-Lethal Weapons? An Overview……………………………………………………8 Summary of Chapters……………………………………………………….................................11 Chapter 2: Literature Context: Re-thinking Security: Non-Lethal Intervention in Policing and Security..14 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….14 Political Geographies of Policing and Security: A Literature Survey……………………………14 Assemblages of Security: The Emergent Global Police-Military-Network……………………...18 Space-Taking Politics and Contested Spaces…………………………………………………….24 Locating Non-Lethality in Geography…………………………………………………………...29 Chapter Conclusions: Notes on Security, Policing, and Geography……………………………..32 Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework: Science and Technology Studies: The Technoscientific Governance of Non-Lethal Weapons………………………..………………………..………………………………...34 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….34 Conceptual Overview: Taking an STS Approach………………………………………………...35 Unpacking Science and Technology Studies……………………………………………………..36 STS and (Political) Geography…………………………………………………………………...40 STS, Security, and Practice: Adopting Co-production as a Theoretical and Methodological Approach………………………………………………………………………………………….43 Non-Lethality, Security Governance, and Technoscience………………………………………..46 STS, Security and Knowledge Production………………………………………………………..50 Theme #1: Imagining security: the scope, boundaries, and discourse of security………………………..…………………..……………………………………..52 Theme #2: Knowledge, non-knowledge, secrecy, and ignorance……………………….55 Chapter Conclusions: Taking an STS Approach…………………………………………………57 Chapter 4: Methodology………………..………………………..………………………..………………59 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….59 Positionality and Self-Reflexivity………………………………………………………………...60 Methodological Framework Overview…………………………………………………………...63 What is Discourse? Conducting Foucauldian Discourse Analysis……………………………….66 Research Design…………………………………………………………………………………..68 Content analysis: choosing source materials and texts…………………………………..69 Intertextual research models……………………………………………………………..73 Analysis: Co-Producing Security Discourse and Non-Lethal Weapons………………………….79 Chapter Conclusions: Research Challenges………………………………………………………85 Chapter 5: Analysis of Non-Lethal Weapons in Contested Space………………………………………...89 Introduction………………………..………………………..…………………………………….89 Primary Findings………………………..………………………..……………………………….90 Technoscientific Framing of Non-Lethal Weapons………………………..……………………..91 Technical-Tactical Biases: Who’s Expertise Matters? ………………………..…………………93 Technoscientific Modeling of “Significant Injury”: Technical-Tactical Biases and the Body………………………..………………………..…………………………………...95 vi Technoscientific Compartmentalization of Knowledge: Technical-Tactical Biases and Black Boxes ………………………..………………………..………………………..…97 Technical-Tactical Biases as Common Sense………………………..…………………100 Stabilizing and Legitimizing Technoscientific Frames: Technical-Tactical Biases Conclusions………………………..………………………..…………………………..102 “Threat” Assessment: Spatializing Technoscientific Frames of Non-Lethal Weapons ………..104 Political/Ideological Framing of Non-Lethal Weapons…………………………………………110 Humanitarian Ideals of Non-Lethal State Intervention and Non-Lethal Weapons……………...112 Order-Enforcement: Spatializing Political/Ideological Frames of Non-Lethal Weapons………119 Chapter Conclusion: (Re)Politicizing Non-Lethal Weapons……………..……………………..128 Chapter 6: Case Study: Transformative Non-Lethal Technologies and Political Violence in Bangkok, Thailand………………………..………………………..………………………..……………………...130 Introduction………………………..………………………..…………………………………..130 Civil Security Relations in Thailand and The Thai Security Apparatus………………………..132 Thai Security Forces: The Royal Thai Armed Forces………………………………....136 Thai Security Forces: Royal Thai Police………………………..……………………..138 Bangkok’s Space-Taking Politics………………………..……………………………………..141 The Red Shirt Revolution………………………..…………………………………….143 Operation Occupy Bangkok………………………..………………………………….146 Threat Assessment and Order-Enforcement Bangkok…………………………….…..150 Conclusion………………………..………………………..……………………...…...162 Chapter 7: Conclusions………………………..………………………..…………………………….....163 Introduction………………………..………………………..………………………..……………..163 General Conclusions………………………..………………………..………………………..........164 Broader Implications………………………..………………………..……………………………..169 The Future of the Geographies of Non-Lethal Weapons………………………..………………….171 References………………………..………………………..………………………..…………………...174 Appendix 1: Source Materials and Texts ………………………..………………………..…………….203 vii List of Tables Table 2.1…………………………………………………………………………………….......29 Table 3.1…………………………………………………………………………………….......54 Table 4.1…………………………………………………………………………………….......76 Table 4.2…………………………………………………………………………………….......83 Table 5.1…………………………………………………………………………………….......95 Table 5.2…………………………………………………………………………………….......98 Table 5.3…………………………………………………………………………………….....119 Table 6.1…………………………………………………….………………………………....150 viii List of Figures Figure 1. Police booth at Sathon and Lumpimi…..………………………………………….......160 Figure 2. Entrance to Lumpimi Park……………………………………………………….......160