sustainability Article Urban Sustainability and Livability: An Analysis of Doha’s Urban-form and Possible Mitigation Strategies Soud K. Al-Thani 1 , Alexandre Amato 2, Muammer Koç 1 and Sami G. Al-Ghamdi 1,* 1 Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Education City, Doha, Qatar; [email protected] (S.K.A.-T.); [email protected] (M.K.) 2 Sustainability, Qatar Green Building Council, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +974-4454-2833; Fax: +974-4454-0281 Received: 27 December 2018; Accepted: 30 January 2019; Published: 2 February 2019 Abstract: This study examines the concept of sustainability and livability at the neighborhood level in a low-density city such as Doha. In its current form, Metropolitan Doha, Qatar’s capital and where 80% of the population resides, is neither sustainable nor ranked highly in many city livability indices of international cities, although Qatar aims to become a truly sustainable state as envisioned in its Qatar National Vision (QNV) 2030 and endorsed in its National Development Strategies 2012 and 2018. Doha remains a fractured city; its rapid growth has led to unrestrained, extensive urban sprawl with high dependency on private transportation mainly by large SUVs, continually instigated by the absence of public transportation. Doha is also a relatively low-density city where the main driver of its urban sprawl is the inhabitants’ deep-set desire for privacy, and hence, home ownership of single-family detached villas, which have become the predominant residential building-block of neighborhoods with little to no provisions of in-neighborhood community services and amenities such as basic shopping, health, education, and recreation. Consequently, this urban form has resulted in long and frequent commutes for individuals and families, increasing the number of vehicles in traffic almost every hour of every day, traffic congestion, high transportation-related CO2 emissions, additional expenses, and loss of quality family time, among several other environmental, social, and economic sustainability impacts. The findings of this study, which are based on a behavioral survey, illustrate the residents’ views on neighborhood improvement and changes in the transportation modes, as well as their willingness to change their habits for the benefit of common and future generations. Keywords: sustainable neighborhoods; sustainable cities; urban form; sustainable urban transportation; sustainable mobility 1. Introduction Sustainable development of countries increasingly depends on planning, designing, realizing, and continuously upgrading sustainability and livability of cities and neighborhoods at the meso- and micro-scales, respectively [1–3]. As urban populations, on average throughout the world, have already surpassed rural populations, sustainability of urban centers is increasingly decisive of economic growth, social inclusion, exploitation of environmental resources and peoples’ livelihoods. For city-states and small-sized countries such as Singapore and Qatar, respectively, where there is a single major metropolis, sustainability and sustainable development are not much of a choice. Qatar strives to be recognized as a truly sustainable and responsible state in the global community, and this aim is endorsed by the 2030 Qatar National Vision and the National Development Strategy Sustainability 2019, 11, 786; doi:10.3390/su11030786 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, 786x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27 25 Development Strategy 2032 [4,5]. However, in its current form, Greater Doha (including parts of Al- Rayyan2032 [4, 5and]. However, Al-Dayeen in itsMunicipalities), current form, GreaterQatar’s Dohacapital, (including Figure 1, partsand where of Al-Rayyan 80% of andthe population Al-Dayeen resides,Municipalities), lags in many Qatar’s of capital,the international Figure1, and city where livability 80% ofindices. the population Acknowledging resides, that lags the in many carbon of and the eco-footprintinternational cityof cities livability is one indices. significant Acknowledging gauge of advancement that the carbon in sustainability and eco-footprint [6], ofthe cities inevitable is one questionsignificant that gauge follows, of advancement however, is in “How sustainability can Doha [6],’s the urban inevitable form questionbe transformed that follows, to help however, achieve is “HowQatar’s can national Doha’s sustainability urban form be targets?” transformed to help achieve Qatar’s national sustainability targets?” Figure 1. Qatar in the region. Doha is in many ways a fractured city where th thee rapid growth has led to extensive urban sprawl with veryvery highhigh dependencedependence on on private-vehicle private-vehicle transportation, transportation, mostly mostly large-sized large-sized SUVs, SUVs, due due to the to lackthe lackof reliable of reliable and properand proper public public transportation. transportation. Doha Doha is a relatively is a relatively low-density low-density city. The city. powerful The powerful driver driverof Doha’s of Doha’s current current urban form urban is theform deep-set is the deep-set desire of desire the population of the population for home-ownership for home-ownership of detached of detachedvillas, which villas, have which become have the become predominant the predomin residentialant residential neighborhood neighborhood form with form little provisionswith little provisionsof local neighborhood of local neighborhood services and services amenities and [amen7]. Consequently,ities [7]. Consequently, this has led this to has long led and to long frequent and frequentcommutes commutes to work, shopping to work, venues, shopping socialization, venues, socialization, and recreation and centers, recreation affecting centers, all individuals affecting and all individualsfamilies and and increasing families the and number increasing of vehicles the innumber traffic, multiplyingof vehicles trafficin traffic, congestions, multiplying heightening traffic congestions,transportation-related heightening CO 2transportation-relatedemissions, adding expenses CO2 emissions, of time among adding several expenses other of environmental, time among severalsocial and other economic environmental, sustainability social impacts. and economic sustainability impacts. Two well-known approaches currently prevail in designing for sustainability in cities. The firstfirst emphasizes a city’s environmental performance.performance. In the recent past, this approach has often led to the compact city concept where high density is sought to sharpen efficiency efficiency of resource exploitation, and thus, reduce environmentalenvironmental burdens. burdens. Cities, Cities, such such as as Hong Hong Kong Kong and and Singapore, Singapore, have have been been regarded regarded as asexemplars exemplars of theof the efficacy efficacy of their of their public public transportation transportation and for and maintaining for maintaining local services local services that are that within are walkingwithin walking distance ofdistance a sufficiently of a largesufficiently catchment large population catchment to preservepopulation economic to preserve sustainability economic [8]. sustainabilityThe second approach [8]. The focuses second on approach the social focuses sustainability, on the dealingsocial sustainability, mainly with increasing dealing mainly the citizens’ with increasingquality of life.the citizens’ This, in return,quality hasof life. led This, to the in concept return, ofhas city led livability to the concept as an important of city livability requisite as foran importantsustainability. requisite Indicators for sustainability. of city livability, Indicators such asof thecity Economist’s livability, such annual as the Liveablity Economist’s Index, annual have Liveablityregularly ranked Index, relativelyhave regularly low-density ranked cities, relatively such aslow-density Melbourne, cities, high such on the as scale;Melbourne, hence, questioninghigh on the scale;assumptions hence, posedquestioning by the assumptions first approach posed that regards by the high-densityfirst approach in anthat urban regards center high-density as a prerequisite in an urbanof sustainability center as a [ 9prerequisi]. te of sustainability [9]. The association association of of compact compact cities cities with with sustainability sustainability is isnot not only only questioned questioned by by the the recognition recognition of low-density,of low-density, but but also also by by recent recent developments developments in in smart smart transportation, transportation, smart smart communication and internet technologies, technologies, and and innovative innovative arrangements arrangements (e-commute, (e-commute, e-health, e-health, e-school, e-school, etc.). etc.). There There now seemsnow seems to be sufficiently to be sufficiently rapid developments rapid developments to indicate, to indicate, with some with certainty, some certainty,that there that will therebe a paradigm shift required to move away from current vehicle ownership norms and private- transportation needs [10,11]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 786 3 of 25 will be a paradigm shift required to move away from current vehicle ownership norms and private-transportation needs [10,11]. Extensive infrastructure investment has been underway to provide an effective road network. And withSustainability the