A STUDY OF PRE-IGNITION AND KNOCK IN AN OPTICAL SPARK IGNITION ENGINE Hassan Vafamehr Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences Brunel University London Dissertation submitted to the Brunel University London in accordance with the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2018 This thesis is dedicated to my parents Ali and Azimeh And my wife Fatemeh i ABSTRACT The currently reported work involved fundamental study of auto-ignition under unusually high knock intensities in an optical spark ignition engine. The single cylinder research engine adopted included full bore overhead optical access capable of withstanding continuous peak in-cylinder pressure and knock intensity of up to 150 bar and 60 bar respectively. Heavy knock was deliberately induced under relatively low loads (5 bar IMEP) using inlet air heating up to 66 °C and a primary reference fuel blend of reduced octane rating (75 RON). High speed chemiluminescence natural light imaging was used together with simultaneous heat release analysis to evaluate the combustion events. The key out comes of this study could be listed as follow: • Proof and improved understanding of multi centred auto-ignition events under high KIs • Improved understanding of the potential pitfalls of over-fuelling for heavy knock suppression • Optical validation of ‘natural’ oil droplet release and on-off behaviour of knocking cycles Multiple centred auto-ignition events were regularly observed to lead in to violent knocking events, with knock intensities above 140 bar observed. The ability to directly image the events associated with such high magnitude of knock is believed to be a world first in a full bore optical engine. The multiple centred events were in good agreement with the developing detonation theory to be the key mechanism leading to ii heavy knock in modern downsized SI engines. The accompanying thermodynamic analysis indicated lack of relation between knock intensity and the remaining unburned mass fraction burned at the onset of the auto-ignition. Spatial analysis of the full series of images captured demonstrated random location of the first captured auto-ignition sites during developing auto-ignition events. Under such circumstances new flame kernels formed at these sites, with initial steady growth sometimes observed to suppress the growth of the earlier spark initiated main flame front prior to violent end gas auto- ignition. It was found that pre-ignition most commonly initiated in the area surrounding the exhaust valve head and resulted in a deflagration that caused the overall combustion phasing to be over advanced. In the cycles after heavy knock, droplets of what appeared to be lubricant were sometimes observed moving within the main charge and causing pre-ignition. These released lubricant droplets were found to survive within the combustion chamber for multiple cycles and were associated with a corresponding “on- off” knocking combustion pattern that has been so widely associated with super-knock in real downsized spark ignition engines. This research also concerned with improving understanding of the competing effects of latent heat of vaporization and auto-ignition delay times of different ethanol blended fuels during heaving knocking combustion. Under normal operation the engine was operated under port fuel injection with a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture. Additional excess fuel of varied blend was then introduced directly into the end-gas in short transient bursts. As the mass of excess fuel was progressively increased a trade-off was apparent, with knock intensity first increasing by up to 60% before lower unburned gas temperatures suppressed knock under extremely rich conditions (γ=0.66). This trade-off is not usually observed during conventional low intensity knock suppression via over- iii fuelling and has been associated with the reducing auto-ignition delay times outweighing the influence of charge cooling and ratio of specific heats. Ethanol had the highest latent heat of vaporization amongst the other fuels directly injected and was more effective to reduce knock intensity albeit still aggravating knock under slightly rich conditions. Overall, the results demonstrate the risks in employing excess fuel to suppress knock deep within a heavy knocking combustion regime (potentially including a Super-Knock regime). iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank God for giving me the opportunity and the talents to complete this thesis. This has been a long journey and many people supported me to achieve this goal. I wish to sincerely thank my supervisor, Professor Alasdair Cairns, for his invaluable guidance and help during this work. He was the only reason I moved from Birmingham to Brunel for my studies. He was not only a boss, but also a leader and a role model for me. He always concerns about his students and treats them like a family member. Prof. Cairns, thank you so much for all the support that you have given me during the project, wise guidance, prompt communications either via numerous email exchange, phone calls or meetings. Your reassurance when the going got tough will forever be in my mind. I learned a lot from you. I couldn’t have asked for better supervisor. I would also like to thanks my second supervisor, Professor Hua Zhao for his support. Also I hereby convey my appreciation to Dr. Apostolos Pesiridis for his advice and supports during my studies. Special thanks to Dr. Simon Dingle who helped me a lot at the beginning of my PhD. I am also eternally grateful of my colleagues, Dr. Apostolos Karvountzis, Dr. Thompson Lanzanova, Dr. Jack Justus and Sheykh Khalifa. Huge thanks to the brilliant technicians Chris Allan, Willian, Eamon and Andy Selway. v Many thanks to my friends Dr. Mohsen Alamuti, Mohsen Moslemin, Dr. Shahrazad, Dr. Khodapanah, Dr. Salman Rouhani, Dr. Omid Dustdar and Ms. Sameaha Parker. A special thanks to my parents and my family. Words cannot describe how grateful I am to my parents for their unwavering and unconditional love and support throughout my entire life. My thanks and gratitude to other members of my family, brothers, my parents in law, Captain Aghdaie, Mrs. Ayani, Capitan Mohammad Aghdaie and Ali for their continued love and support. Finally, thanks to my wonderful wife, Fatemeh, who has supported me and put up with long distance and stressed days while I’ve written this work. vi LIST OF PUBLICATIONS [1] H. Vafamehr, A. Cairns, O. Sampson, and M. M. Koupaie, “The competing chemical and physical effects of transient fuel enrichment on heavy knock in an optical spark ignition engine,” Appl. Energy, vol. 179, pp. 687–697, 2016. [2] H. Vafamehr and A. Cairns, “The Effects of Transient Over-Fuelling on Heavy Knock in an Optical Spark Ignition (SI) Engine,” in 3rd Biennial International Conference on Powertrain Modelling and Control, 2016. [3] H. Vafamehr and A. Cairns, and Moslemin Koupaie, M., "The Competing Chemical and Physical Effects of Transient Fuel Enrichment During Heavy Knock in an Optical SI Engine Using Ethanol Blends," SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0665, 2017, doi:10.4271/2017-01-0665 [4] H. Vafamehr, A. Cairns, and H. Ebne-Abbasi, “A study of transient over-fuelling during heavy knock in an optical spark ignition engine,” Int. J. Powertrains, vol. 7, no. 1–3, 2018. [5] M. Moslemin Koupaie, A. Cairns, H. Vafamehr, and T. Lanzanova, “Cyclically Resolved Flame and Flow Imaging in an SI Engine Operating with Future Ethanol Fuels,” SAE Tech. Pap., vol. 2017–March, no. March, 2017. [6] K.I. Bureshaid, Feng, D., Vafamehr, H., and Zhao, H., “In-Cylinder Study of Combustion and Knocking Tendency of Gasoline, Anhydrous Ethanol and Wet Ethanol in an Optical Engine,” SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0665, 2017, doi:10.4271/2017-01-0665 [7] O. Sampson, H. Vafamehr, and A. Cairns, “Effects of direct injection (DI) on knocking combustion in spark ignition (SI) engine operated on 75-RON and Ethanol Fuels,” Soc. Pet. Eng., 2018. vii CONTENTS 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 General Background ................................................................................................ 1 1.3 Thesis Outline ......................................................................................................... 3 2 Literature Review......................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Definition of Auto-ignition Versus Knock ............................................................. 5 2.3 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 6 2.4 Spark ignition engine operation fundamentals ...................................................... 11 2.5 Optimum Spark-Ignition Engine Operation .......................................................... 15 2.5.1 Spark Retard due to Knock Limited Operation .............................................. 16 2.5.2 Fuel Enrichment due to Temperature Limited Operation ............................. 16 2.5.3 Increased Engine Friction ............................................................................. 17 2.5.4 Pumping