BIBLIOGRAPHY ON VARIATION AND GRADIENCE IN PHONOLOGY Arto Anttila Warning: This bibliography originated as a source of references for my course ‘Variation in Optimality Theory’ taught at the Phonology Fest at Indiana University, June 19-22, 2006 and it has been lightly edited for a course with the same title taught at the LSA Linguistic Institute at Stanford in July 2007. It is heavily biased towards generative phonology, in particular Optimality Theory. I have not tried to systematically cover the vast phonetic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic literature on variation, gradience, and lexical frequency effects. I have included occasional references to variation in syntax and semantics, learnability, and phonological variation in specific languages, in particular English and Finnish. Corrections and additions are welcome. Albright, Adam. 2002. ‘Islands of reliability for regular morphology: Evidence from Italian’, Language 78(4), 684-709. Albright, Adam. 2006. ‘Gradient phonotactic effects: lexical? grammatical? both? neither?’ 80th Annual LSA Meeting, Albuquerque, NM. Anttila, Arto. 1997. ‘Deriving variation from grammar’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 35-68. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. 2002a. ‘Morphologically Conditioned Phonological Alternations’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 20, 1-42. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. 2002b. ‘Variation and phonological theory’, in Jack Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-Estes, (eds.), Handbook of Language Variation and Change, Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts, and Oxford, U.K., pp. 206-243. Anttila, Arto. 2003. ‘Finnish Assibilation’, in Makoto Kadowaki and Shigeto Kawahara (eds.), Proceedings of NELS 33, GLSA, Amherst, Massachusetts, pp.13-24. Anttila, Arto. 2006. ‘Variation and opacity’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 24(4), 893-944. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Anttila, Arto. 2007. ‘Variation and optionality’, in Paul de Lacy, (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 519-536. Anttila, Arto. in press. ‘Derived environment effects in Colloquial Helsinki Finnish’, in Sharon Inkelas and Kristin Hanson (eds.), The Nature of the Word: Essays in Honor of Paul Kiparsky, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Anttila, Arto and Curtis Andrus. 2006. ‘T-orders’ (comes with software), available at http://www.stanford.edu/~anttila/research/torders/torder-manual.pdf. Anttila, Arto and Young-mee Yu Cho. 1998. ‘Variation and change in Optimality Theory’, Lingua 104, 31-56, Special issue on Conflicting Constraints. Anttila, Arto and Anthi Revithiadou. 2000. ‘Variation in allomorph selection’, Proceedings of NELS 30. Anttila, Arto and Vivienne Fong. 2004. ‘Variation, ambiguity, and noun classes in English’, Lingua 114, 1253-1290. Also at http://www.stanford.edu/~anttila/. Anttila, Arto, Vivienne Fong, Stefan Benus, and Jennifer Nycz. 2004. ‘Deriving consonant cluster phonotactics, Proceedings of NELS 34. 1 Auger, Julie. 2001. ‘Phonological variation and Optimality Theory: Evidence from word- initial vowel epenthesis in Picard’, Language Variation and Change 13, 253-303. Bailey, Charles-James N. 1972. Variation and Linguistic Theory, Center for Applied Linguistics, Arlington, VA. Bailey, Charles-James N. and Roger W. Shuy (eds.). 1973. New Ways of Analyzing Variation in English, Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C.. Bao, Zhiming. 1998. ‘The sounds of Singapore English’, in J.A. Foley, T. Kandiah, Z. Bao, A.F. Gupta, L. Alsagoff, C.L. Ho, L. Wee, I.S. Talib & W. Bokhorst-Heng (eds.), English in New Cultural Contexts: Reflections from Singapore. Oxford University Press, Singapore. pp. 127-151. Bailey, T. and U. Hahn. 2001. ‘Determinants of wordlikeness: Phonotactics or lexical neighborhoods?’ Journal of Memory and Language 44, 568-591. Bayley, Robert. 1995. ‘Consonant cluster reduction in Tejano English’, Language Variation and Change 6, 303-326. Berent, Iris, Daniel L. Everett, and Joseph Shimron. 2001. ‘Do phonological representations specify variables? Evidence from the Obligatory Contour Principle’, Cognitive Psychology 42, 1-60. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 1994a. ‘Variability and Obligatory Contour Principle Effects’, in Beals et al., (eds.), CLS 30: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, Volume 2: The Parasession on Variation and Linguistic Theory, Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago. pp. 1-12. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 1994b. ‘The OCP and gradient data’, Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 24:59-72. Berkley, Deborah Milam. 2000. Gradient Obligatory Contour Principle Effects. .Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University. Bickerton, Derek. 1971. ‘Inherent variability and variable rules’, Foundations of Language 7, 457-492. Bermúdez-Otero, Ricardo. 1999. Constraint Interaction in Language Change: Quantity in English and Germanic, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manchester. Blumenfeld, Lev. 2005. ‘Matching ictus and stress in Latin hexameter endings’, Stanford Poetics Fest, May 14, 2005. Boersma, Paul. 1997. ‘How we learn variation, optionality, and probability’, in Proceedings of the Institute of Phonetic Sciences 21, 43-58, University of Amsterdam. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. Boersma, Paul. 1998. Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Holland Academic Graphics, The Hague. Boersma, Paul. 2001. ‘Review of Arto Anttila (1997): Variation in Finnish Phonology and Morphology.’ Glot International 5, 33-40. Boersma, Paul, and Bruce Hayes. 2001. ‘Empirical tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm’, Linguistic Inquiry 32, 45-86. Boersma, Paul. 2003. ‘The odds of eternal optimization in Optimality Theory’, in D. Eric Holt (ed.), Optimality Theory and Language Change, Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 56, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Borowsky, Toni and Barbara Horvath. 1997. ‘L-vocalization in Australian English’, in Frans Hinskens, Roeland van Hout and Leo Wetzels, (eds.), Variation, Change 2 and Phonological Theory, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 101- 123. Bybee, Joan L. 2001. Phonology and Language Use, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Bybee, Joan L. 2002. ‘Word frequency and context of use in the lexical diffusion of phonetically conditioned sound change’, Language Variation and Change 14, 261-290. Also at http://www.unm.edu/~jbybee/current.htm. Bybee, Joan L. 2005. ‘Grammar is usage and usage is grammar’, Presidential Address, the Linguistic Society of America Annual Meeting, Oakland, CA, January 8, 2005. Cardoso, Walcir. 2001. ‘Variation patterns in regressive assimilation in Picard’, Language Variation and Change 13:3: 305-342. Carlson, Lauri. 1978. ‘Word stress in Finnish’, Ms., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cedergren, Henrietta J. and David Sankoff. 1974. ‘Variable rules: performance as a statistical reflection of competence’, Language 50, 333-355. Coetzee, Andries. 2004. What it Means to be a Loser: Non-optimal Candidates in Optimality Theory, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Coetzee, Andries. 2006.’Variation as accessing "non-optimal" candidates’, Phonology, 23(3):337-385. Coetzee, Andries. in press. ‘The Obligatory Contour Principle in the Perception of English’, in Sonia Frota, Marina Vigario, and Maria João Freitas, (eds.), Prosodies. Selected Papers from the Phonetics and Phonology in Iberia Conference, Mouton, New York. Coleman, John and Janet Pierrehumbert. 1997. ‘Stochastic phonological grammars and acceptability’, in Computational Phonology. Third Meeting of the ACL Special Interest Group in Computational Phonology, Association for Computational Linguistics, Somerset. pp. 49-56. Côté, Marie-Hélène. 2000. Consonant cluster phonotactics: A perceptual approach. Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Crowhurst, Megan and Lev Michael. 2005. [+++] Language. Cutillas-Espinosa, Juan Antonio. 2004. ‘Meaningful Variability: A Sociolinguistically- Grounded Approach to Variation in Optimality Theory’, International Journal of English Studies 4(2), 165-184. Demuth, Katherine. 1997. ‘Multiple Optimal Outputs in Acquisition’, in Viola Miglio and Bruce Morén, (eds.), University of Maryland Working Papers in Linguistics 5, Linguistics Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, pp. 53-71. Elenbaas, Nine. 1999. A Unified Account of Binary and Ternary Stress. Doctoral dissertation, University of Utrecht. Elenbaas, Nine, and René Kager. 1999. ‘Ternary Rhythm and the Lapse Constraint’, Phonology 16, 273-329. Escudero, Paola and Paul Boersma. 2001. ‘Modelling the perceptual development of phonological constrasts with Optimality Theory and the Gradual Learning Algorithm’, Proceedings of the 25th Penn Linguistics Colloquium. Also on http://roa.rutgers.edu/. 3 Fanselow, Gisbert, Caroline Féry, Ralph Vogel, and Matthias Schlesewsky (eds.). 2005. Gradience in Grammar: Generative Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Fasold, Ralph. 1972. Tense Marking in Black English. Center for Applied Linguistics, Arlington. Fidelholtz, James L. 1975. ‘Word Frequency and Vowel Reduction in English’, in Robin E. Grossman, L. James San, and Timothy J. Vance (eds.), Papers from the 11th Regional Meeting Chicago Linguistic Society, pp. 200-213. Fraser, Bruce. 1998. ‘A phonological constraint on the alternate to-dative