GENDERED SPACE: EMERGING FRAMES IN NASA PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MAINSTREAM MEDIA REPRESENTATION, 1958-1986 by Helen Elaine Wilds A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Media and Communication Middle Tennessee State University December 2019 Thesis Committee: Dr. Jane Marcellus, Chair Dr. Tricia Farwell Dr. Jennifer Woodard DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my Mom and Dad, who have always encouraged me to reach for the stars. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have many people to thank for helping me on this journey. To Mom, Dad, Grant and Jacob and all my loved ones, I’m so thankful for your love and support; it has kept me going even when I doubted myself. To Juju, I’m specifically grateful to you for keeping my 3rd grade Sally Ride poster, which has been a great reminder of my long- standing interest in NASA and women’s accomplishments in space while writing this thesis. I’m thankful for my committee and the program faculty for helping me through this process, teaching me and supporting my ideas. To Dr. Marcellus, I’m forever grateful for your guidance and wisdom. Your dedication and motivation have helped keep my love for this project going. iii ABSTRACT The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was founded October 1, 1958, and has been the subject of research, news and popular culture since its inception. Recent films such as Hidden Figures (2016) and Mercury 13 (2018) have given credence to the contributions of women to the space agency. This increased attention challenges the long-held image of the 1960's astronaut-hero, steeped in robust masculinity and military pride. This masculine image, perpetuated by the hegemonic ideal of postwar heroism and nationalism, characterizes our collective memory of NASA at mid-century. While popular culture has increased the visibility of NASA women’s histories, little research has been done specifically focusing on women’s media representation throughout NASA’s history. Using frame theory, this thesis examines the historical representation of women employed by NASA, both in the agency’s own public relations efforts and the mainstream news, to discover the ways NASA women's media representation changed over time in response to internal changes and shifting roles at NASA and larger external factors, such as the women’s liberation movement. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Statement of Purpose...................................................................................................... 4 Women’s Labor and Education History ........................................................................ 4 Women in STEM ............................................................................................................ 9 Women’s Military and Aviation History ..................................................................... 12 Public Relations at Mid-Century ................................................................................. 13 Journalism at Mid-Century ......................................................................................... 16 Background and History of NASA .............................................................................. 19 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................... 22 Frame Theory ............................................................................................................... 22 Mythology ..................................................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER III: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 27 Women at Mid-Century in the Media .......................................................................... 27 Women in Aviation and the Military ........................................................................... 28 NASA and the Press ..................................................................................................... 31 NASA and Public Policy and Opinion ........................................................................ 32 NASA’s Crisis Communication ................................................................................... 33 NASA in Popular Culture ............................................................................................ 35 Women at NASA ........................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................. 41 CHAPTER V: METHOD............................................................................................... 43 NASA Public Relations ................................................................................................ 44 Broadcast Coverage ...................................................................................................... 45 Mainstream Print Coverage ......................................................................................... 46 Magazine Coverage ...................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER VI: OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS ............................................................. 49 CHAPTER VII: “THE EAGLE HAS LANDED” ....................................................... 51 The Hero Frame ........................................................................................................... 52 The Family Man Frame ............................................................................................... 57 The Astronaut Wife Frame .......................................................................................... 60 The Rocket Man Frame ............................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER VIII: “HOUSTON, WE HAVE HAD A PROBLEM” ............................ 70 v Apollo I ......................................................................................................................... 71 Apollo I: Are Rocket Men to Blame? .......................................................................... 73 No Space for Women: The Hero Frame in Crisis ...................................................... 75 Tereshkova’s Flight: First Woman in Space .............................................................. 78 Rocket Women Exceptions: “Hidden Figures” and Quiet Exceptions ...................... 79 NASA’s “Other Women” ............................................................................................. 81 Apollo XIII .................................................................................................................... 83 CHAPTER IX: “ROUTINE ACCESS TO SPACE” ................................................... 85 “Women’s Lib” and NASA’s Equal Opportunity Office ............................................ 86 Women Astronauts: “Some inconveniences” ............................................................. 90 Ride, Sally, Ride: First American Woman in Space ................................................... 94 A Teacher in Space: Christa McAuliffe’s Journey ..................................................... 97 Challenger .................................................................................................................... 99 Challenger Administration: Rocket Man Frame Still at Risk? ................................ 101 Challenger Astronauts: The Hero Frame Evolved ................................................... 105 CHAPTER X: CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 113 vi 1 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION The women of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have appeared frequently in scholarship and media in recent years.1 From an explosion in popular culture portrayals to an enhanced focus on women and girls in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) programs and careers, the visibility of women’s involvement in NASA both historically and presently has increased. NASA is the second-most favorably viewed government agency, just behind the Centers for Disease Control, according to a 2015 Pew Research Center poll, so it’s not surprising that books, movies and documentaries are dedicated to the agency and the women who helped spearhead missions and discoveries that revolutionized American history. 2 Recent films such as Hidden Figures and Mercury 13 have given credence to the little-known contributions of women to the space agency.3 This increased attention challenges the long-held image of the 1960s astronaut-hero, steeped in robust masculinity and military pride. Indeed, the lack of knowledge surrounding women’s involvement in NASA from its outset has begun to dissolve as media reveal women’s involvement at the earliest stages of the space program. Still, it would not be surprising to find that if asked about women’s history in NASA, many people knew only a handful of women who worked at the agency. Sally Ride, for example, may be more well-known because of the high volume of mainstream news coverage she garnered in 1983 as the first American female in space. Other women who did not receive as much media attention, such as Frances “Poppy” Northcutt and Shirley